CHAPTER 2:

Introduction to Mineralogy
OBJECTIVES:
AT THE END OF THIS CHAPTER, A STUDENT SHOULD
UNDERSTAND:

1. THE DEFINITION OF MINERAL AND ROCK

2. THE PYHSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
3. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SILICATE AND NON-
SILICATE MINERALS
4. THE STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF SILICATE
MINERALS
 CHAPTER 2:
Introduction to Mineralogy

What is Mineral?

A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic solid that possesses a

definite chemical structure that gives it a unique set of physical
properties

What is different between Mineral and Rock?

Rocks are collection of one or more minerals.

Why we need to know a minerals in rocks?

In order to understand how rocks vary in composition and

properties, it is necessary to know the varieties of minerals that
commonly occur in them and to identify a rock, it is necessary to
know which minerals are present in it.

The building blocks of minerals are elements. An element is a large

collection of electrically neutral atoms with the same atomic number.

An atom is the smallest particle of matter that still retains the

characteristics of an element. Each atom has a nucleus, which
contains protons (+ve) and neutrons (neutral). Orbiting the nucleus
of an atom are electrons (-ve). The number of protons in an atom’s
nucleus determines its atomic number and the name of the element.
BONDING AND COMPOUND

Atoms combined with each other to form compounds. Atom’s bond

together by either gaining, losing or sharing electrons with other
atoms.

Ionic bonding – One or more electrons are transferred from one atom
to another (Gaining and losing electrons). Ionic compounds consist
of oppositely charged ions assembled in a regular, crystalline
structure that allows for the maximum attraction of ions, given their
sizes.

Covalent bonding – Atom’s sharing the electrons.

Most atoms are chemically reactive and bond together in order to

achieve the stable noble-gas configuration while retaining overall
electrical neutrality.
Shell model for common atom
Ionic Bonding to form the mineral Halite (NaCl)
Covalent Bonding
Techniques to identify Minerals

1. The study of a Hand Specimen of the mineral or rock in which it

occurs

2. The examination of a thin slice of mineral, grind down to a

thickness of 0.03mm using a Microscope

3. Chemical analysis – Atomic absorption stimulation (AAS)

4. X-Ray diffraction – Use X-RD machine

Techniques to identify Minerals cont’…..

The first method is the most useful to an engineer. However,

examination of rocks in thin section will provide excellent details of
rocks textures, some of difficult to see in the hand specimen.

In hand specimen identification, some features are purely visual (e.g

color) but others such as hardness have to be assessed by simple
test (Moh’s scale)

The study of the regularity of crystals form in the internal structure of

the mineral is called crystallography.
Physical Properties of Minerals

The minerals can be identified by their physical properties such as

color, streak, lustre, hardness, transparency, crystals habit (form),
specific gravity, reaction with acid, cleavage and fracture, tenacity
and others. Since mineral has a definite chemical composition and
internal crystalline structure, all specimens of a given mineral, have
the same physical and chemical properties.

Color

The color of mineral is that seen by eye. Color may be influenced by

impurities in the sample, the light in the room or strong reflective
surfaces. Therefore, color is general rather than specific indicator.
Quartz for example, range through the spectrum from clear, colorless
crystals to purple, red, white, grey and jet black.
Physical Properties of Minerals cont’….

Streak

The streak is the color of finely powdered mineral particles produced

by scraping the specimen along a roughened surface such as
porcelain plate. The streak is not necessary the same as the color of
the mineral. Haematite for example produces a reddish brown streak,
but have a metallic grey appearance.

Lustre

Lustre is the appearance of a mineral surface in reflected light. This

can be describe by the degree of brightness such as: Metallic,
submetallic, vitreous, resinous, silky and dull.
Physical Properties of Minerals cont’….

Transparency

Transparency is the degree to which a mineral allows light to pass

through it. Transparency is described as opaque, transparent, semi-
transparent and translucent.

Cleavage and fracture

Cleavage refers to the splitting of a mineral along smooth, flat

surfaces and it is related to the types of bonds in the internal
structure of the mineral. Minerals that do not break along cleavage
planes, tend to fracture, or break, unevenly into curved or irregular
pieces. Types of fractures are based on their appearance such as
uneven or irregular, splintery or fibrous and curved or conchoidal
Physical Properties of Minerals cont’….

Hardness

A measure the resistance of a mineral to abrasion or scratching. It is

measure relative to a standard scale of ten minerals known as the
Moh’s Scale of Hardness. This scale is arranged in order from
1(softest) to 10 (hardest).

Specific Gravity

SG is a number representing the ratio of the weight of a mineral to

the weight of an equal volume of water.
Physical Properties of Minerals cont’….

Crystal Form

CF is the external expression of a mineral that reflects the orderly

internal arrangement of atoms. Crystal structures have no size limits.
Minerals with a crystal lattice are called crystalline, those without a
crystal structure are called amorphous.

Reaction with Acid

When dillute HCL acid (typically 10%) is dripped onto some minerals,
notably the carbonates, a reaction take place. Calcite produces
bubbles of carbon dioxide when reaction takes place while in some
iron sulphide ores, hydrogen sulphide is produced.
Physical Properties of Minerals cont’….

Tenacity

Tenacity is the response of minerals to hammer blows, cutting with a

knife and to bending. Minerals that can be beaten into new shapes
are malleable (gold, silver, copper).

Others

In addition, some minerals can be recognized by other distinctive

properties such as smell, taste, scraps by coin, picked up with a
magnet and others.

A number of special physical and chemical properties are useful on

identifying certain minerals.
Rock Forming Minerals

Earth crust is basically made up from the composition of eight major

element ; Oxygen (O), Silicon (Si), aluminium (Al), Iron (Fe), Calcium
(Ca), Sodium (Na), Pottasium (K) and Magnesium (Mg). This elements
represent above 98% of earth crust. But, Si and O ascertain 75% to
dominate the composition. This two elements readily combine to
form the framework for the most common mineral group, the silicate
Rock Forming Minerals cont’….

Basically the rock forming minerals are divided into 3 major groups.

1. Acidic silicate base minerals

2. Basic silicate base minerals
3. Non-silicate minerals

What are silicate minerals?

Silicate minerals are complex in both chemistry and crystal structure

but every silicate minerals contains a basic structural unit called the
silica tetrahedron with crystal structure.
Silicate Minerals

Structure and Classification of the Silicates

Almost silicate structures are in fourfold coordination with oxygen.

This arrangement appears to be universal in these compounds, and
the bonds between silicon and oxygen are so strong.
Silicate Minerals cont’…..

Structure and Classification of the Silicates cont’….

Silicate classification is based on the following types of linkages:

1. Single chains – e.g pyroxene

2. Double chains – e.g amphiboles
3. Two dimensional sheets – e.g micas, chlorites and clay minerals
4. Three dimensional frameworks – e.g feldspar and quartz
Structures of The Common Silicate
Silicate Minerals cont’…..

Ferromagnesian Silicates / Basic Silicates

Ferromagnesian silicates are silicates that contain iron, magnesium,

or both as in Olivine. Other minerals include the Pyroxene and the
Amphiboles
Silicate Minerals cont’…..

Non-Ferromagnesian Silicates / Acid Silicates

Non-Ferromagnesian silicates are silicates that lack iron and

magnesium, as in Feldspar. Other minerals include the Quartz and
the Muscovite
Pyroxene

High temperature minerals found in many igneous and metamorphic

rocks

Usually dark in coloured (dark green to black) and contains silicates

of iron and magnesium

Occurs in basic and ultrabasic rocks

Amphiboles

This minerals has much in common with pyroxene and consist of

complex silicates which are magnesium, calcium and iron

Hornblende the most abundant amphibole is a common constituent

of igneous and metamorphic rock

Colour ranges from green to black

Common inmetamorphic rock known as amphibolite

Micas Group

Micas are group of monoclinic minerals and are characterised by

perfect cleavage

Typically paper thin, shiny, elastic cleavage plates

Only two common occurring mica known as biotite (dark brown to

black), usually less commercial value and muscovite (colourless or
slightly tinted)

Abundant in granite and many metamorphic rock and is also a

significant component of many sandstones
Feldspar Group

Most important group, abundant and constitute the most of rock

forming minerals

Make up to 60% of the earth’s crust. Found almost on all of the

igneous rocks, in some sedimentary and many metamorphic rocks

Two major types of feldspar : Pottasium feldspar (K-feldspar) and

Plagioclase feldspar

Good cleave in two directions, porcelain luster and hardness of 6

Olivine

Occurs chiefly in basic and ultrabasic rocks with (MgFe)2 SiO4

present

Crystallises at high temperature, over 1000 C, one of the first

minerals to form from basic magmas, and common in basalt

The only mineral clearly visible in the hand specimen

Probably the major constituent of the material beneath the earth’s

crust
Calcite

Composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and principal mineral of

limestone

Can be precipitated directly from seawater and removed from it by

organism to make shells

Dissolved in groundwater and reprecipitated as new crystals in

caves and fractures in rock

Soft and easy to scratch, bubbles in dilute hydrochloric acid, perfect

cleavage in three directions but not at right angle

Major mineral in metamorphic rock (marble)

Halite and Gypsum

Two most common minerals form by the evaporation of seawater or

saline lake water

Halite (common salt, NaCl) easily identified by its taste, very soft and
scratched easily with fingernail

Gypsum composed of calcium sulphate and water (CaSO42H2O).

Chlorite

A green flaky minerals formed by hydrous silicates of magnesium

and aluminium

Found in Igneous rocks and in metamorphic rocks such as chlorite-

schist and in some clays

Talc

Soft flaky mineral, white or greenish white, easily scratched by finger

nails

Occurs as a secondary product in basic and ultrabasic rocks and in

talc-schist
Kaolin
Derived from breakdown of feldspar by action of water and carbon
dioxide

White or grey, soft with texture of flour and clayey smell when damp

Serpentine
An alteration of olivine, pyroxene or hornblende

Change from olivine to serpentine may be brought about by action of

water and silica

Found in basic and ultrabasic rocks

Non Silicate Minerals

Oxides and Hydroxides

Form by combination of various cations with oxygen. Some

examples are haematite, ilmenite, magnetite, bauxite, limonite and
cassiterite

Carbonates and Sulfates

Consist of framework similar to the silica tetrahedra. An important

mineral in this group is gypsum – almost used in building materials.
The most important carbonate minerals are calcite which combines
calcium with the carbonate ion, and dolomite which contains calcium
and magnesium in its structure
Non Silicate Minerals cont’…..

Halides

Often occurring as chemical deposited sediments formed by

evaporation and as vein minerals in igneous rocks
Clay minerals

Constitute major part of the soil and thus encountered more

frequently than other minerals

Form when air and water interact with the various silicate minerals
breaking them to form clay and other products

The most significant characteristic of any clay mineral is its

extremely flaky shape. The main properties to be considered in an
engineering context are: surface area, surface charge and
adsorption, base exchange capacity, flocculation and dispersion,
shrinkage and swelling, plasticity and cohesion
Clay minerals cont’….

Surface area : The smaller and more flaky a particle is, the greater
will be its surface area. The ratio of surface area per gram of mass is
term the specific surface (Ss).

Surface charge and adsorption : The ions forming the platy surfaces
of clay minerals are negative electrical charge [O2- or (OH)- ]
 Types of Rock Mineral
Igneous Rock Quartz,biotite, muscovite, amphiboles,
pyroxene, orthoclase, olivine

Sedimentary Parent igneous rock – quartz and

Rocks feldspar the earth’s surface minerals –
clay minerals, hydrous alluminium
silicates, carbonates, calcite and
dolomite, those deposited from saline
waters – rock salt and gypsum
Metamorphic Quartz, feldspar, amphiboles, pyroxene,
Rocks micas, garnet chlorites, the carbonates,
metamorphosed limestone