R. J. Zwi Werblowsky | MYSTICAL AND MAGICAL CONTEMPLATION THE KABBALISTS IN SIXTEENTH-CENTURY SAFED ‘The purpose of this article is to describe the varieties in the techniques and practice of meditation and contemplation as exemplified by one apparently homogeneous and narrowly circumscribed group. Certain basic patterns and problems are bound to turn up in every mystical religiosity, whatever the individual variations and peculiarities due to the particular theological and cultural background of the mystics concerned. Each tradition evolves its own theological, philosophical, and psychological terminology to cope with its mystical problems (e.g., technique versus grace, natural—supernatural—preternatural, etc.), and one man’s meat may often turn out to be another man’s poison, as is shown by the attitude of Roman Catholic theology to the Hesychast mysticism of the Eastern Church. But profound phe- nomenological differences are often hidden even within what appears to be a single, well-defined movement. The example analyzed here concerns the remarkable community of saints that lived in Safed in Upper Galilee in the sixteenth century! and which brought about the 1 A popular and still eminently readable account of the community was given by Solomon Schechter in his beautiful essay, “Safed in the 16th Century,” in Studies in Judaism (2d ser., 1908), pp. 203-6. 9Mystical and Magical Contemplation great kabbalistic renaissance that influenced Judaism for many gen- erations to come. The student of comparative religion will soon notice the analogies with other mystical traditions, though this article will not pursue such analogies but limit itself to an analysis of some of the mystical ideals, values, techniques, and experiences cultivated by the Safed kabbalists. In order to arrive at a fuller understanding of Safed mysticism it would, of course, be necessary to survey the various modes of revela- tion, mystical illumination, and ecstatic rapture that were known to earlier Jewish semignostic and kabbalistic traditions. For the present, it must suffice to note the selection which later kabbalistic literature seems to have operated and the transformations to which it subjected certain older practices and traditions. Thus the prekabbalistic, ecstatic technique of the soul’s journey or ascent to the vision of the Throne of Glory’ fell into desuetude, though as we shall see a transformed version of it was incorporated in some later systems of meditation. Similarly, Abraham Abulafia’s method of inducing the “‘prophetic” or illuminate state by a technique of permutation and combination of Hebrew letters* (i.e., Divine Names) was not adopted by the dominant kab- balistic schools, though it seems to have been practiced in some esoteric circles and to have made something of a major comeback in the sixteenth century. For not only is the Abulafian type of light ex- perience and the even more suggestive “prophetic” ecstasy, defined by the kabbalists themselves as the mystic’s encounter with his own self,* known to Moses Cordovero and Hayim Vital, but many other six- teenth-century ascetic manuals are heavily indebted to Abulafia’s writings. Of particular interest in this connection are Albottini’s Ladder of Ascent® and the unprinted fourth chapter of Vital’s Gates of Holiness. In fact, Vital’s technique of yihudim (to be discussed below) is simply the modified and transformed successor of Abulafia’s per- mutations. One useful way of classifying ecstatic experiences is the famous dis- 20n the whole subject see G. Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (hereafter cited as “MTJM”) (2d ed.; New York, 1946), chap. ii, esp. pp. 43-54, and chap. iv. 1 [bid., pp. 133-55. ‘Cf. Scholem, “Eine kabbalistische Deutung der Prophetie als Selbstbegeg- nung,” Monatsschrift f. Geschichte u. Wissenschaft d. Judentums, LXXIV (1930), 285-90. 5 See the paragraph “Ekstatische Kabbalah,” in Scholem’s article, Kabbalah, in Encyclopaedia Judaica, Vol. IX, cols. 657-58, and the texts listed there. ¢ Written in Jerusalem about 1520. 1 Cf. below, pp. 29-30.tinction between cases where the main emphasis is on the mystic ex- perience itself and its emotional value and those where the stress is on the objective “mystical” knowledge which it conveys. The distinction is somewhat similar to, though not identical with, Rudolf Otto’s analysis of mysticism versus theosophy or Heilsinterese versus Wissen- schaft.* Often the mystical or visionary experience is sought for its own sake as the highest possible spiritual fulfilment. There are spirits, however, for whom it is merely a means for increasing esoteric knowl- edge; the emphasis remains on knowledge, though it is undoubtedly a saving gnosis that is sought. According to this typology, it may be said that the kabbalists seem to have found the communication-type of mystical experience more congenial. This may be in keeping with the general character of Kabbalah as a system of theosophical doctrine.® Professor Scholem has contended with some force that, under the cover of the bewildering and often bizarre theosophical speculations of the kabbalists, there hides a genuinely mystical life.1° The fact re- mains, nevertheless, that the discursive and even dialectical elements are so prominent in kabbalistic literature that we may almost speak of an intellectualistic hypertrophy. It often looks as if the sole differ- ence between talmudic and kabbalistic literature resides in the dif- ferent subject matter. As far as form and approach are concerned, both are equally dialectical and argumentative, and more often than not kabbalistic literature is less the record of a cognitio experimentalis dei than the substitution of a theosophical pilpul for the halakhic one of the rabbis. This tendency of kabbalistic literature is borne out by the char- acter of the mystical experience reported in it. Already the beginnings of Kabbalah are associated with apparitions of the prophet Elijah, that is, with the teachings communicated by him." Elijah, as is well known, has had a most checkered career in folklore, apocalypse, and rabbinic and mystical literature. Immortal prophet, precursor of the Messiah, “Angel of the Covenant” and guardian-witness at every cir- cumcision ceremony, unexpected savior in moments of need and danger, deux ex machina, and celestial teacher and messenger, he had acquired the kind of ubiquity and character of mediator that fitted him for the role of mystical instructor. There are some striking re- "See R. Otto, Mysticism East and West, chap. ii. *MT-IM, pp. 11-12, 206. © [bid., pp. 15-16. Cf, Scholem, Reshith ha-Kabbalah (1938), p. 16,Mystical and Magical Contemplation semblances to the Hidr of Muslim legend.” But the rabbinic tradition of Elijah as the ultimate provider of answers and solutions to all out- standing legal doubts and problems, and as the messenger of the Celestial Academy, determined his function for the kabbalists. His “revelation,” namely, apparition (gilluy), was considered as one of the superior forms of celestial communication. The Jewish mystic did not, as a rule, aspire to an anticipation of the blessed vision in this life but rather to authoritative indoctrination by the angel-man Elijah, the Hermes of the kabbalists. Luria, Cordovero, David ibn Zimra, and many other sixteenth-century kabbalists were reported to have held intercourse with him. Another, though less exalted, source of information was the dream. There is no need here to discuss the role of dreams in biblical and rabbinic literature.'* Generally speaking, dreams were supposed throughout antiquity and the Middle Ages to possess a prophetic, though perhaps only faintly prophetic, character. According to the Talmud, “a dream is one sixtieth part of prophecy”; according to a hadith-saying ascribed to Muhammed, it is one forty-eighth part of prophecy. Of course dreams are infinitely varied in character and type; as varied, in fact, as mystical experience itself. Consequently, all known forms and kinds of mystical experience could be doubled on the dream level. Thus there are “sleeping” visions and auditions, and the appearance of Elijah, angels, or departed souls in dreams. As in the case of apparitions of Elijah, the revelatory function of dreams is not necessarily mystical or divinatory but may be purely halakhic (ie., legal). Considerable importance was attached to dreams by the German Hasidim," and their influence can be detected in some of the great Tosafist scholars. Thus Eliezer ben Nathan (twelfth century) fasted for two days after being told in a dream that in a halakh decision he had wrongly permitted something he should have pro- hibited.* Rabbi Judah the Pious himself tells how a dream had caused Rabbi Ephraim of Regensburg to reverse a ritual decision. Moses of Coucy, the famous preacher, was prompted by a dream (“inyan mar? "Cf, eg., the Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam, s.v. “Ilyas” (p. 1646) and “al- Khadir" (pp, 232 ff.); also the chapters by Stiassny and Massignon in the volume Elie le prophite (‘‘Estudes Carmelitaines,” Vol. XXXV [1956]). 13 The most recent discussion of dreams in the Bible is E. L. Ehrlich, Der Traum im Alten Testament (BZAW, No. 73 [1953]). For dreams in rabbinic literature cf. Jewish Encyclopaedia, Vol. IV, s.v. “Dreams,” pp. 655-57. \ Of, Sefer Hasidim (ed. Wistinetzky [1891], esp. § 382). 48Cf, E. E. Urbach, Ba‘aley ha-Tesafoth, 1955, p. 154. 4 [bid., pp. 174-75. 12