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ZOOLOGY 100 NOTES (1).

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The Digestive System
Functions
 Mechanical breakdown
 Chemical digestion
 Absorption of soluble nutrients
 Elimination of undigested food
 Detoxification of toxins
 Elimination

DIGESTIVE TRACT VS. DIGESTIVE GLANDS


DIGESTIVE TUBES
 Passageways of food
 Actual digestive processes takes place
 Mouth
 Anus
DIGESTIVE GLANDS
 Accessory digestive organs
 Aid digestion through their secretion
 Liver, pancreas, salivary glands

DIGESTIVE PROCESSES
 INGESTION - taking in food
 MASTICATION - mechanical breakdown; chewing of food with the addition of saliva as
lubricant
 DEGLUTITION – swallowing with the help of the tongue and soft palate
 DIGESTION – change of food from solid to liauid
 ABSORPTION – passage of food from GIT to the blood and lymph
 CIRCULATION – transport of absorbed food to the tissues of the body
 ASSIMILATION – incorporation of the absorbed food as part of the protoplasm
 EGESTION – passing of undigested food or residue through the anus/ removal of wastes
(feces)

 MOUTH
 PHARYNX-ESOPHAGUS
 STOMACH
 SMALL INTESTINES- LARGE INSTESTINES
 ANUS

TYPES OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM


 INCOMPLETE DIGESTIVE TRACT
- INVERTEBRATES
- digestive tube with only one opening which serves for both entrance and exit; with a
mouth without anus
 COMPLETE DIGESTIVE TRACT
- VERTEBRATES
- digestive tube with a mouth for entrance and anus for exit.

INVERTEBRATES
 Protozoans: digestive vacoules
:intracellular digestion
 Porifera : schizocoel and choanocytes
: intracellular digestion
 Coelenterata: gastrovascular cavity(enteron) that serve as incomplete digestive tube
: intracellular and extracellular digestion
 Platyhelminths: incomplete, branched digestive tube except for tapeworm that has no
digestive tract, extracellular digestion
 Nemathelminthes: complete digestive tube, extracellular digestion
 Echinoderms: ring canal
 Arthropods: complete
 Mollusks: mouth-stomach-intestines, complete
Oral Cavity
 Lips
 Tongue
 Teeth
 Hard Palate
 Soft Palate
 Oropharynx
What Are the Different Parts of a Tooth?
 Crown— the top part of the tooth, and the only part you can normally see. The shape of
the crown determines the tooth's function. For example, front teeth are sharp and chisel-
shaped for cutting, while molars have flat surfaces for grinding.
 Gumline— where the tooth and the gums meet. Without proper brushing and flossing,
plaque and tartar can build up at the gumline, leading to gingivitis and gum disease.
 Root— the part of the tooth that is embedded in bone. The root makes up about two-thirds
of the tooth and holds the tooth in place.
 Enamel— the outermost layer of the tooth. Enamel is the hardest, most mineralized
tissue in the body — yet it can be damaged by decay if teeth are not cared for properly.
 Dentin— the layer of the tooth under the enamel. If decay is able to progress its way
through the enamel, it next attacks the dentin — where millions of tiny tubes lead directly
to the dental pulp.
 Pulp— the soft tissue found in the center of all teeth, where the nerve tissue and blood
vessels are. If tooth decay reaches the pulp, you usually feel pain

Teeth
A. According to size and
shape
1. Homodont
2. Heterodont
B. According to
replacement
1. Diphyodont
2. Polyphyodont
C. According to
attachment
1. Acrodont
2. Pleurodont
3. Thecodont
Pharynx
 Function-Common passageway for food and air
 Has 6 openings
 Oropharynx
 Nasopharynx
 Eustachian Tubes (2)
 Larynx
 esophagus
Esophagus
 Function – passage of food from the pharynx to the stomach
 Contains two layers of muscle:
1) upper part = striated voluntary
2) lower part =smooth involuntary
 Peristalsis and segmentation
= moves the food downward along the length of the tube

Non-Ruminant Stomach
 Function – partly for digestion (with gastric glands that secrete enzymes) and absorption
(water, drugs and medicines)
 Divided into 5 areas
 Cardiac - anterior
 Fundus – bulge found only in
mammals
 Body: lesser and greater curvature
 Pylorus - posterior

Ruminant Stomach
 Function -
 Divided into four chambers
 Rumen – compartment with large
cavity containing water and bacteria
(fermentation of solid food like
“grass” )
 Reticulum – “honey comb”; where
food is mixed and turned into “ball-
like masses called bolus which is regurgitated back into the mouth where it is
rechewed and thoroughly mixed with saliva, then reswallowed and directed to the
omasum
 Omasum – “psalterium”; contains longitudinal folds that serves as strainers
 Abomasum – the true stomach due to the presence of gastric glands that secrete
digestive juices.
Swallowing
 Voluntary action propelling oral contents toward pharynx
 Involuntary contraction of pharynx
 Inhibition of respiration and glottic closure

Ansa Spiralis
Accessory Glands
 Salivary Glands
 Pancreas
 Liver

Liver Architecture
The digestive glands
 Salivary Glands
- secretion:
1. Psychic Phase – seeing, thinking, smelling, tasting or touching stimulates the
release of saliva
2. Tactile Phase – smooth surfaces stimulate the release of saliva
- 3 salivary glands:
1. parotid – entirely serous and has the Stensen’s duct
2. submaxillary – mainly serous but with large amount of mucus and has the
Wharton duct
3. sublingual – mainly mucus and has the Bartholin duct
 Gastric Gland
- secretion:
1. Psychic Phase
2. Gastric Phase – touching and coming in contact of food with walls of the stomach
stimulates the gastric glands to release gastric juices
3. Intestinal Phase – when acidic chyme (partially digested food from the stomach)
touches the wall of the intestine, gastric glands are more stimulated to secrete more gastric juices
as there is food in the stomach and later stopped by enterogastrone
 Liver – largest gland of the body that secrete bile (alkaline substance that is color green in
frog and deep yellow in man) that is temporarily stored in the gall bladder.
- bile composition:
1) bile salts – emulsify or reduce fats to minute droplets to be easily acted upon by
enzymes
2) bilirubin
3) cholesterol
4) fatty acids
5) electrolytes of the plasma
- stimulate by secretin and cholecystokinin
- functions:
1) neutralizes the acidity of chyme as it
enters the duodenum
2) aids in absorption of fats
3) stimulates peristalsis
4) store greater percentage of glycogen
5) center of fat and carbohydrate
metabolism

 Pancreas – irregular diffused mass between the stomach


and the duodenum
- secretes pancreatic juice which contains:
1) enzymes
2) bicarbonate-rich but low in chloride secretions
these are emptied into the duodenum through the
pancreatic duct
- contains Islets of Langerhans which secrete insulin
- stimulated by secretin and pancreozymin
 Intestinal Glands – secrete intestinal juices (succus
entericus) that empty into the lumen of the small intestine;
stimulated by enterokinin
SMALL INTESTINE
 Very coiled long tube where final digestion and absorption
takes place.
 Longer in herbivores than in carnivores, and in men that
in women
 In human it’s 20 ft long and 1 inch in diameter
 Muscular and is provided with villi that aids in digestion
and absorption
 Movements:
1. peristalsis – radially contraction of muscles w/c
propagates in a wave down the muscular tube
2. churning – mixes the intestinal contents and usually
occurs at the lower portion of the tube
 Divisions:
In FROG: 1. duodenum – short anterior part
2. ileum – very coiled, longer posterior part
In MAN: 1. duodenum – short anterior part
2. jejunum – short part after the duodenum; middle part of the small
intestine
3. ileum – longer, very coiled posterior part after the jejunum

LARGE INTESTINE
 Wider and thicker-walled than the small intestine with no villi and digestive enzymes
(except in herbivores, with cellulase)
 Glands secrete substances mainly for lubrication
 What takes place here:
- absorption of large amount of water, in turn solidify the digestive residue and undigested
materials, forming masses (feces) for expulsion to the anus
- bacterial action results in the production of vitamin K which is then absorbed and brought
to the liver; production of cellulase in herbivores’
- formation of toxic materials, some of which are absorbed, brought to the liver and
detoxified.
 Divisions:
caecum – at the junction of the small and large intestines. In man the remnant is the
appendix
1. ascending colon – short vertical part
2. transverse colon – passes horizontally across the abdomen
3. descending colon – vertical part
4. rectum – the last 7 inches of the large intestine
In FROG: it’s an expanded part of GIT, posterior part is the cloaca

Eating Disorder Definition Signs and Symptoms Medical Complication


Bulimia Nervosa Bulimia is eating ~ Binge eating ~ Blood
followed by vomiting to ~ Uses diet pills, or ~ Heart
try and rid the body of takes pills to urinate or ~ Brain
unwanted calories. have a bowel ~ Mouth
movement. ~ Throat and
~ Goes to bathroom all Esophagus
the time after she eats.
~ Exercises a lot, even
during bad weather,
tiredness, sickness, or
injury.
~ Is depressed.
~ Doesn't see friends
or participate in
activities
as much.
Name of Definition of Signs & Symptoms Medical
Eating Disorder of Complications
Disorder Disorders
Anorexia Anorexia is a significant weight loss ~ Noticeable weight ~ Brain and
Nervosa resulting from excessive dieting. loss. Nerves
~ Excessive ~ Hair
exercise. ~ Heart
~ Always being cold. ~ Blood
~ Muscle weakness . ~ Kidneys
~ Obsession with
food, calories,
and
recipes.
~ Complaining of
being
"too fat" even
when thin.
Eating Definition Signs & symptoms Medical complication
Disorder
Binge Eating People with binge eating ~ Eat more quickly than usual ~ Type 2 diabetes.
disorder often eat an during binge episodes. ~ High blood cholesterol.
unusually large amount of ~ Eat until they are ~ Gallbladder disease.
food and feel out of control uncomfortably full. ~ Heart disease.
during binges. ~ Eat when they are not ~ Certain types of
hungry. cancer
~ Eat alone because of
embarrassment.
~ Feel disgusted, depressed, or
guilty after overeating.
KWASHIORKOR

 an acute form of childhood protein-energy malnutrition


characterized by edema, irritability, anorexia, ulcerating
dermatoses, and an enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates
 caused by: insufficient protein consumption but with sufficient
calorie intake (distinguishing it from marasmus).
- recently, micronutrient and antioxidant deficiencies are also
contributory factors
SIGNS:
- pedal edema (swelling of the feet).
- distended abdomen,
- enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates,
- thinning hair,
- loss of teeth, skin depigmentation
- dermatitis.
- Children often develop: irritability and anorexia.

 recently, micronutrient and antioxidant deficiencies are also contributory factors


- due to deficiency of one of several types of nutrients (e.g., iron, folic acid, iodine,
selenium, vitamin C), particularly those involved with anti-oxidant protection.
- Important anti-oxidants in the body that are reduced in children with kwashiorkor
include glutathione, albumin, vitamin E and polyunsaturated fatty acids.
 derived from the Ga language of coastal Ghana, translated "the sickness the baby gets
when the new baby comes", and reflecting the development of the condition in an older
child who has been weaned from the breast when a younger sibling
comes.
- Breast milk contains proteins and amino acids vital to a child's
growth.
- In at-risk populations, kwashiorkor may develop after a mother
weans her child from breast milk and replaces the diet with foods high in
starches and carbohydrates and deficient in protein.

MARASMUS
SIGNS:
- extensive tissue and muscle wasting,
- variable edema.
- dry skin, loose skin folds hanging over the glutei, axillae,
- drastic loss of adipose tissue from normal areas of fat deposits like buttocks and thighs.
- The afflicted are often fretful, irritable, and voraciously hungry

 a form of severe protein-energy malnutrition characterized by energy deficiency


 caused by a severe deficiency of nearly all nutrients, especially protein and calories.
 treat not only the symptoms but also the complications of the disorder, including
infections, dehydration, and circulation disorders, which are frequently lethal and lead to
high mortality if ignored.
FATTY LIVER (CIRRHOSIS)
- Fat accumulates in the liver usually in connection with heavy use of alcohol, weight gain or
diabetes.
- Fatty liver can also occur with poor diet and certain illnesses, such as tuberculosis,
intestinal bypass surgery for obesity, and certain drugs such as corticosteroids.

DIGESTIVE PROBLEMS

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