Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Co-published by:
ISBN: 978-92-806-4363-3
Sales number: E.09.XX.2
CONTENTS
Foreword iv
Preface v
Acknowledgements vi
Acronyms vii
4. Children as Peacemakers 33
6. Upholding Justice 57
7. Systems of Response 81
Endnotes 201
Index 215
FOREWORD
IV M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
PREFACE
P R E FA C E V
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This publication would not have been Ilaria Carnevali, Jonathan Cauldwell, (Norwegian Refugee Council);
possible without the contributions Maria José Chamorro, Tonderai Michelle Cervantes (Office of the
and guidance provided by the Chikuhwa, Ilene Cohn, Jane Connors, United Nations High Commissioner
following individuals and groups: Pamela Delargy, Christine Evans, for Refugees); Nicola Reindorp (Oxfam
Helle Falkman, Kelly Fleck, Manuel International); Jessica Huber (Quaker
MACHEL STUDY 10-YEAR Fontaine, Elena Gastaldo, Emanuela- United Nations Office); Michelle
STRATEGIC REVIEW TEAM Chiara Gillard, Anne Marie Goetz, Brown (Refugees International);
Katarina Grenfell, Gillian Holmes, Görel Bogarde (Save the Children
Katey Grusovin, Ann Makome, Baishalee
Valeria Izzi, Leanne Kinsella, Corinna Alliance); Monica Lindvall (Save the
Nayak, Susan Nicolai, Beth Verhey.
Kuhl, Comfort Lamptey, Maura Lynch, Children Sweden); Vanessa Farr, Luc
Johanna MacVeigh, Ann Makome, Lafreniere, Marc Antoine Morel,
INTER-AGENCY Melissa Sabatier (United Nations
Pamela Maponga, Marie-Anne Martin,
ADVISORY GROUP Development Programme, Bureau for
Louise Maule, Jennifer McAvoy, Silvia
Agencies. Christian Children’s Fund, Mercogliano, Craig Mokhiber, Simone Crisis Prevention and Recovery); Julia
International Committee of the Monasebian, Christine Muhigana, Freedson, Sarah Spencer (Watchlist
Red Cross, International Labour Sarah Muscroft, Vina Nadjibulla, on Children and Armed Conflict);
Organization, International Rescue Djankou Ndjonkou, Yewande Odia, Dale Buscher, Jenny Perlman Robinson,
Committee, Office for Disarmament Moses Okello, Ejeviiome Otobo, Juliet Young (Women’s Commission
Affairs, Office of the Special Repre- Carolina Owens, Giorgia Passarelli, for Refugee Women and Children);
sentative of the Secretary-General for Alexandra Pichler, Ron Pouwels, Ana Dr. Laurence Bropleh (World Council
Children and Armed Conflict, Office of Giudice Saget, Lanre Shasore, Nishkala of Churches).
the United Nations High Commissioner Suntharalingam, Vanessa Tobin, Carl
for Human Rights, Office of the United Triplehorn, Jane Warburton, Mike EXPERTS AND
Nations High Commissioner for Wessels, Keith Wright, Fatemeh Ziai. CONTRIBUTORS
Refugees, Save the Children Alliance, Pilar Aguilar, Eva Ahlen, Priscilla
United Nations Children’s Fund, Expanded inter-agency advisory Akwara, Naseem Awl, Anton Baaré,
United Nations Department of Peace- group. Sarah Sullivan (Amnesty Ishmael Beah, Annalies Borrel, Geert
keeping Operations, United Nations International); Kathleen Hunt (CARE Cappelaere, Tonderai Chikuhwa,
Department of Political Affairs, United International); Rachel Stohl (Center Daniel Christensen, Paula Claycomb,
Nations Development Fund for for Defense Information); Hourig Arnaud Conchon, Rosa da Costa,
Women, United Nations Development Babikian, Mike Wessells (Christian Kimberly Davis, Cooper Dawson,
Programme, United Nations Office Children’s Fund); Victoria Forbes Joanna De Berry, Marie de la Soudiere,
for the Coordination of Humanitarian Adam (Coalition to Stop the Use of Hazel de Wet, Asmaa Donahue, Kendra
Affairs, United Nations Office on Child Soldiers); Jo Becker (Human Dupuy, Anne Edgerton, Vidar Ekehaug,
Drugs and Crime, United Nations Rights Watch); Kristin Barstad Ben Erwin, Manuel Fontaine, Jim
Office of Legal Affairs, United (International Committee of the Red Freedman, Julia Freedson, Richard
Nations Peacebuilding Commission, Cross); Donald K. Steinberg (Inter- Garfield, Laurence Gerard, Emanuela-
United Nations Population Fund. national Crisis Group); Jane Warburton Chiara Gillard, Anne Grandjean, Jason
(International Rescue Committee); Hart, Alison Holder, Hania Kamel,
Inter-agency advisory group Allison Anderson, Jennifer Hofmann, Greg Keast, Geoffrey Keele, Yvonne
members. Maja Andrijasevic-Boko, (International Rescue Committee/ Kemper, Sanjiv Kumar, Brooke Lauten,
Simon Bagshaw, Amanda Bok, Inter-Agency Network for Education Alexandra Lenton, Jairus Ligoo,
Annalies Borrel, Katharine Burns, in Emergencies); Greta Zeender Edilberto Loaiza, Elisabeth Lothe,
VI M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
ACRONYMS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS VII
Angola © UNICEF/NYHQ2002-0440/Pirozzi
1
INTRODUCTION: TOWARDS
A COMMON ETHIC
THE STORY BEHIND THIS REPORT
The seeds of this publication were planted in October 1992, in a special discussion on children and armed conflict
initiated by the Committee on the Rights of the Child. The following year, the UN General Assembly adopted a
resolution calling for the Secretary-General to appoint an independent expert to lead a study on the impact of
armed conflict on children. Graça Machel, a Mozambican educator and international advocate for children, was
chosen to lead that study. Her groundbreaking report, the ‘Impact of Armed Conflict on Children’, was presented
to the General Assembly in 1996,1 which led to the creation of the Office of the Special Representative of the
Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict (OSRSG-CAAC) in September 1997. It was unanimously endorsed
and has continued to move the world ever since.
In September 2000, following a recommendation of the Machel report, the Government of Canada hosted the
International Conference on War-Affected Children in Winnipeg. The timing of the conference was well planned,
coinciding with the 10th anniversary of the World Summit for Children. In preparation for the event, the Governments
of Canada and Norway supported a UNICEF team to work with Mrs. Machel on a review of progress since her
previous report. The resulting document, ‘The Machel Review 1996–2000’, was presented to representatives of more
than 100 countries at the Winnipeg conference. Several months later the report was circulated to the General
Assembly and made into a book, The Impact of War on Children.2
In 2006, work got under way on a 10-year strategic review of progress since the original Machel study. This
ambitious undertaking, financed by the Governments of Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, France, Germany,
Norway and Sweden, was co-convened by the Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for
Children and Armed Conflict and UNICEF. In addition to these two UN bodies, more than 40 UN agencies, non-
governmental organizations and academic institutions contributed to the report, along with children from nearly
100 countries. The initial findings were presented to the General Assembly in October 2007, as part of the annual
report of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict.3 This publication is a
more in-depth look at progress and remaining gaps. It is part of an ongoing advocacy effort to develop a common
platform and to keep the cause of children in conflict in the conscience of citizens everywhere.
2 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
More than a decade after it was
presented to the United Nations
General Assembly, Graça Machel’s
report on the agony of children
trapped in armed conflict remains
the definitive assessment of the issue.
It has continuously roused moral
outrage and has been a foundation
for programming and advocacy.
“I have always believed it is
our responsibility as adults to give
children futures worth having,” she
said when releasing the study in 1996.
“In the two years spent on this
report, I have been shocked and
angered to see how shamefully we
have failed in this responsibility.”
During the intervening years,
her challenges have inspired a
groundswell of collective action. The
Office of the Special Representative Central African Republic © UNICEF/ NYHQ2007-0135/Pirozzi
of the Secretary-General for Children
and Armed Conflict, UNICEF and
other UN bodies, Member States,
non-governmental organizations and to monitoring the steps already taken. child.” We cannot hope to move
other representatives of civil society More needs to be done to ensure that forcefully on behalf of children in
have all had a hand in achievements of the light against impunity is effective conflict until we turn our attention
which we can be proud: the strength- and that those who violate children to all impacts, on all children, in all
ening of international norms and are held accountable. Moreover, the situations affected by conflict.
standards, the active involvement of changing nature of contemporary The organization of this report
both the General Assembly and the armed conflict cries out for a different aims to heighten our understanding
Security Council in making the issue approach, one that no longer focuses of the myriad ways in which armed
of children in armed conflict a top on particular countries or themes conflict affects children – and how
priority, and the enhancement of but on the totality of issues affecting children regard their participation
strategies and programmes to protect children caught in armed conflict, a not only in war but in programmes
and care for war-affected children. point captured in Mrs. Machel’s study. aimed at preventing violence against
Although these strides represent That is the central message of this them and in promoting their recovery
significant progress, a great deal 10-year strategic review, and it grows and reintegration. The report thus
remains to be done. There are still out of Mrs. Machel’s powerful insight frames its findings within three
gaps in implementation and obstacles that “war violates every right of the categories: political and diplomatic
1 . I N T R O D U C T I O N : T O WA R D S A C O M M O N E T H I C 3
Sri Lanka © UNICEF/NYHQ2006-1599/Noorani
4 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“Children are both our reason to eliminate the worst aspects of armed conflict
and our best hope of succeeding in that charge.” — Graça Machel, 1996
1 . I N T R O D U C T I O N : T O WA R D S A C O M M O N E T H I C 5
Russian Federation © UNICEF/NYHQ2005-1308/Pirozzi
2
THE CHANGING NATURE
OF CONFLICT
“When conflict broke out in the community we fled our homes, and it felt
like bullets were chasing us through the woods.” – Young woman, 17, Philippines
The 1996 Machel study noted with conflicts in 2005 ranged from 17 involving a State party. Yet the data
deep concern how war tactics had to 56 worldwide.7 The lower figure from one centre showed that, in 2005,
changed, with civilians, including pertains to conflicts with more than all 56 armed conflicts listed also
children, increasingly becoming the 1,000 battle deaths; the higher derives involved non-state actors, and in
targets of violence and the victims from a threshold of 25 battle deaths, 25 of them a State was not a party
of atrocities. Regrettably, this trend allowing for the inclusion of lower- to the conflict.9
continues. Armed conflicts today have intensity conflicts and those in which Fuelling many of these conflicts
an even more horrific impact on a State was not a party to the conflict. is the widespread proliferation and
children, and on civilians generally. The analysis of conflicts in 2005 availability of small arms, light
In today’s wars, the strategies draws from a recent and much-cited weapons and ammunition. Abundant,
adopted by armed groups “seek to report by the Human Security Centre. cheap and easily carried by a child,
bring the battle more immediately, It emphasizes that while some analysts these weapons are often illegally
more systematically, and more see a positive trend – a decline in the traded. They are a modern-day
massively to the core of the civilian number of inter-state conflicts waged scourge. They not only account for
population,” 5 and into the lives around the world since the 1990s and the vast majority of direct conflict
of millions of children. a growing numbers of wars ending deaths, they enable wars to continue,
As a result, armed conflict has with negotiated settlements rather sustain a culture of violence and
become more fluid and less easily than military resolution8 – others are facilitate further conflict.
defined. According to the Stockholm not so sure, given the changing nature
International Peace Research Institute, of warfare. While most countries THE SHIFTING
the trend of armed conflict is towards are no longer engaged in inter-state LANDSCAPE OF
“further fragmentation of violence.” warfare, they are often host to one or CONTEMPORARY
The analysis goes on to say, “This has even several armed conflicts involving WARFARE
been accompanied by the diversifica- non-state actors. These can include Haiti provides insight into the
tion of armed groups and the further rebellions or opposition or secessionist challenges on the ground that such
erosion of the boundaries between movements involving paramilitary trends present. While the United
different forms of violence. Much of groups, anti-government guerrillas or Nations Mission for the Stabilization
this ‘fragmented’ violence is difficult others. Such armed conflicts may yield of Haiti helped quell the conflict that
to measure and categorize.”6 fewer military battle deaths, but they erupted in 2004, many armed groups
The growing involvement of exact a high human cost: Unarmed resisted disarmament and transformed
non-state actors and the use of non- civilians are victimized, basic services into entities that were primarily
traditional forms of warfare add deteriorate, societal divisions deepen criminal in nature. As described
to the difficulty of quantifying the and local economies decline. in the most recent report of the
impact of war on children. The 1996 It is also important to remember Secretary-General on children and
Machel study cited 30 “major armed that many of the recognized armed armed conflict, “Although these
conflicts” as taking place in 1995, conflict datasets were based on the groups are currently essentially
when monitored according to battle traditional concept of war, involving criminal in nature, their character
deaths. In attempting to assess trends inter-state warfare and disciplined and motivations may shift between
10 years later, the Machel strategic military forces. Significantly, some of criminal and political depending on
review found that the number of the lists only include armed conflicts the specific time and circumstances
8 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
THE DEADLY AND DESTABILIZING EFFECTS
OF SMALL ARMS
The poorly regulated and often illicit trade of small arms and light
weapons, along with their wide circulation, “increases the intensity and
duration of armed conflicts, undermines the sustainability of peace
agreements, impedes the success of peacebuilding, frustrates efforts
aimed at the prevention of armed conflict, [and] hinders considerably
the provision of humanitarian assistance.”14
and may pose a threat to peace
and security.”10 Small arms and light weapons are responsible for the majority of direct
The majority of children who conflict deaths – between 60 and 90 per cent, depending on the conflict.15
have been recruited in Haiti remain The ease of handling small arms makes them especially accessible to
associated with armed groups, despite children. The lightweight Kalashnikov (AK-47) is the most used and available
their ongoing transformations. In gun in the world. Untold numbers of children living in situations of armed
fact, children themselves have found
conflict, sometimes as young as seven or eight, learn how to use them.
their status changing – once considered
victims unlawfully recruited, now This familiarity with small arms and their proliferation can sustain a
they are seen as ‘gang members’. culture of violence in post-conflict societies. At worst it has the potential
In detailing the realities faced by to reignite conflict. Guatemala, for example, is the most highly armed
children growing up in such an country in Central America. Only 1,500 weapons were surrendered in the
environment, there are “confirmed 1996 disarmament and, by 2002, the UN Verification Mission in Guatemala
reports that children have been used
estimated that there were 1.5 million illegal firearms in circulation. The
as messengers, spotters, attackers and
porters to transfer and hide weapons, level of violence has reached alarming proportions, with a recent survey
as well as for kidnappings.”11 Children showing that 88 per cent of the country’s people are worried about
have been abducted (in one case, becoming victims of armed violence.16 Southern Sudan is also saturated
30 students were abducted while with small arms and light weapons. Among other factors, persistent
travelling on school buses), gang-
insecurity is hobbling attempts to implement the 2005 Comprehensive
raped and become victims of other
Peace Agreement between the north and south. A household survey found
forms of sexual violence. In some
cases, armed entities have used that almost every household had experienced some form of armed attack
schools as a base of operations.12 since the peace agreement was signed.17
Recent research and policy The 1996 Machel study stressed the importance for children of shifting
analysis on conflict is attempting resource allocations from arms and military expenditures to human and
to document the changing nature
social development. This shift is still desperately needed. According to the
of contemporary warfare and the
Control Arms Campaign, an average of $22 billion a year is spent on arms
gravity of its impact on civilians.13
Specific attention to children, by countries in Africa, Asia, the Middle East and Latin America. The
however, remains rare, including the campaign points out that this sum “would otherwise enable those same
delineation of age in data collection. countries to be on track to meet the Millennium Development Goals of
Cross-analysis between such research achieving universal primary education (estimated at $10 billion a year) as
and expertise on children is therefore
well as targets for reducing infant and maternal mortality (estimated at
urgently needed. In the interim, this
report seeks to highlight key issues $12 billion a year).”18
that require collaborative action.
While each conflict possesses its
own unique characteristics, the trends
in contemporary conflict that affect
2 . T H E C H A N G I N G N AT U R E O F C O N F L I C T 9
In Aceh (Indonesia), where only
the Free Aceh Movement (Gerakan
Aceh Merdeka) is a party to the
2005 peace agreement, incomplete
demobilization has resulted in
fluidity among armed groups and
an increase in criminal activity and
banditry, in which young people still
participate.23 In Nepal, substantial
numbers of children were recruited
Russian Federation © UNICEF/NYHQ2005-1315/Pirozzi by the Communist Party of Nepal-
Maoist prior to the ceasefire agreement.
Evolving unrest in the Terai region
has led to the emergence of new
political and armed groups, whose
children in particular and demand range from insurgents and resistance
“actions were criminal as much as
our attention include the proliferation movements to separatists, opposition
they were political in design,” and
of armed groups, the emergence of forces, militias and rebels as well as
new violations of children’s rights,
‘resource wars’ that incite and sustain local defence groups and paramilitary
including recruitment.24
conflict, and the internationalization units. In Afghanistan, armed groups
include tribal factions, criminal The miscategorization of certain
of terrorism.
networks and groups ideologically armed groups – and their exclusion
opposed to the Government, including from dialogue concerning conflict
THE PROLIFERATION resolution or humanitarian access
the Taliban and the Hizb-e Islami.19
OF ARMED GROUPS to civilians – has presented major
Somalia, lacking a central government,
While major inter-state armed presents one of the most complex problems. For one, it has restricted
conflicts are on the decline, there are situations, involving the Transitional child protection workers from reaching
many prolonged, intractable conflicts Federal Government, the Union of children, identifying their needs and
within States and across borders Islamic Courts (a complex union of highlighting rights violations.
involving a variety of non-state clan-based sharia courts), various clan Colombia, for example, has been
actors. In addition, there is an increased militias and Ethiopian government besieged by armed conflict for almost
use of paramilitary and proxy forces forces (which have the backing of the half a century. A number of highly
with weak systems of accountability US Government), along with suspected organized paramilitary groups,
for compliance with international terrorists with al-Qaida links.20 Children private security companies and drug
law. The actions and motivations of made up an estimated 35 per cent trafficking mafias have emerged
these armed groups may switch back of 1,200 civilians killed and several over the years. They are financed by
and forth from armed conflict to thousand injured in Somalia between kidnapping, extortion, trafficking
criminal violence to other forms October 2006 and late 2007.21 or other organized criminal activity,
of armed political violence. Reports indicate that all parties in which children have become
An array of labels is applied to except Ethiopian government forces involved.25 Between 11,000 and
non-state groups and actors. These have recruited and used children.22 14,000 children are thought to have
10 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
served in armed groups in a variety The Philippines report to the companies respect children’s rights.
of roles in Colombia,26 and many of Committee on the Rights of the Since national law and practice are
them have remained beyond the Child on the Optional Protocol notes critical in this area, considerations
reach of child protection workers. that “children are reportedly being and recommendations by the
Research suggests that the demo- recruited into paramilitary structures Committee on the Rights of the
bilization process there has been to provide security and protection Child will be especially important.
applied inconsistently and is not against ordinary criminal elements
reaching all armed groups. As reported such as cattle rustlers, thieves and THE EMERGENCE OF
by the UN Secretary-General, two other armed bandits” and that these RESOURCE WARS
illegal armed groups outside the organizations “are also fielded to fight
A distinctive feature of contemporary
demobilization process “have been guerrilla insurgents.”30 The Children’s
conflict is the emergence of resource
only partially demobilized, and it is Rehabilitation Centre, a national non-
wars or ‘asset wars’, with ‘blood’
believed that children are still present governmental organization with three
diamonds a particularly notorious
in those groups.”27 As a result, only regional centres, has documented 819
example. Increasingly, armed conflicts
15 per cent of Colombia’s former child incidents of human rights violations that may have originated in political
combatants have access to demobiliza- involving children in the Philippines grievances are subsequently driven by
tion and reintegration programmes. from 2001 to April 2005.31 opportunistic greed. Resource wars
Those who remain have little hope of A rising trend is the outsourcing are driven by control of assets, illicit
ever resuming a normal life.28 of military and police functions to trade and exploitation of natural
The use of paramilitary and proxy private security companies. Experts resources – including diamonds, other
forces on the part of States increases have raised concern about the use of gems, timber, drugs, gold and other
the vulnerability of children due to force by such companies and the precious metals – intermingled with
diffuse mechanisms of accountability. blurring of distinctions between arms. The Security Council has noted
Militias allied to the Government of civilians and persons participating in that “the exploitation, trafficking and
the Sudan, for example, including the hostilities.32 Allegations of misconduct illicit trade of natural resources have
Janjaweed, have been among the by private security staff and of inap- contributed to the outbreak, escalation
most egregious violators of children’s propriate links to political parties or or continuation of armed conflict.”33
rights. This includes the recruitment paramilitaries are all too frequent. As parties to armed conflict look
and use of children and the use of This suggests the need to put greater for new sources of revenue, children
rape as a weapon of war.29 attention on ensuring that such are drawn into additional forms of
2 . T H E C H A N G I N G N AT U R E O F C O N F L I C T 11
“Drugs are the root cause of recent armed conflict.
Because of drug trade money, people can acquire arms.
These people start using drugs, which makes them act violently,
more and more so, until they spur each other on to
murder, to rape and to abuse children.” –
Young men, 16–18, Haiti
hazardous labour, in addition to The international community is “no single measure would yield more
being recruited and used for military struggling to respond to resource immediate results in the human rights
objectives. For example, many analysts wars. Sanctions and embargoes can performance of firms than conducting
note that in Angola, the struggle be effective, but they must be carefully [human rights impact assessments].”35
between the Popular Movement for targeted to ensure they do not inflict Domestic law and legislation relating
the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) unintended harm. At the time of the to individuals and corporations
and the National Union for Total 1996 Machel study, sanctions on operating multinationally should
Independence of Angola (UNITA) regimes in a number of countries complement international treaties
might have ended in 1992 had it not were having devastating effects on by improving provisions regarding
been for UNITA’s control over child mortality and the maintenance labour, disclosure and complicity in
diamond revenues. This was made of basic services. Today, sanction situations violating children’s rights.
possible by the seizure of large measures by the Security Council are
numbers of children to work as more targeted, and the humanitarian INTERNATIONALIZATION
soldiers and as labourers in the impact is assessed. OF TERRORISM
diamond mines and by the MPLA’s Beyond such measures as
ability to capture revenue from In recent years, terrorism has come
sanctions, a wider understanding of
petrodollars. In the Democratic to define the security discourse.
child rights in situations of armed
Republic of the Congo, where International terrorist incidents
conflict is required, along with a focus declined during the 1990s and thus
exploitation of the country’s rich
on corporate social responsibility. did not feature in the 1996 Machel
mineral resources has been a
Some of the most promising study. But the trend is now reversed:
prominent feature of the conflict,
measures involve actions and Incidents of international terrorism
it is common to find large numbers
cooperation among UN Member quadrupled between 2000 and 2004.36
of children working in mines and
States and multinational enterprises. As recently affirmed by the UN
used in trafficking.
A caring and protective environ- Certification schemes such as the General Assembly, “acts, methods
ment for children erodes further as Kimberley Process are potentially and terrorism in all its forms and
civilians are pillaged, assaulted capable of restricting the movement manifestations are activities aimed at
sexually and forced into labour. of goods that promote conflict the destruction of human rights,”37
Children are at special risk because involving children.34 Such schemes including children’s rights. As noted
the groups that control resources must include strict prohibition of in the Machel review presented to the
typically also control community violence against children and General Assembly in 2007, “such attacks
structures and assume state functions exploitation and abuse of them. are disproportionately against civilians,
in such areas as health, education, To strengthen prevention and often perpetrated in places of worship,
policing and justice. Armed groups sustainable action, children’s rights market squares and other public
cast themselves as officials and extort must be integral to measures places.” Children are consequently
civilians behind a veneer of legitimacy. upholding accountability. The Special killed or injured or become indirect
They interrupt the delivery of basic Representative of the Secretary- victims with the death of their family
services, destroy livelihoods and General on human rights and members, especially parents.
plunge populations into deep and transnational corporations and other Woefully insufficient attention
relentless poverty. business enterprises has stressed that is being given to children amid
12 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
the ‘war on terror’ paradigm. found that bombers “appear to be 361 and 416 Palestinian children were
Analyses of terrorism or counter- young (sometimes children), poor, being held in Israeli prisons and
terrorism rarely consider the impact uneducated, easily influenced by detention centres, including children
on children. Yet terrorism and recruiters and drawn heavily from as young as 12 years. … There are
counterterrorism measures can madrasas (Islamic religious schools) reports that some children held in
have multiple consequences for across the border in Pakistan.”40 detention undergo physical beatings
children, as described below. In Iraq, children have been used and psychological torture, including
as decoys in suicide car bombings “by threats of sexual violence. The
Targeting of children as victims. insurgent group militias, Al-Qaida systematic transfer of Palestinian
Recent years have witnessed striking and Al-Qaida-affiliated groups.”41 In child prisoners outside the Occupied
instances of terrorism aimed at Sulawesi (Indonesia), reports indicate Palestinian Territory into Israel is in
children. Examples include the 2004 that the young men recruited by the direct violation of the Fourth Geneva
hostage-taking at the Beslan school insurgent groups Jemaah Islamiyah Convention.”45 The 2006 report of
in the northern Caucasus and the and Mujahidin KOMPAK with the a children’s rights organization
2007 suicide bomb attack against a help of local leaders were youths who operating there showed that 64 per
delegation of members of parliament had a “history of violence.”42 cent of children’s sentences were on
Counterterrorism measures have charges of stone-throwing.46
and civilians in Pul-i-Khomri district,
also posed challenges, especially with In 2007, UNICEF and other child
Baghlan province, Afghanistan. The
regards to the violation of interna- protection actors worked with the
last attack alone killed 70 people,
tional standards of juvenile justice. Government of Afghanistan and
including 52 schoolchildren and
Partly because Palestinian children other rule-of-law actors to advocate
five teachers. Of the 110 injured, half
are used in terrorist attacks, they are for juvenile justice consistent with
were students.38
increasingly under suspicion. Also, child rights. They called for the anti-
more than 1,500 Iraqi children are in terrorism law under development to
Targeting of children as perpetra- detention in Iraq. They are accused of explicitly state that, in the case of
tors. Of great and growing concern making and planting roadside bombs children, only the Juvenile Justice
is the use of children as perpetrators or caught when acting as lookouts Code would apply. Other countries
or accomplices in terrorist acts, or carrying guns. These children are face similar legislative challenges.
including across borders. Reports either under administrative detention In 2007 in Indonesia, for instance,
from Afghanistan note that children by US forces, or in Iraqi detention.43 legislative reform was needed to
are “being used to perpetrate attacks Amnesty International has ensure that the anti-terrorism law
and, in some cases, as human shields reported grave abuses against child complied with domestic and inter-
by the Taliban and other insurgents.”39 detainees.44 Hundreds of children national standards of juvenile justice.
A study by the United Nations have been detained by Israeli forces, The use of aerial bombardment
Assistance Mission in Afghanistan under military provisions that to deal with terrorism also has conse-
concluded that at least some of the contravene international humani- quences for children. In Iraq and
suicide bombers in that country are tarian law and standards of juvenile Afghanistan, there have been cases
children aged 11 to 15 who have justice. A 2007 report of the Secretary- of mistaken identity and collateral
been tricked, promised money or General notes that “at any given point damage where the victims have
otherwise forced. The study also during the reporting period, between been children.
2 . T H E C H A N G I N G N AT U R E O F C O N F L I C T 13
Democratic Republic of the Congo © UNICEF/NYHQ2003-0554/LeMoyne
Restriction of access to basic ALTERING OUR RESPONSE but few job prospects and no
services. Terrorism and counter- Current methods of counterterrorism opportunity to express dissent or
terrorism measures have also participate constructively in political
may only beget more violence. In
multiplied restrictions on children’s processes are seen as a pool of
November 2007, a report by the UN
lives and their access to basic services potential recruits for those who
Special Rapporteur on the promotion
and protection. Again, the situation instigate others to violence.51 An
and protection of human rights while
in the Occupied Palestinian Territory evaluation of a German anti-terrorism
countering terrorism identified
is especially grave. According to a programme provides important insights
elements in current counterterrorism
December 2007 report of the Secretary- into approaches that have proved
General, “The denial of passage or legislation and strategies that are effective with young people. Among
delays at checkpoints has significantly counterproductive for youth. Other them are targeted programmes –
affected the access of civilians, partic- inadvertent effects, the report points such as the participation of youth in
ularly children, to medical care and out, are marginalization of vulnerable the political process in Indonesia,
services, causing serious threat to groups, including young people, and addressing the needs of urban youth
their physical health.”47 Curfews and the creation of conditions that provide in the Maghreb States of north Africa,
checkpoint closures have also “fertile soil for recruitment to move- and promoting dialogue between
disrupted children’s access to ments that promise prospects for Muslim and indigenous groups in
education. This has contributed to change but resort to unacceptable Mindanao, Philippines – that helped
the perpetuation of the crisis, since means of acts of terrorism.”50 Indeed, reduce the risk of young people
poor school performance has been a more constructive response may be resorting to acts of terrorism.
a key factor in encouraging young one that echoes the calls made in Improving opportunities for political
people to join militant factions.48 In this report – that is, attention to the participation and job prospects
Nepal, contrary to peacebuilding and multifaceted needs of children and were identified as key components.
prevention objectives, donor restric- young people in a way that also The assessment also observed that
tions prevented some agencies from enlists their active involvement. effective anti-terrorism programming
providing programmes for children Research suggests that urban is similar to other peacebuilding
associated with the Maoists.49 young people with some education programming and should be incor-
14 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
porated into more traditional conflict. The Declaration adopted at and continues to provide protection
development activities.52 the 2002 UN General Assembly Special for all victims of armed conflict.”56
Calls for such multifaceted Session on Children, for example, In too many spots around the
approaches are being taken up in affirmed the commitment of the globe, international law and norms
international reports and guidelines. international community to protect appear to be ignored altogether. That
The World Development Report 2007 children from war. The Declaration may be the case. But the real challenge
published by the World Bank highlights states, “Children must be protected lies in applying the rules established
that increasing the capacity for lasting from the horrors of armed conflict. under international humanitarian
and productive civic engagement can Children under foreign occupation law.57 Children’s rights are not subject
help to prevent political violence.53 must also be protected, in accordance to derogation. They apply both in
The OECD-DAC Guidelines for a with the provisions of international peacetime and in war. And even in the
Development Co-operation Lens on humanitarian law.”55 More recently, shifting landscape of contemporary
Terrorism Prevention call for “greater at the 2007 International Conference conflicts, the international community
attention in donor programming to of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, is not absolved from taking action.
young people’s job opportunities and States expressed the fact that they are As Mrs. Machel reminded us in her
education to prevent the emergence “convinced that international huma- 1996 report, “The impact of armed
of fragile, disenfranchised youth.” nitarian law remains as relevant today conflict on children is an area in
as ever before in international and which everyone shares responsibility
and a degree of blame.” n
These also cite the need to “deepen
analysis of the social changes brought non-international armed conflicts
about by development and the
multiple causes of disaffection and
exclusion among the young.”54
is still very much needed today. Human Security Report Project, Human Security Report 2005: War and peace in the 21st
century and Human Security Brief 2006, School for International Studies at Simon Fraser
However, what we also have to draw University, Vancouver, <www.hsrgroup.org/>.
upon today is a firmer foundation of International Crisis Group website, <www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm>.
international humanitarian law that
International Committee of the Red Cross, ‘International Humanitarian Law and the
seeks to protect children’s rights. Challenges of Contemporary Armed Conflict’, ICRC document 30IC/07/8.4, prepared
The good news is that States for the 30th International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, Geneva,
26–30 November 2007.
remain committed to the rules that
govern and must be applied in armed
2 . T H E C H A N G I N G N AT U R E O F C O N F L I C T 15
Lebanon © UNICEF/NYHQ2006-1040/Brooks
3
THE CONSEQUENCES
FOR CHILDREN
“We have all lost a part of our life,
and it will never come back.” – Young man, 18, Burundi
In many wars, children and young of armed conflict that expose them to commonly perpetrated against
people are not merely bystanders, but hunger or disease. Just as shocking, children during and after war. Torture
targets, as the 1996 Machel study thousands of young people are and other forms of ill-treatment,
highlighted. “Not only are large cynically exploited as combatants.” administrative detention, enforced
numbers of children killed and The study went on to note that displacement, sexual exploitation and
injured,” the study said, “but countless both during and after armed conflict, hazardous work can have equally
others grow up deprived of their even those children not suffering as a detrimental effects on the lives of
material and emotional needs, direct result of conflict often suffer children and young people. Even
including the structures that give equally devastating consequences. the briefest analysis of how these
meaning to social and cultural life. It is to the world’s shame that more violations affect children, outlined
The entire fabric of their societies – than a decade after this landmark below, can deepen our understanding
their homes, schools, health systems study, these descriptions remain as of the consequences of war.
and religious institutions – is torn true as ever. Despite areas of progress, During and after armed conflict,
to pieces.” as described in other parts of this the interruption and disintegration of
The study could only surmise the report, it is clear that children continue basic services and sources of social
full extent of the suffering because to suffer the extreme effects of war protection also lead to further
data collection on the problem was and its aftermath. violations of child rights – with
still in its infancy. Although major repercussions that could last a
obstacles remain, the numbers gathered THE HUMAN TOLL58 lifetime. In an attempt to explore
for this strategic review represent a these issues, new analyses conducted
In 2005, a set of conflict-related
substantial advance over previous violations against children was for this 10-year review of the Machel
quantitative assessments. Yet more identified as part of a periodic report study have found that conflict-affected
than a decade later, the impact of by the UN Secretary-General on countries and territories have shown
armed conflict on children remains children and armed conflict. These less progress towards the Millennium
difficult to fully ascertain. The six ‘grave violations’ – killing or Development Goals (MDGs) than
information available is patchy, and it maiming children; recruitment or many of their more fortunate counter-
varies in both specificity and accuracy. use of child soldiers; attacks against parts, as described later in this chapter.
While efforts to systematically gather schools or hospitals; rape and other This means that children and
details on certain conflict-related grave sexual violence; abduction of young people living in those countries
violations and their impacts are children; and denial of humanitarian are more likely to be poor, malnour-
under way, available data are not access – were chosen for regular ished, out of school or in generally
sufficient to fully compare or identify monitoring, reporting and response poor health than many others around
trends in the decade since the 1996 because of their exceptionally brutal the globe, whether as a cause or a
Machel study. and deliberate nature. The overview consequence of armed conflict. While
“Some children fall victim to a of the violations presented here only overt violations and negative effects
general onslaught against civilians; begins to tell the story of the impact may not be solely attributable to war,
others die as part of a calculated of armed conflict on children. it is fairly clear that the interplay of
genocide,” the study said. “Still other In addition to the violations armed conflict, poverty and discrimi-
children suffer the effects of sexual documented by the UN-led mechanism, nation often compounds the harmful
violence or the multiple deprivations a number of other violations are also consequences for children.
18 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
Populations affected
The scale and scope of armed conflict
globally can be measured in different
ways. Among these are simply counting
the number of conflicts based on a
set of defined parameters (as described
in chapter 2), estimating the number
of people affected or killed, or
accounting for other types of human
costs. These costs include deaths due
to malnutrition and disease, psycho-
logical and social harm, damage to Iraq © UNICEF/NYHQ2003-0493/Noorani
20 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“When we were living in the camp [for internally
displaced persons] there were people everywhere in
a very small place. It was horrible.” – Girl, 13, Sri Lanka
Grave violations the manipulation and use of children compulsory, forced or voluntary
against children to carry them out, especially in such conscription or enlistment of
An examination of the six grave places as Afghanistan, Iraq and the children into any kind of armed
violations against children identified Occupied Palestinian Territory.65 forces or organized armed group(s).
above is an important tool for A positive note is the marked Once recruited, children might be
decrease in child casualties from used as fighters or for non-combat
assessing the consequences of war.
anti-personnel mines, a result of purposes, including sexual ones.
The decision by the UN Security
efforts to slow their proliferation. In recent years, concern has
Council to focus on these six violations
These include adoption of the 1997 increased about the re-recruitment
grows out of its determination to
Convention on the Prohibition of of previously released children. And
fight impunity by delineating specific, the Use, Stockpiling, Production and
targeted crimes committed by without specific forms of assistance
Transfer of Antipersonnel Mines and and support, children recruited into
persistent violators of child rights. on their Destruction. Also effective armed forces or groups are often in
has been the pledge by a number of mortal danger if they try to escape.
KILLING OR MAIMING
non-state armed actors to adhere to They also face huge barriers in
Killing or maiming includes any the ‘Deed of Commitment’ banning
action that results in the death or making the transition from military
anti-personnel landmines, initiated
serious injury – such as scarring, to civilian life and returning to their
by the organization Geneva Call.
disfigurement or mutilation – of families and communities.
Yet more than a third of the
one or more children. While often In his reports to the Security
global casualties from explosive
intentional, maiming can also result remnants of war are children. Some Council on children and armed
from wounds caused by bullets in a progress has also been made in this conflict, the Secretary-General has
crossfire or detonation of anti- area: Recorded casualties continue listed parties that recruited or used
personnel landmines. to fall, and in 2006 over 450 square children in situations of armed
Widespread deliberate targeting kilometres of contaminated land were conflict in 17 countries or territories
of children and other civilians creates cleared.66 Threats remain, however, in from 2002 to 2007.68 These same
a climate of fear that is often effective as many as 78 countries affected to reports cited a total of 127 different
in destabilizing and scattering civilian some degree by landmines and about parties involved in such actions
populations. Such tactics are a matter 85 affected by explosive remnants of during that time. Of these, 16 parties,
of tremendous concern in such war. Around 13 countries continue sometimes referred to as ‘persistent
countries as Afghanistan, the Democratic to produce – or reserve the right to violators’, have appeared on the list
Republic of the Congo, Iraq, Somalia, produce – anti-personnel mines, with four consecutive times.69
Sri Lanka and the Sudan. The principles no decrease in the past two years.67 The good news, according to the
of distinction and proportionality Coalition to Stop the Use of Child
RECRUITMENT OR USE OF
require fighters to distinguish between CHILDREN BY ARMED FORCES
Soldiers, is that the number of armed
combatants and civilians, and they AND ARMED GROUPS conflicts in which children are involved
prohibit civilian damage beyond the Despite wide condemnation and is down, from 27 in 2004 to 17 by the
scope of military advantage. But this response over the last decade, girls end of 2007. Still, “tens of thousands
principle is eroding among armed and boys continue to be recruited or of children remain in the ranks of
forces and groups. Another worrisome used by the armed forces and armed non-state armed groups in at least
trend is the rise in suicide attacks, and groups. Recruitment is defined as the 24 different countries or territories,”
“We were mobilized by our clan militia heads to come to the playground.
All of us were young people about the same age. They told us to defend our
village. We were in the queue with our guns. When the Marehan clan attacked
us we defended our village.” – Boys and young men, 14–17, Somalia
22 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“For the time being, there are many violent attacks that may happen at any time.
Some of us may die in the street or in school or even at home, which means
no safety for anyone at any time.” – Girl, 12, Occupied Palestinian Territory
than 100 schools were burned down Democratic Republic of the Congo, From October 2006 to July 2007,
in late 2006 and early 2007.72 Such Haiti, Israel, Liberia, Nepal, Rwanda, more than 10,000 survivors of sexual
attacks are a major factor in keeping Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Uganda violence, 37 per cent of whom were
children out of school and limiting and the former Yugoslavia. children, were identified by United
their ability to concentrate in class. The risk of sexual violence increases Nations partners in the eastern
Similarly, attacks on health dramatically with the increased region.74 It is believed that during
facilities and workers continue to presence of fighting forces and the the war in Sierra Leone, as many
hamper access to health care, playing breakdown of law and order. In such as 10,000 women and girls were
a role in denial of humanitarian cases mechanisms for protection are abducted, mostly from rural areas,
access. After the April 2006 attack on typically no longer functioning or to serve the Revolutionary United
a health clinic in Afghanistan and the are not given priority. Moreover, Front. Their primary role, according
murder of five of its staff members, the by-products of armed conflict – to UNICEF, was to provide domestic
Médecins Sans Frontières pulled out poverty and joblessness – can create and sexual services.
of the country – after 24 years of extremely perilous conditions for
providing health services there. Due young girls, including trafficking for ABDUCTION
to attacks on health centres, along sexual exploitation. The abduction of children by force,
with general insecurity and poor In the Democratic Republic of the either temporarily or permanently, can
service provision, agencies have Congo, a climate of impunity has range in purpose from recruitment
estimated that only 40 to 50 per cent resulted in rampant sexual violence: by armed forces or groups and
of people in Darfur had access to
health services in 2007.73
In the Ugandan districts of Kitgum Colombia, Myanmar, Somalia and Violations against children – including
and Pader, more than one third of Sudan (Darfur).79 In addition, the torture, enforced disappearance,
all male youths and one sixth of all Secretary-General’s report on protection administrative detention, forced
female youths have been abducted for of civilians cited access restrictions in displacement, sexual exploitation
at least a day.77 In June 2005, it was Afghanistan, the Democratic Republic and abuse, and hazardous work –
estimated that as many as 40,000 of the Congo, Iraq, Myanmar, Somalia have also been reported during and
and the Sudan (Darfur). It specifically after armed conflicts.
children and youth were ‘commuting’
to city centres each night to escape highlighted constraints in the Sudanese Torture. Torture and other forms
the possibility of abduction. However, region of Darfur.80 Millions of of ill-treatment remain prevalent
the security situation has improved, children are denied the humanitarian in armed conflict situations, even
and since early 2007 less than 1,000 assistance they need in these and though prohibited by the 1984
were continuing to commute.78 other situations. Convention against Torture and
24 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
TABLE 1. ESTIMATED NUMBERS OF PERSONS FORCIBLY DISPLACED IN 2006
Low High Estimated Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number of
estimate, estimate, total, children of children women of women women and women and
all ages all ages all ages (millions) (millions) children children
(millions) (millions) (millions) (millions)
Refugees 11.2 17.2 14.2 41% 5.8 26% 3.7 67% 9.5
by origin
Internally 15.7 25.2 24.5 36% 8.8 30% 7.3 66% 16.1
displaced
persons
Population of 37.1 52.6 48.9 37% 18.1 28% 13.2 66% 31.3
humanitarian
concern
Sources: Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre of the Norwegian Refugee Council, Internal Displacement: Global overview of trends and development
in 2006, April 2007; Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, Global Trends 2006: Refugees, asylum seekers, returnees, internally displaced and
stateless persons, UNHCR, Geneva, June 2007; U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, World Refugee Survey 2006, USCRI, Arlington, Virginia (USA).
Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading military groups were implicated in violations. Children’s well-being is also
Treatment or Punishment and other enforced disappearances of children in jeopardy if they become separated
conventions and treaties, including throughout the late 1990s and the from their families or caregivers.
the Convention on the Rights of the early part of this decade. As previously mentioned, an
Child (CRC). In a 2000 report of the estimated 18.1 million children were
Special Rapporteur of the Commission Administrative detention. The 2007
among displaced populations in
Secretary-General’s report on children
on Human Rights on torture and 2006 (see table 1). At that time,
and armed conflict expresses concern
other cruel, inhuman or degrading the estimated total population of
over the prevalence of detained
treatment or punishment, particular internally displaced persons was well
children in Burundi, Colombia, the
concern was noted over children’s over a third higher than the total
Democratic Republic of the Congo,
subjugation to extreme forms of number of refugees. Despite the
Iraq, Israel and the Philippines. In
torture and other ill-treatment as a somewhat higher percentage of refugees
the context of armed conflict as well
result of armed conflict. who are children (41 per cent of
as counter-terrorism activities, an
unknown number of children in refugees are children compared to
Enforced disappearance. The
several parts of the world have been 36 per cent of internally displaced
enforced disappearance of children
detained on security grounds. They persons), the absolute number of
after arrest, detention or abduction
are held through an administrative displaced children is a third higher
with the acquiescence of a government
(non-judicial) process that often than that of child refugees.
is prohibited by the 1992 Declaration
denies guarantees of due process, Even when accompanied by
on the Protection of All Persons
such as the right to legal defence or parents or caregivers, displaced
from Enforced Disappearance. It is
to challenge the decision with an children often have to take on adult
considered a crime under interna-
independent authority. Typical responsibilities or dangerous tasks.
tional law in the Rome Statute of the
features of administrative detention Displacement subjects them to
International Criminal Court and
include undetermined duration, precarious living conditions and
the recently adopted International
restricted contact with family and insecure environments with limited
Convention for the Protection of All
limited monitoring. access to education and health care.
Persons from Enforced Disappearance.
The Watchlist on Children and Forced displacement. A common Sexual exploitation and abuse.
Armed Conflict identified, among and visible violation during armed The risk of sexual exploitation and
other occurrences, a widespread conflict is forced displacement, abuse increases dramatically during
pattern of enforced disappearances whether within one’s own country or and after armed conflict. During
in Nepal, including among those across national borders. Displacement repatriation and reintegration, for
under age 18, as part of the former can be both a cause and a consequence example, children are especially
government’s counter-insurgency of armed conflict, typically increasing vulnerable to conditions that can
operations.83 And in Colombia, para- children’s risk in terms of other exacerbate gender-based violence.
26 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
TABLE 2. COUNTRIES AND TERRITORIES AFFECTED BY CONFLICT, 2002–2006
For each database, countries were included if they were considered
affected by conflict at any time during the 2002–2006 period.
Afghanistan X X X
Algeria X X X
Angola X X X
Burundi X X X
Chad X X X
Colombia X X X
Congo X X X
Côte d'Ivoire X X X
8 are in the Middle East, Central and
Eastern Europe and Latin America. It Democratic Republic of the Congo X X
is also noteworthy that armed conflict Ethiopia X X X
occurs in countries with widely varying
Haiti X X
levels of economic development.
Roughly half the 33 countries or India X X X
territories have been designated as Indonesia X X X
‘least developed’, while the other half Iraq X X X
represent a fairly broad range, including
Israel X X X
some middle-income countries.
Lebanon X X X
Analysing specific MDG indicators. Liberia X X X
This analysis compared the 33 conflict- Myanmar X X X
affected countries that have global
Nepal X X X
and regional estimates for each MDG
indicator. This includes selected Nigeria X X X
indicators, such as underweight Occupied Palestinian Territory X X X
prevalence for children under five,
Pakistan X X X
primary school enrolment and under-
five mortality rates. For each MDG Philippines X X X
indicator reviewed, 196 countries Russian Federation X X X
were ranked, regardless of whether Rwanda X X
they were affected by conflict, to
Senegal X X
identify those countries appearing
among the worst 20 performers. Somalia X X X
In addition, a review was made to Sri Lanka X X X
determine whether conflict-affected Sudan X X X
countries were considered on track
Thailand X X X
for each MDG target. While this
initial analysis has not determined Turkey X X
any degree of causality, a number Uganda X X X
of interesting findings emerged that
Total conflict-affected countries and territories, 2002–2006: 33
reinforce a special concern for children
in conflict-affected countries. Notes: ‘X’ indicates at least one violent conflict (minor conflict or war, as per the Uppsala Conflict
Database; severe crisis or war, as per the Institute of Heidelberg) in a given year. Data from the
Globally, more than two thirds Uppsala Conflict Database includes both ‘wars’ and ‘minor conflicts’. ‘War’ is defined as a conflict
of children under five who are under- with at least 1,000 battle-related deaths in a year. ‘Minor conflict’ is defined as having at least 25 but
less than 1,000 battle-related deaths in a year. Institute of Heidelberg data include ‘violent conflicts of
nourished live in countries affected high intensity’, referring to conflicts scoring 4 or 5 (‘severe crisis’ or ‘war’) on the 0–5 range of the
by conflict. Children out of primary databases. Project Ploughshares defines an armed conflict as having at least 1,000 battle-related
deaths in a year. For the purposes of this analysis, minor conflicts were also included, based on the
school in these countries constitute Uppsala Conflict Database criterion of at least 25 but less than 1,000 battle-related deaths.
as many as two thirds of that group Sources: Uppsala Conflict Database; Institute of Heidelberg; Project Ploughshares.
worldwide. And two thirds of conflict- under five globally who suffer MDG 3: Promote gender equality
affected countries have shown insuffi- from undernutrition. and empower women. As a starting
cient or no progress in reducing The average underweight point for women’s equality and
under-five mortality rates. Of prevalence for children under five empowerment, a target was set of
populations without improved is 32 per cent in these conflict- eliminating gender disparity in
sanitation and safe drinking water affected countries, compared to an primary and secondary education
globally, approximately half live in average of 25 per cent for the world by 2005 and at all levels by 2015.
countries affected by conflict. And as a whole. In addition, 19 of the In reviewing the primary school
such countries have higher debt service 33 conflict-affected countries have net enrolment/attendance ratio and
costs and lower overseas development shown either insufficient or no gender parity index, this analysis found
aid per capita than non-conflict progress towards the target of halving that in conflict-affected countries,
countries. This limits state budgets the proportion of people suffering just over half of those not attending
and other support for children. from hunger by 2015. primary school, 31.3 million, are
Furthermore, countries in conflict girls. Girls clearly fall behind on this
generally show slow progress towards MDG 2: Achieve universal primary indicator in 13 of the 33 conflict-
the MDGs. Of the 20 lowest achievers education. Achieving the education- affected countries where the gender
across all the goals, typically half were related MDGs is recognized as pivotal parity index is below 0.96.88
in meeting many of the other goals. While an impressive 21 conflict-
affected by armed conflict (see table 3).
MDG 2 targets the completion of a affected countries are on track towards
The countries that appeared most
full course of primary schooling for eliminating gender disparity in
frequently among the 20 lowest
boys and girls everywhere by 2015. primary education by 2015, another
achievers in each of the MDGs are
This analysis reviewed the number 12 have made insufficient progress.
conflict-affected least-developed
of children out of primary school as
countries: Afghanistan, Chad,
well as the net enrolment/attendance MDG 4: Reduce child mortality.
Ethiopia, Somalia and the Sudan. rates in countries affected by conflict. Addressing child survival is literally
In 2006, nearly 60 million children a matter of life or death. This MDG
MDG 1: Eradicate extreme poverty were not in school in the 33 conflict- targets a two-thirds reduction in under-
and hunger. Levels of poverty and affected countries,86 out of approxi- five mortality between 1990 and 2015.
hunger are a critical factor in children’s mately 93 million children of the This analysis found an average
health and development. A target for same age group out of school globally under-five mortality rate of 81 per
this MDG is, between 1990 and 2015, in 2005–2006.87 1,000 live births in conflict-affected
to reduce by half the proportion of In these conflict-affected countries, countries.89 This compares to a world
people who suffer from hunger. the average primary school net average of 72 deaths per 1,000 live
In reviewing the MDG indicator of enrolment/attendance ratio (essentially births. Among the 33 countries
underweight prevalence for children the percentage of children of the affected by conflict, 20 have shown
under five, this analysis has found appropriate age group enrolled/ either insufficient or no progress
that there are 98.5 million under- attending classes) is 81 per cent. towards achieving the target.
nourished children below the age While 10 of these countries are on
of five living in conflict-affected track to reach universal primary MDG 5: Improve maternal health.
countries. This is more than two education by 2015, another 19 have A mother’s health is an important
thirds of the 143 million children shown no progress at all. factor in a child’s survival and
28 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
TABLE 3. DISTRIBUTION OF CONFLICT-AFFECTED COUNTRIES,
NON-CONFLICT COUNTRIES AND THOSE WITH LOWEST MDG PERFORMANCE
On average, 29 per cent of all conflict-affected countries rank among the 20 lowest achievers in terms of the MDGs,
compared to only 8 per cent of all non-conflict countries.
5 Maternal mortality 11 33 9 7
development. This MDG aims to from sub-Saharan Africa, a comparative in sanitation than in water: 16 of the
reduce the maternal mortality ratio analysis was not possible. 33 countries affected by conflict have
by three quarters between 1990 made no progress at all towards halving
and 2015. MDG 7: Ensure environmental the proportion of people without
This analysis found that, on sustainability – basic sanitation sustainable access to basic sanitation.
average, women in conflict-affected and safe drinking water. Use of basic
countries face a lifetime risk of dying sanitation and safe drinking water MDG 8: Develop a global partner-
from the complications of pregnancy is a key strategy for child survival. ship for development. This MDG
or childbirth of 1 in 276. This is less This MDG aims to halve, by 2015, calls for comprehensive action to deal
than the world average of 1 in 92 the proportion of people without with the debt problems of developing
but far higher than the average for sustainable access to safe drinking countries and to address the special
industrialized countries of 1 in 8,000. water and basic sanitation. needs of the least-developed countries.
(The average risk in conflict-affected This analysis, based on 2004 data, Such initiatives are especially important
countries is heavily skewed by Israel found that just over half a billion for children because of their impact
[1 in 7,800] and the Russian Federation people (529 million) lack access to on national budgets and the provision
[1 in 2,700]).90 improved drinking water sources in of services.
The average maternal mortality the 33 conflict-affected countries. This A review of debt servicing found
ratio for the 33 conflict-affected represents about half of the 1.1 billion that the 33 conflict-affected countries
countries is considered high at 477 people without safe drinking water had overall higher debt service
per 100,000 live births, compared to globally. That said, 21 of the 33 payments than countries not affected
a world average of 400 per 100,000 conflict-affected countries are on by conflict (8.5 per cent versus 5.9
live births. In fact, about half of the track to reach the MDG target. per cent).91 Moreover, the 33 conflict-
33 conflict-affected countries have In terms of sanitation, a staggering affected countries received less aid
maternal mortality rates of 550 or 1.4 billion people living in conflict- per capita – $28.20 compared to
more, considered very high. affected countries do not have access $43.70 – than non-conflict countries.
to improved sanitation facilities. This This means that, on average, less
MDG 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria represents about half of the 2.6 billion aid is available for each child in a
and other diseases. As data for these people globally without toilets or conflict-affected country than for
indicators were consistently available other forms of improved sanitation. children in other developing
only for conflict-affected countries Fewer countries have made progress countries (see table 4, page 31).
30 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
TABLE 4. DEBT SERVICE AND AID PER CAPITA
FOR CONFLICT AND NON-CONFLICT STATES, 2005
* Long-term public and publicly guaranteed debt and repayments to the International Monetary
Fund only; excludes workers’ remittances.
Source: ‘Millennium Development Goals: Data – Query’, World Bank Group website,
<http://ddp-ext.worldbank.org/ext/GMIS/gdmis.do?siteId=2&menuId=LNAV01HOME3>.
armed conflict, it is not possible of and during armed conflict could programme needs and establish realistic
to establish any causality or clear likewise be compared in order to goals and plans to respond to violations
correlation based on data. assess the extent to which armed of children’s rights and interruptions
conflict slows or halts development. or delays to development during and
The continuing legacy of armed
after armed conflict. Interventions
conflict. This analysis has taken into GAPS AND aimed at preventing armed conflict and
account only countries in which active RECOMMENDATIONS
conflicts were under way over the building peace should be prioritized.
period 2002–2006; post-conflict A major gap in monitoring the A strong focus is needed on human
environments were not considered. situation of children in armed conflict rights, conflict resolution and the
Nevertheless, the time it takes from remains the availability of accurate and involvement of children and young
the end of a conflict to achieve reliable data. This is true in terms of people in framing solutions.
demonstrable improvement in MDG both specific violations and progress
The following chapters will explore
indicators can be critical. Data from towards a full range of rights.
in more detail many of the conse-
Rwanda, for example, show that it In the coming years, greater
emphasis must be placed on the quences highlighted here and suggest
can take more than a decade for child
enhanced coordination needed to specific recommendations to further
mortality indicators to improve after
analyse gaps in knowledge, conduct address the situation of children
caught in the crossfire of war. n
fighting has ended. It takes time to
rebuild in all areas, underlining the research, strengthen capacity, address
importance of sustained funding
and support.
making progress and are on track Human Security Centre, Human Security Brief 2006, University of British Colombia,
Vancouver, 2006.
to meet the MDG targets versus
those that are not? What are the key Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre–Norwegian Refugee Council, Internal
Displacement: Global overview of trends and development in 2006, IDMC, Geneva,
differences between conflict-affected April 2007.
countries and other low achievers? United Nations Children’s Fund, Progress for Children: A World Fit for Children
How do disparities in development tatistical review, Number 6, UNICEF, New York, December 2007.
progress play out in areas of the World Bank, Global Monitoring Report 2007: Millennium Development Goals –
country where armed conflict is present Confronting the challenges of gender equality and fragile states, International Bank
for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank, Washington, D.C., 2007.
versus areas where it is not? Data on
progress made before the outbreak
Children’s participation is itself a But uncertainty existed about the lives – domestic, educational,
human right as well as a means to participation of children in humani- economic, cultural and political.
secure other rights, including tarian endeavours, specifically in The value of understanding and
survival, protection and development. settings affected by conflict. responding to the political and social
These rights apply to all children in In the intervening years, the reality of children’s lives has been
all contexts, including situations of nature and scope of participatory highlighted by a growing number of
armed conflict. When girls and boys, programming has expanded, though practitioners and academics in the
especially the most marginalized, its application in conflict situations years since the 1996 study.92
have the opportunity to express remains limited. Greater emphasis is
themselves, to access information being placed on the involvement of
WHAT THE MACHEL
and to participate in decisions that younger children as well as adolescents,
STUDY SAID
affect their lives, they are better able taking into account their evolving
to claim their rights and to hold capacities. At the same time, there is While the Machel study did not focus
adults accountable. growing recognition of the need to at length on children’s participation,
At the time of the 1996 Machel engage with children and youth as the potential of such an approach to
study, child participation was emerging participants within specific projects programming was indicated in various
as an important aspect of development and programmes as well as in the sections of the study. In paragraph
practice among child-focused agencies. various dimensions of their everyday 182, for example, the study says that
“young people should themselves
be involved in community-based
relief, recovery and reconstruction
programmes. This can be achieved
Sudan © UNICEF/NYHQ2006-2173/Cranston
through vocational and skills training
that not only helps to augment their
income, but also increases their sense
of identity and self-worth in ways that
enhance healing.” It goes on to say
that “developing and implementing
programmes for younger children” has
been successful in “giving adolescents
a sense of meaning and purpose.”
PROGRESS IN POLICY
AND PRACTICE
At the global level. A number of
important global developments in the
past decade have supported children’s
participation, including involvement in
two major international events: the UN
General Assembly Special Session on
34 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
PRACTICE STANDARDS IN
CHILDREN’S PARTICIPATION
4. CHILDREN AS PEACEMAKERS 35
“We agree that we have destroyed this country. And it is us – the young people –
that should be empowered to rebuild our communities. We need basic training
to make this country good again. It can’t be the NGOs that do all the work
for us. It has to be us.” – Young man, 18, Liberia
REMAINING GAPS
In many countries afflicted by
Source: Concerned Parents Association, 2007, pp. 4-9, 31-35; and armed conflict, engagement in public
http://northernuganda.usvpp.gov/downloads.html. decision-making is largely denied to
citizens regardless of their age. Such
exclusion can give rise to frustration,
including among the young, that can
armed conflict. Participation has been and content of activities.98 However, ignite or further fuel conflict. The
seen by some as an unnecessary risk to failure to include children in protection challenge is thus twofold: first, to
children that could compromise their strategies may also put them at risk. address the systems and structures
protection or as a time-consuming An important lesson along these that inhibit the full functioning of
luxury. Certainly, safety should always lines has emerged from recent cases civil society, and second, to transform
be the primary concern of organiza- of abuse that took place under the relationships between adults and
tions responsible for such activities, noses or even with the complicity children and among children and
with careful attention paid to issues of humanitarian agency staff in youth to open up avenues for all to
such as timing, location and the nature west Africa and Nepal.99 Bodies and participate in civil society processes.
36 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
KOSOVAR YOUTH BECOME A FORCE FOR PEACE
Given the relative newness of
participatory approaches to working During the 1999 Kosovo crisis, around 20,000 young Kosovars in six
with children in armed conflict, Albanian refugee camps came together to form their own Youth Councils.
much remains to be done. Gaps are
The councils took action to improve safety and living conditions in the
evident in various dimensions of
camps, organized sports and music events, distributed landmine-awareness
programming, including understanding
children’s involvement in political information and provided psychosocial counselling for younger children.
violence and confrontational politics; When the young activists subsequently returned to their home villages,
addressing diversity and disparities many continued their community development work, setting up a network
in participation; and promoting the that promotes local peacebuilding efforts.
ethos of participation, even in
institutional hierarchies.
Understanding children’s
involvement in political violence
and confrontational politics. The
1996 Machel study observed that it is
misleading to describe any military
recruitment of boys and girls as
voluntary. Rather than exercising free
choice, these children are more likely
responding to a variety of pressures – AFGHAN CHILDREN SEEK SOLUTIONS
economic, cultural, social and political. TO THE PROBLEM OF INSECURITY
The study recognizes, however, In north-eastern Afghanistan, children were ask to map what they perceived
that young people may engage in
to be safety risks in their communities, providing poignant evidence of the
political struggles for ideological
reasons: “It is important to note that different realities faced by girls and boys. The exercise, supported by the
children may also identify with and Afghan arm of the Christian Children’s Fund, led to the formation of local
fight for social causes, religious Child Well-Being Committees – one for girls and women, the other for men
expression, self-determination or and boys – in individual villages. The committees are monitoring the risks
national liberation,” the study said. identified by local children and taking action to mitigate them. The
“As happened in South Africa or in
committees are also facilitating the use of small grants to conduct civic
the Occupied Palestinian Territory,
they may join the struggle in pursuit works projects that will improve children’s quality of life.
of political freedom.”
It is important to understand
more thoroughly the motivation
behind some children’s use of
violence – or support for it – while Source: M. Wessells, Child Soldiers: From violence to protection, Harvard University Press,
avoiding judgements arising from Cambridge, MA, 2006, pp. 228–249.
4. CHILDREN AS PEACEMAKERS 37
stereotypical views of the young as
either innocent victims or wayward
villains. Approaching children’s
participation in political violence
or confrontational politics, at times as
SIERRA LEONE’S TRUTH AND RECONCILIATION a consequence of some degree of
COMMISSION BREAKS NEW GROUND
choice, is important for programming
The involvement of children in Sierra Leone’s Truth and Reconciliation efforts for the following reasons:
Commission in 2002–2003 has been hailed as a significant shift that placed n Addressing the experiences,
children’s participation in truth-seeking bodies firmly on the international frustrations, needs and aspirations
agenda. Although children’s issues were addressed in other truth that move children to participate
commissions – in Argentina, El Salvador, Guatemala and Peru – the in violence is vital in transitioning
away from conflict.101
process in Sierra Leone set a new precedent by:
n
n
The knowledge, skills, strengths
Soliciting confidential statements from children in all districts of
and identities that children
the country acquire through participation
n Inviting children to testify in district hearings (with support from child in political violence or confron-
tational politics can be put to
protection agencies)
beneficial use in peacetime.
n
n
Organizing a two-day thematic hearing on children in Freetown
Inclusive and appropriate
n Allowing official submissions from children to the Commission processes of transitional justice
and peacebuilding are part of
n Supporting children’s contributions to a child-friendly version of a reintegrating war-affected children.
Truth Commission study
Indications suggest that partici-
n Using a ‘Voices of Children’ radio programme to disseminate patory programming can actually
information during the truth and reconciliation process strengthen the ability of children
to resist efforts by armed groups to
n Creating opportunities for children’s representatives from a Children’s recruit them. For example, some
Forum Network to meet with the Special Representative of the members of village-based children’s
Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict and the President clubs in Nepal targeted for recruitment
of Sierra Leone have said that their participation in
these clubs helped them assert
themselves, negotiate and avoid being
lured into dangerous situations.102
On the other hand, organized
Source: United Nations Children’s Fund, Adolescent Programming Experiences during Conflict and participatory activities can also be a
Post-Conflict: Case Studies, UNICEF, New York, 2004, p. 59; ‘Children and Adolescents in Transitional stepping stone towards involvement
Justice Processes in Sierra Leone’, Contribution of the Women’s Commission for Refugee Women
and Children to the Machel study 10-year strategic review, June 2007. in violence.103 When such activities
38 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
fail to lead to meaningful change,
children whose consciousness and
confidence have been raised through
such activities may be susceptible to
groups promising change, including
through political or criminal
violence. This has been evident
in such settings as Kosovo.104
4. CHILDREN AS PEACEMAKERS 39
that is sustained throughout the
conflict and post-conflict phases
and from emergency to develop-
ment programming.
Promoting and strengthening
child-led organizations can be an
effective way to bring about sustainable
and democratic participation. However,
for this to happen, participants may
need support in challenging established
patterns of discrimination and
exclusion based on such factors as
gender, class, religion and ethnicity.
Collaboration with governments
and community leaders is also
required to ensure that spaces for
children’s participation are incorpo-
rated in local governance structures.
Syrian Arab Republic © UNICEF/NYHQ2007-0737/Noorani This includes in schools, local
government and child-protection
systems – as well as in policy-
formation processes, including
and guidelines for participatory given to developing the skills, formal peace talks. In working
programming with children. These knowledge and dispositions of with boys and girls as partners in
include the practice standards of Save humanitarian workers, as well as to this endeavour, it is vital to take
the Children Alliance outlined in creating organizational structures into account not only the suffering
the box on page 35. Nevertheless, and cultures in keeping with the they may have experienced but the
participation as an applied approach ethos of participation.107 skills, insights and knowledge they
remains marginal or even antithetical Humanitarian programming is have acquired.
to much of the work of UN and usually short-lived. Once a perceived
international organizations in settings period of ‘emergency’ is over, agencies RECOMMENDATIONS
of armed conflict. In such circum- often withdraw or refocus their efforts.
stances, the expertise of outsiders is Children’s participation, however, While participation received limited
commonly valued more than the is inherently development oriented attention in the original Machel
views, knowledge and experience of and long term in nature. It offers study, it was highlighted as an
local people. In emergency settings opportunities for both the personal important issue in the 10-year
especially, organizational hierarchies and collective development of strategic review presented to the
are commonly reinforced – to the children. The specific challenge of UN General Assembly in 2007. The
detriment of consultative ways of engaging children in the transition review encouraged Member States
working. Much thought needs to be away from conflict requires support to make a greater commitment to
40 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
addressing obstacles to the participa- and young people. Member importance of children’s partici-
tion of young people in decision- States should facilitate the input pation in civil society.
making and to actively promote and views of children and young
4. Pursue sustainability of partici-
their engagement in national and people in political processes,
pation. Donors, Member States,
local-level governance, peace including the development and
UN and international and local
processes and justice, and truth and monitoring of peace agreements.
Children’s participation is non-governmental organizations
reconciliation processes. The review
also urged an increase in technical required to identify, address should seek to make participatory
and financial investment, including and monitor structural factors processes sustainable, ensuring
focused support for youth activities, that inhibit peace and/or the continuation of donor support
secondary and tertiary education, fulfilment of child rights. and integration into local and
and livelihood projects. national systems.
3. Support organizations led by
With the aim of further main- 5. Develop research initiatives.
children and youth. Member
streaming children’s participation in States, UN and international Member States, humanitarian
the coming years, the following are and local non-governmental agencies and research institutes
recommended as priorities for action: organizations should increase should develop participatory
1. Mainstream children’s partici- support for the development of research initiatives with the aim
pation. Member States, humani- inclusive child-led and youth-led of involving a greater number and
tarian actors and communities organizations, networks and range of children in collaborative
should promote the safe and partnerships by increasing and sustained efforts to analyse
meaningful engagement of children children’s access to information, the causes and consequences
and young people in decisions helping them build their skills of political violence in each
that affect their lives. To achieve and sensitizing adults to the specific context. n
this involves (1) institutionalizing
mechanisms for participation;
(2) adapting and using global
standards and guidelines with
careful consideration of the
local context; (3) promoting an
egalitarian, democratic organiza-
tional culture that is consistent KEY RESOURCES
with the philosophy and aims
Hart, J., Children’s Participation in Humanitarian Action: Learning from zones of
of children’s participation; and armed conflict, Refugee Studies Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford, February 2004,
(4) building the capacity of adults <www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/PDFs/Childrens%20Participation%20Synthesis%20Feb%202004.pdf>.
and staff to work with children Save the Children Norway, Child Participation Web Group at <www.reddbarna.no/chp>
and youth in conflict and post- for information, participatory toolkit, ethical guidelines, findings and recommendations,
child-led documentation and advocacy initiatives relating to their two-year global
conflict situations. thematic evaluation on children’s participation in armed conflict, post-conflict transitions
and peacebuilding.
2. Facilitate participation in
political processes by children
4. CHILDREN AS PEACEMAKERS 41
Colombia © UNICEF/NYHQ2004-0784/DeCesare
5
POLITICAL AND
DIPLOMATIC ENGAGEMENT
“Why don’t we put them [world leaders] in a room
alone and unarmed and it’s up to them to finish the conflict
by themselves.” – Young woman, 20, Indonesia
The 1996 Machel study stressed that or political gain.” too often, as the following chapters
progress for children affected by One of the most significant make clear, advances at the highest
armed conflict is a shared responsi- advancements over the past 10 years international levels belie unspeakable
bility. It will require “improved has been the recognition that political acts of violence against children on
international cooperation, political and diplomatic engagement is the ground. All States have a respon-
commitment and action not only on fundamental to resolving conflicts sibility to accelerate accountability,
the part of Governments within and to responding to the plight of legislation, policy development and
whose borders conflict exists,” the war-affected children. Key to these action at the national level. At the
study said, “but also on the part of efforts is action by the Security Council same time, continued and expanded
those Governments whose citizens to protect war-affected children as a political and diplomatic engagement
are indirectly responsible for inciting matter of peace and security. on children and armed conflict is
or protracting conflicts for economic Towards this end, a series of needed by all governments and
landmark resolutions has been channels, from the General Assembly
adopted by the United Nations and Security Council to regional
Security Council and General bodies and bilateral initiatives.
Assembly. Children’s concerns are
Colombia © UNICEF/NYHQ2004-0791/DeCesare
now more frequently reflected in PROGRESS AND
peace negotiations, peace accords REMAINING GAPS
and mandates of peacekeeping
missions. And regional bodies and The work of the
other diplomatic initiatives more General Assembly
consistently note the obligations of As explored more thoroughly in
States and other actors to protect chapter 6, the Convention on the
and care for children. Rights of the Child, adopted by the
This expansion and progress UN General Assembly in November
in political engagement is finally 1989, and more directly its Optional
beginning to coalesce with advocacy Protocol on the involvement of
and programmatic initiatives in the children in armed conflict, provides
field. Awareness is growing that an overarching basis for the
meaningful efforts to protect and promotion and protection of child
assist these children must include rights in both peacetime and war.
systematic monitoring of violations Article 38 of the Convention calls on
and identification of perpetrators. States parties to take every feasible
It must also include adoption of measure “to ensure protection and
targeted measures against persistent care of children who are affected by
violators and engagement by all armed conflict.” This commitment is
parties in child protection dialogue reaffirmed in the 2005 World Summit
and action plans. outcome document.108
Recent reports speak of the While the primary responsibility
need for an ‘era of application’. All for protecting children resides with
44 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
Sudan © UNICEF/NYHQ2006-0575/Noorani
5 . P O L I T I C A L A N D D I P L O M AT I C E N G A G E M E N T 45
It included subsequent action on It listed 23 parties, including Entry on the list is limited to
the part of the Security Council governments. One of the challenges parties that recruit and use children,
to progressively incorporate the in preparing it was the lack of even though five other ‘grave
protection of children in conflict information on the specific ages of violations against children’ are now
in its work, as described below. children involved in armed conflict, monitored by the Security Council.
which was necessary in determining This is a point of ongoing discussion.
Action on the recruitment of whether a party was in violation of It is therefore important to consider
children and other rights violations. its particular obligations. the list in conjunction with the
Since 1999, the Council’s resolutions, The next year’s report of the Secretary-General’s full reports,
statements and debates have generated Secretary-General was expanded to in which the recruitment and use
significant momentum and pressure include parties in country situations of children is put into context with
to hold parties accountable for outside the Council’s agenda that progress and shortfalls in releasing
violations of child rights, to galvanize recruited or used children in armed children and other violations
work by diverse entities to protect conflict. These were listed in a separate committed by a party. For example,
and assist children in conflict, and annex. All subsequent reports have the situation of Haiti has not been
to begin to redress impunity. included country situations both cited in the Secretary-General’s lists.
A turning point in efforts to address under consideration by the Council But reporting on other grave violations
and outside its formal agenda. As
the behaviour and responsibilities of of children’s rights in Haiti, outlined
discussed in chapter 2, 127 parties
parties to conflict came in 2001, with in the body of the Secretary-General’s
in 17 country situations were cited
Security Council Resolution 1379. reports, has contributed to a more
on lists covering the years 2002
It recommended that the Secretary- coordinated response by the peace-
through 2007.
General attach to his annual report a keeping mission there and by other
The ‘name and shame’ initiative
list of parties to armed conflict that actors. Most recently, Security Council
provided the Security Council with a
have recruited or used children in valuable tool to press for accountability Resolution 1780 condemned the grave
violation of international obligations among parties recruiting children. violations against children in Haiti,
applicable to them. It also called for Nevertheless, Council consideration including “widespread rape and other
the list to include a description of of situations outside its agenda has sexual abuse of girls.”112 A constructive
country situations that were on the required regular advocacy efforts. development in 2005 was the notation
Council’s agenda or that could be The lists also offered child of other grave violations committed
brought to the Council’s attention protection actors a useful instrument by a party in the annexes of the
under article 99 of the UN Charter, for negotiating with parties to Secretary-General’s report.
which allows the Secretary-General conflict. This has resulted in the Another recent advance has
to bring to the Council’s attention subsequent release of children. In its been the ‘delisting’ of certain armed
anything that he or she believes may Resolution 1539 of 2004, the Security groups that have come into verified
threaten international peace. Council turned up the heat even compliance. The situation of Côte
The first list, presented as an more by calling on parties listed by d’Ivoire is one example. Following the
annex to the 2002 Report of the the Secretary-General to prepare and 2003 listing of certain parties to the
Secretary-General on children and implement concrete, time-bound conflict there and subsequent efforts
armed conflict, concentrated on action plans to halt the recruitment of child protection organizations on
situations on the Council’s agenda. and use of children. the ground, the Forces armés des forces
46 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
nouvelles released approximately
1,200 children to UNICEF in 2005. In
2006, four militia groups submitted
an action plan and also began to
release children who had been recruited
for combat or non-combat purposes.
In 2007, it was determined that some
parties had fulfilled their action plans
and could be ‘delisted’. It is clear that
the listing process is an incentive for
parties to halt the recruitment of
children and ensure their release.
Occupied Palestinian Territory © UNICEF/NYHQ2007-0773/El Baba
Monitoring and reporting on grave
violations of children’s rights. In
Resolution 1539, the Security Council
also called on the Secretary-General for
Benin and France, the Security the agenda of the Security Council,
urgent development of a mechanism
Council advanced the drive for including Chad, Nepal, the Philippines,
to systematically monitor and report
compliance by establishing the Sri Lanka and Uganda. The engagement
on the situation of children affected proposed monitoring and reporting of these countries is a clear sign of
by armed conflict. The aim was to mechanism in its Resolution 1612 the persuasive effect of both dialogue
provide the Council with accurate, (2005). The resolution created both a and the threat of action against
reliable, objective and timely monitoring and reporting mechanism violators of child rights. In Myanmar
information on the recruitment at the country level and a Security in 2007, two non-state groups agreed
and use of children by parties to Council Working Group on children to halt and prevent the recruitment
armed conflict as well as on other and armed conflict – essentially and use of children after being cited
violations of children’s rights. Based bridging the gap between political in the Secretary-General’s list and
on discussions with relevant organi- action at the highest levels and action following a series of discussions with
zations inside and outside the in the field. UN personnel.
UN system, the Secretary-General In a relatively short period of The monitoring and reporting
determined that the monitoring time, the monitoring and reporting mechanism is clearly a milestone
mechanism would focus on six grave mechanism has expanded from a in progress for children affected by
violations against children: killing or pilot project in seven countries – armed conflict. Nevertheless, it still
maiming; recruiting or using child Burundi, Côte d’Ivoire, Democratic has shortcomings, including the fact
soldiers; attacks against schools or Republic of the Congo, Nepal, that it is only triggered by the citing
hospitals; rape or other grave sexual Somalia, Sri Lanka and Sudan – to of situations and parties for which
violence; abduction; and denial of implementation in 11 countries by recruiting and using children is
humanitarian access. the end of 2007.113 It is especially an issue, not the five other grave
Following extensive discussions significant that the mechanism has violations. The mechanism is based
among Council members, led by been adopted by countries outside on the listing process established in
5 . P O L I T I C A L A N D D I P L O M AT I C E N G A G E M E N T 47
of Resolutions 1261 and 1612, and
the demonstrated impact of the
mechanism as a deterrent and tool
to fight impunity, the Machel
strategic review suggests expansion
of the mechanism to include all
situations in which grave violations
against conflict-affected children
have occurred.
Resolution 1612 also reaffirmed
the Council’s resolve to impose
targeted measures against parties that
continue to violate their obligations to
children. Translating this into concrete
action remains a central issue, one
Afghanistan © UNICEF/NYHQ2007-1137/Noorani that will challenge the credibility
of the international community in
terms of its commitment to children
in the decade to come.
Resolution 1379, despite the broader against children and other forms Advances made by the Security
efforts of the Secretary-General to of sexual violence as a ‘trigger’ for Council Working Group. The
report on all six grave violations of citation in the Secretary-General’s Working Group established by
children’s rights and other issues of lists would mean that such situations Resolution 1612 reviews reports of
concern. To date, the action plans would be included in the monitoring the monitoring mechanism, assesses
called for also focus exclusively on and reporting mechanism and in the progress on action plans for the
child recruitment and use. To be sure, work programme of the Security release of children, reviews information
this emphasis has been strategically Council Working Group. The Machel on the other five grave violations
helpful in calling attention to the threats strategic review recognizes the practi- against children and makes recom-
to peace and security posed by child cality of an incremental approach in mendations to the Council as well as
recruitment. It has also contributed view of the workload generated by other bodies in the UN system on
to a degree of success on that issue the mechanism and challenges in measures to promote the protection
since the 1996 study. But it has been preparing verified reports on perpe- of children affected by armed conflict.
at the expense of other equally grave trators in conflict-affected contexts. The Working Group has adopted
violations of children’s rights. However, in keeping with the original terms of reference and a programme
Recent discussions among Member vision of the mechanism, it strongly of work for bimonthly meetings
States, experts and advocates have recommends that all six grave violations and consideration of scheduled
considered an incremental approach be included, as expressed by the country reports.
to addressing the problem. For Secretary-General in reports S/2006/826 The leadership of France as
example, adding incidents of rape and S/2007/757. Furthermore, in view chair of the Working Group and that
48 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
country’s overall commitment to the to take serious action against For field-level results for children, it
issue of children and armed conflict persistent perpetrators, including the is essential that protection of their
have been a vital source of the imposition of targeted measures as rights is given priority in all of the
progress since 2005. Part of the detailed in Resolutions 1539 and 1612. Council’s work.
Working Group’s success is due to its To date, 16 parties have repeatedly
innovative nature among sub-organs been cited in the Secretary-General’s Mainstreaming action for children
of the Security Council. For example, annual annexes, as mentioned in in peacekeeping mandates.
in addition to its regular work chapter 3. Successive Security Council
programme, the Working Group also The situation in the Democratic resolutions, the Secretary-General’s
considers what is called a Horizontal Republic of the Congo is a case reports on children and armed
Note, which helps to monitor – in in point. Parties and individuals conflict, and even Graça Machel
the most up-to-date way possible – operating in that country have been herself have all requested that
key developments in all situations referred to the Council’s sanctions country-specific reports to the
covered in the annual report of the committee since 2006, but no further Council include issues on the
Secretary-General and in other action has been taken. Where a protection of children and their
emerging crises. The Working Group sanctions committee exists, and integration into peacekeeping
also invites other Member States to where sanctions are recognized, operations and peace processes.
relevant discussions on situations of more must be done to curb abuses. Advancements in this area over the
concern and has adopted a ‘toolkit’ The adoption of targeted measures past decade have shown distinct
of 26 possible actions in response by the Council is not only a matter progress, but the track record is
to violations. These include various insufficient to make a real difference
of political will. It also requires an
diplomatic actions, field visits, public in children’s lives.
organizational infrastructure. Towards
statements and targeted measures. For example, in 2004 the
that end, the Security Council should
The Working Group has taken a Watchlist on Children and Armed
seriously consider establishing a
firm stand in dealing with egregious Conflict analysed the integration of
sanctions committee exclusively for
violations against children. For child protection concerns in relevant
example, it has drawn attention to grave violations against children in
Security Council resolutions. It found
cooperation with the International situations of armed conflict. that fewer than 10 of more than 80
Criminal Court (ICC) in reviewing Contrary to a number of specific country-specific resolutions in the
the situation of the Democratic calls in its resolutions on children previous three years included any
Republic of the Congo and Uganda and armed conflict, there has been references to children. Those that
and has issued letters to relevant weak overall integration of child did were limited to three countries:
parties in response to all reports protection into the peacekeeping and Angola, the Democratic Republic
reviewed by the end of 2007. peace agreement work of the Council, of the Congo and Sierra Leone.114
While this is an impressive as discussed below. In fact, some As noted above, progress for children
amount of work in a relatively short observers worry that the Working has accelerated with establishment
time, the effectiveness and credibility Group is emerging as the body of the Security Council Working
of the Working Group will hinge primarily responsible for ensuring Group. Still, even in 2007, only 15
on addressing a number of key implementation of Council resolutions of 38 relevant resolutions included
challenges. Among them is the need related to children and armed conflict. specific references to children.115
5 . P O L I T I C A L A N D D I P L O M AT I C E N G A G E M E N T 49
At present, the Council’s atten- protection actors to influence the role in protecting children’s rights.
tion in deliberating a situation is mission’s approaches and actions Drawing on the prevention and
determined by quarterly reports related to children, including in regard protection goals of the ‘responsibility
of the Secretary-General. Yet even to sexual exploitation and violence.117 to protect’, as set out in the 2005
here, insufficient progress has been Nevertheless, there appears to be World Summit outcome document,
demonstrated. In 2006 and 2007, growing recognition that peacekeeping advocates note greater scope for
38 per cent of relevant reports of the can play a major role in advancing peacekeeping in places where there
Secretary-General to the Council the political dimensions of child is a need to protect populations,
included specific references to child protection. This includes more including children, from grave
protection in situations of armed systematic monitoring and reporting, human rights violations. Inputs to
conflict. This is a decline from 43 per and dialogue with parties to achieve the strategic review suggested that
cent in 2005, but an improvement action for conflict-affected children. more robust peacekeeping includes
from 2003, when only 18 per cent A key development facilitating more forceful means of intervention
of such reports included references the role of peacekeeping operations to protect children and bring perpe-
to children.116 in the protection of children is the trators to justice.
A key point of success since the deployment of child protection
1996 Machel study is the integration advisers. They assist the head of a Bringing children into peace
of issues related to children and mission in devising a comprehensive negotiations and agreements.
armed conflict in establishing peace- approach to the problem, which may The 1996 Machel study noted that
keeping and political missions. include monitoring and reporting; “children are rarely mentioned in
Where there was previously no dialogue with perpetrators; assisting reconstruction plans or peace
reference to children, some aspect the UN Country Team in developing agreements, yet children must be
of children protection is included action plans; and ensuring that all at the centre of rebuilding.” In the
in the mandates of 12 of the 13 civilian, military and police personnel ensuing years, the importance of
peacekeeping missions established attached to peacekeeping operations bringing children into peace processes
between 2000 and 2007. receive comprehensive training in has been recognized, but the actual
While this demonstrates progress, how to protect and promote child inclusion of relevant provisions has
greater attention must be devoted rights. The first peacekeeping been random and uneven.
to the ongoing implementation and mandate to include a child protection For example, in one analysis of
reporting of a mission over time. adviser was the United Nations 30 peace agreements from 1999 to
Child protection was featured in the Assistance Mission in Sierra Leone 2007, only six made reference to child
establishment of the UN Mission in in 2000; over subsequent years, protection imperatives. Another, wider
Liberia in 2003, for example. But 60 posts have been established in analysis of 103 publicly accessible
specific attention to children proved 10 different missions. peace agreements between 1989 and
to be problematic on the ground. The issue of children and armed 2005 found that just over half
Provisions for children were at first conflict is firmly on the peace and addressed education in some way.
overlooked in a disarmament, demo- security agenda. Now the Security Children’s issues that are less
bilization and reintegration initiative Council, UN entities and advocates frequently found in such agreements
in that country. And throughout should further explore how peace- include general commitments to
the process it was difficult for child keepers could play a more active uphold international legal obligations,
50 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
such as the Convention on the Rights
of the Child; ending the use of
children by armed groups and their
release and reintegration; attention
to refugee and displaced children;
and attention to rehabilitation
programmes and health care
for children.118
While engagement by the Security
Council on such issues is crucial, many
peace processes and agreements are
Sudan © UNICEF/NYHQ2005-0370/Parker
forged outside the auspices of the
United Nations. The Security Council’s
collaboration with regional organiza-
tions and other mediators on child
protection priorities therefore needs mentation of the Darfur Peace abuse, and the use of children less
to be promoted and integrated. In Agreement. The resolution also than 18 years of age in the armed
requested that monitoring of and forces and armed groups.
this regard, greater collaboration is
reporting on grave violations against It is crucial that the concerns of
needed between political leaders,
children continue, as well as dialogue children be integrated at the earliest
child protection organizations and
on protection with parties to conflict phases of the negotiation process and
experts to ensure timely advice to
for the development of action plans. followed through in agreements and
peace mediators (both inside and
Child protection was also high- implementation. Furthermore, child-
outside the United Nations), as well
lighted in the 1999 Lome Peace Accord specific provisions should be viewed
as training in child protection for
on Sierra Leone, which addressed as opportunities, rather than as
their support teams.
the special needs of children in the potential areas of discord.
Though it has not been entirely
successful, the 2006 Darfur Peace disarmament, demobilization and
Agreement did a good job of incor- reintegration process. It also established Human Rights Council
porating child protection issues. The the Special Court for Sierra Leone, The Human Rights Council, which
agreement gave extensive coverage to reconciliation processes and a includes the protection of children
the release of children associated with national commission for war-affected affected by armed conflict within its
armed forces and groups, compensation children. The 2005 Comprehensive mandate and responsibilities, is also a
for war victims, the role of the African Peace Agreement on Sudan stipulated crucial destination for action. The
Union Mission in protecting children a six-month timeframe for the demo- Council meets annually to examine
from gender-based violence and the bilization of children and registration issues concerning the rights and
prosecution of perpetrators. As an of separated children. And the 2006 protection of children and adopts an
important follow-up action, the peace agreement in Nepal included omnibus resolution on the rights of
Security Council adopted Resolution provisions to cease all types of violence the child every four years. The Special
1769 in 2007, requesting that child against children, including child Representative for Children and
protection be addressed in the imple- labour and sexual exploitation and Armed Conflict submits a report to
5 . P O L I T I C A L A N D D I P L O M AT I C E N G A G E M E N T 51
the Council on this basis, as mandated violating parties. The work between the Convention on the Rights of the
by the General Assembly. the UPR and treaty body mechanisms, Child on the involvement of children
The Human Rights Council has in particular the Committee on in armed conflict also form the basis
also indicated its strong commitment the Rights of the Child, could be of the UPR process.
to ending grave violations against enhanced through coordinated and
children, pursuant to Security Council complementary efforts, which could ENGAGEMENT BY
Resolution 1612 (2005). The Council’s ensure a more systematic main-
REGIONAL BODIES
recently launched Universal Periodic streaming of the rights of children
Review (UPR) process enables issues affected by armed conflict throughout In view of the changing nature of
of child protection in general, and the work of the council. For example, conflict and its increasingly trans-
children impacted by armed conflict the Human Rights Council could national dimensions, regional political
in particular, to be scrutinized by ensure that concluding observations and diplomatic engagement has an
its members as part of Council and recommendations made by the increasingly important role to play
efforts to ensure the application and Committee on the Rights of the in responding to such concerns as
enforcement of international norms Child on reports submitted by grave violations, trafficking and
and standards to protect children’s States parties in compliance with displacement. The 1996 Machel study
rights and end the impunity of article 8 of the Optional Protocol to called on regional and subregional
bodies to “formulate plans of action
to protect children.” While there are
important examples of regional action,
Democratic Republic of the Congo © UNICEF/NYHQ2005-1240/LeMoyne this dimension of political and
diplomatic engagement has lagged
over the past decade. It requires more
concerted commitment from political
leaders and other key actors to move
from declarations to more structured
mechanisms and follow-up.
Constructive action by the
Security Council would include
integration of child protection into
its thematic work on cooperation with
regional and subregional organizations.
This would help ensure that child
protection receives the high-level
political attention it deserves and is
integrated into established structures.
These should include secretariats,
coordination mechanisms, mediation
teams and partnerships for maintaining
peace and security.
52 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
Among regional organizations, violence against children. Particularly
the European Union stands out in welcome is the African Union’s 2007
terms of integrating issues related to ‘Call for Accelerated Action’, which
children and armed conflict in a notes that progress on the issue has
progressive and systematic way. been “grossly inadequate.” It goes on
Guidelines on the subject were to commit States parties to “protect
adopted by the European Union children from the impact of armed
in 2003 – including a commitment conflict and include children in post-
to influence third countries and non- conflict reconstruction and rehabili-
state actors to address the impact of tation activities.” It also promises to
Central African Republic
armed conflict on children, to put implement the recommendations of © UNICEF/NYHQ2007-2444/Holtz
a stop to the recruitment and use the 10-year strategic review of the
of children, and to end impunity. Machel study.119
An implementation strategy for the
the Mine Ban Treaty have led to an
guidelines was adopted in 2006. The Other channels of
especially innovative mechanism to
experience of the European Union political engagement
include non-state armed groups in its
suggests that persistent advocacy is
Beyond the United Nations and goals. By signing the Geneva ‘Deed
needed to succeed in these objectives regional organs, political and of Commitment’, non-state armed
and that regional engagement is diplomatic engagement on children groups commit to comply with the
important. Working across the and armed conflict must include spirit and intentions of the Mine Ban
European Community and European the full spectrum of channels, Treaty and other international instru-
Union system, and in partnerships mechanisms and even direct ments. Indeed, the success of the
with other regional bodies, is comple- bilateral action. achievements highlighted here is due
mentary to approaching governments A number of direct initiatives to multifaceted collaboration among
directly. It also tends to form synergies on the part of governments feature States, UN agencies and civil society.
that strengthen implementation and as highlights of progress since 1996. In view of the changing nature
thus the success of programmes. These include the efforts of Norway of armed conflict, such engagement
Re-energizing Mrs. Machel’s call along with those of Austria, Ireland, with non-state armed groups is vital
for regional action plans featured in Peru, New Zealand and the Holy See in realizing the rights and protection
the strategic review’s consultations in achieving the recent Convention of children. While international
with regional groupings. It led to on Cluster Munitions. France played humanitarian law establishes the
promising developments – including a key role in achieving the 2007 Paris foundation for holding non-state
pledges for follow-up within the Commitments to protect children armed groups accountable for
Commonwealth Ministerial Action from unlawful recruitment or use protecting children, other tools and
Group and by the League of Arab by armed forces or armed groups, instruments, such as the Secretary-
States, which agreed to action on which have been endorsed by 66 General’s lists and action plans,
children’s rights in armed conflicts governments. Likewise, Canada’s are needed to bring about tangible
among the priorities resulting from leadership was invaluable in pushing results. At the same time, it is vital to
the Third Regional Conference for through the 1997 Mine Ban Treaty. maintain the political and diplomatic
the Middle East and North Africa on Partnerships that developed since involvement that is necessary to
5 . P O L I T I C A L A N D D I P L O M AT I C E N G A G E M E N T 53
advocacy, legislation, policy develop-
ment, monitoring and reporting,
and allocation of resources to
priorities for children.120
All of these initiatives demonstrate
the power of political and diplomatic
engagement and what can be achieved.
They expand our vision of what is
possible in the next decade – if the
political will is there.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Benchmarks for future action come
from the commitments adopted by
Iraq © UNICEF/NYHQ2007-2305/Kamber
Member States over the past decade
through the General Assembly, the
Security Council, regional bodies and
other mechanisms. In view of this
support the United Nations and plans – with all parties to conflict –
sound body of guidance, the 10-year
other agencies in engaging armed to address the recruitment and use
strategic review presented to the
groups directly. of children and to address all other
General Assembly in October 2007
For the purpose of protecting grave violations against children.
included a platform of recommenda-
children, it is critical that the United This has been a collaborative process
tions. It focused on achieving
Nations has the option to engage led by OSRSG-CAAC and UNICEF,
universal implementation of inter-
in dialogue with all parties to the to work closely with the UN Country
national norms, ending impunity
conflict, whether they are States Task Force for the Monitoring and
and integrating priorities for children
parties or non-state actors. Such Reporting Mechanism on grave child
in peacemaking, peacekeeping and
engagement, particularly with non- rights violations.
peacebuilding. Key political and
States parties, should not prejudge Finally, in view of resounding
diplomatic actions needed to fulfil
the legal status of any party. Even calls for a focus on implementation,
those recommendations and previous
though non-state actors are not action at the national level is crucial.
commitments include the following:
signatories to international legal In this regard, parliamentarians are
standards, it is necessary to develop essential stakeholders and should be 1. Promote wider engagement on
systems that hold such actors engaged more actively in promoting the issue of children and armed
accountable. In the Security Council’s political action for children affected conflict in regional bodies. In
framework for engagement on by armed conflict. A useful resource order to more specifically translate
Children and Armed Conflict, the is a handbook prepared by UNICEF commitments and declarations
emphasis has been on fostering and the Inter-Parliamentary Union into action, regional bodies should:
dialogue towards the preparation on child protection, which highlights review previous commitments,
of concrete and time-bound action key actions for parliamentarians in including through peer review
54 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
mechanisms; include an agenda negotiations. Such provisions grave violations and all relevant
item dedicated to children should also ensure accountability situations of concern.
affected by armed conflict in for such violations, including
6. Facilitate dialogue with non-
annual summit meetings; seize through truth and reconciliation
state actors. The United Nations
opportunities for action through, commissions and the establishment
should, when possible, engage
for example, regional follow-up of institutional and legal reforms
in dialogue and support the
to A World Fit for Children; and that protect children from
development of concrete and
establish a high-level advocate and exploitation and ensure their full
time-bound action plans with
develop child-rights expertise in and successful reintegration in
their peace and security structures. all parties to conflict to halt
post-conflict structures.
recruitment and use of children
2. Encourage timely action on 5. Seek mechanisms to impose in violation of applicable inter-
Security Council recommenda- sanctions when required. The national law, and to address all
tions. The Security Council Security Council should establish other grave violations and abuses
Working Group on Children and mechanisms enabling it to impose against children in close coopera-
Armed Conflict, established sanctions in all situations of concern tion with the Office of the Special
pursuant to Security Council on the children and armed Representative of the Secretary-
Resolution 1612, should ensure conflict agenda. This includes General, with UNICEF and with
timely follow-up to its conclusions exploring the possibility of estab- the UN country task forces on
and recommendations. lishing a sanctions committee monitoring and reporting.
3. Ensure that children’s concerns for children and armed conflict. Continuous monitoring and
The Security Council should give verification of action plans
should be ensured. n
and child protection issues are
systematically incorporated into equal priority to all categories of
every peace process. This needs
to take place at the earliest stages,
regardless of the mediating parties,
whether United Nations political
departments, regional bodies or a
country-led initiative. To facilitate
fulfilment of child protection
obligations, the UN Secretariat KEY RESOURCES
should adopt a mechanism to
The following websites provide regular updates and links to information regarding
ensure that peacemaking, peace- advocacy and political action on children and armed conflict:
keeping and peacebuilding take Security Council Report, <www.securitycouncilreport.org>.
into account the needs and
United Nations Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children
problems of children affected by and Armed Conflict, <www.un.org/children/conflict>.
armed conflict.
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), <www.unicef.org/emerg>.
4. Protect children from grave Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict, Women’s Commission for Refugee Women
violations of their rights and Children, <www.watchlist.org>.
5 . P O L I T I C A L A N D D I P L O M AT I C E N G A G E M E N T 55
Haiti © UNICEF/NYHQ2004-0129/Kamber
6
UPHOLDING JUSTICE
Russian Federation © UNICEF/NYHQ2004-0622/Pirozzi
58 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“It is one thing making resolutions and another enforcing
and monitoring their progress.” – Young man, 24, Ghana
on the Involvement of Children in attention to the obligation of States use of children by armed forces or
Armed Conflict (OPAC), provides the to protect children from the dangers groups. A key provision in the CRC,
most comprehensive legal foundation posed by small arms, light weapons article 38, maintains that States
for the protection of children’s rights, and landmines both during war and parties are required to respect and
including in situations of armed its aftermath and to ensure the rights ensure respect for rules of inter-
conflict. At the time of the 1996 of children with disabilities resulting national humanitarian law that
Machel study, the CRC had already from armed conflict.125 apply to conflict situations and are
been ratified by 179 States. Today, Indeed, the Committee has relevant to the child.
all but two countries are States repeatedly emphasized that “the The protection of children was
parties to it. strengthened even more by OPAC,
effects of armed conflict on children
While particular provisions which was promoted by the 1996
should be considered in the framework
address armed conflict specifically, Machel study and entered into force
of all the articles of the Convention;
the CRC provides protection to all in February 2002. Among other
that States should take measures to
children affected more generally by things, it requires States parties to
ensure the realization of the rights of
situations of armed conflict and “take all feasible measures” to ensure
all children in their jurisdiction in
displacement.122 For example, as that persons under the age of 18 are
times of armed conflict; and that the
stated in its provision on non- neither compulsorily recruited into
principles of the Convention are not
discrimination (article 2), the CRC their armed forces (article 2) nor take
applies to all children within the subject to derogation in times of
a direct part in hostilities (article 1).
jurisdiction of States parties, not armed conflict.”126
As of March 2008, OPAC had
only to nationals. Moreover, the The CRC also provides for
been ratified or acceded to by 119
CRC defines a ‘child’ as anyone under measures to be taken by States parties
States parties, the majority of which
18 years of age,123 meaning that its to assist child victims recovering from had made declarations indicating
provisions apply to adolescents as armed conflict. Article 39 broadly that 18 years or older should be
well as younger children. encourages the development of the minimum age for voluntary
The Committee on the Rights comprehensive programmes to recruitment. It is noteworthy that
of the Child, established in 1991 to alleviate mental distress, promote under OPAC, armed groups (as
monitor States’ implementation of reintegration into society and the distinct from the armed forces of
the CRC, has adopted various education system, and bolster the a State) are themselves directly
General Comments in recent years delivery of basic resources.127 Its prohibited from recruiting persons
illustrating how different provisions focus on the well-being, recovery and under age 18 or using them in
can be interpreted in relation to reintegration of children affected by hostilities. States retain the obligation
armed conflict.124 The Comments armed conflict applies to children to take all feasible measures to
have highlighted, for example, the involved in justice or reconciliation prevent such practices by armed
critical role of education in peaceful mechanisms, release and social rein- groups, including the use of legal
conflict resolution. They have noted tegration programmes, and to refugee means to prohibit and criminalize
that specific attention must be paid and internally displaced children. these practices.
to the relationship between HIV and Legal and normative advances States parties to OPAC are
the abuse suffered by children in the have been especially remarkable on required to submit a report to the
context of war. They have also drawn the issue of the recruitment and Committee on the Rights of the
6. UPHOLDING JUSTICE 59
STRENGTHENING THE OPTIONAL PROTOCOL
THROUGH STRICTER REPORTING REQUIREMENTS
The revised reporting guidelines recently issued for the Optional Protocol
on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict are an important step
in protecting children’s rights.128 The guidelines, which describe in detail
the information necessary to assess progress made by States parties,
will enable the Committee on the Rights of the Child to provide approp-
(under the age of 18) for use in
riate recommendations.
armed conflict.
For example, in order to ensure that recruitment is voluntary, the
guidelines ask for information on incentives used by the national armed African Charter on the Rights and
forces to encourage volunteers (such as financial incentives, scholarships Welfare of the Child. Progress at the
and advertising). Countries are also asked to report on measures put in global level was brought one step
place to prevent attacks on civilians and civilian ‘objects’, including places further with the entry into force of
the African Charter on the Rights and
where children are usually present, such as schools and hospitals. Other
Welfare of the Child (1999). It is the
requirements include information on all criminal legislation in force first regional treaty establishing 18 as a
covering relevant offences in the Optional Protocol and whether such minimum age for military recruitment
provisions have been included in transitional justice measures, such as and participation in hostilities.
war crimes tribunals or truth commissions.
Reflecting the changing nature of warfare, the guidelines also request a Paris Commitments and Principles.
Mindful of the need for more detailed
description of laws concerning the criminal liability of ‘legal persons’, such
operational guidance in addressing
as private military and security companies, and of legal provisions allowing the unlawful recruitment and use
extraterritorial jurisdiction over serious violations of international humani- of children in combat, UNICEF
tarian law. It is hoped that such detailed provisions will result in more spearheaded a process that resulted in
comprehensive monitoring and will guide States parties and civil society the 2007 ‘Paris Commitments’ and
in instituting concrete measures they can take to protect children.
‘Paris Principles’.130 Although non-
binding, these two documents lay out
legal and operational principles as
well as guidelines to protect children
from recruitment and use in armed
conflict. The documents include
advice pertinent to specific groups of
children, such as girls, refugees and
those internally displaced, and on
issues related to prevention, family
Child within two years and follow-up ILO Convention 182. Other positive reunification and reintegration.
reports every five years thereafter. developments since the Machel
In October 2007, new reporting study include the elaboration of the Ending impunity before the law.
guidelines were adopted that aim to International Labour Organization Critical developments since 1996 in
strengthen its implementation (see Convention 182 (1999). It obliges the fight to end impunity include a
box above). As of 17 March 2008, States parties to take immediate and number of Security Council resolutions,
the Committee had reviewed the effective measures to prohibit and which are binding, and formation of
reports of 34 countries (out of a eliminate the worst forms of child the International Criminal Court
total of 49 received) on their imple- labour, including the forced or (ICC). The importance of the ICC
mentation of OPAC.129 compulsory recruitment of children cannot be overstated. The 1998 Rome
60 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“The UN should also take strict action against a battling nation which violates
the rights of the children in a country it is attacking. Areas harbouring civilians
must not be attacked at any cost, [and] this rule should be implemented on
a more permanent basis.” – Young woman, 15, Pakistan
Statute, out of which the ICC emerged, Looking ahead, it is equally conflict to respect certain minimum
classified as war crimes the enlistment important to capitalize on the humanitarian rules with regard to
or use of children under the age of synergies between the work of the persons not (or no longer) taking an
15 to take an active part in hostilities. Committee on the Rights of the active part in hostilities. Such persons,
Other acts cited as war crimes include Child (especially its monitoring role including children, are to be treated
deliberate attacks on hospitals and under OPAC) and other mechanisms, humanely and protected from
schools, along with rape and other such as the monitoring and reporting “violence to life and person,” which
grave acts of sexual violence, mechanism on the use of child includes murder, mutilation, torture
including against children.131 soldiers established under Security and hostage-taking.
Council Resolution 1612. Significantly, both Protocols
Security Council resolutions. stipulate that respect and additional
Certain Security Council resolutions Promoting international protections should be accorded to
have highlighted specific areas humanitarian law children. This includes both protection
of concern, such as underage against any form of indecent assault
The Geneva Conventions. Inter-
recruitment and the special vulnera- and the obligation to provide them with
national humanitarian law, which is
bilities of girls.132 They also make care and aid. Provisions in Protocol I
intended to regulate the means and
detailed recommendations for action include the right to be kept separate
methods for conducting military
by all parties to armed conflicts. operations, has its primary basis in from adults in situations of detention
These include requests to States the four Geneva Conventions of 1949 or internment. Article 4 of Protocol II
parties to submit concrete action and three Additional Protocols.134 details aspects of the care and aid that
plans and establish structures such as In 2006, the Geneva Conventions children in armed conflict require,
working groups and monitoring and achieved universal acceptance when including receiving an education and
reporting mechanisms to address all Member States of the United family reunification services.
specific aspects of the protection Nations had either ratified or acceded
of children in armed conflict. to them. Customary international law.
The Fourth Geneva Convention, Specific provisions applicable to
Cross-fertilization with other treaty which addresses the protection of children are also to be found in
bodies. The momentum generated by civilians in armed conflict, offers customary international humanitarian
the Machel study over a decade ago, general protection to children as law. A study conducted by the Inter-
together with efforts by the Committee civilians. Together with Protocols I national Committee of the Red Cross
on the Rights of the Child, has resulted and II, added in 1977, it contains over has shown that such provisions
in greater awareness and cross-fertil- 20 provisions specifically focused on include the obligation to provide
ization with the work undertaken by safeguarding children affected by special respect and protection to
other treaty bodies and mechanisms. armed conflict. children affected by armed conflict
For example, treaty bodies including While primarily concerned with (Rule 135) and the prohibition against
the Committee on the Elimination of international armed conflicts, the recruiting children into armed forces
Discrimination against Women and four Geneva Conventions contain a or armed groups and allowing them
the Committee against Torture have common article 3 that covers “armed to take part in hostilities (Rules 136,
repeatedly raised concerns related to conflicts not of an international 137).135 Such rules are applicable
children affected by armed conflict.133 character.” It obliges parties to the both in international and non-
6. UPHOLDING JUSTICE 61
international armed conflicts and refugees or internally displaced.137 ratified the 1951 Convention and its
are binding for State armed forces The Conclusion on Children and 1967 Protocol.
and non-state armed groups. Risk (2007) specifically identifies
wider environmental and individual Guiding Principles on Internal
Protecting the rights risks and recommends that measures Displacement and the humanitarian
of refugees and those be taken to address such factors as reform process. Perhaps the most
internally displaced capacity building, access to resources, important development in this sector
unaccompanied and separated children, during the past 10 years has been
Armed conflicts typically result in and integration and resettlement. the emergence of new international
mass population movements, forcing standards and practice relating to
Special considerations must be taken
persons to become refugees in an internally displaced persons. Both
into account in determining refugee
asylum country or displacing them the Guiding Principles on Internal
status for children, as spelled out
from their homes within their own Displacement, issued in 1998,139 and
in a number of UNHCR policy
country. In addition to the dangers the humanitarian reform process,
documents and guidelines.138
they are fleeing, children who are which has established an international
either refugees or internally displaced response mechanism through the
The Committee on the Rights of the
are vulnerable to a host of other ‘cluster’ approach (described in
Child. The Committee on the Rights
threats, including separation from chapter 7), have stepped in to fill
family, trafficking, abduction by of the Child has also referred to the
situation of refugee children in important gaps for those displaced
military groups, lack of food and within the borders of their own
basic services, and exploitation various General Comments. For
example, General Comment No. 6 country. In addition to describing
and abuse. a comprehensive set of rights,
(2005) states that determination of
national refugee status must take into the Guiding Principles emphasize
Convention Relating to the Status the particular needs of internally
of Refugees. The legal framework account gender-based violence and
displaced children and their rights
providing protection to refugees child-specific forms of persecution,
to basic services, education and
includes the 1951 Convention Relating including persecution of kin, under-
civil liberties. They also prohibit
to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 age recruitment and trafficking.
the recruitment or participation of
Protocol, as well as regional refugee No matter what country refugee
these children in hostilities.
instruments.136 Executive Committee children are in, States parties are
Conclusions by the United Nations obliged to extend the full range of
High Commissioner for Refugees rights inscribed in the CRC to them, Alleviating the threat from
(UNHCR), along with various policies including children who are unaccom- landmines, weapons and
and guidelines, also provide important panied by parents or other caregivers. other instruments of war
normative guidance. In particular, Provisions such as article 2, on the The 1996 Machel study exposed the
Executive Committee Conclusion principle of non-discrimination, and lethal threat to children posed by
No. 105, on Women and Girls at Risk article 22, on the rights of refugee landmines and explosive remnants
(2006), and No. 107, on Children and asylum-seeking children to of war and the illicit flow of small
at Risk (2007), provide detailed protection and assistance, confirm arms and light weapons. In addition
guidance on issues and standards that the rights in the CRC apply to to calling for assistance to children
relating to children who are either children even in States that have not victimized by these weapons, it called
62 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
on States to mitigate the impact of
armed conflict on children by adopting
legislation to ban the development,
production, use, trade, transfer and
stockpiling of anti-personnel mines.
Syrian Arab Republic © UNICEF/NYHQ2007-0742/Noorani
The Mine Ban Treaty. In 1996,
Canada initiated the ‘Ottawa process’,
which culminated in the Convention on
the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Protocol on Explosive Remnants and maiming, rape and other forms
Production and Transfer of Anti- of War. The additional Protocol on of sexual violence, enforced disap-
Personnel Mines and on their Explosive Remnants of War (Protocol V pearance, torture, and forced
Destruction. The Convention, which to the International Convention recruitment or use of children by
became known as the Mine Ban on Certain Conventional Weapons) armed groups or armed forces.
Treaty, came into force in 1999 and More human rights abuses are
came into force in 2006, obliging the
was a major step forward in reducing committed with them than with
parties to a conflict to clear explosive
the threat of anti-personnel landmines. any other weapon.” During the past
remnants of war, share information
In addition to the 156 States parties 10 years, the Committee on the
and provide warnings to civilians and
that have ratified the Convention,140 Rights of the Child has repeatedly
assistance to survivors of accidents.145
34 non-state armed groups have also expressed its concern over the
committed to uphold its objectives proliferation of small arms and light
by signing the Geneva ‘Deed of Banning cluster munitions. Cluster
munitions and other explosive weapons and the proportion of
Commitment’ banning anti-personnel children both carrying them and
mines.141 Many States that are not parties remnants of war continue to pose a
serious threat to children in conflict who have become their victims.
to the treaty abide by its provisions,
and post-conflict zones.146 In May Most notably, it has recommended
undertaking mine clearance, stockpile
2008, a global initiative by 46 States, that States parties ensure that their
destruction, mine-risk education and
led by Norway, resulted in the domestic law and practice prohibit
assistance to victims.
adoption of an international treaty trade in small arms and light weapons
As a result, activity related to the
banning cluster munitions. The treaty to countries where children take part
production and sale of anti-personnel
is expected to be ratified and enter in armed conflict.147
mines, once a large component of
the global arms industry, has almost into force.
ceased.142 Still, States that have not REMAINING GAPS
become parties to the Mine Ban Treaty Prohibiting trade in small arms
continue to stockpile more than 160 and light weapons. In April 2008, Translating international
million anti-personnel mines, with the UN Secretary-General’s report standards into national action
the vast majority held by five States.143 on small arms and light weapons was Despite the broad and rapid
In 2005 and 2006, non-state armed presented to the Security Council. acceptance of international legal
groups used anti-personnel mines or The report noted that “small arms standards to protect children in
similar improvised explosive devices facilitate a vast spectrum of human armed conflict, a significant gap
in at least 13 countries.144 rights violations, including killing remains between these standards and
6. UPHOLDING JUSTICE 63
“So many people break the Convention on the Rights of the Child
and nothing happens.” – Young woman, 18, Sri Lanka
their implementation at the national the protection and rehabilitation and rules of evidence should not
level. The most important challenge roles of national authorities, never create obstacles to the investigation
today is translating international to supplant them.”148 and prosecution of international
standards into action that can make crimes, including against children.151
a tangible difference on the ground. Ensuring consistency between
States generally incorporate or international standards and Promoting implementation of
adopt international instruments in national legislation and practice. national laws. The treaty-body
two ways: either directly by virtue of An important first step is for monitoring process, especially that
a provision in the national constitu- countries to ensure that international of the Committee on the Rights of
tion, or by incorporating the specific humanitarian law is reflected in the Child, is another important
provisions of international treaties relevant national legislation and mechanism for bridging the gap
into national legislation. However, practice. For instance, international between the standards States have
adoption of relevant national legislation humanitarian law obliges States accepted and their implementa-
is not sufficient. To give the legislation parties to take legislative measures tion.152 States parties to the CRC
‘teeth’ requires administrative and to prohibit the use of the death commit to undertake “all appropriate
other implementation mechanisms, sentence against anyone under the legislative, administrative and other
such as the establishment of relevant age of 18 at the time of the offence. measures for the implementation
institutions or bodies with corre- of the rights recognized in the
In addition, they have an obligation
sponding powers and training. While Convention” (article 4). States must
to undertake activities at the national
vitally important, these mechanisms report to the Committee on the
level to disseminate knowledge of and
require more resources than the simple Rights of Child on the measures
compliance with international
adoption of legislative provisions. they have adopted to this effect.
humanitarian law,149 including
International cooperation and National implementation can
through training programmes.
support are often critical to help also be encouraged by regional bodies
countries emerging from armed Ensuring that national implemen-
and initiatives. For example, a key
conflict meet their obligations. tation is consistent with international objective of the 2003 European
That said, the onus of responsi- standards and, more particularly, the Union Guidelines on Children in
bility remains clearly with the State. Rome Statute, is also important in Armed Conflict is to “influence third
“Governments have the most direct enabling national authorities to countries and non-state actors to
formal, legal and political responsibil- cooperate with the ICC. National implement international [and
ity to ensure the protection of all provisions relating to genocide, regional] human rights norms and
children exposed to armed conflict crimes against humanity and war standards and humanitarian law.”153
within their countries,” wrote the crimes should ensure that these One positive note in this regard
Special Representative of the Secretary- crimes are punishable under national is the progress made in securing
General for Children and Armed law and have the same scope as the commitments from armed groups to
Conflict in a 2005 report. “Any definitions contained in the Statute. comply with international humani-
actions by United Nations entities Many States are already taking steps tarian law. For example, a number
and international NGOs at the in this direction.150 In addition, of armed groups have agreed to
country level should always be criminal provisions relating to such participate in action plans to cease
designed to support and complement areas as defence, statutes of limitation the recruitment and use of children
64 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
BRINGING TANGIBLE GAINS TO WAR-AFFECTED
CHILDREN: IMPLEMENTING THE OPTIONAL PROTOCOL
A recent analysis by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights
(OHCHR) of 16 country reports to the Committee on the Rights of the Child
identified several areas in which national implementation of OPAC must
be strengthened.154 Most countries, for instance, still lack an adequate
legislative framework to protect children in armed conflict. Many lack
provisions in their penal code prohibiting child recruitment, and many lag
in exercising their jurisdiction (including extraterritorial jurisdiction) over
and ensure their reintegration, this crime. The absence of adequate birth registration systems is another
rather than face the possibility of obstacle to preventing recruitment of children under the age of 18. For
sanctions. In June 2007 in the Central example, in reports to the Security Council Working Group on Children and
African Republic, for example, the Armed Conflict, many countries have cited the lack of birth registration as
Government, the Assembly of the a reason for the failure to prevent underage recruitment.155
Union of Democratic Forces rebel
Asylum countries must also do more to assist the physical and psycho-
group and UNICEF signed an
agreement for the release and logical recovery of victims in their territory, especially refugee and asylum-
reintegration of 400 children seeking children who have fled conflict in their countries of origin. Also
associated with armed groups. key is better dissemination of information on the provisions under OPAC,
including to children, the public at large and professionals, such as members
RECOMMENDATIONS of the judiciary, police, immigration authorities and the military. States
The 10-year strategic review of the parties also have an obligation to stop arms trade with countries that use
Machel study presented to the UN child soldiers and provide support and assistance to other States in imple-
General Assembly in 2007 made menting the provisions under OPAC. In the case of state practices that
four principal recommendations
allow voluntary recruitment of children, the Committee has consistently
that concern this chapter. The first
appears below and is followed by encouraged raising the age of recruitment to 18.
additional suggestions that seek to
complement it. The remaining three
recommendations, along with key
resources, appear on pages 78 and 79.
GA RECOMMENDATION 1
Achieving universal imple-
mentation of international
norms and ending impunity. Civil society actors should be conflict and the corresponding
supported in providing sustained obligations in international law
1. Contribute to treaty reporting. national follow-up (including to groups including children, the
Civil society actors, such as monitoring) to the recommenda- public, non-state armed actors
national human rights institu- tions of relevant treaty bodies, and professionals working in
tions and NGOs, should be as benchmarks for measuring related areas, such as members of
encouraged to submit further implementation. the police, judiciary and military,
independent reports on the as well as medical, immigration
3. Promote and disseminate
implementation of treaties, and refugee authorities. The
information on the rights of the
including the CRC and OPAC, international community should
child. States, UN agencies and civil
to relevant treaty bodies.
society should facilitate strategic support international cooperation
2. Provide follow-up to the recom- dissemination of information on and assistance programmes
mendations of treaty bodies. the rights of children in armed towards this end.
6. UPHOLDING JUSTICE 65
“[Resolutions and treaties] are pretty ineffective, as it seems they try to
affect issues at the top of the tree. Children are at the bottom of the tree
and seem to be forgotten.” – Young man, 16, United Kingdom
The past decade has seen major attempts to come to terms with a be held to account; a court that puts
advances towards justice for children. legacy of large-scale past abuses, in an end to a global culture of impunity;
This culminated in the first prosecu- order to ensure accountability, serve a court where ‘acting under orders’
tions of perpetrators of violations justice and achieve reconciliation. is no defence; a court where all
against children in special courts and These may include both judicial individuals in a government hierarchy
the newly established International and non-judicial mechanisms, with or military chain of command,
Criminal Court. However, as noted in differing levels of international without exception, from rulers to
the 2007 review of the Machel study involvement (or none at all) and private soldiers, must answer for
presented to the General Assembly, individual prosecutions, reparations, their actions.” – Former UN Secretary-
“much more remains to be done.” truth-seeking, institutional reform, General Kofi Annan, speaking at the
The review goes on to say that “greater vetting and dismissals, or a Rome Conference of Plenipotentiaries
will and commitment are needed combination thereof.”156 for an International Criminal Court,
to accelerate accountability and to In implementing any of these 17 June 1998.
operationalize legislation, policy and mechanisms, the participation of
action at the national and field levels.” children and adolescents must be a The development of special
Children, and disadvantaged priority. Experience since the 1996 criminal tribunals. During the past
children in particular, face over- Machel study has confirmed that decade, one of the most noteworthy
whelming obstacles in accessing policies and practices supporting successes in achieving accountability
justice. In time of war, these include children’s involvement in transitional has been the establishment of a wide
fear of reprisal and inadequate justice measures help improve range of special criminal tribunals.
protection. Children may also lack accountability for crimes against Through these mechanisms the
knowledge of or trust in formal them. Such actions also contribute international community seeks to
institutions or simply be unable to to the development of child-friendly stop and prevent the recurrence of
access them, especially if they are policies and procedures that protect
violations of human rights and
economically disadvantaged. Even if children’s rights.157
humanitarian law, bring those
they manage to do so, children often This section highlights key
responsible to justice and ensure a
face justice systems that do not take developments and challenges for
measure of justice and dignity for
them into account, in terms of either children in special tribunals, the ICC
victims. Criminal tribunals can also
the law or legal processes, a situation and national courts and informal
play an important role in helping
that is tantamount to legal and insti- systems as part of transitional justice
societies transition from conflict.
tutional discrimination. processes and mechanisms.
The institutional models that have
emerged include ad hoc tribunals,
PROGRESS TO DATE The work of such as the International Criminal
criminal tribunals Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
Coming to terms with “People all over the world want (ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR);158
past abuses: children and to know that humanity can strike mixed tribunals, such as those for
transitional justice back – that wherever and whenever Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cambodia
The term ‘transitional justice’ refers genocide, war crimes or other such and Sierra Leone;159 the use of inter-
to the “full range of processes and violations are committed, there is a national judges and prosecutors, such
mechanisms associated with a society’s court before which the criminal can as in the courts of Kosovo; and panels
66 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
JUSTICE FOR CHILDREN: WHAT IT WILL TAKE
6. UPHOLDING JUSTICE 67
IMPROVING CHILDREN’S ACCESS TO JUSTICE
68 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“In Somalia, we now have ‘seafarers’ who offer us the false promise
of a better life, when we pay them to take us across to Yemen.
Many of our friends, brothers and sisters do not survive these trips,
as they are often ordered to swim the last part of the journey.” –
Age and sex not specified, Somalia
and other acts of sexual violence tion or redress for the suffering they little knowledge about or contact
perpetrated against hundreds of have experienced, and two, States with formal justice systems. They
reported victims.172 have not prosecuted those alleged have long used less formal conflict-
to have violated children’s rights. resolution and justice mechanisms.
The role of national courts and Three, there is concern that despite Ignoring these local traditions
informal administration of justice provisions in the CRC and UN will exclude large sectors of society
systems. Although international guidelines on juvenile justice, some from accessing any form of justice,
criminal tribunals represent progress States have detained children for especially in post-conflict situations
in ending impunity and restoring a alleged war crimes. And they have where formal legal institutions may
measure of justice and rule of law, done so in a manner that is not be weak and seriously under-resourced.
“no ad hoc, temporary or external sufficiently distinguished from the Supporting these informal mechanisms
measures can ever replace a functioning adult justice system, does not focus to better meet international standards,
national justice system,” according to on children’s reintegration and has ensure special protections for children
a 2004 report of the UN Secretary- involved long pretrial detention in and take account of gender sensitivities
General.173 At its core, the rule of very poor conditions.174 can therefore be a key element in
law is based on a strong judiciary that Furthermore, in many countries, a comprehensive national justice
is independent; properly financed, large sections of the population have strategy. In some cases, independent
equipped and trained; and empowered
to uphold human rights, even under
difficult circumstances.
National legal mechanisms must Chad © UNICEF/NYHQ2007-0246/Pirozzi
also be able to address civil claims
and disputes, such as property disputes,
citizenship/nationality questions and
other legal issues that arise in post-
conflict situations. Regarding children,
it is not enough for national legal
systems to be aware of violations and
legal issues particularly affecting
children in the context of armed
conflicts. They must also have juvenile
justice systems in place that can treat
children involved in criminal or civil
procedures in accordance with
recognized international standards.
In terms of criminal prosecutions
related to children in situations of
armed conflict, several concerns have
come to light. One, in many instances
children have not received compensa-
6. UPHOLDING JUSTICE 69
on sound information, programmes
must be in place to protect and support
victims and witnesses, and future
international or hybrid tribunals must
give consideration to an ultimate exit
strategy.179 “Moreover,” the report
continues, “other transitional justice
mechanisms … may need to be put
in place in order to overcome the
inherent limitations of criminal
justice processes – to do things that
courts do not do or do not do well.”180
Other transitional justice
mechanisms are also necessary to
promote national reconciliation,
Afghanistan © UNICEF/NYHQ1996-0199/Hartley encourage moderate forces and ensure
that those responsible for human
rights violations or for aiding in
repression are removed from jobs in
national human rights commissions have also been brought to the national the justice and security sectors.181
can also complement national courts courts of third-party States under A holistic transitional justice
during transitional periods and play the universality principle.177 strategy must ensure that child rights
a critical function by providing and concerns are adequately addressed
accountability, dispute resolution, from the outset. This must include
Other transitional due regard for relevant international
redress and protection.175
justice mechanisms standards and guidelines, such as the
The national courts of countries
not involved in armed conflicts are Despite the successes and benefits UN Guidelines on Justice in Matters
also playing an increasingly prominent of international criminal courts, and Involving Child Victims and Witnesses
role.176 Through adoption of extra- the growing capacity of national of Crime. At the same time, such a
territorial provisions, for example, courts, it is also true that most crimes strategy must take into account gender
they may be able to prosecute those committed in conflict situations go sensitivities and the best interests of
accused of crimes against children unpunished. As reported by the the child, while embracing the
committed in another country. Secretary-General in a 2004 report: principles of participation, non-
They may also take legal action “In the end, in post-conflict countries, discrimination, empowerment
against companies involved in illegal the vast majority of perpetrators… and accountability.
trade. Asylum cases involving the will never be tried, whether interna-
care and protection of children have tionally or domestically.”178 For this Truth and reconciliation
been brought before national and reason, the report goes on to say, mechanisms. It is now widely
administrative courts. In recent years, prosecutorial policy must be strategic, recognized that truth commissions,
an unprecedented number of cases public expectations must be based which are often undertaken together
70 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
CHILDREN’S PARTICIPATION IN TRUTH AND
RECONCILIATION COMMISSIONS
The lessons drawn from the involvement of children in truth and reconcilia-
tion commissions in Sierra Leone and Timor-Leste have provided insight
into the opportunities of child-friendly procedures – and the challenges that
with reconciliation processes, can be
a positive complement to criminal remain. For example, it is clear that special measures are necessary to
prosecutions.182 Truth and reconci- ensure proper protection and support for children and adolescents who
liation commissions are temporary, participate in such commissions. And training is needed to ensure
non-judicial mechanisms mandated specialized staff can address the specific needs and capacities of children.
to investigate and document human Child protection agencies in particular can play a positive mediating role
rights abuses and to produce a report
by assisting such commissions in developing child-friendly measures,
on violations. In addition to promoting
national reconciliation, they can facilitating children’s involvement and ensuring follow-up. While children
recommend institutional reform can be key contributors in justice and reconciliation efforts, their right to
and reparations for victims and help participation and their right to protection must be mutually supportive.187
re-establish confidence in the rule The Sierra Leone Truth and Reconciliation Commission, in particular,
of law.183 offers a comprehensive model of child and adolescent participation.188
Reconciliation processes and
Children gave confidential statements, participated in thematic hearings,
truth commissions can be forums
in which children and adolescents184 prepared an official submission to the Commission and contributed to
can express themselves, relate their the preparation of a child-friendly version of the Commission’s report.
experiences and contribute as citizens The creative strategies developed to encourage children’s involvement
to community efforts towards throughout that process are now part of a legacy that continues to enrich
accountability, reconciliation and
international practice.
reintegration. The past decade has
The involvement of children is also being encouraged in Liberia’s
brought greater understanding of
how children are affected as victims reconciliation process. For example, the Liberian Truth and Reconciliation
and witnesses of systematic human Commission Act specifies children’s participation and protection; children’s
rights abuses, and with it, greater awareness workshops have been held and found successful as an outreach
focus by truth commissions.185 strategy; statements are being obtained from children by officials trained in
For instance, reporting on specific
child rights and child-friendly procedures; and children’s hearings are being
violations committed against children
has demonstrated that children are planned. Efforts are also under way to link the Commission with education
not only indirect victims of the through a curriculum component. These encouraging steps have been
conflict but also direct targets of facilitated through close collaboration between the Truth and Reconciliation
cruel violence.186 Commission and the Liberian Child Protection Network.
Meanwhile, important research initiatives are under way to promote
Traditional approaches to justice
further involvement of children in transitional justice mechanisms, especially
and reconciliation. Alongside these
formal reconciliation processes, local truth and reconciliation commissions.189
approaches to justice and reconciliation
are playing a larger role in transitional
justice strategies. These are important
because they are products of local
6. UPHOLDING JUSTICE 71
“The Truth and Reconciliation Commission helped a great deal. People have
had the opportunity to apologize for crimes committed and have received
forgiveness, and this has been one good step towards keeping the peace.” –
Young people, 15–19, sex not specified, Sierra Leone
culture and because state and inter- suited for children. Reconciliation children in particular have long been
national responses to massive human ceremonies in northern Uganda, for neglected. In December 2005 the
rights violations have built-in instance, were a strategic cultural United Nations General Assembly
limitations. Local approaches have mechanism for dealing with abducted adopted the Basic Principles and
been implemented in a number children who were both victims and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy
of countries, including Angola, perpetrators of violence.190 and Reparation for Victims of Gross
Mozambique, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, In research conducted in Sierra Violations of International Human
Timor-Leste and Uganda. They have Leone by the Women’s Commission Rights Law and Serious Violations of
taken a variety of forms, including for Refugee Women and Children for International Humanitarian Law, also
informal courts and traditional this publication,191 local actors cited known as the Van Boven/Bassiouni
ceremonies. Because they focus on the most positive reconciliation Principles.193 Though non-binding,
transformation rather than punishment, experiences as those that included these principles now provide a com-
they are considered particularly traditional approaches. Children prehensive guide to standards and
compelled to commit atrocities principles related to the right to
during the conflict reported that remedy and reparation.
they had gained acceptance in their Reparations can take many forms
Lebanon © UNICEF/NYHQ2006-1061/Brooks communities through traditional and address various post-conflict
healing mechanisms. Although it is challenges, such as the loss of
important to ensure that such tradi- property and land by refugees and
tional ceremonies conform to inter- displaced persons. They can be
national standards, this experience individual or collective (or both)
shows that they complement and and exercised legally through a
extend the reach of formal mechanisms lawsuit or as a result of political
at the community level. and diplomatic pressure. However,
reparations can also include non-
Reparations to children. The monetary elements, such as the
question of reparations for harm restitution of a victims’ liberty
suffered by victims as a result of and other legal rights, reintegration
armed conflict is a central issue for programmes, physical or psycho-
transitional justice, applying to both logical assistance, the adoption of
judicial and non-judicial mechanisms. preventive measures and other
A trust fund has been established at guarantees of non-repetition, as
the International Criminal Court for well as symbolic acts such as com-
victims and their families; it will give memorative ceremonies and official
priority to the most vulnerable, apologies. Under the Van Boven/
including children.192 Bassiouni Principles, the State
Yet comprehensive guidelines responsible for the violations continues
have been missing for implementing to be the primary source of reparations,
large-scale reparation programmes, but persons (corporate or individual)
and the interests and participation of can also be held responsible.194
72 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
USING CULTURALLY SENSITIVE APPROACHES TO RECONCILIATION AND SOCIAL JUSTICE
A process of reconciliation is often necessary before children formerly associated with armed forces and groups are
welcomed back into their communities. Such processes can be important in restoring a child’s sense of well-being
and even ensuring their protection. Yet little attention is often paid to reconciliation and social justice issues in
programmes for children’s reintegration into society following a conflict.
A community-based reintegration programme in Sierra Leone focused on these two themes when attempting to
elicit cooperation between formerly recruited children and village members – who both feared and mistrusted each
other. The programme began by facilitating dialogues in which local people described their suffering during the war.
In doing so, they developed empathy towards each other and began to create the psychological space needed to
allow them to work together. Further dialogues were subsequently undertaken on the subject of children’s needs
and community projects that could best address them. If the group decided, for instance, that education and the
construction of a school were priorities, joint teams of those who had and had not been recruited worked together
on construction, while earning an income.
This process of developing empathy, planning collectively and working together on a project that contributed
to their livelihoods succeeded in reducing tensions, altering preconceptions and building social cohesion. Formerly
recruited youth reported that the programme helped them improve their relations with the community, which
appeased their fears and reduced their stigma – two major sources of psychosocial distress. The experience
demonstrates the value of a reintegration approach that includes community reconciliation and provides children
with psychosocial support.
In the Northern Province of Sierra Leone, tradition calls for those who have harmed a community to make some
form of restitution – in other words, if reconciliation is to last, social justice must be achieved. One method of doing
so, identified during dialogues on traditional healing, was considered especially valuable by one community: Upon
returning to his village, a boy tells his family what happened to him during the war. The parents then go to the
village chief and ask him to speak to the boy. If the chief agrees, the boy lies face down on the floor and, while
holding the chief’s ankles, tells him his story. If the chief believes him and thinks he should be allowed to return,
he may give the boy a task that is helpful to the community. He also assigns him to a mentor.
Acceptance by the parents is the first step in this community reintegration process. In his interaction with
the chief, the boy’s posture of submission symbolizes his break with his military past and his recognition of local
authority. Through community service, the boy seeks to repair the wrongs he has done to the village (the greater
the wrongdoing, the greater the service required). This allows villagers an opportunity to view the boy in a new light.
The mentor is also there to guide the boy in re-establishing social relations and readjusting to civilian life.
A number of insights can be drawn from these two examples. First, reintegration is not simply an individual process
or one of reuniting children with their families and communities. It is an inherently communal process of creating social
acceptance and building reconciliation through social justice. Communities themselves have to make the transformation
towards peace. Thus it is vital that national reconciliation processes be backed by local reconciliation processes.
Second, reintegration often requires social justice, which is based on traditional practices. Finally, such experiences
show that community reconciliation work is an important aspect of assistance to formerly recruited children.
Source: Drawn from notes provided to the Machel review by the Christian Children’s Fund on two of its projects in Sierra Leone, February 2008.
6. UPHOLDING JUSTICE 73
“[Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration] is good, but they train us and
send us to work in communities that do not trust us. The people give us no jobs,
so some of us sell our tools to live. They should address trust in communities.” –
Young man, 19, Liberia
Predictably, however, many In 2007, the Committee on the ensured in restitution processes.
challenges remain. Who among the Rights of the Child expressed concern Moreover, it has become apparent
victims should be compensated? as to whether the budgets for national that no single form of reparation
What types of harm should be reparation programmes were adequate. can provide entire satisfaction to
considered and how much compen- It recommended that States parties victims, especially children. A timely
sation should be awarded? How allocate appropriate resources towards and sensitive combination of reparation
can different types of harm be comprehensive reparations measures, measures will generally be required as
quantified and compared? How can ensuring that they take gender a complement to other transitional
a community provide compensation into perspective.195 justice mechanisms, such as criminal
to children who have taken part in While the involvement and prosecutions and truth commissions.197
hostilities, and perhaps been forced consideration of children in According to a 2004 report of the
to commit crimes against their own reparations programmes continue Secretary-General: “States have the
communities, without triggering a to pose difficult challenges,196 there obligation to act not only against
sense of injustice on the part of their is also growing realization that children perpetrators, but also on behalf of
victims? For example, survivors of are entitled to reparations in their victims – including through the
sexual and gender-based violence in own right. Children, therefore, provision of reparations. Programmes
armed conflicts, including children, must be involved from the outset to provide reparations to victims for
have long been neglected in in identifying the issues at stake, harm suffered can be effective and
reparations programmes. and their representation must be expeditious complements to the
contributions of tribunals and truth
commissions by providing concrete
remedies, promoting reconciliation
Democratic Republic of the Congo © UNICEF/NYHQ2005-0431/LeMoyne
and restoring victims’ confidence in
the State.”198
74 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
to highlight child rights and the
responsibility of state institutions,
including the security and law
enforcement sectors, as duty bearers
in child protection.
Special protections
for children involved in
justice mechanisms
In addition to advances in
prosecution, progress has also been
Haiti © UNICEF/NYHQ2005-1912/LeMoyne
made in the treatment of children
in justice processes. A key principle
in international law is that children
involved in judicial proceedings,
including transitional justice Special protection provisions establishment of a distinct system of
mechanisms, require special measures for child victims and witnesses can juvenile justice aimed at reintegrating
that protect their rights and take include hearings on camera, pre- children into a society in which they
into account their vulnerability and recorded testimonies, the use of can play a constructive role. This
best interests. This applies whether pseudonyms to protect the child’s provision should be read together
they have been perpetrators, victims identity, videoconferencing and with articles 37 and 39 of the CRC.
or witnesses. gender-sensitive approaches. Article 37 bars certain punishments200
The special protections afforded International courts and tribunals and provides that any restriction of
child victims and witnesses are spelled have witnessed considerable progress liberty must be as a last resort and
out in the 2005 UN Guidelines on in this area. As described above, both for the shortest possible time. Article
Justice in Matters Involving Child the Special Court for Sierra Leone 39 relates to the child’s physical and
Victims and Witnesses of Crime. and the ICC have adopted protective psychological recovery and reintegration.
These guidelines, based on rights measures and child-friendly procedures Significant strides have been
outlined in the CRC and other inter- to facilitate participation by child made in developing implementation
national instruments, reiterate such victims and witnesses. guidelines for the administration of
principles as respect for the child’s Important protections also exist juvenile justice, especially through
dignity; the best interests of the child; for children who must undergo a range of related UN rules and
and the child’s right to be heard, criminal proceedings. Article 40 guidelines.201 The Committee on the
express his or her own views and of the CRC, in particular, details Rights of the Child has repeatedly
contribute to decisions affecting his minimum legal guarantees for these advocated for the establishment of
or her life.199 A child-friendly version children and requires States to set a juvenile justice systems in conformity
of the UN guidelines has also been minimum age of criminal responsi- with these international standards
prepared in all UN languages to bility, provide alternative measures and guidelines. It has also provided
help children understand and access besides judicial proceedings or detailed comments expressing
their rights. institutional care, and promote the concern that country practices are
6. UPHOLDING JUSTICE 75
not in line with international under age 18 should not be held Principles. The Principles maintain
standards.202 Most recently, in criminally responsible in interna- that children accused of crimes
Comment No. 10 of 2007, it tional tribunals or courts for grave under international law allegedly
articulated the leading principles violations of international humani- committed while they were associated
(articles 2, 3, 6 and 12) and core tarian law.203 The Special Court for with armed forces or armed groups
elements for a comprehensive policy Sierra Leone, established in 2002, should be considered primarily as
on juvenile justice. included provisions to prosecute victims of offences against interna-
persons 15 years or older, but the tional law, not only as perpetrators.
prosecutor elected not to prosecute They must be treated in accordance
Children as perpetrators
children below 18. He stated that he with international juvenile justice
A contentious question in recent preferred to “prosecute the people standards and norms and within a
years concerns accountability for who forced thousands of children to framework of restorative justice and
crimes allegedly committed by commit unspeakable crimes.”204 The social reintegration.
children during armed conflict. A Rome Statute of the International
new standard is emerging based on Criminal Court does not allow for
the practice of the ad hoc tribunals in Counterterrorism measures
prosecution of persons below the age
the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda, of 18 for war crimes, crimes against A growing problem related to
the policy of the Special Court for humanity or genocide.205 children in justice processes concerns
Sierra Leone and the Rome Statute This emerging standard has counterterrorism policies, especially
for the ICC. It specifies that children recently been supported in the Paris detention practices. While interna-
76 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
tional law requires the treatment of
children to focus on reintegration,
the counterterrorism measures
being increasingly applied and the
practice of national courts have
sometimes resulted in prolonged
detention of children and other
violations of international juvenile
justice standards.
For example, in April 2003, US
authorities revealed that children as
young as 13 were among the foreign
nationals being held at Guantanamo
Bay. One widely publicized case
involves a boy who was arrested in
Afghanistan in 2002 for crimes he
allegedly committed when he was
15 years old. He was subsequently Uganda © UNICEF/NYHQ2004-1153/LeMoyne
transferred to Guantanamo Bay,
where he has been held for over
five years as of February 2008.206
Children are held in “administrative
detention” in Aghanistan, Iraq and the Child has recently cautioned, violations, including killing, maiming,
Israel. In Nepal, children were measures to prevent and combat abduction and sexual violence.
terrorism should not result Even in cases where countries
detained under the Terrorist and
in retroactive or unintended have ratified or acceded to interna-
Disruptive Activities Ordinance,
punishment for children.208 tional treaties, the enactment of
which has no set minimum age and
grants security forces wide powers national legislation is lagging, and
to arrest and detain any person REMAINING GAPS the absence of will or capacity to
suspected of being associated with implement standards leaves innumerable
Significant progress has been made
armed groups, including children.207 in developing a global normative violations against children unpunished.
Countless other examples from framework to protect children’s rights In many cases, national legislation
around the world are regularly in conflict situations. But a troubling is undermined by practical and
reported. International law requires dichotomy remains between the operational challenges. Formal justice
States to provide children with special advances in norms at the interna- systems in post-conflict countries are
safeguards and care including legal tional level and the prevalence of often dysfunctional or plagued by a
protections appropriate to their age. serious violations of children’s rights lack of resources; sometimes they are
These obligations cannot be on the ground. Reports are rampant virtually non-existent.
superseded by security measures. of children’s recruitment and use in A comprehensive approach to
As the Committee on the Rights of conflict and other grave child rights transitional justice that adopts a
6. UPHOLDING JUSTICE 77
“Orphans and street children join militias at clan checkpoints to rape, loot and kill
people. They are security guards of the warlords. The oldest of them is 17 years
old. They are sent by the warlords. If you try to advise them they will kill you.” –
Girls and young women, 14–17, Somalia
is needed to meet the different children’s concerns into broader End impunity for violations
needs of society, communities and efforts to re-establish the rule of against children.
individual victims. While important law – now recognized as a principal
1. Adopt specific measures to end
efforts have been made towards keystone in promoting security and
impunity. States not involved in
facilitating the participation of lasting peace.
conflict should also adopt specific
children in these mechanisms, measures that end impunity for
challenges remain, such as the RECOMMENDATIONS violations against children in armed
involvement of girls – especially The review of the Machel study conflict. Such measures may include
survivors of sexual violence. presented to the General Assembly adopting extraterritorial provisions
Many years after war has ended, in 2007 made four principal recom- for relevant crimes; ensuring that
children will continue to search for mendations that concern this chapter. national provisions comply with
healing and accountability, material The first appears on page 65; the the rules and provisions of the ICC;
reparations and emotional support, other three are outlined below, applying the universality principle
truth and reconciliation. It is along with additional complementary where relevant; ensuring that
incumbent upon citizens everywhere recommendations. domestic legislation criminalizes
arms trade to countries with a
record of illegally recruiting and
using child soldiers; and adopting
Lebanon © UNICEF/NYHQ2006-1148/Brooks provisions that address money
laundering and permit freezing the
assets of persons or legal entities
accused of serious violations
against children in armed conflict.
GA RECOMMENDATION 3
Prioritize children’s security.
78 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
of war and are encouraged to ratify should be in line with the UN child, and good practices identified
the newly adopted Convention Common Approach on Justice to date with regard to child
on Cluster Munitions and actively for Children. Both States and UN protection measures and child-
support its implementation. In agencies should aim to integrate friendly procedures. They should
addition, Member States should children’s concerns in legislative, also provide adequate resources to
include in their national reports judicial and security sector support transitional justice processes
under the UN Programme of Action reforms, including those of law and related programmes for
information on measures taken or enforcement institutions, such children and children’s inclusion
needed to protect children from as the police. in reparations programmes.
the scourge of small arms.
5. Support the participation of 6. Improve children’s access to
children in justice processes. justice. The UN and NGOs should
GA RECOMMENDATION 4
States and the international support community-based legal
Promote justice for children. community should support and paralegal services for children,
3. Ensure coordination and the participation of children in families and communities along
sustained efforts to move from transitional justice processes by with programmes that establish
drawing on established principles, diversion, alternatives to justice
and restorative justice. n
crisis to long-term development.
The international community and such as the best interests of the
UN agencies in particular should
ensure coordination among
themselves as well as with other
actors (such as donors, NGOs,
national governments) in working
to (re)establish as quickly as
possible the rule of law and a
justice system that includes a KEY RESOURCES
distinct system for juvenile justice.
International Committee of the Red Cross, Customary International Humanitarian Law,
The latter should be consistent edited by J.-M. Henckaerts and L. Oswald-Beck, ICRC/Cambridge University Press, 2005.
with international standards and
UN Security Council, ‘The Rule of Law and Transitional Justice in Conflict and Post-
supported by institutional links conflict Societies: Report of the Secretary-General’, S/2004/616, 23 August 2004.
with the social sector/child United Nations Children’s Fund, ‘Expert Discussion on Transitional Justice and Children’,
protection systems. Efforts by 10–12 November 2005, outcome document and background documents (annexed),
different actors at different stages UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, Florence, 2005.
of the process – from crisis to United Nations Children’s Fund, Implementation Handbook for the Convention on the
early recovery to development – Rights of the Child, third edition, UNICEF, Geneva, September 2007.
should be sustained and should No Peace Without Justice and UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, International Criminal
Justice and Children, NPWJ and UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, New York and
build on one another. Florence, September 2002.
4. Apply an integrated approach to UNICEF and the International Center for Transitional Justice, ‘Children and Truth
justice for children. The policies Commissions’, Innocenti Research Centre, Florence (forthcoming).
6. UPHOLDING JUSTICE 79
Iraq © UNICEF/NYHQ2003-0178/LeMoyne
7
SYSTEMS OF RESPONSE
“The impact of armed conflict on children must be everyone’s concern
and is everyone’s responsibility.” – 1996 Machel study
82 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
Sri Lanka © UNICEF/NYHQ2006-1591/Noorani
Machel study. The mandate of the The SRSG has invested the needs of children fighting in
office includes assessing “progress considerable time and effort on armed forces. It also aims to promote
achieved, steps taken and difficulties high-profile field missions to places a rights-based approach to ensure
encountered in strengthening the affected by armed conflict, and these a protective environment for all
protection of children in situations visits have served to enhance global children affected by armed conflict.
of armed conflict”; raising awareness advocacy for protection efforts. She UNICEF’s response is grounded by
about the plight of affected children; has also engaged with governmental its 2004 Core Commitments for
and working closely with and fostering and non-state entities on issues of Children in Emergencies.
cooperation between governments accountability and compliance in In response to the 1996 Machel
and intergovernmental bodies, the situations where UN system partners study’s recommendation to increase
Committee on the Rights of the and other actors may have been capacity to serve children affected
Child and notable UN bodies and constrained by practical field realities. by armed conflict, UNICEF has
mechanisms, as well as non-govern- Following a number of field visits developed a team to focus on policy
mental organizations.211 The OSRSG by the Special Representative of the and systems development. Along
offers a vital independent, moral Secretary-General, parties to conflict with the Monitoring and Reporting
voice for children affected by armed have made commitments to formulate Mechanism, this team addresses
conflict around the globe. The office action plans to end children’s partici- prevention of recruitment and release
also plays the lead role in bringing pation in armed conflict. of children associated with armed
the UN system together on behalf of The OSRSG presides over a forces and groups, sexual violence,
the Secretary-General, in initiating Task Force on Children Affected child protection and psychosocial
and sustaining with UNICEF the by Armed Conflict. It works to issues. In most countries affected
global Monitoring and Reporting mainstream the issue throughout UN by armed conflict, UNICEF and
Mechanism, and in maintaining agencies, offices and mandates, and partners have gradually begun to
dialogue with Member States and it identifies trends and policies that dedicate specific human, financial
relevant parties to conflict. In con- need to be discussed. A chief respon- and material resources to this issue.
junction with UN country teams, the sibility of the Task Force is vetting the In addition, they work to help
OSRSG advocates for the development Secretary-General’s annual report on governments raise their capacity
of action plans to cease the recruit- children affected by armed conflict. to respond, which is of utmost
ment and use of children in conflict, importance in developing sustainable,
and to address all other grave UNICEF. As the lead UN agency for integrated mechanisms to prevent
violations against children. children, UNICEF is responsible for and respond to the six grave
The work of the OSRSG has been developing policy around children’s violations and to additional ones.
central to maintaining the Security issues; supporting advocacy; developing In collaboration with the OSRSG,
Council’s engagement on children’s guidelines and working tools; UNICEF has taken the lead in
issues. With the support of UNICEF increasing capacity; and developing working with the Monitoring and
and key UN system and NGO partners, and maintaining effective responses Reporting Mechanism Steering
it has played a central role in generating for children, including those affected Committee to develop systems and
political consensus for the Monitoring by armed conflict. UNICEF has tools to improve the quality and
and Reporting Mechanism in the UN consistently argued for an agenda that sustainability of the mechanism.
Security Council and beyond. does more than simply respond to UNICEF is also the lead agency for
7. SYSTEMS OF RESPONSE 83
the Child Protection Working General have emphasized the need protection advisers have been
Group in the Inter-Agency Standing for collective responsibility to ensure instrumental in implementing the
Committee Global Protection Cluster, that the issue is not regarded as specific Monitoring and Reporting Mechanism
dealing with the situation of children to one agency and to ensure the UN and documenting child rights
in emergencies, including those family works with governments and violations. They have also engaged
caused by armed conflict. civil society throughout the humani- in dialogue with parties to conflict
Other UN entities also have key tarian community. In September 2004, and conducted advocacy on
roles and responsibilities regarding then Secretary-General Kofi Annan politically sensitive issues.215
children. The 1996 Machel study submitted to the General Assembly Through such work, DPKO
called for all “United Nations bodies a Comprehensive Assessment of the supports operational partners who
[to] treat children affected by armed United Nations System Response to may be unable to engage in overt
conflicts as a distinct and priority Children Affected by Armed Conflict.213 political advocacy on child rights
concern.”212 Successive Secretaries- Much of what was noted in that violations without jeopardizing their
assessment remains relevant today. long-term work. As a follow-up to
the lessons learned study, DPKO has
Department of Peacekeeping recruited a child protection focal
Philippines © UNICEF/NYHQ2006-1453/Bito Operations (DPKO). DPKO has point at Headquarters to develop
significantly expanded the incorpo- a policy within the department.
ration of children’s issues in peace- This person will work with child
keeping operations. This includes protection advisers in the field and
more coverage of child rights and collaborate with such key partners
protection in training for peace- as UNICEF and the OSRSG.
keepers, as recommended by
Mrs. Machel in 1996. It has also led Office of the United Nations High
to another important development: Commissioner for Human Rights
the inclusion of child protection (OHCHR). OHCHR’s function is
advisers in peacekeeping missions. evolving from advisory to operational.
Beginning with the deployment of a Its field presence in Nepal and Uganda
single adviser in Sierra Leone in 2000, and its role in providing human
DPKO currently deploys more than rights monitors to peacekeeping
60 advisers in seven peacekeeping missions have made important
missions and one political mission.214 contributions to improving the
A recent evaluation by DPKO, ‘Lessons monitoring and reporting of violations
Learned Study: Child Protection – and in raising the level of expertise in
The impact of child protection formulating response strategies and
advisers in peacekeeping operations’, actions. OHCHR has played a major
recognized the important work done part in monitoring and reporting on
by child protection advisers in raising grave violations against children in its
attention to the rights of war-affected Nepal and Uganda operations. It has
children. In many locations, child also placed a dedicated child rights
84 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
focal point in its Nepal country
operation. Similar child focal points
should be established in all OHCHR
country operations where practical.
Another recommendation calls
for OHCHR to employ a full-time
focal point on children and armed
conflict at Headquarters to better
integrate its field-based monitoring
and advocacy activities. OHCHR also
facilitates the work of UN human
rights mechanisms, such as the
Human Rights Council and the
treaty bodies monitoring compliance
with international human rights Kenya © UNICEF/NYHQ2008-0470/Cranston
treaties – including the Committee
on the Rights of the Child. As
recommended in the Secretary-
General’s 2004 assessment report of its age, gender and diversity main- other partners, to improve policy and
to the General Assembly, OHCHR streaming strategy – an important programme coherence for this
is urged to recruit more expertise example to other agencies. UNHCR priority age group, 15 to 24 years old.
on child rights at Headquarters. reviews implementation of the Machel
commitments for children every two Office for the Coordination of
United Nations High Commissioner years. It has been encouraged to Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA).
for Refugees (UNHCR). UNHCR expand its field child protection staff OCHA works through a network of
has played a major role in drawing to better monitor, report, advocate field offices that support UN humani-
attention to the needs of children around and respond to grave violations tarian coordinators and country
displaced by conflict within or across against children for populations of teams. OCHA’s work on protection
borders. As part of the humanitarian concern under its mandate. of civilians and follow-up to Security
reform process, UNHCR is taking on Council resolutions and reports of
new responsibilities to protect and UN Development Programme the Secretary-General on that theme
deliver services to internally displaced Bureau for Crisis Prevention and are an important component of
persons, and has taken the lead in Recovery. The Bureau is mandated international policies supporting
protection, emergency shelter and to provide a bridge between humani- initiatives for children and armed
camp coordination and management. tarian response and longer-term conflict. OCHA also leads the process
In the early 1990s, UNHCR added development following a country’s of soliciting donor support for UN
a Headquarters-level officer to recovery from conflict. Its growing humanitarian programmes, mainly
coordinate issues pertaining to child work on youth and conflict is an area through the Consolidated Appeals
refugees. It now requires annual calling for even further collaboration, Process and the Central Emergency
participatory assessments as part both across the UN system and with Response Fund.
7. SYSTEMS OF RESPONSE 85
“NGO/UN have been working in our areas, supporting us.
They are all leaving too soon, and this is making everything worse.” –
Young woman, 18, Sri Lanka
Other UN entities essential to recruitment and use of children by the MRM initiative globally and
children and related armed conflict parties to armed conflict in violation in the field.
issues include: the Department of of international law. In addition, it The Monitoring and Reporting
Political Affairs, which could will provide information on other Mechanism has achieved notable
contribute to more consistent grave violations against children in initial success, although it is more
inclusion of children’s concerns in situations of armed conflict as the labour-intensive than anticipated and
mediation leading to peace basis for appropriate action. demands serious investment in human,
agreements; the UN Office for As specified by the 2005 Secretary- financial and material resources.
Disarmament Affairs, especially in General’s report on the situation of MRM country task forces have been
connection with the impact of small children and armed conflict,216 the established in 11 countries. Each is
arms and light weapons; the United mechanism concentrates on six led by the most senior UN staff
Nations Development Fund for categories of grave rights violations: member in the country, whether the
n
Women, especially in its role spear- Special Representative of the Secretary-
Killing and maiming of children;
heading the campaign to end violence General or the Resident Coordinator.
against women; and the United n Recruitment and use of children Most task forces for children and
Nations Populations Fund (UNFPA), associated with armed forces armed conflict are co-chaired by the
with its focus on reproductive health, and groups; UNICEF Representative; some by
n
gender-based violence and HIV. other agency heads. The SRSG-CAAC
Abduction;
n
for children and armed conflict plays
Monitoring and Rape and other acts of grave a crucial role in advocating for the
reporting mechanisms sexual violence against children; monitoring and reporting exercise to
One of the most significant develop- n Attacks on schools and hospitals; remain a true inter-agency process
n
ments during the past 10 years has been involving all UN and child rights
Denial of humanitarian access.
the creation of the UN Monitoring and protection institutions.
and Reporting Mechanism (MRM), The MRM Steering Committee, A workshop organized by UNICEF
as called for in Security Council co-chaired by the OSRSG and UNICEF, and the OSRSG-CAAC in Pretoria
Resolutions 1539 and 1612. The new is an inter-agency initiative. It is meant (South Africa) in April 2007 provided
system was crafted in part to address to guide country task forces on a unique opportunity for exchange of
the lack of an effective child rights monitoring and reporting, including experiences and lessons learned among
enforcement mechanism in situations on their review of draft reports, iden- members of the country task forces,
of armed conflict. It created a channel tification of policy issues, provision Headquarters staff and other repre-
to link information collected at the of guidance and development of sentatives. This work contributed
country level with reporting to the working tools. Most recently, the substantially to the MRM global
Security Council and to other organi- committee has focused on technical guidelines, which call for developing
zations that can press actors to issues related to building a common a ‘state of knowledge’ study to identify
comply with international child vision and understanding for the all potential sources of information.
rights and protection standards. mechanism’s global guidelines. The It should assess the risk of imple-
The aim is to provide the Security Steering Committee’s work needs to menting the mechanism for those
Council with accurate, reliable be planned more systematically to who provide and gather information
and timely information on the ensure inter-agency commitment to as well as for witnesses and victims.
86 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
RECOMMENDATIONS
7. SYSTEMS OF RESPONSE 87
global partners, should start with the Monitoring and Reporting 1991, the Inter-Agency Standing
agreement on the precautions that Mechanism, the heads of peace- Committee (IASC)220 is the primary
data collectors should take in the keeping and political missions mechanism for inter-agency coordi-
field. It should also train field staff co-chair the UN country task nation of humanitarian assistance.
in security, establish a security forces along with UNICEF. The IASC is unique in that it includes
incident monitoring system and child protection advisers should principal UN entities and non-UN
develop contingency plans to be integrated into all relevant partners. Under the leadership of
respond to incidents. Global peacekeeping and political the Under-Secretary-General for
guidance, field manuals and missions to make sure that all Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency
training should, at a minimum, staff incorporate a child rights Relief Coordinator, the committee
clarify field monitors’ obligations approach into performance of works to:
n
and methods for safeguarding the their functions.217
Develop and agree on system-
identities of victims and witnesses. wide humanitarian policies;
INTER-AGENCY
4. Support the mechanism with
COLLABORATION AND n Allocate responsibilities among
resources. A successful Monitoring agencies in humanitarian
and Reporting Mechanism cannot HUMANITARIAN REFORM
programmes;
be implemented within existing The 1996 Machel study emphasized
resources, as indicated in Resolution that protection of children “must n Advocate for humanitarian
1612. MRM country task forces be central to the humanitarian, principles;
n
will need to continue to strengthen peacemaking and peacekeeping Identify areas with gaps in mandates
capacity by recruiting dedicated, policies of the United Nations, and or lack of operational capacity;
skilled staff and ensuring that all should be given priority within
involved in the process are trained existing human rights and humani- n Develop and agree on a common
and kept informed about policy tarian procedures.” It also called for ethical framework for all humani-
developments. All key stakeholders, inter-institutional mechanisms to tarian activities.221
including Member States, donors, give sufficient priority to children.218
UN entities and NGOs, are urged Improvements have been made in IASC’s growing role in children’s
to dedicate greater levels of mainstreaming and prioritizing issues is reflected in the number of
human and financial resources children’s concerns in United Nations guidelines it has issued during the
to consolidate the monitoring, decision-making, including discussions past decade.
reporting and response mechanisms. of UN executive committees. At the field level, the 1996 Machel
Along with the Secretary-General’s study called for children and armed
Donors should continue to fund
Policy Committee, the Executive conflict to “be reflected in the terms
prevention and response activities
Committee on Humanitarian Affairs of reference for resident and humani-
because they are an integral part
(ECHA) and on Peace and Security tarian coordinators and those with
of the mechanism.
(ECPS) are the most central to political responsibilities, such as special
5. Integrate child protection decisions that involve response to representatives of the Secretary-
advisers into missions by DPKO children affected by armed conflict.219 General.”222 Leadership and engagement
and the Department of Political Established in General Assembly on children’s concerns from these
Affairs. In countries implementing Resolution 46/182 of 19 December representatives of the UN system
88 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“Our home was damaged during war and we migrated to Pakistan. We lived
for 10 years in Pakistan. We came back to Afghanistan. We have a place to build
a house, but have no money to pay for it. We have rented a house and live there
now, but it is very hard for us to pay for it.” – Young man, 17, Afghanistan
have improved during the past decade. Reinforcing civil society and Local non-governmental organiza-
For example, special representatives social support structures tions. Even closer to the front lines
and humanitarian coordinators In conflict-affected countries, civil for conflict-affected children are local
more consistently advocate for society – including the media, local NGOs. Women’s groups, faith-based
child-specific concerns and provide NGOs, faith-based organizations, organizations, cultural groups and
leadership for monitoring, reporting and private sector and community other community associations
and responding to grave violations groups and networks – often operates regularly provide aid or help monitor
against children. Interviews conducted in parallel to governmental and inter- the situation of children. By utilizing
for the strategic review223 found that national relief efforts. Civil society their access to and understanding of
the number of agencies concerned shares the burden of delivering services local situations, they play a vital role
with children and armed conflict and protecting children from harm. in delivering services, monitoring and
issues has increased. Now concerns These groups are frequently the first advocacy. Civil society organizations
related to children are raised by UN ones on the ground and often often proliferate in response to a crisis
entities in the field in addition to provide aid when others cannot. and may continue to operate after the
UNICEF, in particular by OCHA, conflict. But without coordination
peacekeeping operations, the United Advocacy networks. In addition they may work at cross purposes.
Nations Development Programme to operational agencies, numerous As elaborated in chapters 3 and 9,
(UNDP) and UNHCR. advocacy networks have emerged or youth groups and children themselves
The United Nations is undergoing consolidated during the past decade. are an important resource, supporting
an institution-wide process of reform These networks – which include the each other and working to build peace.
in which the humanitarian sector has Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Like NGOs, these groups do not always
advanced considerably. The reform Soldiers, the Inter-Agency Network have sufficient resources to carry
process is intended to clarify account- on Emergency Education and the out their work. But investment in
ability across sectors, prepare common Watchlist on Children and Armed training, mentoring and collaborative
standards and guidelines, improve Conflict – have provided significant partnerships can empower them
information collection, and develop help in reaching out to children and to contribute more effectively to
new emergency and post-conflict generating action to prevent and protection and care of children in
funding mechanisms. abolish the abuse of children in their communities.
In 2005, IASC adopted the ‘cluster situations of armed conflict. The
approach’ to inter-agency cooperation. Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Religious leaders and organizations.
It aims to increase response capacity Soldiers, for example, produces a Faith-based entities can be a wellspring
and effectiveness in emergencies comprehensive report every four of resilience and communal strength
by building global capacities and years on the recruitment and use of during a crisis. They need more
providing predictable leadership, children by armed forces and armed attention from international agencies
stronger inter-agency partnerships, groups. Although not specific to to improve understanding of how and
greater accountability, and improved children, Landmine Monitor reports, when to work with and support them.
field-level coordination and priority an initiative of the International Religious leaders and institutions can
setting.224 This approach has Campaign to Ban Landmines, contain also play a key role in peacebuilding
improved the delivery of services information relevant to the impact and reconciliation. Examples include
to conflict-affected children. of war on children. Bishop Desmond Tutu’s role in
7. SYSTEMS OF RESPONSE 89
South Africa and beyond, and a affected by armed conflict, all media human rights risk assessments and
coalition of church groups in the coverage should reflect a code of training of security providers. The
Philippines that worked as an inter- conduct focused on safeguarding the Extractive Industries Transparency
mediary between the Government best interests of the child and abiding Initiative establishes a degree of
and the National Democratic Front. by the ‘do no harm’ principle. revenue transparency in the taxes,
They can also play a key role in royalties and fees companies pay to
children’s protection. Religious The private sector. With growing host governments. The Organisation
leaders and faith-based organizations recognition of the role of business for Economic Co-operation and
often have access to wide global and ‘war economies’ in situations of Development (OECD) Guidelines
networks, useful in mobilizing people conflict, private sector involvement for Multinational Enterprises and
around the care and protection is crucial. UN investigations in the the UN Global Compact represent
of children. Democratic Republic of the Congo important partnerships in which
and Sierra Leone, for example, children’s rights should be part of
The media. The media has a role in exposed the complicity of some the criterion.226
raising awareness of children’s rights, international corporations, and in
reporting violations against children, response, corporate actors began Child protection networks. In many
and providing children and youth to regulate trade flows and support countries, child protection networks
the opportunity to express their human rights standards. The Peace perform a variety of roles, including
own ideas and opinions. Search Diamond Alliance in Sierra Leone advocacy, coordination among sectors,
for Common Ground has initiated brought two major buyers together information sharing and harmonizing
Youth Voice radio projects in Angola,
with the Government, NGOs and programme approaches.227 Such
Burundi, the Democratic Republic of
donors. They now jointly regulate networks have commonly been
the Congo, Liberia and Sierra Leone.
diamond production, monitor formed to address a particular issue,
These projects encourage dialogue
violence and ban the use of such as release and reintegration of
by allowing youth to express their
child labour.225 children connected with armed
opinions on a range of issues affecting
them, such as demobilization of Analyses for the Machel strategic groups, or separated children. Their
children associated with armed forces review identified some important memberships tend to be broad,
and armed groups, child rights and new areas for action. One is that including UN agencies, government
inter-ethnic conflict. Similar projects private sector companies need to be departments and civil society groups.
have been undertaken in Nepal. viewed as duty bearers – those with Usually these networks do not
Harnessing the power of national obligations to help fulfil child rights. take on child rights monitoring and
media as partners in information This requires promotion of a wider reporting, but in some instances they
sharing, advocacy and awareness understanding of corporate social have been mobilized to contribute to
raising is key to promoting peace and responsibility and of child rights in the UN Monitoring and Reporting
driving positive change. Also needed situations of armed conflict. Some of Mechanism. Community groups in
are efforts to sensitize the media the most promising measures involve Somalia, for example, have organized to
about ethical reporting on children’s cooperation among Member States help document grave violations against
issues and best practices in covering and multinational enterprises. The children and to collect information
child-related issues. Given the Voluntary Principles on Security and on internal displacement and the
delicacy of issues relating to children Human Rights, for example, promote impact it has on communities.
90 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
Developing national systems
Central to the idea of protecting
children’s rights in times of conflict
is the primary responsibility of the
State to respect, protect and fulfil the
human rights of all persons within
its territory. The Convention on the
Rights of the Child, like all other
major human rights instruments,
reiterates State responsibilities,
including in times of war and Iraq © UNICEF/NYHQ2007-2322/Kamber
internal conflict.
Clearly, however, national
governments in conflict-affected
countries are constrained in Even when governments want to be be designated within all relevant
delivering essential services and involved, the State may lack capacity in UN agencies, departments and
reaching populations in need. justice and social welfare systems, and offices, and in field operations.
Major emergencies attract large- national human rights commissions. Periodic assessments should be
scale international action, which An approach emphasizing undertaken to gauge progress in
can quickly evolve into capacity integrated systems and a coordinated mainstreaming against specific
substitution rather than capacity response involving national govern- criteria: (a) the extent to which
building. When these international ment, civil society and international the issue of children affected by
actors withdraw, a country can be agencies could help scale up services. armed conflict is brought to the
left bereft of protection capacities This requires long-term commitment; highest levels of decision-making
for such initiatives as conducting it cannot be achieved through short- of Member States and the UN
family tracing and reunification or term emergency funding. National system, including the governing
assistance to link victims of gender- governments should work closely boards of agencies, funds
based violence with public services. with the MRM task force to build and programmes; (b) senior
Solutions to such issues include capacity to prevent violations, management commitment to
development of the skills needed respond to them and ensure that and promotion of concerns
to gradually integrate services into strong accountability mechanisms around this issue; (c) integration
national programmes and plans. are in place. of these concerns into doctrine
Within national systems, capacity and policy frameworks, strategic
building to protect children against plans, operational mandates,
violence, exploitation and abuse Recommendations and programmes and activities;
faces particular constraints. Because (d) adequacy of in-house knowledge,
such issues can be culturally sensitive, 1. Continue mainstreaming within expertise and training to inform
politically charged or focused on the United Nations and other policies, strategies and operations;
marginalized groups, the political organizations. Senior child and (e) adequacy of resources to
will to prioritize them may waver. protection focal points should support these actions.
7. SYSTEMS OF RESPONSE 91
6. Decentralize partnership
mechanisms. The United
Nations, international NGOs and
local civil society should establish
partnership mechanisms at the
national and/or subnational
levels. A number of countries
with functioning child protection
working groups or national
networks have already taken steps
in this direction, but the model
could be adapted and expanded.
In particularly large and complex
countries, the model can be
Myanmar © UNICEF/NYHQ2008-0344/Dean mirrored at the subnational level,
as has been done for cluster
mechanisms in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo.228
2. UNHCR and OHCHR agencies: 4. Coordinate responses. Integrated
Recruit more expertise on child systems facilitate coordination SETTING GLOBAL
rights at Headquarters. OHCHR among national government, civil STANDARDS
should employ a full-time focal society and international agencies.
The 1996 Machel study stressed
point on children and armed This, in turn, allows activities to
that in armed conflicts, “everyone
conflict at Headquarters to better be scaled up and provides greater
concerned with children must
integrate its field-based monitoring benefits to a broader group of
practice a consistent set of principles,
and advocacy activities. children. Donors and interna-
standards and guidelines.”229 Thanks
tional partners must acknowledge
3. Build and strengthen national to increased international cooperation,
that this process will be long
structures and systems. Through numerous inter-agency standards
term, and they must commit
have been developed over the past
cluster assessments, work plans resources to its success.
decade. Many of them have been
and training, UN agencies and
5. Provide technology. Donors, inter- developed through broad consultative
international NGOs should help national organizations and private processes, which aids their acceptance
transfer functions to government companies should collaborate to and authority. This growing body
and civil society. This calls for identify affordable information of policy standards and practice
gradually integrating actions into and communication technology guidelines extends the international
national policies, plans and appropriate in crisis situations. legal framework to the level
programmes. It also requires They should ensure that this tech- of implementation.
helping governments and civil nology is transferred to national In February 2007, the French
society deal with challenges and local actors, and that staff are Ministry of Foreign Affairs and
such as lack of resources. trained to use and maintain it. UNICEF organized the ministerial
92 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“[The UN] needs to go to the grass roots.” –
Young man, 15, Nigeria
meeting ‘Free Children from War’. It n The Secretary-General’s bulletin in advocacy and programmes, and
culminated in a global consultative on special measures for aids coordination and development
process to update the Cape Town protection from sexual exploita- of common strategies among partners.
Principles and other technical tion and sexual abuse (2003);231 Results are being seen. For example,
guidance on children associated
n
in an evaluation of implementation
with armed forces and groups. The Inter-Agency Guiding Principles
of minimum standards developed
first outcome document, endorsed on Unaccompanied and Separated
by the Inter-Agency Network for
by 66 governments, was the Paris Children (2004);
Education in Emergencies, respondents
n
Commitments (discussed in chapter
4). It reaffirms States’ commitments Inter-Agency Network for Educa- noted improvements in community
to international standards on tion in Emergencies Minimum participation and coordination,
protection of children associated Standards for Education in analysis, adoption of a more holistic
with armed forces and groups, and Emergencies, Chronic Crises and approach to education, and attention
to good practices to support their Early Reconstruction (2004); to advocacy and capacity building.232
n
release and reintegration. The second Humanitarian actors have tried
document, the Paris Principles, IASC Guidelines for HIV/AIDS to extend their accountability and
incorporates current knowledge Interventions in Emergency
predictability beyond voluntary
and lessons learned on disarmament, Settings (2004);
adherence to standards. IASC’s 2005
n
demobilization and reintegration. United Nations Guidelines on adoption of the cluster approach
It aims to help practitioners ensure to inter-agency cooperation was
Justice in Matters involving
that these processes lead to better key (it is discussed further below).
Child Victims and Witnesses of
quality of care for and protection
Crime (2005); Through a set of indicators to measure
of children.230 Together, the Paris
improvement, more attention has
Commitments and Paris Principles n IASC Guidelines for Gender- also been given to monitoring and
comprise a new set of standards and based Violence Interventions in
guidelines. They provide coherence evaluation of programmes for
Humanitarian Settings (2005); children and youth in armed conflict
between governmental promises, inter-
national obligations, and programme n Integrated Disarmament, settings, and the implementation of
principles and best practice. Demobilization and Reintegration standards and guidelines. For example,
The standards and guidelines Standards (2006); UNICEF has been developing a
developed during the past decade performance monitoring system for
include: n IASC Guidelines on Mental its Core Commitments for Children
n
Health and Psychosocial Support in Emergencies.233
Sphere Humanitarian Charter and
Minimum Standards in Disaster in Emergency Settings (2007). It is clear that the improved
Response (1997); body of standards and guidelines
n Challenges in converting (only some of which are outlined
Guiding Principles on Internal here) have gone a long way towards
Displacement (1998); policy into practice
implementing the 1996 Machel
n International Guidelines for Land- The new standards and guidelines study’s key findings. As a whole,
mine and Unexploded Ordnance have helped unify approaches. however, the application of standards
Awareness Education (1999); This, in turn, improves consistency in the field needs to be strengthened
7. SYSTEMS OF RESPONSE 93
“If you go to the Fourah Bay road there are many beggars and they are assisted by
children. When I see them I never feel good because the children are all my peers.
Why shouldn’t they go to school, why shouldn’t they get the opportunity? And
most of them are war affected. Their mothers are dead or they only have one
parent who probably has amputated limbs. So please, they should build homes
for them, and then educate them.” – Young woman, 16, Sierra Leone
and institutionalized at all levels. ENSURING CAPACITY donors should facilitate an assessment
Experience has shown that locally FOR RESPONSE of national human resources needs
adapted and translated guidelines are Across all areas of work on children and work with governments to
indispensable, along with greater affected by armed conflict, the develop strategies for human resource
investment in training and capacity strategic review found common development and management. In
building, as discussed below. gaps and constraints. These include areas affected by conflict, innovative
inadequate human resources; insuffi- strategies will be needed to retain
cient funding, especially in terms qualified civil servants, who may
Recommendations
of timeliness and flexibility; poor also need on-the-job support.
1. IASC should ensure issues adherence to standards and guidelines; Training is an important tool for
pertaining to programmatic and insufficient monitoring, evaluation improving the implementation of
response for conflict-affected and documentation. This section standards and the quality of response
children are incorporated in highlights developments concerning for children. Despite the extensive
new cluster guidance, common human and financial resources. training being offered around the
standards, guidelines and world, many sectors still lack
assessment tools. adequately trained personnel.
Investing in human resources The IASC global clusters have been
2. Further the implementation UN agencies and civil society groups working to map capacity gaps for
of standards and guidelines. need more personnel to monitor, humanitarian action in emergencies
Member States, civil society report on and respond to issues for each sector and to develop
organizations, UN agencies and pertaining to children and armed strategies to address these gaps.
international NGOs should conflict, as well as to increase coverage A noteworthy inter-agency
concentrate on incorporating and strengthen child protection systems. training initiative, Action for the
standards into their organiza- Protection of children affected by Rights of the Child, was launched
tional policy and operations armed conflict is extremely labour- by UNHCR and the International
documents, such as standard intensive and requires specialized Save the Children Alliance in 1997;
operating procedures, manuals skills and experience. Human resources UNICEF and OHCHR joined in
and strategic plans. Progress support is required across all levels – 1999. It consists of 14 training
towards harmonizing inter- including the Security Council modules, including one covering
agency, government and donor working group on children and international law and its application
standards should be systematically armed conflict, UN agencies dealing for children and specific issues such
monitored through a framework with these issues at Headquarters and as separated children, disability,
of indicators and benchmarks. It in the field, NGOs and community- education, landmine awareness,
would be useful for the Committee based organizations. sexual and reproductive health, and
on the Rights of the Child to Furthermore, the humanitarian abuse and exploitation. Based on the
consider implementation of these community needs to do more to results of an independent evaluation
standards and guidelines in develop the capacities of national in 2006, the steering committee
reviewing Member States’ efforts authorities so they can assume their decided to revise the entire initiative.
to translate international law responsibilities to protect children. This work is still in process and offers
into domestic law. Where possible, UN agencies and an excellent opportunity to integrate
94 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
recent developments in standards and “the gaps in resources for children a consolidated appeal on behalf of
practice into the training module. affected by conflict are so extreme a country or region experiencing a
Also in 2007, the inter-agency that it is clear that a quantum leap in humanitarian emergency, CHAP is
modular training package ‘Introduction funding is needed.”235 the foundation. It is unfortunate that
to Child Protection in Emergencies’ Since the Machel study, not all have included child-specific
was published. UNICEF and the other commitment to strengthening analysis in their rationale or
partners234 now conduct regional coordination between donors has objectives. CHAPs for several African
trainings throughout the world on grown. This makes disbursement of regions affected by conflict have not
child protection in emergencies. humanitarian funds more predictable, mentioned children or child-related
Rosters are one way of addressing including for ‘forgotten emergencies’. issues in their sections on “strategic
personnel shortfalls and providing It also enables longer-term support priorities for humanitarian
quick deployment in emergencies. and aid to projects that fall in the gap response.” 236 Explicit inclusion of
The IASC global clusters for education, between emergency response and child-focused programming in all
health, nutrition, protection, and post-conflict transition, and it CHAPs would be a valuable way to
water and sanitation have established ensures greater transparency. bring children’s issues to the fore in
or are establishing rosters of personnel Changes in the UN humanitarian the UN appeals process. The IASC
to serve as cluster coordinators and financing system during the past Needs Assessment Format, which
provide technical support. ProCap, decade, including those within the guides preparation of the CHAP,
administered by the Norwegian recent frame of humanitarian reform, should help; it has a child protection
Refugee Council, is a roster of all need to better incorporate child- subsection, and the education section
protection specialists who can specific priorities and tracking: addresses such issues as attacks on
serve in crisis situations. It has an schools and teachers.
agreement with UNICEF to help fill Consolidated Appeals Process
the need for senior child protection
(CAP). Administered by OCHA, Central Emergency Response
officers. DPKO also maintains a
the CAP is key to humanitarian Fund (CERF). CERF is a financial
roster of child protection experts,
funding. It has become the main instrument designed to ensure
from which it draws child protection
tool for coordinated planning, predictable funding for rapid response
advisers. It is important to provide
implementation and monitoring and underfunded emergencies. As of
training and to explore ways to
of humanitarian actions, and it September 2008, CERF has committed
maximize use of the rosters.
has improved cooperation between $926 million for almost 1,000
governments, donors, aid agencies, projects in 62 countries.237 It
Increasing financial resources the International Red Cross and Red could be a mechanism for funding
Donor countries have recognized that Crescent Movement, and NGOs. On forgotten emergencies and crises
financing quality prevention and average, since 1992, the Consolidated too small to attract the attention of
response measures for children Appeals Process has sought $3.1 billion bilateral donors and larger NGOs. Yet
affected by armed conflict is crucial, per year and received $2.1 billion per only a small amount of humanitarian
and they have generally supported year (68 per cent). aid flows through the CERF, so its
such programmes. However, as impact is limited. Concerns have also
noted in the strategic review report Common Humanitarian Action been expressed about the ‘life-saving’
to the 2007 General Assembly, Plan (CHAP). When OCHA develops criterion for CERF projects and
7. SYSTEMS OF RESPONSE 95
whether it is consistent with the Emergency Response Funds. tiveness agenda and UN reform
human rights approach to humani- This mechanism enables NGOs initiatives. They provide flexible,
tarian assistance. The definition of (which cannot access CERF) and coordinated and predictable funding
life-saving may diminish CERF’s UN agencies to respond quickly to to support national priorities. In their
flexibility and therefore its ability emergencies by making start-up governance structure and operations,
to provide adequate resources for funds available in cases of rapidly these funds are consistent with
education and protection activities. changing circumstances and humani- objectives of the Paris Declaration
tarian needs.238 Typically the amount on Aid Effectiveness,242 national
is $250,000 or less. Countries that ownership, alignment with national
have used these funds include priorities and coordination.243
Haiti © UNICEF/NYHQ2004-0128/Kamber Angola, the Democratic Republic
of the Congo, Ethiopia, Indonesia, The total amount of humanitarian
Liberia and Somalia. An early aid is hard to quantify, but it
OCHA evaluation of the mechanism has been estimated that around
found that it has provided the 10 per cent is now delivered by new
greatest value in the middle phase mechanisms. The evidence is not
of an emergency, filling gaps in conclusive as to whether these new
humanitarian response, increasing mechanisms will effectively pool
humanitarian access and enabling funding impartially and rapidly
NGOs to scale up their activities.239 as well as direct funds to priority
needs. There is a concern that they
Common Humanitarian
Fund/Pooled Funds. These funds could introduce another layer of
were tested in the Sudan240 and the bureaucracy and transaction costs
Democratic Republic of the Congo to without resulting in improvement.244
quickly and flexibly provide resources For a complete picture of human-
before Consolidated Appeals Process itarian resources it is necessary to
funds became available and to give include funds from governments that
humanitarian coordinators greater are not members of OECD, funds
flexibility. An independent evaluation channelled through military forces for
found that the success of the decen- humanitarian activities, remittances
tralized allocation processes depended from the various diasporas responding
on cluster capacity, which varied to crises, funds raised from the public
widely. It recommended a more by NGOs, corporate and foundation
streamlined management process that contributions, and the consistently
would give the humanitarian underappreciated contribution of
coordinator more discretion.241 affected States, local communities
and households. Most of these data
Multi-donor Trust Funds. The are either not collected or not
increasing use of these funds represents collated. It has been estimated that
a direct application of the aid effec- donors outside the Development
96 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
Assistance Committee now
contribute 12 per cent of official
humanitarian financing.245 They
focus on humanitarian engagement
in neighbouring countries and
maintain a strong preference for
bilateral aid, including the Red
Cross/Red Crescent Movement,
over multilateral mechanisms.246
Funding continuity
Donors continue to provide resources Iraq © UNICEF/NYHQ2007-1625/Kamber
for prevention, response and post-
conflict reconstruction in three
distinct envelopes. This lack of
funding continuity continues to
hamper interventions on behalf of tional humanitarian system.”248 often masked within broad categories
children affected by armed conflict. A background paper presented of aid going to ‘affected populations’
Short-term emergency relief remains to IASC and Good Humanitarian or ‘vulnerable groups’. Reporting by
the preference, with time frames as Donorship in July 2007 noted that Common Humanitarian Fund,
short as three months. Short-term, the reforms of the United Nations, Pooled Funds and CERF should
piecemeal funding has not been donors and NGOs of the past decade include indicators of humanitarian
conducive to a systematic approach may have improved individual aid specifically benefiting children
to sustainable programming. This components of the system, but its affected by conflict.
approach also contradicts the concept overall structure is still inherently A review of the Consolidated
of flexible financing expressed in inefficient.249 Donors frequently Appeals Process for 11 countries
the concept of Good Humanitarian make decisions without consulting revealed a wide disparity in how
Donorship, a well-publicized each other, and collective efforts children’s issues are articulated.250
commitment by 24 donor bodies to pool funding and make joint Each CHAP was analysed using the
to ensure that sufficient emergency decisions about needs assessment following criteria: (a) analysis of
aid is available at the right time.247 are viewed as inefficient and inimical children’s issues in the section on
Assessing the impacts of humanitar- to rapid service delivery. ‘context and humanitarian conse-
ian funding reforms, the Humanitarian The challenge lies in how to quences’; (b) child-focused objectives
Policy Group has noted that “global determine whether aid is reaching included in strategic priorities or
humanitarian funding to date does children. Obtaining data to determine objectives at the country level; and
not appear to be growing more whether more aid is reaching children (c) child-focused objectives included
predictable or needs-based. On is not easy. Many of the new in response plan objectives.
the contrary, donor governments’ mechanisms do not explicitly refer All but one CHAP included
funding trends run counter to the to children or disaggregate their data general descriptions and statistics
stated requirements of the interna- by age. Child-focused funding is on children’s issues in the section
7. SYSTEMS OF RESPONSE 97
on context and humanitarian tions and UN entities should should ensure that CHAP guide-
consequences. In the section on invest significant resources in lines require clear articulation of
strategic priorities for humanitarian building the base of expertise on child-related strategic objectives.
response, several countries or regions child protection, including for
4. Ensure continuity of funding
(the Democratic Republic of the Congo, monitoring, reporting and
through crisis and recovery.
the Great Lakes Region, Somalia and responding in both programming
Donors and implementing
West Africa) did not mention children and advocacy. They should give
agencies should identify ways
or child-related issues. Children and priority to investing in additional
to manage funding to ensure
child-focused programming was, human resources to meet the
continuity and sustainability
however, included in numerous plan growing needs of child protection
of critical programmes. Donors
objectives. Although the trend seems entities at UN Headquarters, and
should allow implementing
to be to mainstream children’s issues at regional and country levels. agencies greater flexibility and a
across sectors/clusters, their explicit broader time frame to use funds.
2. Expand access to training at all
inclusion, particularly in strategic
levels. Humanitarian staff and
priorities, is a valuable way to bring
peacekeeping personnel should IMPROVING PROGRAMME
children’s issues to the fore and to
have access to training – and so RESPONSE, MONITORING
ensure they receive priority.
should local service providers, AND KNOWLEDGE SHARING
An additional funding problem
such as teachers, health workers
is the tendency to allocate funds to Studies, assessments and day-to-day
and staff of national institutions.
projects addressing the needs of a observation by the international
Member States, donors, the
narrow subgroup of young people, humanitarian and human rights
United Nations and international
such as disarmament, demobilization community have raised awareness of
NGOs should offer or support
and reintegration funds dedicated the devastating effect armed conflict
training in conflict-affected
exclusively to work with children has on children. Although broad
countries, which will allow greater
formerly associated with armed forces agreement exists on the necessity
access by staff of local NGOs and
and armed groups rather than for of accurate and comprehensive
government agencies. These inter-
community work in areas where information, the true extent of
national and national entities
these children return and where non- the impact remains elusive.
should also support local NGO
combatant young people may be even Two of the key themes in the
leaders to participate in interna-
more vulnerable. This problem is noted 1996–2000 Machel strategic review
tional training programmes and
across all sectors and undermines were the need for improved moni-
conferences. The impact of
best practice on multi-sectoral and toring and reporting on child rights
training should be routinely
community-based approaches. violations in conflict, and improving
evaluated by such methods as
information, data collection and
knowledge assessments before
Recommendations analysis on children in conflict.251
and after training and assessments
Many systems and initiatives have
of how the knowledge is applied.
1. Enhance human resources and been launched over the past decade
build the base of expertise at all 3. Incorporate analysis of issues in to improve the monitoring, reporting
levels. Key stakeholders such as planning documents. OCHA, and response. Yet an effective global
Member States, regional organiza- with support from UNICEF, framework to guide the work and
98 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“The biggest challenge is the freedom of movement and education system.” –
Young people, sex not specified, 17-20, Kosovo (Serbia)
support the regular collection and governments should prepare national This category includes ex-combatants,
consolidation of information has plans of action. Progress would be children in conflict with the law,
not been fully developed. Due to reviewed through regular reports of child heads of households and their
insufficient global coordination of the Secretary-General to the General siblings, children with special
data collection and collation, this Assembly.252 A global five-year educational needs and children at
body of work has not been readily progress report was prepared at the risk of not attending school. OCHA’s
available to all in one central location. end of 2007, but it contained very plans to collect data across the
The monitoring, reporting and little data on children affected by clusters could also contribute to a
response components of the mechanism conflict.253 An examination of data consolidated system, as long as it
are essential to ensure that children from the Millennium Development incorporates disaggregation by age
receive the maximum impact of Goals and World Fit for Children and gender. In 2003 in Sri Lanka,
programmes. But they also present databases for conflict-affected UNICEF launched (and continues
practitioners with numerous logistical, countries, as begun in chapter 2 of to operate) a database to monitor
conceptual and methodological this review, should be expanded recruitment of children into armed
challenges in situations of conflict. and made more systematic. groups. Much information has been
Logistical challenges include the The mechanisms in place to collected – the challenge now is to
difficulty of collecting data in monitor compliance with the make it accessible.
insecure environments with shifting Convention on the Rights of the
populations. Problems of impact Child and its optional protocols Strengthening information
assessment are made even more represent another important system.254 and knowledge sharing
complex when baseline data are The UNICEF Multiple Indicator
Cluster Surveys provide rich data Knowledge must also be used to
lacking and access to populations
on the situation of children. But due inform policy and programming.
in insecure environments poses
to resource and other constraints, The humanitarian community
methodological constraints and
data have not always been disaggre- produces an extensive amount of
personal risks to researchers.
gated to reveal displacement or documentation and data related to
other effects of armed conflict. conflict-affected children. But much
Common programme of it remains invisible to humani-
Because impacts reach across all
monitoring framework tarian workers and researchers
sectors, a mapping exercise would
A common programme monitoring identify existing initiatives and because it stays at the local level,
framework would improve the level systems that could provide data on available only in hard copy or
of programming across the global children. A gap analysis, which should inaccessible due to issues of Internet
system. Efforts to develop one should be done as a part of the mapping, access reliability and affordability.
build on existing work and emphasize would reveal incomplete information. The Machel study helped to
a division of labour, with data being Among existing initiatives and invigorate academic and practitioner
collected through different agencies systems to draw from is the registration interest in research. It resulted in
and processes. database software. Using it, UNHCR numerous initiatives to document
A clear starting point would be can generate statistics and other the impact of armed conflict on
the framework offered in ‘A World information on separated and children. However, much of this
Fit for Children’. To implement its unaccompanied children as well as research remains generated by
goals and monitor its progress, children and adolescents at risk. institutions from the North, and its
7. SYSTEMS OF RESPONSE 99
norms, agreements and instruments
has arrived. In a relatively short
period of time, the international
system needs to expand its efforts to
give children the protection that is
their legal rights. Generating norms
without ensuring adequate imple-
mentation does not effectively
challenge impunity.
‘A World Fit For Children’ offers
a strong foundation for a global
Central African Republic © UNICEF/NYHQ2008-0468/Holtz agenda that maintains its focus on
ending grave violations against
children while taking a step further
to encompass the many other ways
in which war hinders children’s
outputs are often hard to access by are required. Research can contribute
development, such as through loss of
people in the South. An innovative to many goals, including debunking
education, health, nutrition, water
attempt is being made to link myths and bolstering a particular
and hygiene services. The humanitar-
research and learning by Columbia advocacy or institutional agenda.
ian reform process will continue to
University along with four interna- Children and armed conflict is an
tional NGOs (Christian Children’s offer opportunities to re-evaluate
emotional issue, and war inevitably
Fund, International Rescue past work and improve response.
politicizes the research context.
Committee, Save the Children Innovative funding mechanisms, if
Given these realities, the highest
Alliance, and Women’s Commission supported by better needs assessment
standards of rigour and peer
for Refugee Women and Children), data, could fill gaps. National and
review are essential if research is to
UNICEF and several local organiza- local actors, the centrepiece of any
contribute to evidence-based policies.
tions. In 2008 they plan to launch response to help children in need,
the Care and Protection of Children must be given greater support.
BOLSTERING THE SYSTEM: Groups and individuals at all levels
in Emergencies Agency Learning
THE WAY FORWARD of the system should continue to
Network. The aim is to build
consensus on definitions and Hopeful new initiatives and the build links that will allow them to
standards, design assessment tools, atmosphere of reform hold much harmonize their efforts and work
develop knowledge of community promise for improving the lives of towards common goals while
protection programmes, promote children affected by conflict. There respecting each others’ differences.
effective policies and programming, are many opportunities to ensure The elements of the system to
foster organizational collaboration that their needs are represented in help children affected by armed
and mobilize resources. structures, policies and programmes. conflict are now clearly established.
More independent financing and Passage of UN Security Council The new institutions, standards and
a commitment to rigour, including a Resolution 1612 marked a critical mechanisms hold much promise for
peer review mechanism for research, threshold: The age of enforcement of alleviating the suffering of children.
100 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
Addressing children affected by armed Those who wish to strengthen planning precedes interventions and
conflict goes beyond recruitment and otherwise engage in work in continues during programmes, for
and use of children and the six grave conflict-affected environments must installing safeguards in relief activities
violations. Building a protective ensure that aid does not serve to and for initiating preventative action
environment for children is key to exacerbate the conflict or entrench to ward off future instability. All
addressing the concerns of all corruption. OECD’s ‘Principles for operations must ensure that the best
children affected by armed conflict. Good International Engagement in interests of the child are central to
The elements of this protective Fragile States and Situations’255 offer any effort and that a rights-based
environment include: guidance for ensuring that proper approach is utilized. n
n Building government
commitment and capacity;
n Facilitating passage and
enforcement of legislation;
n Changes in attitudes, customs
and traditions to ensure that it
becomes universally unacceptable KEY RESOURCES
to harm children; United Nations, ‘A World Fit for Children’, UN document A/RES/S-27/2, New York,
n
11 October 2002, <www.unicef.org/worldfitforchildren/files/A-RES-S27-2E.pdf>.
Open discussion that breaks
United Nations, ‘Report of the Secretary-General: Comprehensive assessment
down taboos against discussing of the United Nations system response to children affected by armed conflict’,
such subjects as sexual abuse UN document A/59/331, New York, September 2004.
and exploitation; United Nations Children’s Fund, ‘Protecting Children during Armed Conflict’,
n
Child Protection Information Sheet, UNICEF, New York, 2006,
Greater use of children’s own <www.unicef.org/protection/files/Armed_Conflict.pdf>.
capacity to address the key issues, B. Verhey, What are Child Protection Networks? Global mapping and analysis in
craft coping strategies and view of actions on monitoring and reporting of child rights violations in conflict-
affected areas, UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, Florence, February 2006,
develop solutions; <www.unicef-irc.org/research/pdf/cpn_report_final_2006.pdf>.
n Mobilization of the capacities Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict, The Power of Partnership: Guiding
principles for partnerships to end violations against children during armed conflict,
of families and communities; Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children, New York, July 2006,
n
<www.watchlist.org/advocacy/policystatements/the_power_of_partnership.pdf>.
Strategic targeting of services,
Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children, Youth Speak Out: New
especially to keep children in voices on the protection and participation of young people affected by armed conflict,
school, and provide women and WCRWC, New York, 2005, <www.womenscommission.org/pdf/cap_ysofinal_rev.pdf>.
girls with food, shelter and water R. Williamson, ‘Children and Armed Conflict: Towards a policy consensus and future
so they are not compelled to agenda – Ten years after the Machel study’, Wilton Park Paper, West Sussex, UK,
April 2007, <www.wiltonpark.org.uk/documents/conferences/WP840/pdfs/WP840.pdf>.
engage in ‘survival sex’;
n
Refugee Studies Centre, ‘Education and Conflict: Research, policy and practice’,
Efficient systems for birth Forced Migration Review (supplement), July 2006, <www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/
registration and tracing for EducationSupplement/full.pdf>.
family reunification.
“War violates every right of the child,” of being violated and left unfulfilled. the rights of the child, circumstances
the 1996 Machel study declared, “the Efforts to address these issues may leave it ill-equipped to properly
right to life, the right to be with family gained momentum when the Machel carry out its role. Armed conflict
and community, the right to health, study offered the first comprehensive often leaves central governments
the right to development of the per- look at the impact of war on children. struggling to provide such public
sonality and the right to be nurtured This chapter provides an overview of services as education, health care,
and protected.” the principles and approaches that welfare, water and sanitation, and
In the decade since the report, have become increasingly common security, and unable to ensure the
efforts to address the plight of war- to all sectors and response areas since quality of these services or their
affected children have focused on that time. They take into account equitable delivery. In such situations,
particular thematic areas of concern, the primacy of children’s rights and a greater burden may fall to muni-
sometimes in connection with specific the realities of their diverse needs cipal and local authorities.
countries. Since then, there has been and capacities. Others also have responsibilities
growing recognition of the report’s for the care, protection and develop-
insight that there can be no long- ment of children. Parents, community-
THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK
term protection and care for children based organizations, religious groups
FOR PROTECTION
in armed conflict without addressing and the private sector all play key
the whole mosaic of factors affecting As discussed in chapter 6, the frame- roles in realizing children’s rights.
all children, in all conflict situations. work of international norms and Beyond these groups, the magnitude
For example, interventions in such standards for children and armed of children’s unmet needs in conflict-
areas as health, nutrition, education, conflict, especially the Convention affected countries has long led inter-
and water and sanitation are vital. But on the Rights on the Child (CRC), national actors to respond. Efforts to
their proven benefits will not ultimately provides the foundation for response. create a coherent system across these
help children with differing experiences The Convention commits States parties organizations – all of which have
and needs unless they are accompanied to respect the rules of international their individual mandates – were
by cross-cutting services such as mental humanitarian law that are relevant detailed in chapter 7.
health and psychosocial counselling. to children, ensure protection and
In the years since 1996, experience care of children who are affected
by armed conflict, and take all RESPONDING TO
has continued to show how armed
appropriate measures to promote THE UNIQUENESS
conflict can disrupt the social fabric
children’s physical and psychological OF EVERY CHILD
of a community. It increases children’s
vulnerability, jeopardizes their right recovery and social reintegration. The 1996 Machel study stressed the
to survival and development, and States parties to the Convention importance of ensuring that every
increases their risk of marginalization, must ensure that the rights it pledges response recognizes children’s diversity.
abuse and exploitation. Part of the are extended to every child under Children and young people are not a
solution is longer-term community- their jurisdiction, including refugees homogeneous group. Young children
based care and protection – and the and those internally displaced, without and adolescent girls, for example,
education that is every child’s right. regard to their status or that of their have very different needs. But while
The more insecure and fragile the parents. But while the State retains each child affected by armed conflict
context, the more these rights are at risk primary responsibility for ensuring has had a multiplicity of experiences,
104 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
EARLY RELIEF EFFORTS INSPIRED A FOCUS
ON CHILDREN’S RIGHTS
106 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
REINTEGRATION ASSISTANCE
ROOTED IN FAMILY AND COMMUNITY
As Save the Children’s 2003 study ‘Going Home’ discovered in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, children and their caregivers value reintegration
assistance that is rooted in the community. The study cautioned that the
“role of the child cannot be independent of the family and community.”
Other highlights of the study follow:
n
environment that is conducive to
Assistance must be oriented towards parents. If carried out in the
children’s overall well-being. In
addition to encouraging practical presence of children and in conjunction with awareness-raising activities,
actions and delivery of services, child it will improve parental care for all children.
n
rights programming is balanced with
Children want to evolve with their families, without being stigmatized.
efforts to protect children against
n
abuse and exploitation, encourage Rather than emphasizing time in transit centres, reintegration
their participation, build the capacity
programmes should give priority to social education and skills activities
of institutions and systems, support
in the community.
community networks and hold
n
authorities to account. Children emphasize that two or three activities, including education,
The fact that children bring with
are necessary at the same time for effective reintegration.
them a multiplicity of experiences
and identities must be reflected in
how their needs are addressed.
Programming that addresses only
one experience – such as that of
being a child mother or having been
recruited into a fighting force – is
likely to ignore the range of needs
as well as the rights and individual
capacities of each child. It would also structures – including at the family, families? Is the community being asked
tend to ignore the root causes of the local and national levels – this to provide a basic service, such as health
child’s circumstances and might not approach aims to ensure that services or education, which is typically the
prevent re-recruitment or other and protection reach all children responsibility of the State? Is the
forms of exploitation. in a community. Evidence to date participation of all members of the
has shown that community-based community being ensured, or are
Taking a community-based programming is more appropriate community ‘leaders’, who may not
approach. The 1996 Machel study to the context and more sustainable represent the range of needs and capa-
asserted that “children’s well-being in benefits for war-affected children cities present in the community, the
is best ensured through family and and families than traditional, needs- only interlocutors? These questions can
community-based solutions … [and] based programming. often be addressed during programme
those solutions work best when they Implementing community-based design. The inherent flexibility of a
are based on local cultures and drawn programming and protection means community-based approach makes it
from an understanding of child addressing multiple factors. Does an important tool in a response that
development.” Since that time, the community have the capacity fosters local ownership.
community-based approaches have to identify and implement its own The humanitarian community
been reinforced through experience. response? Would involvement imply has long debated whether it is best to
Building on existing community significant costs to already stretched target responses to those perceived to
‘Emergency spaces for children’ arose to provide integrated support for children in emergencies where services were
weakened or absent. The spaces are designed to offer a mixture of protection, non-formal education, early learning,
psychosocial support and access to basic services, geared to a child’s developmental age. This multi-sectoral
programming approach supports children’s well-being during and immediately after an emergency.
Variations on the model, sometimes called ‘child-friendly spaces’ or just ‘safe spaces’, have been widely used
since 1999 in places including Aceh Province in Indonesia, Afghanistan, Albania, Darfur (Sudan), Liberia, Sri Lanka,
The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Timor-Leste. They are intended to complement other mechanisms
needed to protect children in dangerous circumstances. Emergency spaces can safeguard children by providing a
protected area and adult-supervised activities. Involved adults tend to develop an awareness of risks to children and
learn to create protective environments for them.
Christian Children’s Fund Uganda, for example, has organized emergency spaces for children aged three to six in a
camp for internally displaced persons in the northern part of the country. Communities decided on relevant activities
and selected adults to organize learning sessions and recreation. They also disseminated messages about basic
hygiene, nutrition and protection. A comparison of two camps that had and did not have emergency spaces for
children showed that the children who had access to them were less likely to be harmed while left at home alone, were
better prepared for school, less likely to fight, and more likely to be regarded as ‘well’ according to local norms.257
Challenges to creating such spaces include the fact that children of primary school age typically receive better
support than younger children and adolescents. Moreover, in some cultural contexts, the participation of either girls
or boys lags significantly behind the other. The concept also needs to be expanded to better serve adolescents.
Levels of quality control, community engagement and links with other protection processes also vary considerably.
Nonetheless, experience has shown that the intervention’s strengths can include flexibility, rapid start-up, the
ability to scale up, low cost, adaptability to different contexts and utility in mobilizing communities. A next step
forward is to strengthen the evidence base regarding the implementation of emergency spaces for children and
develop inter-agency guidelines on their use.
be the most vulnerable or to provide more acceptable to the community crowding, and lack of food and clean
assistance to the community as a whole. than visible aid for a specific group. water, as well as poor sanitation and
When it comes to children and young In addition to broadening access, an inadequate shelter – all contribute
people, there is growing consensus inclusive approach to programming to child mortality in emergencies.
that an inclusive approach best avoids stigmatizing anyone, including The study cautioned that “only a
addresses the mix of needs faced by specific groups such as survivors of multi-sectoral approach to health
all those affected by armed conflict. sexual violence or children formerly and nutrition can protect young
In reality, attempts at targeting associated with armed forces or other children.” In the intervening years,
have sometimes fallen short, partly armed groups. the understanding of this approach
because it is difficult to measure The Machel study also advocated has expanded to embrace many other
vulnerability. Where certain children for an approach involving multiple types of interventions, including
require assistance, it has been found sectors, arguing that a range of those involving education, early
that free access to a service may be factors – disease, malnutrition, over- childhood development, water and
108 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
sanitation, HIV prevention, livelihoods, humanitarian field. During the years Scaling up response. How to expand
justice and child protection. since the Machel study, responses programmes across large and often
Experience shows, for example, have been constrained by additional insecure geographical areas has emerged
that the best early childhood issues that have received limited as a key challenge in recent years. It is
development programmes deal attention. These include the inability particularly significant in view of the
holistically with physical, intellectual to scale up initiatives, cost-related international community’s growing
and emotional needs – all of which barriers and concern for the security focus on those who are internally
are interrelated. Early childhood of humanitarian workers. displaced and who may not necessarily
development programmes carried
out during emergencies clearly
demonstrate increased impact
when health, education, nutrition,
water, sanitation and hygiene are
addressed simultaneously. In northern
Uganda, adding stimulation and play
activities in the children’s early years
to nutrition, health and rehabilitation
programmes appeared to speed up TAKING EMERGENCY HEALTH INTERVENTIONS TO SCALE 258
recovery among children affected
Early experience and guidelines on health programming during emergencies
by conflict.
have been largely limited to activities conducted in refugee camps. Today,
relief workers are beginning to adapt this experience to serve populations
REMAINING GAPS
displaced within their own countries as a result of armed conflict. Providing
Although there has been progress
public health services over large geographic areas, often with poor infrastruc-
in developing and applying child
rights approaches and programming ture, presents a challenge very different from operating in a refugee camp.
during armed conflict, much remains No one agency can deal with such demands. To cover large areas
to be done. Authorities in affected requires even greater coordination and operational partnerships. One
countries cannot always be relied successful example is a nationwide measles vaccination campaign in
upon to protect the rights of all Afghanistan that was carried out in 2002 and 2003. The campaign, which
children. Moreover, in times of crisis,
aimed to reach all children aged six months to twelve years, vaccinated
humanitarian workers sometimes
revert to programming based on more than 95 per cent of the target population. It may have contributed to
needs rather than on children’s rights. saving 30,000 lives per year. This multi-agency initiative, involving UN
While the value of community- agencies, NGOs, Afghan ministries of health and education along with
based, inclusive and multi-sectoral religious leaders, among others, provides lessons for the future.
approaches is acknowledged, imple-
mentation does not always follow.
Agreed-upon standards are not
always respected, in particular by
new, less experienced actors in the
110 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“There are no trees to play under and no playground to go to.” –
Girl, 10, in a transit centre for internally displaced persons in Sri Lanka
Standing Committee (IASC) United Nations, The Millennium Development Goals Report 2008, United Nations,
New York, 2008.
should further mainstream child
rights programming in response
War-affected children and their the right to education. The MDGs nearly 60 million children are
communities regard education as and the Education for All commit- not attending primary school in
paramount. In countless assessments ments aim to ensure universal basic 33 countries affected by conflict.
involving displaced populations, education of good quality. Although This represents 46 per cent of the
refugee leaders and community the momentum around these com- children of primary school age living
members have specifically identified prehensive frameworks has increased in these countries and two thirds of
schooling as an immediate need and the number of children with access the total number of children out of
a priority humanitarian intervention to educational opportunities, children school globally. While 10 conflict-
for their communities, even before living in conflict situations still make affected countries are on track to
food, water, medicine or shelter.259 up a disproportionate number of achieve universal primary education
Since publication of the Machel those out of school. by 2015 (MDG 2), 19 have made
study in 1996, a number of global Based on available figures, the no progress at all.260
initiatives have emerged to protect latest UNICEF research shows that In addition, it is certain that
many out-of-school young people
aged 12 and older are unable to
return to school once the conflict has
Syrian Arab Republic © UNICEF/NYHQ2007-0720/Noorani ended. Others who have completed
their primary education and wish to
enter or resume secondary school are
unable to do so. Children in conflict
situations are often prevented from
attending school because of school
closures, lack of safety and security in
or en route to school, family poverty,
bureaucratic obstacles or lack of
access to the next level of education.
Even when children are able to go
to school, the quality of the education
they receive is often poor. It is still
common to see students sitting in
cramped conditions, with few books
or materials, listening to a teacher
who has very little professional
training. Teachers themselves may
be suffering from the trauma of
war, unable to provide children
with the psychosocial support they
need. Particularly in emergency and
post-crisis settings, the curriculum
needs to be enriched with survival
112 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“I was in fifth grade when the war came to my village 10 years ago.
Since then, I have not gone back to school. I cannot go back now and
sit in the same class; I am too old for that. But I still want to learn.” –
Young woman, 22, Liberia
messages and life skills that promote developing countries due to such factors
health and safety, peace, human as early marriage, exploitation by
rights and citizenship. teachers, and traditional gender roles
On the other hand, crisis can and responsibilities. During a crisis,
also be the path to opportunity. the constraints on girls’ education –
Rehabilitation efforts following an most notably the lack of physical
emergency can provide an opening security – usually intensify. For
to ‘build back better’ – that is, to disabled children, social institutions
rebuild schools to a higher, child- such as schools provide important
friendly standard and to create environments for developing and
environments that are clean, safe promoting their capabilities. But
and inspiring for children. even in the best of times, children
While the number of children with disabilities are often ‘forgotten’
without access to primary education and further marginalized.
is staggering, the situation worsens
significantly after primary school: WHAT THE MACHEL
According to the UN High Com- STUDY SAID
missioner for Refugees (UNHCR), The 1996 Machel study emphasized
70 per cent of 1.1 million camp- that access to quality education is
based adolescents were not enrolled critical to the welfare of children and
in formal secondary education in young people in crisis situations and
2007, compared to 20 per cent of should be a key component of the Sudan © UNICEF/NYHQ2006-0895/Furrer
the 1.9 million children of primary humanitarian response. The study
school age who were out of school. highlighted children’s need for
Investment in secondary education continuity in schooling. It stressed
is especially critical in post-conflict that the right to quality education study found that education can play
transitions. Like younger children, does not lapse under circumstances a critical role in restoring normalcy
youth have psychosocial needs during of crisis or displacement, within for younger children, as well as for
and after conflict that can be addressed the country or in refugee contexts. adolescents who are entering an
in part by quality education. “Support for the re-establishment important developmental stage in
Education also provides them with and continuity of education must be their lives. The study further urged
the skills they need to work towards a priority strategy for donors and that education providers should better
peace and the development of their NGOs in conflict and post-conflict prepare teachers both to cope with
communities and countries. situations,” the study pointed out. the effects of stress on children and
The issues of gender and disability, Not only did the study reassert to impart vital survival information,
which have practical implications for that education is a basic human right; such as details about the emergency,
all sectors, pose particular challenges it also stressed that the structure landmine safety and HIV prevention.
for education in conflict and post- education provides can help meet The Machel study also observed
crisis environments. Girls’ education children’s psychosocial needs in the that schools are often targeted during
lags behind that of boys in many most extreme circumstances. The war, and it unequivocally stated that
Perhaps one of the most significant changes the field has seen since
publication of the Machel study is the development of the INEE Minimum within the Machel study provided
Standards for Education in Emergencies, Chronic Crisis and Early an important impetus to this effort.
The study had a significant influence
Reconstruction, launched in late 2004. Modelled on the Sphere Minimum
on development of the field and has
Standards, the INEE Minimum Standards were developed through a highly
served as a strong foundation for
consultative and broadly based process. The standards articulate a minimum the programming and advocacy
level of educational quality and access for those affected by crisis. They work that has taken place during the
provide a global framework for coordinated action, good practice and decade since its publication. In a 2001
concrete guidance to governments and humanitarian workers on issues follow-up review to the General
Assembly, Graça Machel extended
related to: community participation; analysis; access and learning environ-
this influence, stating, “It is important
ments; teaching and learning; teachers and other education personnel; and
that education programmes be
education policy and coordination. viewed as a central part of the
Used in more than 80 countries and translated into 14 languages to date, continuum from emergency relief to
these standards have increased the quality, coordination and accountability reintegration and development.”
of education interventions. Although more work is needed to institutionalize
the INEE Minimum Standards, they represent a major development in the Moving from peace dividend to
essential aspect of humanitarian
approach to education in times of crisis. The holistic framework they provide
aid. Education was once considered
is particularly relevant in complex and chronic emergencies, where the
part of longer-term development
effects of insecurity and violence on children and the education system and a peace dividend, rather than
are multifaceted. an essential part of humanitarian
aid. During recent years, however,
education in emergencies has emerged
as a structured, institutionalized and
priority field. Much of this progress
has resulted from the collaborative
work of the Inter-Agency Network
for Education in Emergencies (INEE).
As a follow-up to the Education
governments and the international educational facilities and indeed for All Dakar Conference in 2000,
community must protect educational promote active protection of UNHCR, UNICEF and the United
facilities from attack. “All possible such services.” Nations Educational, Scientific and
efforts should be made to maintain Cultural Organization (UNESCO) were
education systems during conflicts,” CHANGES IN APPROACH mandated to reinforce preparedness
the study said. “The international AND UNDERSTANDING and response in education during
community must insist that In 1996 the field of education in emergencies. This led to creation
Government or non-state entities emergencies was newly emerging. of INEE later that year. It has
involved in conflicts do not target The very inclusion of education grown into an open global network
114 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“Often during armed conflicts, schools and other education institutions
are closed for one reason or another. This has a negative impact on children
and young people’s state of mind.” – Girls and young women, 13-20, Iraq
Working in Iraq with people who had been internally displaced, an inter-
national non-governmental organization (NGO), anonymous for security Consequently, emergency programming
reasons, has had positive results using the INEE Minimum Standards relating tends to be ‘top down’. Typically, for
to community participation. The NGO facilitated the formation of a local example, affected communities are
Community Education Committee, and the two groups worked together to asked to provide only manual labour
such as ground clearance and class-
rehabilitate schools and improve children’s access to them. Following the
room construction.
guidance in the INEE standards, particular effort was made to ensure that
As the INEE guidelines point out,
the committee included both men and women as well as members of
it is vital to build strong community
internally displaced and host communities. education committees and/or parent-
The Community Education Committee was instrumental in rehabilitating teacher associations through local
schools, providing security advice and negotiating fair rates with local training and advocacy. This is especially
contractors. Once the schools were completed, the committee identified true when education systems lack
security as a major obstacle to girls’ attendance. They subsequently agreed resources and external communica-
on proactive measures to ensure girls’ safety by arranging for them to walk tions are poor. Active community and
to school in groups or be accompanied by an escort. family support can enhance resilience,
so schooling can continue despite
security or economic problems that
interrupt the normal functioning of
the education system.
Source: Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies Gender Task Team, ‘Case Study:
School rehabilitation in Iraq’, INEE, New York, 2007.
Ensuring adequate compensation
for teachers. A looming threat to
education worldwide, but especially
in conflict-affected and fragile States,
is a projected shortfall of 18 million
Growing gender awareness has region. The assistants work in the primary school teachers in the
revealed that the number of female classroom alongside their male coming decade.262 Ensuring that
teachers in a school is a key indicator counterparts while also completing all teachers are compensated appro-
of safety in the classroom. As a result, their own teacher education. priately is ultimately the role of the
greater efforts are being made to raise government. However, in circum-
both the status and the proportion of Broadening community participation. stances of emergency, fragility or
female teachers in crisis contexts. An Some of the strongest feedback from conflict, the government may be
example of good practice comes out of users of the INEE Minimum Standards unable or unwilling to carry out this
West African education programmes has been on the usefulness of guidance role because of weakened capacity,
for refugees. Since it was not possible encouraging community participa- damaged infrastructure, limited
to recruit a sufficient number of tion in all phases of programming budgets, breakdown of mechanisms
adequately qualified women teachers, for education.261 Humanitarian to disburse funds and the movement
the International Rescue Committee actors and educational personnel of refugee populations beyond state
developed a transitional model of are often unfamiliar with the broader jurisdiction. As a result, the inter-
female classroom assistants in the roles that communities can play. national community and local
116 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
populations are often asked to provide Afghanistan, Angola, Burundi, Addressing education holistically.
temporary support for displaced and Grenada, Liberia, the Occupied The establishment of an IASC
conflict-affected populations, including Palestinian Territory, Pakistan, education cluster has reinforced
coordinating the education process Southern Sudan and Timor-Leste. the links across sectors, which is
and compensating teachers. In recent years, multi-phase vital in addressing children’s needs
Securing adequate, consistent initiatives – back to school, go to holistically. An inter-sectoral
funding for teachers’ salaries is a school and stay in school campaigns – approach to education is especially
critical problem. But there are many have been implemented in countries critical in conflict and post-conflict
other challenges to be addressed in including Uganda, where they aim contexts because it can provide a safe
establishing and sustaining effective to foster long-term commitment space for learning – offering physical
systems for teacher compensation. to building sustainable education protection against exploitation and
To address some of them, the systems. Back-to-school campaigns harm as well as a sense of normalcy
International Rescue Committee, respond to the immediate need to and psychosocial support.
Save the Children Alliance, Women’s restore education after a crisis while Because of these characteristics,
incorporating a longer-term perspective. schools have also become a focus for
Commission for Refugee Women
and Children, UNESCO, UNHCR
and UNICEF are working together
to develop guidance notes on com-
pensating teachers in situations of
displacement, early reconstruction
and fragile States.
delivering other important services, ensure that they are appropriate in comply with minimum standards for
such as providing food, an area in a particular context as well size, safety of construction, lighting,
which the World Food Programme as sustainable. and other essential elements.
has been active. Children’s nutrition Schools, whether permanent or
can be improved through school temporary, are also places where REMAINING GAPS
feeding programmes and a ‘food for children can receive safe and reliable
education’ strategy in emergencies. health services, advice on hygiene and While progress has been made since
Such interventions have proved life-saving information. Safe water 1996, much remains to be done to
particularly challenging, however, and sanitation facilities for both girls promote education during emergencies.
and must be carefully managed to Many of the actions recommended in
and boys are an essential aspect of
the Machel study still require concerted
healthy, protective environments.
effort on the part of Member States
Providing a safe place for
and the international community to
education in emergencies not only
Afghanistan © UNICEF/NYHQ2007-1081/Noorani
ensure that the educational rights of
reduces children’s vulnerability to
children affected by conflict are met.
trafficking and other forms of
exploitation; it also engages them in
Preventing the targeting of schools.
positive alternatives to military
Despite the normative frameworks
recruitment and involvement in that protect educational facilities in
gangs and drugs. In addition, it times of conflict, a lack of systematic
provides a place for identifying effort to monitor and address vio-
children with special needs, such lations severely undermines the right
as those dealing with trauma or to education of children affected
family separation, and facilitates by conflict. According to a recent
their social integration. UNESCO study, the frequency of
Education in camp environments attacks on schools, students, teachers
helps recreate elements of a social and other education personnel is
structure that children may have lost. rising. While accurate global figures
At the outset of the emergency and in for the numbers of teachers and
collaboration with the camp manage- students killed each year are not
ment, it is important to identify areas available, nationally reported assassi-
for schools, play and other forms of nations, bombings and burnings of
recreation, and child-friendly spaces. school buildings have risen dramati-
Guidance on such standards as cally during recent years.263
adequate sanitation is important to The monitoring and reporting
ensure safe and protective environments. mechanism for Security Council
School shelters can be anything Resolution 1612 focuses specifically
from tents or other temporary on six grave violations that, in line
structures to reconstructed education with the Machel recommendations,
infrastructure. But they must be include attacks on schools. Its current
carefully planned to ensure that they scope and capacity are limited and
118 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
efforts should be made in improving,
monitoring, reporting and responding
to this grave situation.
Financing education in
emergencies. The Machel study
called on donors to give priority
to supporting the re-establishment
and continuation of education in
conflict and post-conflict situations.
More than a decade later, however,
donors still tend to prioritize more
traditional emergency sectors. And
even when education is part of the
humanitarian response, funding
allocations fall far below what
is required.
A recent analysis by the
International Save the Children
Rwanda © UNICEF/NYHQ2007-1387/Pirozzi
Alliance showed that conflict-affected
fragile States received only 18 per
cent of total education aid from
2003 to 2005, though they account
for around half of the world’s out-of- Some governments are now are needed, along with sustained
school children.264 Middle-income committing substantial funding for political will behind the funding. The
countries received 49 per cent of educating children in countries goal is to meet short-term needs while
aid, while 33 per cent went to low- affected by conflict. But despite a supporting long-term development
income countries.265 number of pledges by the Group of of systems and capacity.
Furthermore, although awareness Eight industrialized nations, a huge
is increasing about the need to shortfall remains in funding for Expanding educational oppor-
support education in humanitarian education in emergencies in terms of tunities for older children and
crises, it remains one of the least meeting the MDGs and Education out-of-school youth. The Machel
funded sectors. In 2006, the education for All commitments. Funding study recommended giving special
sector received only 1.1 per cent of mechanisms such as the Central emphasis to appropriate educational
humanitarian assistance, although it Emergency Response Fund and the activities for adolescents and youth
represented at least 4.2 per cent of Consolidated Appeals Process, which affected by conflict. It also called for
humanitarian needs.266 Only five are accessed through the IASC cluster promoting secondary school access
donor governments explicitly refer system, provide alternative channels and providing learning opportunities
to education as part of their humani- for education funding in conflict- for out-of-school youth.
tarian policy: Canada, Denmark, affected and fragile states. However, Nevertheless, secondary and
Japan, Norway and Sweden.267 more flexible financing mechanisms tertiary education for refugees and
120 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“This is a year of ignorance.” –
Young woman, 16, Occupied Palestinian Territory
package of basic services – including analysis, and creation of profes- increase the level and consistency
education – aligned with government sional tools and training. of education funding for conflict-
systems. It called for more investment affected and fragile States. A sub-
3. Strengthen standards and
in building capacities and for donors stantial portion of new education
accountability. Donors, bilateral
to ensure early and multi-year funding, funding for basic education
and multilateral organizations,
both key priorities for education. The should go to conflict-affected
and the humanitarian community
importance of secondary and tertiary fragile States.
should proactively support imple-
education was specifically highlighted.
mentation of the global Minimum 5. Improve data collection and
The study called for elaborating
Standards and those developed analysis. Humanitarian actors
preventive approaches to conflict,
at the national level, including should improve the timely
including education. The following
within the IASC education cluster. collection and analysis of
are priority actions for education in
They should develop an effective education data to demonstrate
emergencies, chronic crises and early
monitoring, reporting and the magnitude of an emergency,
recovery in the coming years:
evaluation system based on these guide response and measure its
1. Ensure preparedness, rapid standards, as well as covering impact. Further, more systematic
education response and attacks against schools, as part of data collection is needed on the
sustained provision. Member the Resolution 1612 monitoring grave problem of attacks on
States should work to guarantee and reporting mechanism. schools. Longitudinal studies
the right to education by providing are needed to assess education’s
4. Provide adequate and consistent
continuous schooling before, during
funding. Member States and role in conflict prevention
and peacebuilding. n
and after times of crisis. Donor
donor governments should
governments should create bridging
structures to link the risk reduction,
preparedness, humanitarian and
development arms of their
education assistance programmes.
2. Improve coordination and
capacity building. Donors,
governments, and humanitarian KEY RESOURCES
and development actors should
K. Tomasevski, Education Denied, Zed Books, London, 2003.
increase coordination through
participation in global frame- UNESCO International Institute of Educational Planning, ‘Guidebook for Planning
Education in Emergencies and Reconstruction’, UNESCO IIEP, Paris, 2006.
works, such as the IASC education
Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies, Minimum Standards for Education
cluster, INEE and, at national levels in Emergencies, ‘Chronic Crisis and Early Reconstruction’, INEE, London, 2004,
especially, sectoral mechanisms. <www.ineesite.org>; and Interactive INEE Minimum Standards Toolkit
They should enhance profession- <www.ineesite.org/toolkit>.
alism in education, ensuring United Nations Children’s Fund, ‘Education in Emergencies: A resource tool kit’, UNICEF
Regional Office for South Asia and UNICEF New York, 2006.
adequate support to the develop-
ment of ‘surge capacity’, gap
The quality and accessibility of health population displacements over need to protect health workers and limit
care for war-affected children has large geographic areas. Appropriate the disruption of services, including
improved since the 1996 Machel distribution of services is also vital preventing the destruction of health
study. In fact, the entire technical if children and other vulnerable facilities and the breakdown of supply
field dealing with child health in groups that lack access to health lines. It also highlighted security on
conflict has become more professional services are to be reached. roads and access routes needed to
in terms of guidelines, training In keeping with a human rights- ensure accessibility to such services.
opportunities and improvements based approach, strategies to engage The Machel study’s specific
in the evidence base of what does affected children should be considered recommendations for relief workers
and does not work. thoroughly in designing health involved in nutrition and health were
Yet it is a measure of how much programmes. Doing so will ultimately aimed at establishing links between
work remains that 9 of the 20 countries increase the use of services. emergency interventions and long-
with the highest under-five child term development programmes.
mortality rates have also been affected WHAT THE MACHEL
by recent conflict.268 Achievement of STUDY SAID CHANGES IN APPROACH
the health-related MDGs is unlikely AND UNDERSTANDING
The Machel study emphasized
unless the humanitarian response is
disparities between the horrific Taking life-saving interventions
scaled up dramatically and sustained, situations faced by children during to scale. The health community
especially in protracted emergencies armed conflict and the promise of agrees that a limited set of proven
where high mortality rates persist article 24 of the Convention on the interventions, taken to scale, can
over several years. Rights of the Child, which stipulates drastically reduce child mortality,
Since conflicts often occur in that children have a right to the even in areas facing conflict.271 These
areas where children already suffer highest standard of health and interventions are increasingly carried
from malnutrition and ill health, medical care available. For children out in emergency contexts, aimed at
including communicable diseases affected by war, the reality is grim. reducing child illness and death.
such as diarrhoea, acute respiratory As the Machel study pointed out: The intervention package includes
infections, malaria and measles, these “Thousands of children are killed measles immunization; vitamin A
ailments continue to be a major cause every year as a direct result of fighting, supplements; anti-malaria measures
of mortality.269 In fact, available data from knife wounds, bullets, bombs such as distribution of long-lasting
suggest that these common childhood and landmines, but many more die insecticide-treated mosquito nets;
illnesses are responsible for the majority from malnutrition and disease caused prevention, early detection and
of childhood deaths in conflict or increased by armed conflicts…. treatment of malnutrition; adequate
situations, in some instances out- Many die as a direct result of clean water and sanitation; appropriate
numbering deaths directly linked to diminished food intake that causes community-based management of
conflict by a factor of 10 to 1.270 acute and severe malnutrition, while common illnesses (including oral
Lowering these rates requires others, compromised by malnutrition, rehydration salts and zinc for
rapid delivery of proven child survival become unable to resist common diarrhoea, artemisinin-based
interventions. The scale of these childhood diseases and infections.” combination therapy for malaria
efforts is particularly relevant because In assessing the delivery of health and appropriate antibiotics for
armed conflict often involves major services, the Machel study stressed the respiratory infections); standardized
122 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“Our only hope is to pray that we do not get sick. If you do,
only God can save you from dying.” – Young man, 18, Sierra Leone
guidelines; and promotion of year, accompanied by community Building robust health systems
hygiene and correct infant and child mobilization efforts. is a long-term investment. Other
feeding practices, including exclusive It is widely recognized that strategies have also been tried,
breastfeeding. These interventions community-based activities are the including performance-based
have become mainstays of any future of public health implemen- contracting. Under this approach
emergency response. tation in resource-poor settings. non-state entities such as NGOs
Moreover, establishing community- contract to deliver a package of
Promoting multi-sectoral based health activities prior to a services, and their performance is
approaches. Advances have also conflict may help reduce the harm monitored using a predefined set
been made in forging approaches to children’s health should a conflict of indicators. Such strategies can
that combine actions from diverse arise. This approach also contributes lead to wide coverage of life-saving
sectors. Public health, nutrition, to emergency preparedness. interventions. They also enable
food aid, water, sanitation, education However, emergency interven- governments to focus on their
and other relief programmes are tions will only reach children when normative responsibilities, such as
now accepted as multiple elements the services provided are appropriate planning, policy setting, financing
in an emergency response because to the circumstances and accepted and regulation, rather than on
none of them is effective in reducing service delivery. Although further
and understood by beneficiaries.272
morbidity and mortality without the evaluation of this approach is
For this reason, active participation
others. It is common, for instance, required, preliminary results from
of key community members is
to distribute vitamin A supplements experiences in Afghanistan and
critical. In Afghanistan, engaging
and deworming medications during Cambodia are promising.274
religious leaders and using mosques
immunization campaigns, as took
as vaccination posts for a nationwide
place during the 2004 measles
measles campaign contributed to the PROGRESS IN POLICY
immunization campaign in Darfur.
high coverage achieved in 2002.273 AND PRACTICE
Delivering health services In many countries affected by Controlling major diseases. Since
effectively. Progress has also been conflict, national governments have the 1996 Machel study, progress has
made in appropriate delivery of limited capacity to provide health been made in disease control among
child-health interventions in countries services. This remains the case despite populations affected by conflict, with
facing conflict with inadequate or growing recognition that strengthening new interventions available for use in
inaccessible health services. The right health systems is critical, especially complex emergencies. Malaria, for
mix of facility-based and community- following protracted conflicts. In example, can be prevented and managed
based services is critical to ensuring response, such groups as the GAVI through using more effective medica-
wide coverage of life-saving interven- Alliance (formerly the Global Alliance tions (artemisinin-based combination
tions. Community-based delivery may for Vaccines and Immunization) therapy), rapid diagnostic kits,
include campaigns to offer a package have relaxed their application and insecticide-treated mosquito nets and
of services – such as immunization co-financing criteria for funding indoor spraying. Diarrhoea can be
and vitamin A supplementation – support targeted to strengthening treated using oral rehydration salts in
at regular intervals. For example, health systems. The changes encourage combination with zinc supplements.
Ethiopia’s Enhanced Outreach Strategy fragile States with weak capacity to Measles was once a devastating
delivers a package of services twice a apply for these funds. killer of children in emergencies.
124 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
Mozambique © UNICEF/NYHQ2006-2234/Pirozzi
emergency humanitarian response. In as well as dissemination and imple- as asthma and rheumatic heart disease.
addition to a multi-sectoral assessment mentation of guidelines. Although guidelines are now available
tool to ensure a more consistent to implement HIV and TB control
approach, other aids to identify gaps Taking proven interventions to programmes in emergencies, they are
in health response and map health scale. As new technologies become still not systematically used.
actors are under development. available, the humanitarian health
Efforts are also under way to community must continue to Promoting neonatal health. Failure
improve health statistics through innovate to make them available to to safeguard the health of newborns
uniform and timely processes to more people. A number of new during crises is increasingly recognized
collect, validate and disseminate vaccines – for Hib, pneumococcal as a cause of mortality and morbidity.
critical data. The IASC Health and disease, rotavirus and cholera – are This requires greater programmatic
Nutrition Tracking Service is expected now available and may have major and research attention during the
to address gaps in this very important applications in the future for coming years.
area. Although it is still too early to reducing morbidity and mortality
assess the impact of these tools, they associated with pneumonia and Preventing and treating a range
will eventually be evaluated. diarrhoea, the top two causes of of psychosocial disorders. Mental
childhood death. and social aspects of health can be
REMAINING GAPS Community management of dramatically altered by conflict.
Despite more than a decade of common childhood illnesses and Among the problems are risks to
progress in providing health care therapeutic feeding have often been social health, including social rela-
to children affected by conflict, a used in stable settings. But these tionships; distress or absence of
number of gaps remain. In particular, techniques are now being introduced well-being; mild to moderate mental
‘going to scale’ with a package of in areas caught up in complex disorders (including depression,
proven, cost-effective interventions emergencies, such as northern anxiety and post-traumatic stress
and sustaining them in areas of Uganda. Other proven interventions disorder); severe mental disorders
protracted conflict remains a with potential for broader use include (psychosis, conversion, severe
challenge. The constraints include clean delivery of babies, and antenatal depression); and hazardous alcohol
lack of adequate financing, insecurity steroids and zinc supplementation and substance use. Addressing these
and difficult access, and limited to treat severe diarrhoea. But the requires a multi-sectoral response,
numbers of qualified staff. Areas human resources to carry out such including preventive and curative
such as chronic diseases, neonatal interventions – especially finding the health care.
health and mental health also need right mix of health-care workers –
more attention. remains a key challenge. Removing barriers to access.
Moreover, current emergency Recognition has been growing of
thresholds need to be reviewed to Addressing chronic diseases. The the critical need to remove barriers
determine whether they are relevant humanitarian community has made that hinder children from accessing
in today’s emergency settings. If not, a limited response so far to the threat services. One such barrier is cost,
they should be revised to meet new of chronic infectious diseases such as and every effort must be made to
realities. This goes hand in hand with HIV and AIDS and TB as well as to ensure that services are accessible
the need to improve data collection non-infectious chronic diseases such and affordable. Abolishing user fees
126 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“Every week a woman dies in childbirth on the road to the hospital.” –
Young woman, 19, Liberia
recommended strengthening and researchers should continue actors should ensure that data,
monitoring and reporting; these to explore new technologies and disaggregated by age and sex, are
activities should include information innovative delivery strategies collected and analysed in a timely
on all factors affecting children, for conflict-affected settings. manner. This is important in
and the data should be disaggregated As new technologies become demonstrating the magnitude of an
by age and sex. The following actions available, donors should support emergency, guiding an appropriate
should be a priority in complex their application in complex response, measuring the impact of
emergencies to mitigate the effects emergencies and ensure they the response and advocating for
on child health: are independently evaluated. resources. Systematic, continuous
Lessons learned in the process data collection is needed to
1. Provide rapid and appropriate should also be documented. monitor the health of affected
child-survival interventions. Humanitarian actors should populations, especially children.
Working with Member States invest in operational research,
and other key stakeholders, 5. Commit adequate and
focusing on key strategic areas
humanitarian actors should consistent funding. Donors
where there is inadequate evidence
ensure rapid implementation of a should provide increased and
and knowledge.
package of evidence-based child sustained financing of humanitar-
4. Ensure timely collection and ian health responses focused on
children in complex emergencies. n
survival interventions targeting
the major causes of morbidity analysis of data. Humanitarian
and mortality. These should be
appropriate to the context and
provided at an appropriate scale
in a coordinated manner with
high coverage.
2. Continue development of
guidelines and capacity building. KEY RESOURCES
The humanitarian health com-
Inter-Agency Standing Committee, ‘Health Cluster Working Group’,
munity, including the IASC health <www.humanitarianinfo.org/iasc/content/cluster/health/default.asp?bodyID=20&publish=0>.
cluster, should continue to develop
W. Moss et al., ‘Child Health in Complex Emergencies’, Bulletin of the World Health
and update user-friendly guide- Organization, vol. 84, no. 1, January 2006, pp. 58-64,
lines to ensure effective and stan- <whqlibdoc.who.int/bulletin/2006/Vol84-No1/bulletin_2006_84(1)_58-64.pdf>.
dardized approaches. Since health W. Moss et al., Child Health in Complex Emergencies, National Academies Press,
and related responses in complex Washington, D.C., 2006, <http://books.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11527>.
emergencies require highly skilled P. Salama et al., ‘Lessons Learned from Complex Emergencies over the Past Decade’,
The Lancet, vol. 364, 2004, pp. 1801-1813.
personnel, human resources capa-
Sphere Project, ‘Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response’,
city (both national and interna- Sphere Project, Geneva, 2004.
tional) needs further development.
World Health Organization, ‘Consultation on Child Health in Emergencies’, 2004,
3. Explore and apply new health <www.who.int/child_adolescent_health/documents/chce_meeting/en/index.html>.
Armed conflict can have a devastating Of the 143 million children under ceasefires during such days provide
impact on human nutrition by age five who are underweight in the opportunities for services that
threatening livelihoods and com- developing world, 98.5 million are include vaccinations and other health
promising food security, health and living in emergency situations.281 interventions, child-based needs
the ability of caregivers to provide The level of acute malnutrition in assessments, food and nutritional
for the young. During complex many conflict settings is alarming: support, and dissemination of
emergencies the prevalence of acute Of the 24 countries with national information on child rights.
malnutrition is typically high, specifi- wasting levels above the ‘critical
cally wasting, nutritional oedema and threshold’ of 10 per cent, 10 are
CHANGES IN APPROACH
micronutrient deficiency diseases. affected by armed conflict (among
AND UNDERSTANDING
The situation can worsen if people the 33 countries listed in table 2 on
are forced to rely on food rations page 27). These include the Sudan Working under the framework of
lacking in vitamins and minerals, as (with a wasting rate of 16 per cent), public nutrition. Understanding of
demonstrated by the 2001 outbreaks Chad and Sri Lanka (14 per cent) and malnutrition has deepened since
of scurvy in Afghanistan and pellagra the Democratic Republic of the 1996. The focus has moved from the
in Angola.280 Congo and Nepal (13 per cent).282 individual to the larger population
The latest data suggest that and from a narrow set of interventions
maternal and child undernutrition to a broad-based, problem-solving
contributes significantly to child approach known as ‘public nutrition’.285
Myanmar © UNICEF/NYHQ2008-0375/Dean morbidity and mortality in complex Many of the achievements in managing
emergencies. It dramatically increases child malnutrition in conflict have
fatalities among children and women been made under this framework.
suffering from common illnesses, such Public nutrition addresses malnu-
as malaria, diarrhoea and pneumonia. trition in complex emergencies by
And it was one of the primary causes combining an analysis of nutritional
of death in children under five in risk and vulnerability with action-
camps in northern Uganda283 as oriented strategies involving policies,
well as in the Democratic Republic programmes and capacity develop-
of the Congo.284 ment. This approach, which combines
both nutritional and public health
WHAT THE MACHEL interventions, has proved to be
STUDY SAID especially relevant in complex
Both the 1996 Machel study and the emergencies, when insecurity and
2001 review emphasized the effect of violence have multidimensional
conflict on child nutrition as an area effects on child nutrition.
that cried out for greater attention
and action. Similarly, both reports Managing malnutrition holistically.
specifically advocated for continued Changes in managing malnutrition
access to affected children through reflect growing awareness of the
‘days of tranquillity’. Negotiated importance of gender and child
128 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“Our parents have lost their livelihood, and for us this means
that we don’t get food every day, that we are hungry sometimes.” –
Boy, 14, Sri Lanka
protection issues; psychosocial Such strategies are now being tried out complex contexts, including those of
support and other care practices; by GOAL in north-west Sudan and Chad and Darfur.290
and support for food security and Darfur, among other organizations.286 In these places community-based
livelihoods. Using this holistic approach But it is clear that further work and management of severe acute malnu-
to prevent and treat severe malnutri- experience sharing is needed. trition is being promoted by district-
tion in conflict has brought a number level ministries of health, which
of improvements: It has enhanced PROGRESS IN POLICY provide a platform for scaling up
prospects for children, helped protect AND PRACTICE programmes. And UNICEF, in
and develop the self-esteem and care cooperation with other organizations,
practices of mothers, and provided More reliance on community-based is facilitating the development of
a stronger link between immediate management of malnutrition. For national guidelines for managing
hunger relief and long-term strategies many years the management of severe severe acute malnutrition that
for sustainable development. The acute malnutrition relied on inpatient include community-based
effectiveness of integrated programming facilities known as therapeutic feeding approaches in various countries.
can be seen in Action Contre la Faim’s centres. In the 1990s, experience from
nutritional programmes in Afghanistan, several humanitarian emergencies Addressing micronutrient deficien-
Darfur (the Sudan) and Southern demonstrated that this model was cies. Micronutrient deficiencies can
Sudan, which combine therapeutic largely ineffective.287 NGO feeding easily develop or worsen during an
feeding with a basic package of care centres established in response to emergency. This can happen due to
practices and mental health activities. the famine in Southern Sudan in loss of livelihoods or food crops,
1998, for example, were able to interruption of food supplies,
Devising new strategies to reach reach only a small proportion of diarrhoeal diseases (which cause
dispersed populations. Reaching children suffering from this acute nutrient losses) and infectious diseases
internally displaced persons, who are form of malnutrition.288 (which suppress the appetite while
likely to be dispersed across insecure Community-based management increasing the need for micronutri-
areas, presents an additional challenge of severe acute malnutrition is an ents to help fight illness). For these
in humanitarian assistance. Compared innovative approach to treating the reasons, it is essential to ensure that
to working in a traditional refugee camp majority of these children at home the micronutrient needs of people
environment, providing services to with ready-to-use therapeutic foods. affected by complex emergencies are
displaced and dispersed populations It has consistently achieved recovery adequately met. The World Health
is often logistically difficult because rates of about 75 per cent, which are Organization (WHO), UNICEF and
of restricted access. The result can be well within international humanitarian the World Food Programme (WFP)
low rates of coverage and effectiveness. standards, and has increased coverage have issued a joint statement on
In such situations, traditional nutrition in emergency settings by as much as preventing and controlling micro-
programmes and protocols may not 70 per cent.289 By 2006, more than nutrient deficiencies in populations
be appropriate. New strategies may 25,000 children with severe acute affected by emergencies through the
be needed, such as decentralized malnutrition and more than 130,000 use of multiple vitamin and mineral
services, reliance on community children with moderate acute malnu- supplements for pregnant and
volunteers and locally based staff, and trition were successfully treated using lactating women and for children
enhanced operational coordination. the community-based approach in aged 6–59 months.291
130 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
In 2007, armed conflicts in
Afghanistan, the Central African
Republic, Chad, Darfur (the Sudan),
the Democratic Republic of the
Congo, Iraq, the Occupied Palestinian
Territory and Somalia continued to
wreak havoc on children’s nutritional
status and survival. These crises
resulted in inadequate household
food security, poor diet, an unsanitary
environment, inadequate maternal
and child care, and poor access
to health services. For example, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea © UNICEF/NYHQ2004-0537/Horner
preliminary data on Darfur indicate
that global acute malnutrition
increased from 12.9 per cent in 2006
to 16.1 per cent in 2007. While the
facilities for hygienic preparation Counselling traumatized mothers.
prevalence has not returned to levels and a regular supply of substitutes, Another challenge is insufficient
reported in 2004 (21.8 per cent), it so the associated risks are higher. psychological counselling for mothers
has crossed the emergency threshold During the 2006 crisis in Lebanon, traumatized by armed conflict. A
of 15 per cent. for example, large quantities of majority of these women report
breast-milk substitutes and infant having ‘not enough breast milk’ when
Promoting breastfeeding. Exclusive formula were widely distributed. taking their infant children (under
breastfeeding during the first six The dangers of untargeted formula six months) to therapeutic feeding
months of life reduces illness and death feeding were exacerbated by poor centres. In Afghanistan, approxi-
from a range of infectious diseases, hygiene following widespread bombing mately 40 per cent of admissions to
including diarrhoea. In complex that destroyed water supply and such centres are infants less than six
emergencies, where hygiene and care sanitation facilities. The combination months old. The major cause of the
practices might be compromised and of factors resulted in an outbreak of severe acute malnutrition is insuffi-
overcrowding is common, the risk diarrhoeal diseases. cient breast milk, with psychosocial
of diarrhoea and other infections is stress an underlying issue.
high. This makes breastfeeding even Addressing acute malnutrition in
more essential. Adherence to good adolescents. Substantial gaps also Developing early indicators for
practice is often constrained, however, exist in understanding how to address malnutrition. Rising rates of malnu-
by an absence of institutional memory acute malnutrition in adolescents. trition are usually late indicators of a
and failure of leadership and coordi- Inadequate reference population data population’s deteriorating nutritional
nation. In complex emergencies it is and ethnic variation in adolescent status. Developing early indicators of
difficult to guarantee the conditions development have hampered efforts nutritional crisis, therefore, remains
required for safe use of breast-milk to target older children for selective an important challenge to timely and
substitutes, including clean water, feeding programmes. effective emergency response.
132 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
recommended. For children with 4. Deliver deworming medication 5. Strengthen partnerships. Donors,
severe acute malnutrition without to reduce the burden of disease international agencies and NGOs
medical complications, community- and enhance nutritional should strengthen partnerships and
based management is more status. In complex emergencies, increase communication and coordi-
appropriate. For children with deworming treatment and nation to support an accountable
moderate acute malnutrition, vitamin A should be delivered and effective humanitarian response.
community-based management along with measles vaccinations. This can be done through existing
should be initiated and supple- coordination frameworks, such as
Treating worm diseases in both
mentary feeding provided. the humanitarian reform and the
women and children through a
Community-based interventions IASC Cluster Working Group on
few simple, single-dose drugs is Nutrition, the Standing Committee
need more support, since they
an essential step to good health, on Nutrition, Emergency Nutrition
reduce the opportunity costs of
treatment and enable caregivers to particularly when combined Network, the International
continue their economic activities with simple and inexpensive Nutritional Anemia Consultative
and family responsibilities, nutritional interventions, such as Group, the International Vitamin
providing vitamin and mineral A Consultative Group and other
nutrition networks. n
including caring for other children.
When implementing community- supplements to promote recovery.
based interventions, it is important
to inform children, families and
communities about them to
increase access, coverage and
effectiveness of such programmes
in conflict situations.
3. Scale up use of multi-vitamins
and minerals. In emergency KEY RESOURCES
situations, efforts should be stepped IASC Nutrition Cluster, ‘A Toolkit for Addressing Nutrition in Emergency Situations’, 2008,
<www.humanitarianreform.org/humanitarianreform/Default.aspx?tabid=74>.
up to promote daily use of multi-
vitamin and mineral supplements IASC Nutrition Cluster, ‘Harmonized Training Package for Nutrition in Emergencies’, 2008,
<www.humanitarianreform.org/humanitarianreform/Default.aspx?tabid=74>.
to meet recommended nutritional
IFE Core Group, ‘Infant and Young Child Feeding in Emergencies: Operational guidance
requirements and improve the for emergency relief staff and programme managers’, version 2.1., Emergency Nutrition
quality of diets. In complex Network, Oxford, 2007, <www.ennonline.net/ife/>.
emergencies, all children under ‘WHO/UNICEF/WFP Joint Statement: Preventing and controlling micronutrient deficiencies
five should receive ‘Sprinkles’ in populations affected by an emergency’, World Health Organization, Geneva, 2006,
<www.who.int/nutrition/publications/WHO_WFP_UNICEFstatement.pdf>.
(a blend of micronutrients in
WHO, WFP, Standing Committee on Nutrition and UNICEF, ‘Community-based
powder form), and pregnant and Management of Severe Acute Malnutrition: A joint statement by WHO, WFP, SCN and
lactating women should receive UNICEF’, New York, 2007.
daily multi-vitamin and mineral Sphere Project, ‘Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response’,
supplements. Monitoring should Sphere Project, Geneva, 2004, <www.sphereproject.org>.
Water, sanitation and hygiene diseases with high mortality and warming is reducing the availability
(WASH) are key elements in ensuring morbidity rates. And unless good of water, and water-scarce regions
the health, development and welfare hygiene practices are effectively in developing countries will suffer
of children. Inadequate access to safe promoted in camps and com- disproportionately.302
water and sanitation services, coupled munities, the danger of outbreaks At the same time, population
with poor hygiene practices, is the will persist. growth, urbanization and intensive
cause of at least one quarter of all During the past 10 years, the irrigation practices have significantly
child deaths and one fifth of the total sectoral framework for water, sanitation increased competition for water.
childhood disease burden globally.300 and hygiene has evolved in response This has further marginalized poor
Water, sanitation and hygiene are to studies and field lessons in both and vulnerable groups. Interruption
also linked to school attendance and the emergency and the development of water, sanitation and hygiene
performance (particularly among arenas. Key changes to programme services and destruction of facilities
girls), safety and security of women design include new emphases on are all too common during conflict,
and girls, and the economic and behaviour change related to hygiene in part due to the increasing value
social development of communities and on water quality, greater attention of water as it becomes more scarce.
and nations. to gender disparities and marginalized The 1996 study noted that both
In situations of instability and groups, more focus on partnership water and sanitation are key inter-
conflict, community water and frameworks and collaboration among ventions for reducing child mortality
sanitation services are among the sectors, and greater decentralization in camps and emergency-affected
first to be disrupted, and facilities of authority, resources and planning. communities because they are linked
are often damaged or destroyed. to disease and malnutrition. Field
When conflicts cause population WHAT THE MACHEL manuals now clearly spell out the
movements, children and their STUDY SAID centrality of WASH interventions in
humanitarian response. The lesson
families are cut off from water The 1996 Machel study examined is also more frequently applied in
supplies and from hygienic means water and sanitation from three practice: The global response to the
of excreta disposal. In addition, perspectives: as a determinant of 2004 Asian tsunami, for example,
women and girls become highly conflict, as a key prerequisite for successfully prevented major disease
vulnerable to attack, rape and reducing child mortality, and as a outbreaks by prioritizing both water
kidnapping because of insecure gender issue. These perspectives and sanitation interventions.
routes to both water sources and remain valid today as a framework
private places for defecation. for defining the nature of the
The re-establishment of water problem and appropriate responses. PROGRESS IN POLICY
and sanitation services is among The study highlighted the AND PRACTICE
the highest priority interventions importance of water as a factor in Promoting hygiene. The importance
during conflict situations in both causing and exacerbating conflict. of hygiene promotion in emergencies
communities and camps.301 Unless Since then, its importance has has become increasingly clear during
adequate services are quickly become even more pronounced recent years. This is in response to new
provided to children and their due to increasing competition for evidence showing that hygiene (and
families, there is a very high risk dwindling freshwater supplies. hand washing with soap, in particular)
of diarrhoea, cholera and other The evidence is now clear: Global can reduce diarrhoeal disease rates by
134 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
more than 40 per cent.303 As a result, MAINSTREAMING HYGIENE PROMOTION
hygiene promotion is seen as an IN EMERGENCY RESPONSE
integral part of emergency response.
Promoting the practice of hand washing with soap and water at critical
Improving water safety. Similarly, times (immediately after defecation, after handling babies’ faeces and
the growing body of evidence before handling food) is key to preventing the spread of diarrhoeal diseases.
showing the links between water Evidence shows that this is especially true in conflict and other emergency
quality and diarrhoea is prompting a
situations, where people are often living in cramped conditions and water
new emphasis on water safety, both
and sanitation services are interrupted.
in the sector as a whole and in
emergency response.304 Humanitarian agencies are responding accordingly, and hygiene
promotion is increasingly mainstreamed into emergency response. In
Taking gender into account. As the UNICEF-supported programmes alone, examples during the past few years
Machel study highlighted, water and illustrate the extent of this effort:
sanitation is a gender issue in conflict
and camp situations. The report n In Darfur and neighbouring areas in 2007, a door-to-door hygiene
specifically noted that water and promotion and soap distribution campaign reached more than 1 million
sanitation facilities in camps must be
people; more than 3 million people had access to radio programmes that
carefully designed to avoid creating
emphasized the importance of hygiene.
“opportunities for gender-based
n
aggression against displaced women In Somalia in 2007, 3,500 hygiene promoters were trained to encourage
and children.” Although field experience
hand washing with soap among vulnerable populations.
shows that this threat to women and
girls continues today, it is now a more n In countries in crisis and transition in eastern and central Africa, the
widely recognized problem, and
number of reported cholera cases fell significantly from 2006 to 2007, in
the security of facilities is more
commonly reflected in design criteria. part due to continuing prevention programmes, which include hygiene
promotion in some countries.
Enhancing local and global coordi-
nation. Both globally and locally, To help expand and improve the quality of emergency hygiene
progress towards more effective promotion efforts, the WASH cluster has identified capacity building for
and equitable emergency response
hygiene promotion as one of five key outcomes in its global work plan. In
programmes in water, sanitation and
hygiene have focused on improved a related effort, UNICEF completed a comprehensive, multilingual training
coordination and preparedness package for UNICEF staff and partners in 2007.
planning, defining and refining
standards, and improving manage-
ment and implementation capacities.
The 2005 launch of the IASC cluster
approach and the establishment of the
WASH cluster represent significant used by global and local entities of other actors, both in camp-based
steps forward in coordi-nation, quality for both programme design, and and community-based WASH
and accountability of humanitarian awareness raising and advocacy. humanitarian response efforts.
relief efforts. The WASH cluster is The wide use of the Sphere WASH
becoming the principal coordination standards by both humanitarian Strengthening emergency
mechanism among humanitarian response agencies and governments preparedness and response.
response actors in water, sanitation is helping improve the quality and Agencies involved in both
and hygiene among the United Nations consistency of interventions. development and emergency
system, the International Red Cross Governments and response work are increasingly reflecting
and Red Crescent Movement and the agencies are also defining their the importance of emergency
NGO community. own humanitarian standards and preparedness and response in their
The cluster mechanism is also norms, in most cases informed by policies and strategies. A recent
important in its formal recognition the Sphere Project. For example, the UNICEF strategy paper on water,
of the valuable role played by NGOs 2004 UNICEF Core Commitments sanitation and hygiene, for example,
in emergency response, ranging from for Children in Emergencies include places a much greater emphasis on
policy formulation at the global level a set of interventions and standards emergency response than in the
to field-level action. NGOs also act related to water, sanitation and past.306 At the same time, standard
as ‘protection agents’ on the ground, hygiene that is now the basis for all non-emergency references and
working to minimize threats to UNICEF interventions in the field. guidelines – such as the 2006 WHO
women and girls through WASH- Moreover, a growing number of Guidelines for Drinking Water
related interventions. countries are revising their own Quality – now specifically address
WASH clusters have been formed national standards. emergency response.307
in about 20 acute and complex
emergencies (conflicts as well as Raising the necessary funds.
REMAINING GAPS
natural disasters) around the world Mobilizing resources for humani-
since the launch of the cluster Applying established standards. tarian response in conflict situations
approach, helping improve coordi- Challenges remain in applying continues to be a key challenge for
nation and clarify roles and responsi- standards during conflicts and other the WASH sector. This is especially
bilities. Coordination mechanisms emergencies. Due to a variety of the case in conflict-related complex
for WASH emergency response need constraints, ranging from funding emergencies not prominently covered
improvement, however, over and shortfalls to poor access resulting by the media, such as the continuing
above the efforts already made from insecurity, standards are not crisis in the Democratic Republic of
through the cluster initiative. commonly applied in practice. the Congo.
UNHCR, for example, estimates
Setting minimum standards. For that between 2003 and 2005
the first time, through the Sphere standards were not met for water RECOMMENDATIONS
Project, a set of minimum standards supply in 40 per cent of refugee Understanding has grown during
has been defined for water, sanitation camps and for sanitation in 25 per recent years regarding the role of
and hygiene in emergencies. These cent of camps.305 These findings are water in conflict; the importance of
standards are increasingly being reinforced by the field experiences adequate response in this area is
136 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
also increasingly acknowledged. and hygiene standards. Member 3. Take steps for the safety and
Recommendations from the 10-year States and humanitarian actors security of girls and women.
strategic review presented to the should take steps to ensure that WASH cluster members and
General Assembly in 2007 call for established emergency water, other humanitarian actors should
a continuous, integrated package sanitation and hygiene standards take steps to ensure that policy
of basic services including water, are consistently met in conflict instruments, guidelines and
sanitation and hygiene. They situations through the allocation response efforts stress WASH-
highlight the need to invest more in of sufficient resources, enhanced related measures to improve the
technical support and improved safety and security of girls and
women in conflict situations. n
building international and national
capacities as well as knowledge monitoring systems.
acquisition and management. A
further call is made to give priority
to protecting children from gender-
based violence, a concern that relates
closely to this sector. Priority actions
related to water, sanitation and
hygiene include the following:
1. Strengthen WASH preparedness KEY RESOURCES
and coordination for more L. Fewtrell et al., ‘Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Interventions to Reduce Diarrhoea in
Less Developed Countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis’, The Lancet: Infectious
effective and timely response. Diseases, vol. 5, 2005, pp. 42-52.
WASH cluster members and
P. Harvey, Excreta Disposal in Emergencies, Water, Engineering and Development Centre,
other humanitarian actors Loughborough University, UK, in collaboration with the International Federation of Red
should continue to improve Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Oxfam GB, UNHCR and UNICEF, 2007.
water, sanitation and hygiene S. House and B. Reed, Emergency Water Sources, third edition, Water, Engineering and
Development Centre, Loughborough University, UK, 2004.
preparedness and coordination
Sphere Project, Sphere Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster
through the cluster initiative and Response, Sphere Project, Geneva, 2004, <www.sphereproject.org/>.
other collaborative frameworks.
United Nations Children’s Fund, ‘UNICEF Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Strategies for
This includes developing robust 2006–2015’, UN document E/ICEF/2006/6, United Nations Economic and Social Council,
policy and guidance material New York, 2006.
stocks and qualified human Water, Engineering and Development Centre, Loughborough University, ‘Technical
Notes for Emergencies’ prepared for WEDC by the World Health Organization,
resources pools. <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/WHO_Technical_Notes_for_Emergencies/>
As the 1996 Machel study pointed out, tutions; loss of livelihoods; tension to experience emotional and mental
armed conflict can be devastating to a and divisions within communities; distress, and their functioning will be
child’s mental health and psychosocial erosion of traditional values and impaired even in a protective family
well-being. Being a victim of violence, practices; and the collapse of political and community context. Severe mental
witnessing violence against others, authority and the rule of law. Any of health problems appear to result from
living in fear and uncertainty, and these changes can undermine support a combination of factors, including
experiencing extreme hardship, such systems, including those that reside the severity of the experience, level of
as lack of food, shelter and medical in families and communities, that support children receive, accumulation
services, can cause severe physical provide the nurturing and protective of loss and stress, pre-existing mental
and mental suffering – ranging from environment children need to or physical illness or disability, and
feelings of intense sadness to anxiety, develop and thrive. mental illness in family members.312
loneliness and despair. Effective mental health and These children require specialized
In fact, the accumulation of psychosocial programmes for interventions to address their suffering
stress over time and the long-term children have therefore focused and help restore normal functioning
consequences of distressing events – on restoring an environment that and development. In addition to care
such as the risks associated with protects children from further harm from the child’s existing support
growing up without a caring, and offers caring relationships and system, interventions such as com-
protective adult or having no access opportunities for development. Such munity mental health services or
to education – may have a more programmes are multidimensional traditional healing are often helpful
damaging and lasting impact on a and include promotion of family and should be made available.313
child’s well-being and development unity and family-based care. They aim
than the events themselves.308 to strengthen children’s attachment to WHAT THE MACHEL
It should be noted that the reactions caring adults, restore normal routines STUDY SAID
of most children in emergencies are and structures at the earliest possible The 1996 Machel study outlined
normal responses to horrific events. stage, and facilitate the role of culture, several aspects of an ethical and
They are not pathological in the spirituality and social responsibility. effective psychosocial response for
clinical sense.309 Moreover, in spite This helps give children a sense of children in armed conflict. These
of often extreme adversity, most identity and purpose. Such programmes include building on and supporting a
children show considerable resilience also encourage children’s participation community’s resources, beliefs and
and ability to cope, provided their and engagement in meaningful practices; mobilizing the community
basic survival needs are met and activities. They advance security care network around children; and
they have sufficient security and and mitigate further harm, enhance re-establishing a sense of normalcy
emotional and social support.310 access to basic services and reinforce through meaningful, structured and
Yet it is these very systems of children’s support networks so they regular activities. It also warned
support that tend to break down in can provide care and protection. against systematic use of “psycho-
the chaos of war. The damage inflicted Even within a caring environment, therapeutic approaches based on
upon social, economic and political children respond differently in the western mental health traditions
structures in conflict situations often face of extreme adversity.311 A small [that] tend to emphasize individual
leads to mass population movements; percentage will have severe mental emotional expression.” This caution
disruption of social services and insti- health problems: They will continue reflected the practice, then widespread,
138 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
Lebanon © UNICEF/NYHQ2006-1118/Brooks
and practice that has emerged over The guidelines acknowledge the identifying and reaching some of the
the years was recently formalized in complementarity of approaches that least visible and most-at-risk children,
the IASC Guidelines on Mental focus primarily on strengthening social such as sexually abused children,
Health and Psychosocial Support in supports and those that focus on child domestic workers and children
Emergency Settings, launched in clinical assistance in the health sector. exploited by foster families. More
Geneva in September 2007. The They therefore encourage establish- work is required to find appropriate
guidelines were developed by staff ment of a single coordinating body. responses to severe mental distress
from 27 agencies through extensive In doing so they transcend the that can be scaled up and adapted to
consultation and dialogue. traditional divide between ‘mental local cultures and capacities.
By providing strong policy health’ and ‘psychosocial’ actors.
guidance in a field formerly plagued Developing consistently high-
by dissension about ‘good practice’, REMAINING GAPS quality programmes. Progress
the new IASC guidelines are a has been made in developing and
Forging consensus on divergent
significant step forward in protecting using inter-agency tools and
approaches at the country level.
and promoting the mental health guidelines specific to psychosocial
Despite significant progress over the
and psychosocial well-being of support for children, but more work
past decade, gaps remain. For example,
populations in emergencies. The is needed to ensure consistently
although the IASC guidelines capture
guidelines recognize that how the consensus at the global policy high-quality programmes. For
humanitarian aid is provided has level, debate continues at the country example, too little attention has
a substantial impact on people’s level regarding the relative weight to been given to the differing needs
mental health and psychosocial well- give to social, community-driven and responses required for children
being, and that protecting this sense approaches versus psychological/ at different stages of development.
of well-being is the responsibility clinical approaches. This contributes In particular, more work should
of all sectors at the earliest possible to varying quality of responses and be carried out to understand the
stages of humanitarian response. risks undermining the progress made needs and capacities of very young
The guidelines reiterate that most so far. Ineffective or harmful practices children (5 years and younger) and
people are resilient when given continue to be used. For this reason, a adolescents (12 to 18 years). Also
adequate community support and good deal of work remains to build needed is greater understanding
services. Moreover, the guidelines understanding and ownership of this of the impact of gender on psycho-
focus clearly on building upon local new consensus in the field and to social problems and on coping
resources and social interventions adapt the guidelines to specific and resilience.
that reinforce existing ways that realities on the ground. In addition, there has been
people in the community handle insufficient documentation of
distress in their lives. They also Filling gaps in coverage. Major gaps programmes and sharing of
include attention to protection and persist in coverage because current promising practices and approaches
care of those with severe mental mental health and psychosocial and lessons learned. Peer support,
disorders, including severe trauma- programmes reach only a small per- on-the-job supervision and
induced and pre-existing disorders, as centage of conflict-affected children mentoring of psychosocial and
well as access to psychological first and their families. In addition, an mental health staff should also
aid for those in acute distress. enormous challenge remains in be strengthened.
140 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
RECOMMENDATIONS 3. Build capacity to implement generation of research on impact
The 10-year review of the Machel mental health and psychosocial that is methodologically rigorous,
programmes. Humanitarian based on the views of affected
study presented to the General
actors should strengthen the children and families regarding
Assembly in 2007 noted that a
capacity of child rights and mental health and psychosocial
consensus has been achieved on
humanitarian workers in well-being, and addresses sources
good practice relating to children’s
countries affected by conflict to of resilience, functionality and
mental health and psychosocial
implement effective psychosocial
well-being. It mentioned that social positive coping.
and mental health programmes
support systems, along with opportu- for children and their families. 5. Provide more flexible, longer-
nities for play, development and This requires development and term funding. Donors should
clinical services for specific problems provision of tools, training and provide more flexible, longer-
all constitute important aspects of on-the-job supervision. term funding for psychosocial/
programming. It also reaffirmed the
4. Strengthen the evidence base mental health programming.
role that sports, music and drama
to improve programming. In Implementation of the principles
can play in restoring a sense of
partnership with relevant research contained in the IASC guidelines
normalcy and routine to children
institutions, UN agencies and should be a prerequisite for
funding in this field. n
whose lives have been altered by the
NGOs should develop a new
tumult of war. Priorities relating to
children’s mental and psychosocial
well-being follow:
1. Implement mental health and
psychosocial support guidelines.
Humanitarian actors should
support the implementation
of the IASC guidelines, while
carefully monitoring and
assessing their relevance and KEY RESOURCES
impact in different settings. Action Without Borders, website at <www.psychosocial.org/>.
Inter-Agency Standing Committee, ‘Guidelines on Mental Health and Psychosocial
2. Build up professional networks Support in Emergency Settings’, IASC, Geneva, 2007, <www.humanitarianinfo.org/iasc>.
and peer support. UN agencies Psychosocial Working Group, ‘Psychosocial Interventions in Complex Emergencies:
and NGOs should strengthen A conceptual framework’, Psychosocial Working Group, Edinburgh/Oxford, 2003,
networking among mental <www.forcedmigration.org/psychosocial/>.
health and psychosocial actors. Save the Children Alliance, ‘Promoting Psychosocial Well-being among Children Affected
by Armed Conflict and Displacement: Principles and approaches’, working paper no. 1,
A global network on psycho- 1996, <www.savethechildren.org/publications/technical-resources/emergencies-
social support in emergencies protection/psychsocwellbeing2.pdf.>.
should be established, and local Sphere Project, ‘Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response’,
and regional forums supported in Sphere Project, Geneva, 2004, <www.sphereproject.org/>.
In 2006, 1.8 million people living with assessment and understanding of In recent years, the HIV-related
HIV were affected by conflict, disaster HIV risk and vulnerability in each needs of populations affected by
or displacement. An estimated 930,000 conflict setting. emergencies have increasingly been
of them were women, and 150,000 considered within national AIDS
were children under age 15.317 WHAT THE MACHEL strategic plans and other development
Vulnerabilities and risks associated STUDY SAID frameworks, though mainly focused
with HIV may be heightened in crisis on refugees. Funding of HIV
situations. HIV prevention centres As the 1996 Machel study highlighted, proposals within Consolidated and
and other public services, including the spread of sexually transmitted Flash Appeals more than doubled
education, are usually disrupted, and infections, including HIV, has the from 2002 to 2005, increasing from
therefore inaccessible to those who potential to rise dramatically during less than 10 per cent to 19 per cent.
need them. Moreover, whether the conflicts. The study also noted that Still, HIV programmes in emergency
crisis is due to conflict or natural all humanitarian responses in conflict settings are underfunded in relation
disaster, institutions and systems for situations must emphasize the special to overall appeals for humanitarian
reproductive health needs of women
physical and social protection may aid, whose funding has remained
and girls, including prevention and
be weakened or destroyed. Families stable at about 67 per cent.318
treatment of HIV and AIDS.
and communities become separated,
resulting in a further breakdown of Establishing inter-agency guidelines.
community support systems and PROGRESS IN POLICY Guidelines for HIV/AIDS interven-
protection mechanisms. All of these AND PRACTICE tions in emergency settings have been
factors may increase young people’s Generating global commitment and developed by an IASC task force. The
risk-taking behaviours and their vul- national plans. The Declaration of guidelines cover several programmatic
nerability to HIV. In addition, women Commitment that emerged from the issues related to children, such as
and children, in particular, are often General Assembly Special Session on protection of unaccompanied children
targeted for abuse. They are the most HIV/AIDS in 2001 devoted an entire and those separated from their families,
vulnerable to exploitation and section to the HIV epidemic in regions prevention of and response to sexual
violence because of their gender, affected by conflict and disaster. Among violence, and access to education for
age and social status. other things, the Declaration bound every child. They also emphasize the
Other factors, however, may signatories to develop and begin imple- importance of information, education
actually slow the spread of HIV during menting national strategies that address and communication programmes
emergencies. These include a decrease HIV and AIDS into programmes or for young people as well as communi-
in sexual networking because of actions that respond to emergencies cations programmes targeted at
limited mobility and accessibility, and to factor these into international behaviour change.
reduced urban migration, social or assistance programmes.
physical isolation, and relative poverty. The UN Security Council also Refining the programmatic
The ultimate result of the acknowledged the relevance of the HIV response. In 2003, UNICEF further
interaction between the HIV epidemic in addressing humanitarian refined the core elements of its
epidemic and a conflict situation and security issues, as reflected in the response to protecting and assisting
will therefore be specific to the adoption of Resolutions 1308 and children and women in conflict
circumstances. This calls for careful 1325 in 2000. and unstable situations. The organi-
142 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
Occupied Palestinian Territory © UNICEF/NYHQ2007-0779/El Baba
zation’s Core Commitments for care for persons living with HIV refugees. And the World Bank’s
Children in Emergencies include or AIDS in both post-conflict and Multi-Country HIV/AIDS Program
key elements of a programmatic chronic-conflict settings. Antiretro- included projects in only 19 of the
response to HIV. viral therapy has already been admin- 28 African countries hosting refugees.
For example, the use of drugs istered during complex emergencies AIDS-related programming and
to help prevent HIV infection after in the Democratic Republic of the funding also remain low in post-
possible exposure has been shown Congo, Haiti and Uganda. conflict and recovery contexts, as
to be an essential part of a package suggested by a UNDP review of 85
of standard precautions for service Promoting protection and ethical countries affected by emergencies or
providers within and outside the conduct. Within the United Nations, hosting more than 5,000 refugees.
health services sector; it is also part norms are being established with The study analysed available Poverty
of a comprehensive strategy to regard to protection issues and Reduction Strategy Papers and found
address HIV prevention associated ethical conduct. The Secretary- that only 14 of 49 countries (29 per
with gender-based violence. General’s 2003 ‘Bulletin on special cent) mention increased vulnerability
Programmes that include post- measures for protection from sexual to HIV among ‘populations of humani-
exposure prophylaxis in services exploitation and sexual abuse’ provides tarian concern’. These include refugees,
for rape survivors have been clear definitions of these issues. The internally displaced persons and others
implemented in a number of bulletin, aiming to protect the most affected by armed conflicts or disasters,
complex emergencies, including in vulnerable from harm, states that including children.319 Moreover,
Burundi, the Democratic Republic of sexual exploitation and abuse constitute only a quarter of UN Development
the Congo and Haiti. serious misconduct and are grounds Assistance Frameworks in 74 countries
Interventions to prevent mother- for disciplinary measures, including studied included activities aimed at
summary dismissal for UN staff. reducing or preventing HIV in the
to-child transmission of HIV have
It covers specific standards of same population.320
also been successfully carried out in
behaviour, for instance, prohibiting
emergency settings, as in northern
sex with minors and the exchange
Uganda. There, good results were Improving coverage of antiretro-
of money, employment, goods or
achieved, even when compared with viral therapy. Not surprisingly,
services for sex.
non-affected areas of the country. coverage of antiretroviral therapy is
Still, many challenges remain, including often lower in areas affected by conflict
insufficient skilled assistance during REMAINING GAPS than nationally. Inadequacy of supply
childbirth, complex protocols, lack Increasing AIDS-related pro- is compounded when paediatric
of adherence to protocols and fear gramming and funding. There is demand is taken into account.
of stigma. little doubt that HIV and AIDS have
Although the use of antiretroviral received insufficient programming Implementing guidelines. Use of the
therapy in conflict and post-conflict attention in conflict situations: By the inter-agency ‘Guidelines for HIV/AIDS
settings has been limited in scale, end of 2005, only half the proposals interventions in emergency settings’
the outcomes achieved compare submitted to the Global Fund to Fight in the field has been uneven.
favourably to those found in non- AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria by
conflict situations. This suggests that countries with significant refugee Mainstreaming HIV across sectors.
with adaptation and resources, it is populations included specific activities Similarly, although HIV is a cross-
possible to deliver comprehensive addressing HIV or AIDS among cutting issue of the cluster approach
being adopted as part of humanitar- situations worldwide. To address the tarian actors should integrate
ian reform, experience in recent crises most urgent needs in this area, an HIV and AIDS into programming
suggests that HIV has too frequently agenda for action should encompass responses and the humanitarian
been ignored, along with other issues policy and programming involving framework, such as the UN
that must be addressed through all stakeholders: Consolidated Appeals Processes
multiple sectors. 1. Increase support to national and the UN Central Emergency
HIV programming. UN agencies Response Fund.
RECOMMENDATIONS and NGOs should improve 3. Ensure HIV-related capacity
Understanding of HIV as a relevant support and guidance to national building across clusters. All IASC
concern for children in conflict has HIV programming, with the cluster leads should ensure that
deepened since publication of the objective of developing interven-
relevant personnel receive training
five-year review of the Machel study tions that address populations of
on HIV and AIDS to build capacity
in 2001. Policy and programming humanitarian concern.
in addressing the epidemic as part
have also advanced. Still, millions of 2. Integrate HIV and AIDS of humanitarian reform.
children and young people remain programming in the humani-
vulnerable to HIV in conflict tarian framework. Humani- 4. Promote inter-agency guidance
on HIV programming in conflict
situations. Humanitarian actors
should adopt and disseminate
inter-agency guidance on HIV
programming in conflict situations.
They should also develop additional
guidance related to emerging pro-
grammatic areas as an essential
KEY RESOURCES
step to ensure a predictable and
M. Lowicki-Zucca et al., ‘Estimates of HIV Burden in Emergencies’, Sexually Transmitted coherent response to HIV in
Infections, vol. 84, 2008, pp. i42-i48, <http://sti.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/84/Suppl_1/i42>.
humanitarian settings.
UNICEF Canada, ‘HIV/AIDS, Conflict and Displacement,’ conference report on the XVI
International AIDS Conference affiliated event, Toronto, 12 August 2006, hosted by 5. Ensure linkages in HIV
UNHCR and UNICEF, 2006, <http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2006/hiv_aids_conflict_ programming throughout the
displacement.pdf >
emergency. UN agencies and
United Nations, ‘Secretary-General’s Bulletin: Special measures for protection from
sexual exploitation and sexual abuse’, UN document ST/SGB/2003/13, New York,
NGOs should ensure links in
9 October 2003, PDF link <www.un.org/staff/panelofcounsel/pocimages/sgb0313.pdf>. HIV programming through the
Inter-Agency Standing Committee, ‘Guidelines for HIV/AIDS interventions in emergency various phases of an emergency
settings’, IASC, Geneva, 2004, <data.unaids.org/Publications/External-Documents/ as well as post-conflict recovery,
IASC_Guidelines-Emergency-Settings_en.pdf>.
transition and reconstruction.
Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS, ‘Strategies to Support the HIV-Related Links must also be established in
Needs of Refugees and Host Populations: A joint publication of the Joint United Nations
Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) and the United Nations High Commissioner for
programmes aimed at disarmament,
Refugees (UNHCR)’, UNAIDS Best Practice Collection, UNAIDS, Geneva, 2005, demobilization and reintegration,
<http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2005/refugees_aids_strategies_to_support.pdf>. and the return or repatriation of
displaced populations. n
144 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
8.8 BUILDING CHILD PROTECTION SYSTEMS
The 1996 Machel study highlighted important categories of vulnerable and sectors. Social welfare ministries,
particular risks that jeopardize children, and ensure more equitable commonly the cornerstone for
children’s protection during armed attention to various forms of violence, protection, generally have few
conflict. This section, and the three abuse and exploitation. It can build resources and often lack the staff
that follow, describe an emerging on synergies with development to carry out even statutory respon-
priority among child protection partners, in particular those working sibilities. The justice and security
specialists – building national child to improve social protection or sectors tend to give scant attention
protection systems – while maintaining strengthen the rule of law. Responsive to children. And despite their
a focus on specific issues. These child protection systems should build important role, the health and
include the unlawful recruitment on the strengths of issue-specific education sectors often lack child
of children, separation of families programming by ensuring that protection policies, codes of conduct
and gender-based violence.321 distinct forms of vulnerability are and established procedures.
Child protection systems consist addressed, including those related The following sections focus on
of laws, policies, regulations and to gender, disability, HIV status and progress and gaps in specific child
services across all social sectors – indigenous populations. They should protection issues, which are also being
especially social welfare, education, also be able to measure outcomes addressed within a broader context
health, security and justice – that for different groups. by child protection actors seeking to
support prevention and response A systems approach presents develop a systems approach that is
to protection-related risks. These challenges, to be sure, particularly better able to safeguard children,
systems are an aspect of social regarding the roles of ministries even in the midst of war. n
protection but extend beyond it.
At the level of prevention, their aim
includes supporting and strengthening
families to reduce social exclusion
and lower the risk of separation,
violence and exploitation.
A systems approach to child
protection responds to the gaps
KEY RESOURCES
identified within ‘issue-based’ inter-
ventions. While such interventions Save the Children, Stolen Futures: The reintegration of children affected by armed
conflict, Save the Children UK, London, 2007.
have achieved coherence on standards
and encouraged rapid, predictable T. Slaymaker and K. Christiansen with I. Hemming, Community-based Approaches
and Service Delivery: Issues and options in difficult environments and partnerships,
responses, they have also led to Overseas Development Institute, 2006.
duplication and isolated programmes United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Practical Guide to the Systematic Use
targeting specific categories of of Standards and Indicators in UNHCR Operations, second edition, UNHCR, Geneva, 2006.
children. A systems approach to United Nations, ‘UNICEF Child Protection Strategy’, UN document E/ICEF/2008/5/Rev.1,
child protection, on the other hand, United Nations, New York, 2008.
aims to reduce the stigmatization of United Nations, The Millennium Development Goals Report 2008, United Nations, New
York, 2008.
targeted children and adolescents,
strengthen responses to other
In all armed conflicts, children are at months or years after the initial residential care. Institutionalization
risk of being separated from their emergency phase – and after years hurts children and communities
families, especially when fighting of surviving in urban centres or because it tends to constrain children’s
causes people to flee their homes and camps for refugees and the internally cognitive and emotional development,
even their countries en masse. displaced. It may also happen when ultimately hindering their social and
Children separated during war protracted conflicts leave families and economic performance as adults.
often find themselves in the care of substitute caregivers so emotionally This is true in both emergency and
strangers and in danger. Having lost or economically expended that they non-emergency settings. The length
the protection of parents or guardians feel they can no longer care for of stay and a child’s age are key
at a time when they most need it, these their children. factors: The longer children spend
children are more likely to experience ‘Secondary separation’ – when a in orphanages, the more likely their
abuse, exploitation and neglect than child loses the foster family that had development will be compromised.
those who remain with primary been caring for him or her – is also a The experience of orphanage care is
caregivers. Children living in child- frequent occurrence. These separations most damaging for children under
headed households are especially at take place when refugee or internally age five, and especially for children
risk, as are those associated with the displaced populations return home after under three, because it is during
armed forces or other armed groups. a protracted conflict, intentionally or those tender years that children
In broad terms, children affected unintentionally leaving behind the develop physical, psycho-logical and
by armed conflict can face two types of unaccompanied or separated children social skills that will be crucial over
separation: involuntary or intentional. who were in their care. the course of their lives.
Involuntary separations typically Refugee children separated from Growing up in institutions means
occur when children and their their families face specific risks. Their that children are denied the experience
parents are fleeing from danger, families may have escaped to another of family life and the acquisition of
when parents or primary caregivers country, which makes tracing and skills that children develop within a
die, or when children are abducted. reunification much more difficult, family environment. Children in
Intentional separations, on the other especially when the family still resides institutional care are also at a higher
hand, include sending children away in a conflict area. Moreover, separated risk of violence and abuse from staff,
to work or to boarding school, refugee children living with families relief workers and other children,
abandoning children as a result of from the host country face a heightened especially if they have a disability.
family destitution or emotional risk of exploitation and denial of basic But care in a community or family
exhaustion, and placing children rights, including the right to an identity also poses risks. Government and
in orphanages or children’s homes and to a quality education. Monitoring child protection agencies should ensure
to access education and material care arrangements is particularly adequate and regular monitoring
assistance. In times of distress, some difficult in such circumstances. and periodic review of all substitute
families entrust children to relatives or care arrangements.322
non-relatives, although the designated Family-based care versus institution- It is widely believed that many
caregivers may also lack resources to alization. Research and experience orphanages implicitly encourage
survive wartime conditions. clearly show that community-based separation because they are seen as
Family separation can occur at and family-based care are preferable the only venue capable of offering
any stage of an armed conflict, even to orphanages and other forms of food, shelter and schooling to children
146 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“They made some of us orphans, killed some or all of our relatives,
made us homeless and some of us disabled. They denied most of us
the love of our parents.” – Young woman, 18, Rwanda
from poor families. Indeed, experience However, if the focus is on in Europe could be linked to
has shown that thousands of families keeping children in families – by human trafficking, according to
have tried to have their babies and paying school fees, helping to provide one 2004 estimate.325
young children accepted into shelter or providing cash transfers –
orphanages because they could not fewer children will need residential WHAT THE MACHEL
properly care for them on their care. Humanitarian attention can STUDY SAID
own.323 Poverty, lack of basic services then give priority to children in
and poor screening procedures are families, develop foster-care alterna- The 1996 Machel study focused on
the overwhelming reasons for tives, establish community-based involuntary separation on the scale
children being admitted to monitoring mechanisms and provide of what transpired in Rwanda, where
orphanages, not lack of family. essential services in communities, more than 100,000 children were
The problem is exacerbated by rather than concentrating on children separated from their families due to
the fact that orphanages often receive in special institutions. the genocide. The study underscored
support based on the number of Orphanages built during conflict, the importance of alternative family
care over institutionalizing children,
children they take in, not the number such as those established after the
and it highlighted how inter-agency
of children they place out via family genocide in Rwanda in 1994, may
collaboration led to a remarkably
reunification or fostering. In the continue to operate long after the
successful family tracing rate during
worst cases, unscrupulous orphanage conflict has subsided. Such institutions
the Rwandan emergency.
managers profit financially while compete for limited humanitarian
inexperienced relief organizations resources. They also draw attention
blindly support orphanages over away from efforts to establish more CHANGES IN APPROACH
more appropriate – and sustainable – appropriate alternatives and invest in AND UNDERSTANDING
family-care options. This is especially child protection systems that seek to The past decade has brought new
unfortunate because studies show that strengthen family care and prevent levels of awareness about the complex
supporting children in orphanages family breakdowns. issues surrounding separated and
is far more expensive than family- Care and protection are the most unaccompanied children. This
based care.324 immediate issues facing separated growing knowledge base is already
Emergency residential care will children, particularly those who are being translated globally into more
always be required for some children unaccompanied. But it is also crucial effective emergency responses as
while family tracing and fostering to trace their families as early as well as strategies for prevention.
efforts are pursued. For children in possible in an emergency, as the For example, there is now greater
temporary arrangements, close chances of finding family members awareness of the need to move quickly
monitoring is needed, along with diminishes with time. This is to identify and monitor unaccompanied
rapid searches for alternative especially true for younger children. children who are informally fostered
solutions such as safe fostering or The situation of unaccompanied by host country nationals in refugee
small group homes (for adolescents). and separated children seeking asylum situations and by nationals in
Longer-term care may be required in industrialized countries poses situations of internal displacement.
for a small number of children who challenges as well. Although reliable This is especially important in the
cannot be reunited or placed in statistics are difficult to obtain, up case of unaccompanied and separated
foster care. to 30 per cent of the disappearances girls, who run a higher risk of abuse
148 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
Kenya © UNICEF/NYHQ2008-0477/Cranston
In practice, responses have Cross.328 In Guinea, UNICEF and the their families again. To make matters
reflected increased coordination International Rescue Committee worse, tracing family members in
among all actors, further clarification helped identify and monitor 1,385 conflict and politically sensitive
of roles and responsibilities within refugee children living outside camps; situations may not always be feasible.
various agencies, and concrete efforts 964 children were reunified with their
to develop and use context-specific families, a majority of whom were Developing and applying the right
guidelines and tools collaboratively. from Sierra Leone.329 The Durable policies. Significant gaps remain
For example, under humanitarian Solutions Committee in Guinea, both in the evolving understanding of
reform and the cluster approach, comprised of government officials how best to protect separated children
stronger lines of accountability and members of the UN and NGO in conflict and post-conflict settings,
have been established among communities, has filled a serious gap and in securing the expertise needed
humanitarian actors. These should by finding appropriate solutions for to oversee the systematic application
result in more effective care and each child left behind after large-scale of guidelines and policies. For example,
protection for children.327 repatriations. This procedure is there are significant ‘pockets’ of
expected to become standard practice separated children, particularly in
Building on successful efforts. Over in refugee situations. low-intensity conflicts, who are often
the years, concerted action has been The use of modern technology, neglected by humanitarian assistance.
taken to prevent separation in various including print and broadcast media, This points to the need for new policy
contexts. There has been a move is also facilitating rapid unification. and practice. Unsystematic and
away from institutionalized care for In Albania, radio, newspapers and inadequate monitoring systems for
separated children in emergencies. television were all successfully employed alternative care arrangements must
And coordinated, multi-stakeholder for this purpose. And in Rwanda, be replaced, especially considering
efforts have resulted in positive where tens of thousands of children the critical need for data on separated
tracing and family reunification were reunited with their family after
in shorter periods of time. children in informal, unsupervised
the genocide, radio was used to
When efforts to trace and reunify foster care. This includes adequate
inform parents how and where to
are timely and sufficient resources identification of separated children,
find their missing children.330
are allocated, family tracing has especially girls. Finally, there is still
proved extremely successful, even only limited understanding of – and
REMAINING GAPS inadequate programme and policy
after several years of separation. In
Goma, Zaire (now the Democratic Launching a timely, well-funded guidance on – the long-term impact
Republic of the Congo), the families response. Concerted efforts to reunite of conflict on child separation.331
of all but a few hundred very young war-affected children with their
children out of a caseload of more families often start too late, sometimes Investing in family-based care.
than 10,000 children were traced many months or even years after the NGOs, UN agencies and others need
between 1994 and 1996. More recently onset of the emergency. In other cases, to institute an inter-agency agreement
in that country, 465 unaccompanied insufficient resources are set aside for to invest in family-based care rather
children were reunited with their family tracing and reunification efforts. than orphanages. Resources are also
families out of 561 children who were The consequence is that thousands required to sustain family reunifica-
registered with the help of the Red of separated children may never see tion and reintegration programmes.
150 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
8.10 PREVENTING AND RESPONDING TO CHILD RECRUITMENT
During the past decade, children’s during their time with combatants. reintegration (DDR) process involves
involvement in armed forces and In such instances, their children are several long and complicated steps.
groups has garnered significant inter- also exposed to the dangers and The Paris Principles define child
national attention, sparked in part by hardships of military life and face reintegration as a “process through
the 1996 Machel study. The unlawful risks to their survival, development which children transition into civil
recruitment of children is a violation and well-being. society and assume meaningful roles
of international law and a source As revealed in the Machel study and identities as civilians who are
of physical, emotional, social and and subsequent reports, the causes of accepted by their families and
psychological harm.332 Yet despite recruitment are many and varied. communities, for the most part,
widespread initiatives to protect Children are most vulnerable to in a context of local and national
children and young people from recruitment when family and reconciliation.” They go on to say:
recruitment, gain their release and community protection systems are “Sustainable reintegration is achieved
reintegrate them into society, many when the political, legal, economic
weakened, basic services are lacking
continue to suffer and die as a direct and social conditions needed for
and livelihood options are limited. At
result of armed conflict. children to maintain life, livelihood,
particular risk are children living and
The term ‘children associated and dignity have been secured. This
working on the street, child labourers,
with armed forces and groups’ refers process aims to ensure that children
to persons under 18 years of age who children in conflict with the law and
can benefit from their rights, formal
have been recruited or used by an child victims of sexual exploitation.
and non-formal education, family
armed force or group in any capacity. Family members can become
unity, dignified livelihoods, and
This includes but is not limited to separated when fleeing from conflict.
safety from harm.”335
fighters, cooks, porters, messengers Yet having escaped the perils of
Thousands of children have been
and spies. It also includes children combat zones is no guarantee of a
assisted by formal and informal DDR
exploited for sexual purposes.333 safe and secure environment. Even
programmes. Since 1994, 34 formal
Children forced into combat or camps for refugees and the displaced processes have been carried out,
non-combat roles risk being killed, have become targets of parties to 22 of them in Africa.336 In Liberia
injured or permanently disabled. conflict. If such camps are not securely alone, more than 11,000 children
They may be forced to witness or guarded, child recruitment is likely were registered in formal DDR
participate in atrocities. They are to increase.334 Lack of security in programmes. Hundreds of millions
deprived of their homes and families and around camps also increases the of dollars are allocated to such pro-
and, with that, the opportunity to vulnerability of children to other grammes each year. They cost an
develop physically and emotionally in rights violations, including sexual average of $1,565 per person.337
familiar and protective environments. violence and abduction. Experts caution that the presence
In many contexts, girls associated The types of assistance available of formal DDR programmes should
with armed forces or groups are for a child’s release from armed groups not be a precondition for the release
subjected to gender-based violence, often determine his or her ability to and reintegration of children. In
including sexual violence, and risk make the transition from military to fact, the majority of children who
contracting sexually transmitted civilian life and to securely integrate are disarmed, demobilized and
infections such as HIV. They may into society. For this reason, the reintegrated into society do so
become pregnant or give birth disarmament, demobilization and through informal processes. Some
PROGRESS IN POLICY
Afghanistan © UNICEF/NYHQ2004-0654/Brooks
AND PRACTICE
The Machel study emphasized that
“one of the most urgent priorities is
of these are children who escape communities. These include social to remove everyone under 18 years of
a combat situation or are left stigma, psychosocial distress, and lack age from armed forces.” Since that time,
behind and return directly to their of educational and livelihood options. progress in both policy and practice
communities. Others are forced into Successful reintegration, therefore, is has emerged out of extensive consul-
hiding and migrate to urban areas one of the most important steps in tations involving multiple stakehold-
or other countries. ensuring a child’s well-being. ers and experience on the ground.
For many children, recognition
Key developments at the global
and participation in DDR processes WHAT THE MACHEL level. Among the highlights of
can play an important protection STUDY SAID international action against child
role. In Uganda, the security clearance
The 1996 Machel study described the recruitment are the following:
and document given to children who
n
participation of adolescents and
were formerly involved with armed The 1997 Cape Town Principles,339
children in armed forces and groups
groups gives them a sense of resulting from a symposium
as one of the most alarming trends in
confidence that they can return to coordinated by UNICEF and the
contemporary warfare. It also observed
their communities without suspicion. NGO Working Group on the
that the “children most likely to become
In an informal demobilization Convention on the Rights of the
soldiers are those from impoverished
process in eastern Democratic Child, have been indispensable
and marginalized backgrounds and
Republic of the Congo, children in developing programmes to
those who have become separated
asked for demobilization papers as demobilize children used by
from their families.”
protection from re-recruitment and armed forces or groups and
By urging that child recruitment
from being charged as deserters.338 reintegrate them into society.
become part of the international
Experience over the past 10 years peace and security agenda, the study n The Optional Protocol to the CRC
has continued to demonstrate that provided the impetus for a deeper on the involvement of children in
children tend to confront enormous look at the issue. At the time of the armed conflict, which entered
challenges upon returning to their original Machel study, the move away into force in 2002, prohibits the
152 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“After I was taken to the front, they gave me blood to drink,
which they said was the first test, and will make me more and more brave.” –
Young man, age not specified, Liberia
compulsory recruitment of improved care for and protection preventing the recruitment and use of
children below age 18 into of children. It provides coherence children in armed forces and groups.
national armed forces and armed between governmental commit- This includes key legislative and
groups. It requires States to take ments, international obligations, policy actions at the national level,
“all feasible measures” to prevent and programme principles and such as ratifying and establishing
children from participating best practice. procedures to implement OPAC.
n
directly in hostilities. The protocol In 2007, the French Ministry of But expanded efforts are needed to
allows governments to set a Foreign Affairs partnered with respond in a more comprehensive
minimum voluntary recruitment UNICEF to organize a ministerial- way to this multifaceted problem.
age of over 15 years but prohibits level meeting entitled ‘Free For example, while a good deal
any recruitment of persons under Children from War’ to define of attention in recent years was
age 18 by armed groups. While ways to honour commitments dedicated to reintegrating Guinean
recognizing that States determine made through the Millennium children associated with fighting
their own international legal Declaration. Through a long con- forces in Côte d’Ivoire, Liberia and
obligations for voluntary sultative process, it also sought to Sierra Leone, as well as with the
recruitment age, many humani- update the Cape Town Principles Guinean militia Jeunes Volontaires,
tarian and human rights actors, and other technical guidance.342 very few prevention initiatives
including UNICEF, have urged The process is important because addressed the risk of ongoing child
States to set a minimum age of of the endorsement of the Paris recruitment. In Liberia, a reintegra-
18 in all circumstances.340 Commitments by 66 States. This tion programme for children
n now gives States, UN agencies, sponsored by UNICEF and local and
In 2006, standards for the
NGOs and other partners addi- international NGOs, in collaboration
disarmament, demobilization
tional leverage to advocate for with the Ministry of Social Affairs,
and reintegration of adults and
preventing unlawful recruitment included only one component to
children were presented to the
and supporting the unconditional prevent recruitment. In Sierra Leone,
General Assembly and have since
release and sustainable reintegra- reintegration activities ended in
become the basis for DDR pro-
tion of affected children.343 2005, despite ongoing cross-border
grammes sponsored by the United
and regional risks. The long-term
Nations. The standards provide a
A number of lessons and good prevention of recruitment has not
comprehensive set of guidelines,
practices have been useful in been given priority. 344
procedures and policies.341
promoting reintegration processes, Success tends to be found where
n The 2007 Paris Principles, a strengthening protection efforts and there is collaboration between UN
commitment made by 66 Member facilitating the transition of children entities, NGOs and communities
States to date, set legal and affected by armed conflict into civil to mobilize resources and build on
operational principles and society. They include: existing capacities. This may involve
guidelines to protect children establishing community protection
against recruitment and use in Developing long-term prevention networks and sensitizing community
armed conflict. This non-binding strategies. Efforts by governments, leaders to the issue. Experience in
document aims to help practioners the United Nations, NGOs and civil Angola suggests that some re-recruit-
ensure that processes lead to society have achieved some success in ment was prevented through an
154 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
FOLLOW-UP IS KEY TO SUCCESSFUL REINTEGRATION
There is growing recognition defined strategies in order to be cally focused on children. Although
that the skills acquired by recruited sustainable. Reintegration should many young people were recruited
children, such as organizational and therefore be an overarching priority and used by armed forces or armed
leadership abilities, can be transferred during all phases of the DDR process groups when they were children, they
to civilian life. This recognition (including planning, development may be older than 18 by the time of
highlights the potential of these skills and implementation), from the onset demobilization. However, they still
for empowerment, peacebuilding, of peace negotiations to long-term require assistance in the transition to
peer support, and individual resilience development strategies. adulthood. Recently, collaboration
and autonomy. Specific strategies for A decade of programming has expanded among key UN agencies,
girls’ protection should ensure that: knowledge has encouraged a turn including the International Labour
Organization (ILO), UNICEF and
n
towards more effective and diverse
Girls who are excluded or approaches to reintegration – the United Nations Development
unable to participate in DDR approaches that are inclusive, flexible, Programme (UNDP), along with
programmes are reached and grounded in the community and NGOs, to develop more coherent
given a choice to receive assistance. based on child rights. Follow-up programmes for young men and
Ideally, they should be contacted or monitoring activities should be women aged 15 to 24. A key area is
through networks of other girls conducted regularly “to monitor the economic support, which continues
who were associated with armed living conditions of the demobilized to be a major challenge. Recent ILO
forces or groups; children, the quality of their relation- experience, for example, suggests that
n ship with family members and the bolstering the livelihood skills of
Assistance involves consulting youth is not enough. Their parents
girls on their needs, encouraging level of their reintegration into the
community, and ... allow mediation and guardians also need economic
active participation and informing assistance to ensure that older
girls of their options. of disputes when necessary”.353
children have access to education as
part of the reintegration process.354
Promoting sustainable reintegration. REMAINING GAPS
The long-term success of reintegration Despite the widespread ratification of Providing ‘catch-up’ programmes in
depends largely on the availability of related treaties and commitments literacy, life skills and vocational
social and economic opportunities. made by governments, major progress training. Young people who have
Current programmes, however, are is yet to be seen in preventing the missed out on schooling and training
often too short in duration and too recruitment and use of children in opportunities are likely to be
limited in scope to achieve this end. armed conflict. Significant investment unemployed and marginalized.
The process of identifying durable is urgently needed in programme This increases their vulnerability
solutions in an unstable and econom- assistance for effective reintegration to recruitment and gender-based
ically deprived post-conflict society support. Other priorities have been violence. Those with a limited ability
should not be underestimated. Moving identified in numerous programme to read and write require skills that
from demobilization, transitional evaluations and review processes: can both lead to a livelihood and
care and reunification to long-term confer a measure of protection. In
reintegration poses challenges in Extending the age limit for inter- fact, both formal and non-formal
terms of operations and resource ventions. Most child protection education, along with skills training,
allocation. It also requires clearly agencies and initiatives are specifi- can make a significant difference in
156 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
whether a child or young person
reintegrates successfully.355
In many contexts, it has been
useful to combine literacy and non-
formal education programmes with
FARMING AND LIFE SKILLS BOOST CHANCES
activities devoted to income-generation
THAT CHILDREN IN SUDAN WILL REJECT VIOLENCE
and life skills. For young people with
more developed skills, promoting In South Kordofan (Sudan) a programme sponsored by the Food and
opportunities to secure a livelihood Agriculture Organization of the United Nations is teaching agricultural and
must be a priority. For children who
life skills to children and young people as an alternative to violence. The
have been released from armed
groups – as well as others who have Junior Farmer Field and Life Schools, which complement formal education,
missed out on education because of teach both traditional and modern agricultural practices. Students learn
the conflict – the emphasis needs to sowing and transplanting, weeding, irrigation, pest control, and the use and
be on ‘catch-up’ programmes in basic conservation of resources. Life skills are also emphasized, such as HIV
literacy and vocational training.
awareness and prevention, nutrition education and business skills.
Participants also receive psychosocial support. Even students who
Increasing job opportunities
for youths. In many post-conflict eventually opt out of farming as their primary livelihood are acquiring
societies, young people have little practical skills, such as gardening for subsistence, and are demonstrating
choice but to remain unemployed greater confidence and self-esteem.
or accept short-term, hazardous or
exploitative work.356 In Sierra Leone,
for example, children formerly
associated with armed forces or
groups have drifted back to mining
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and World Food Programme,
areas, working as low-paid diamond Getting Started! Running a junior farm field and life school, FAO and WFP, Rome, 2007.
diggers because they lack education and
safe opportunities to earn income.357
Support for livelihood development
can only partially succeed if it does
not take into account the realities of and are streamed into saturated resources. Such conditions make
post-conflict economies or the specific markets in particular vocations, effective programming especially
challenges of urban and rural envi- such as carpentry or hairdressing. challenging, particularly for reinte-
ronments. Training programmes often Typically, the biggest obstacle is gration programmes.
meet only short-term needs, including the barely functional state of local For all these reasons, vocational
psychosocial needs, but fail to provide economies. Employment opportuni- preparation programmes need to
a foundation for long-term employ- ties are virtually non-existent, people offer young people competitive and
ment. For example, young people learn have little income, and costs are high adaptable skills as well as substantially
skills that are not really marketable as a result of competition for scarce longer-term training in such fields
158 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“If the organization doesn’t provide machines after training,
[the training] is as good as useless. It’s like teaching someone to hunt
without giving them a spear.” – Young men, 18, Uganda
process in order to receive financial limits the flexibility and inclusivity RECOMMENDATIONS
remuneration.359 For these and other of programmes. The 10-year review of the Machel
reasons, current thinking on the study presented to the General
subject emphasizes support to all Providing long-term funding for
Assembly in 2007 called attention
children affected by armed conflict formal and informal DDR processes.
to the fact that the disarmament,
and their inclusion within strategies Reintegration is the most expensive
demobilization and reintegration
for post-conflict recovery. component of the disarmament,
of children requires programming
There will always be, however, demobilization and reintegration
process, partly because effective outside of formal DDR processes.
circumstances in which specialized It emphasized that reintegration has
agencies will need to deliver services programming requires longer-term
solutions. It is estimated that 70 per “wide-ranging aims, different for
to certain segments of the population. each boy and girl involved, including
Examples include girls who are cent of the resources invested in
DDR programmes go to reinsertion building emotional trust and
mothers or people living with HIV. reconciling with family and com-
An inclusive approach essentially and reintegration.361
Because DDR programmes occur munity, providing access to education
means that a programme can provide
during transitional post-conflict and developing a means of livelihood.”
tailored services to a group of children
periods, funding mechanisms do not Among other recommendations, the
with special circumstances while
necessarily have a long-term horizon. report stressed that reintegration
also responding to a wider range of
And it has been difficult to obtain programmes should include all
vulnerabilities. This poses many
funding and advocacy support for children affected by conflict. It also
programming challenges, including
more informal DDR programmes for said that such programmes must be
finding ways to balance support to
children, especially while a conflict is comprehensive and long term if they
specific groups with the imperative to
ongoing. Fortunately, donors are are to succeed in preventing future
build a protective environment for all
recognizing the value of release recruitment. Additional recommen-
children affected by armed conflict, and reintegration programmes for dations follow:
particularly when funding is scarce. children in advance of formal peace
In Uganda, several humanitarian and DDR processes, including the 1. Ensure adequate financial
organizations have attempted to role that such programmes can play support to prevent child
develop programmes centred on the in preventing re-recruitment. recruitment. Donors should
causes of vulnerability rather than As agreed by the agencies and significantly increase the amount
focusing on a particular group. This governments that subscribed to the of flexible, long-term funding
is proving to be effective, although Paris Principles and Paris Commit- available for preventing child
the criteria used to identify vulnera- ments, longer-term commitments recruitment and re-recruitment.
bilities are still being refined.360 should last a minimum of three to UN agencies and international
Ensuring that programming five years and aim for sustainable NGOs should advocate for
meets the needs of all children is integration or reintegration in formal funding commitments to last a
intrinsically linked with funding and informal programmes. In addition, minimum of three years and to
channels and disbursement. Often, there must be better understanding include a biannual review by the
limited funds for DDR processes and recognition of post-conflict follow-up forum established by
are earmarked for specific target and transitional environments that the Paris Principles. This will
groups and interventions, which experience low-level, chronic conflict. ensure that programme targets
are met and programming 3. Develop a stronger base of 4. Ensure that reintegration
gaps funded. evidence on which to devise strategies do not discriminate
future strategies. Donors and and do align with international
2. Provide technical assistance to
protection agencies should invest standards. UN agencies, inter-
develop appropriate policies more on research and evaluation
and strategies. Humanitarian national organizations and NGOs
to enhance the knowledge base on should ensure that reintegration
agencies should provide States reintegration support and informal
with coordinated assistance to strategies are consistent with the
and formal DDR processes.
develop policies to prevent Particular attention should be Paris Principles and the UN
recruitment, as well as for the given to children who do not Integrated Disarmament, Demo-
release, demobilization and rein- participate in a formal demobi- bilization and Reintegration
tegration of children and young lization process. Multiple lessons Standards. They should cover
people associated with armed and assessments from formal DDR all children affected by conflict,
forces or groups. Additionally, exercises in Africa need to be cross- not only those associated with
States, UN agencies and NGOs analysed with those from Asia and armed forces or groups. Strategies
should formalize a technical other regions and in contexts should adhere to rights-based
group with a mandate and budget outside of peace accords and formal and inclusive community-based
to monitor technical implementa- mechanisms. Expanded research approaches and should involve
tion and to share knowledge and collaboration with academic all sectors. Support should be
experiences on good practice – institutions could augment the
sensitive to the child’s gender and
both globally and nationally. rigour of methodologies.
appropriate for his or her age.
5. Focus on livelihood support.
Member States, UN agencies
and NGOs must better integrate
reintegration concerns for
children into broader national
strategies and socio-economic
KEY RESOURCES frameworks. They should heavily
Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, <www.child-soldiers.org/home>.
emphasize links between
I. McConnan and S. Uppard, ‘Children Not Soldiers: Guidelines for working with child
education, skills training and
soldiers and children associated with fighting forces’, Save the Children UK, London, socio-economic development
January 2001, <www.reliefweb.int/library/documents/2002/sc-children-dec01.htm>. as an important goal for peace-
‘The Paris Principles: The principles and guidelines on children associated with building and a strategy to prevent
armed forces or armed groups’, February 2007, <www.unicef.org/media/files/
Paris_Principles__-_English.pdf>. recruitment and re-recruitment.
United Nations Children’s Fund, ‘Children in Conflict and Emergencies’,
They should also promote safe
<www.unicef.org/protection/index_armedconflict.html>. private-sector initiatives to
United Nations Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Resource Centre, create an economically viable
<www.unddr.org/index.php>. environment for the reintegration
of children and youth. n
160 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
8.11 ENDING GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE AND SEXUAL EXPLOITATION
Gender-based violence is a broad that adolescent girls tend to be the particularly prevalent in capitals and
term for violence directed at an first to be victimized during armed big cities.
individual because of his or her gender. conflict and in conditions of severe In camp settings, girls may engage
It includes domestic physical abuse, economic hardship. The consequences in sex as a means to obtain food,
sexual violence, harmful traditional can be grave. Sexual violence can protection and/or basic necessities
practices (such as female genital have lifelong implications for a child’s such as plastic sheeting for shelter.
mutilation/cutting and childhood well-being and physical and emotional Exploitation can be exacerbated
marriage) and sex trafficking. development. Apart from serious when assistance to camp populations
Gender-based violence is funda- psychological effects, sexual violence is decreased, either as a means to
mentally rooted in gender inequality can cause severe physical harm, encourage repatriation or due to
and discrimination, affecting women including genital lesions, traumatic technical or funding difficulties.
and girls disproportionately. Nearly fistula and other wounds. Additional Trafficking for sexual exploitation
one third of adolescent girls worldwide effects are unwanted pregnancies and continues to be at the forefront of
report that their first sexual experience the danger of contracting HIV and risks to children – girls as well as
was forced.362 Almost half of all other sexually transmitted infections. boys. Conflict zones are often the
sexual assaults are against girls 15 Rape victims365 and children born point of origin and the transit routes
years or age of younger.363 One out of rape often experience rejection, for trafficking as well as destination
of three women has been physically stigma, fear and increased poverty areas. Warlords and armed forces
or sexually abused at some point in upon their return home. In Burundi, regularly seek to profit from criminal
her lifetime.364 survivors revealed that “they had been activities and are in a position to
But the peacetime reality of exploit children who may be displaced.
mocked, humiliated and rejected by
gender-based violence pales in com- Trafficking that leads to enslave-
women relatives, classmates, friends
parison with what occurs during war ment, prostitution and rape can
and neighbours because of the abuse
and its aftermath. Although clearly constitute a war crime. In most
they had suffered.”366
prohibited under international law, countries, it is a violation of domestic
In both emergency and post-
systematic violence against women penal law. Nevertheless, it appears
and girls is often employed to achieve conflict contexts, high rates of to be flourishing, with international
military or political objectives. It may unemployment, lack of basic services, organized crime gangs and mafias/
include such actions as terrorizing and and the breakdown in community cartels playing a significant role.
displacing communities, providing infrastructure and social structure Frequently, trafficked children
incentives for irregularly paid rebels limit economic opportunities and do not return to their community or
to bear arms and using torture social protection. Poverty and a lack country of origin for fear of further
during interrogations. of options for earning a livelihood human rights violations, such as
Sexual violence has become make young girls especially vulne- retribution by traffickers, stigma by
an increasingly common aspect of rable, leading to a high risk of sexual their community or the risk of being
contemporary warfare, although its full exploitation. Such children may migrate trafficked again. And they often face
scope is difficult to quantify because of in search of safer environments or to difficulties when applying for refugee
under-reporting and data-collection gain access to shelter and basic services. status because asylum countries are
challenges. It is well known that boys Subsistence income is frequently often reluctant to recognize the need
are victimized by sexual violence as sought through dangerous and illegal for international protection on these
well as girls. However, it is also clear activities such as the sex trade. This is grounds alone.
Source: A. Ager et al., ‘From Incidents to Incidence: Measuring GBV amidst war and displacement’,
United Nations Humanitarian Perspectives Discussion Series, New York, 2007.
162 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
PROGRESS IN POLICY
AND PRACTICE
Taking action at the global level.
The need to increase protection from
sexual and gender-based violence has
been receiving heightened attention
in Member States, non-governmental
organizations and the United Nations
system itself. However, tangible
progress has been incremental.
In 1998, the Rome Statute of
the International Criminal Court
recognized that acts of sexual violence
committed in a situation of armed
conflict can constitute a war crime.
Wars in the former Yugoslavia and
Rwanda led to strong provisions on
sexual violence in the International
Criminal Court and resulted in
important prosecutions. More
recently, arrest warrants have been
issued against perpetrators of gender-
based violence and other crimes in
the Democratic Republic of the
Congo, the Sudan and Uganda. Liberia © UNICEF/NYHQ2007-0664/Pirozzi
In October 2000, Security Council
Resolution 1325, a non-binding
policy framework, called on parties in
armed conflict to implement special Resolution 1612 called for systems to conflict settings. The resolution
measures to protect women and girls monitor and report certain violations reiterates that sexual violence is a
from gender-based violence. The of child rights perpetrated by armed war crime, a crime against humanity
Security Council has also begun groups or forces in armed-conflict and a constituent act of genocide. It
to examine the issue of systematic settings. These include rape and advances efforts to sanction perpetra-
violence against women as a threat to sexual violence against children. tors and raise the political, military
international peace and security. This In June 2008, the Security Council and economic costs of such violence.
was evidenced by the specific call for unanimously adopted Resolution Increasingly, stakeholders are
reporting on efforts taken to protect 1820, which recognizes the new role working together to ensure systematic
women in some mandate renewals. sexual violence has taken on in and comprehensive responses at the
And in July 2005, Security Council contemporary conflict and post- global, regional, national and local
164 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“I lost my father and my mother because of the war. A neighbour
took me into his home to look after his children in Bujumbura.
He raped me and I found myself pregnant, unwillingly. I came back
home pregnant but I was chased away, so I returned to Bujumbura.
I provoked an abortion and because of it was put in prison. I had been
sentenced to life, but thanks to a presidential pardon my sentence
was reduced to 20 years.” – Young woman, 20, Burundi
166 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
SENSITIZING THE POLICE TO GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE
168 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
3. Implement non-negotiable and micro-loans and credit. In address men and boys. This implies
systematic codes of conduct. addition, these measures should promotion of gender-equitable
UN agencies and international adhere to international labour attitudes and behaviours in
NGOs should implement stan- standards, such as ILO communities, and participation
dardized and systematic codes of Conventions 182, which calls of youth in developing key
conduct regarding sexual violence for the elimination of the worst messages and campaigns.
and exploitation that should forms of child labour, and 138,
6. Provide substantial and long-
include a unified zero-tolerance which establishes a minimum age
term funding to develop
policy for all humanitarian staff, for employment.
comprehensive strategies.
peacekeepers, and international
5. Invest in changing attitudes Overall, funds are inadequate
and national partners. Specifically,
and behaviours. To challenge to address the extent of the
this should include training
the social, cultural, economic and problem and meet the needs of
peacekeepers, and law enforce-
political determinants of violence, survivors. Increased, predictable
ment officers to address the needs
UN agencies and NGOs should and sustained funding by donors
of girls and to respond to ensure adequate resources are is a necessity, while diversion of
allegations; providing progress invested in public information funding from other areas must
reports to the UN Secretary- and education strategies that be avoided. n
General on combating sexual
exploitation and abuse from staff
of UN agencies and NGOs; and
preparing child-friendly
complaint mechanisms.
4. Programme for education
and livelihood support. UN
agencies, international partners KEY RESOURCES
and NGOs should support
Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘Sexual and Gender-Based Violence
accessible education and liveli- against Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons: Guidelines for prevention
hood measures based on compre- and response’, UNHCR, May 2003, <www.rhrc.org/pdf/gl_sgbv03.pdf>.
hensive analyses that focus on Stop Rape Now website, ‘UN Action against Sexual Violence in Conflict’,
girls and their families for <www.stoprapenow.org>.
prevention of exploitation and United Nations Children’s Fund, ‘Child Protection from Violence, Exploitation and Abuse’,
abuse, empowerment of women <www.unicef.org/protection/index.html>.
and girls, and social protection. United Nations Inter-Agency Standing Committee, ‘Guidelines on Gender-based Violence
Interventions in Humanitarian Settings: Focusing on prevention of and response to sexual
Specifically, this includes partner- violence in emergencies’, IASC, Geneva, September 2005, <www.humanitarianinfo.org/
ships with the private sector iasc/content/products/docs/tfgender_GBVGuidelines2005.pdf>.
for long-term employment WomenWarPeace.org, a portal on women, peace and security,
strategies and apprenticeship <www.womenwarpeace.org/issues/violence/>.
opportunities; vocational and World Health Organization, ‘Sexual and Gender-based Violence in Emergencies’,
skills training; participatory <http://www.who.int/hac/techguidance/pht/SGBV/en/>.
172 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“I believe that a change can occur.
War can be stopped.” – Young woman, 15, Pakistan
Machel study, also drew attention ment operations, the United Nations effective form of protection is to
to root causes as well as practical established a Peacebuilding Commis- prevent war in the first place while
measures to prevent conflict: sion in 2005. It now refers to ‘peace- promoting peace and reconciliation.
building’ as a specific set of activities “The International Community must
States, international and regional
designed to assist post-accord shatter the political inertia that allows
organizations, NGOs, community
countries in moving from war circumstances to escalate into armed
leaders, the private sector and youth
to sustainable peace. conflict and destroy children’s lives,”
must address, in concrete terms, the
However, there are inherent the Machel study urged. “This means
root causes of conflict, including
complexities in defining and addressing the root causes of violence
inequity, poverty, racism, ineffective
measuring peace and conflict and promoting sustainable and equitable
governance and impunity, which
prevention. Despite the creation patterns of human development.”
lead to the denial of children’s
of the commission, no clearly But the Machel study went beyond
economic, social, cultural, civil
articulated peacebuilding paradigm this, recognizing the fundamental
and political rights. We commit to
practical and comprehensive conflict or timeline has emerged. A 2006 nature of children’s contributions
prevention measures, including United Nations Capacity in Peace- to building a lasting peace in their
conflict prevention initiatives, building Inventory highlighted this societies. Mrs. Machel wrote that
mediation, child protection as one of the greatest challenges in “part of putting children at the centre
networks, early warning and operationalizing peacebuilding and means using youth as a resource.”
response systems, alternatives in determining what constitutes a In 2007, the Machel review
for adolescents at risk, and the ‘successful’ peace.379 The same presented to the General Assembly
promotion of conflict resolution ambiguity remains today. emphasized the centrality of children
skills and education.376 That said, two points are clear: to conflict prevention and peace-
First, peacebuilding and conflict building by stating that all efforts
Both conflict prevention and peace- prevention involve many of the same should be made to integrate and
building require the willingness and actions on the ground because they mainstream children’s concerns into
capacity of the population to resolve aim for the same outcome. Second, such processes.
conflict by non-violent means, children and young people need to be
which must be sustained through an integral part of any peacebuilding PROGRESS AND GAPS
generations. Yet sadly, one of the or conflict prevention strategy or IN POLICY AND PRACTICE
best predictors of future conflict is intervention, in any sector, for the
having recently emerged from one: results to be durable. In addition, Since the mid-1990s, the international
About half the countries transitioning child-specific indicators should be community, including the United
from war will likely slip back into developed to measure peace. Nations, regional organizations and
conflict within a decade.377 According NGOs, has made some progress in
to one assessment, all ‘new’ conflicts building a foundation for peace.
in 2005 and 2006 were actually post- WHAT THE MACHEL
conflict relapses.378 STUDY SAID Linking global and local efforts.
In response, and in order to Graça Machel was very clear in 1996: In 2006, then Secretary-General
draw international attention and We can spend a lot of energy and Kofi Annan noted that a “culture of
resources to the ‘transition gap’ resources protecting children from prevention” was taking root at the
between humanitarian and develop- the impact of war, but the most United Nations.380 Policymakers
and studies, including the World than 1,000 civil society organizations towards this end. Comprised of UN
Report on Violence against Children, formed in 2005. As stated in its Global and non-UN humanitarian groups
increasingly cite prevention as the Action Agenda, effective strategies focusing on disasters and conflict,
way forward in terms of protecting combine ‘bottom-up’ and ‘top-down’ the Committee regularly puts out
children and young people and action, but local ownership is essential.384 an Early Warning/Early Action
addressing their concerns.381 The While few child-focused or youth report through one of its working
2007 World Programme of Action for organizations have yet to become part groups. But the influence of such
Youth pointed to peace and security of the network, the Global Partnership reports on political decision-making
as the chief elements necessary to has selected peace education and is debatable.387
achieve the goals it laid out.382 And conflict resolution in schools as the In addition, few organizations
on 12 February 2008, the President of first pilot project for its Knowledge have integrated the impact on
the Security Council said in a written Generation and Sharing Network.385 children and children’s involvement
statement: “The Security Council The Alliance of Civilizations, created into their criteria for predicting
stresses … the need to adopt a broad in 2005 under the auspices of the conflict. Monitoring and reporting
strategy of conflict prevention, which United Nations, also identified youth mechanisms such as those
addresses the root causes of armed as a priority for its work. In seeking implemented with Security Council
conflict in a comprehensive manner, to integrate a youth perspective into Resolution 1612 can be useful in
in order to enhance the protection all its projects, including cross- sounding the alarm to prevent
of children on a long-term basis.”383 cultural and inter-religious dialogues, further recruitment of children. But
Creating a culture of prevention the Alliance collaborates with broad
for a response to be truly preventive,
and a culture of peace require building networks of youth organizations
action must take place at a much
institutions and capacities at all around the world.386
earlier stage.388
levels. Although some progress has
Early warning constitutes an
been made at the global level (partic- Creating effective early warning
ularly in policymaking) and at the important area of work only if it leads
systems. Conflict prevention, like
country level, the links are few and any risk management strategy, also to early action. Such action remains
far between. Country-level interven- requires careful diagnosis and rare, largely due to lack of political will
tions are still not as strategic, system- ‘upstream’ action, well before a crisis and consensus. In fact, while a culture
atized, well documented or supported breaks out. Towards this end, effective of prevention may be taking root
as they should be. The opposite is early warning systems are essential. conceptually, in many senses a ‘culture
also true – global policymaking is A growing number of institutions, of reaction’ still prevails. Within the
often not fully informed by country- both within and outside the UN UN system there are a number of
level experiences. system, now regularly monitor and bodies, some bringing together various
Local knowledge and networks, analyse conflicts. A good deal of work parts of the system, that can review
linked internationally, are essential has been done to develop indicators. situations and make decisions when a
for effective strategies both to protect But no systematic approach has yet conflict is imminent. But making
the rights of children and to enable evolved to bring together the diverse similar decisions earlier in the conflict
them to contribute meaningfully. One perspectives needed to identify cycle continues to be a challenge.
noteworthy example is the Global situations in a way that will spark The early stage is when prevention
Partnership for the Prevention of preventive action. The Inter-Agency can be most effective, and when
Armed Conflict, a network of more Standing Committee is working children and young people have the
174 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
greatest role to play. To the extent pilot programmes in Burundi, development and humanitarian
that their participation can involve Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone. practice since 1999. They have helped
them in creating stability and positive In Burundi and Sierra Leone,391 organizations design programmes
life options as alternatives to violence, youth have been identified as that, at the very least, do not exacerbate
so much the better. In Nepal, for priorities, and relevant programmes tensions and, at best, contribute to
example, schools were frequently have been recommended. This prevention.392 In March 2007, the
caught in the crossfire between the attention to youth is important, UN Development Group’s Working
army and non-state combatants. but it should not overshadow Group on Post-Crisis and Transition
As part of a larger advocacy effort, the rights of younger children. adopted a guidance tool on integrating
children and children’s clubs declared In-country UN leaders should prevention into UN country strategies.
themselves to be ‘zones of peace’ and ensure that children’s concerns are UN conflict analyses have also
effectively spread the message that incorporated and given priority. informed post-conflict needs assess-
no one was allowed to enter school At the same time, such efforts as ments in Haiti, Somalia and the
grounds with arms (see box on page the Peacebuilding Commission are Sudan, among other countries, as
181).389 In Sri Lanka, mothers came limited in scope. Governments have well as a number of UN country
together to force those attempting primary responsibility to ensure strategies. Their use needs to be more
to recruit children into combat integration of children’s issues into systematic, however, and thus far,
out of their villages. And in Côte all national and subnational peace- issues affecting children have been
d’Ivoire, thousands of children building strategies and frameworks, largely excluded.
participate in local recreation centres; and to place these on the Commission’s Donors are increasingly identify-
as a result, few were drawn into the agenda. Donors must support these ing the need to look at peacebuilding
country’s recent conflict.390 Such efforts financially, and the UN system and conflict prevention through this
early action needs to be strengthened, must support them through its lens. But there has been little synergy
based on additional research and mandate, expertise and on-the-ground in the way that peacebuilding agents
documentation. capacity for implementation. engage with sector specialists working
The key question is this: Just as in related areas. And few agencies have
children’s concerns are increasingly Adopting conflict-sensitive developed sector-specific or cross-
incorporated into peace agreements approaches. Aid as well as develop- sectoral frameworks geared towards
and negotiations, how can they be ment and humanitarian assistance preventing conflict and building peace.
built into multilateral processes and can have unintended consequences In terms of programming focused on
national strategies to prevent conflict? on the dynamics of conflict. And all children, an early attempt to make
too often they are negative. these links was a matrix of indicators
Developing mechanisms for The non-neutrality of aid is to identify the relationship between
post-conflict peacebuilding. The becoming more widely understood education and conflict, developed by
Peacebuilding Commission could be by the international community and the Canadian International Develop-
one entry point for addressing the aid agencies. As a result, the use of ment Agency in 1999.393 Organizations
concerns of children and young conflict analysis tools and method- such as Save the Children have also
people as part of a peacebuilding ologies, such as peace and conflict begun to look at the impact of education
strategy. Since its inception in 2005, impact assessments and ‘do no harm’ on conflict and peace in their Rewrite
the Commission has helped develop analyses, have gained traction in the Future Campaign.394
176 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
But the study emphasized that laying
such groundwork is “indispensable
to rebuilding shattered societies” and
to conflict prevention.
Progress can be seen in terms of
the global frameworks that have been PROMOTING PEACE EDUCATION
AMONG REFUGEES IN AFRICA
established and in the burgeoning
number of peace education initiatives. Since 1998 the Peace Education Programme has been carried out in camps
In 1998, the United Nations declared
and refugee settlements in 13 African countries, jointly implemented by
2001–2010 to be the International
INEE and UNHCR. It has now been incorporated into the education curricula
Decade for a Culture of Peace and
Non-Violence for the Children of the of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya and Liberia – a testament to
World. The designation was described the programme’s effectiveness. It covers both formal and non-formal
as an attempt to inspire a global move- community education for adults and out-of-school youth, based on the
ment to foster peace by promoting concept that peace is everyone’s responsibility.
“the principles of freedom, justice
The programme methodology is rights-based. It centres on children’s
and democracy, all human rights,
psychological and ethical development and is designed to promote skills
tolerance and solidarity.” 400
that build positive and constructive behaviour. Many graduates have formed
Teaching peace and non-violence. peace committees to minimize conflicts within and among communities;
Peace education programmes aim some youth groups have initiated sports and cultural events promoting
to build capacity by developing
non-violence. The programme has had a major, though unplanned, benefit
knowledge, and cognitive, interper-
sonal and self-management skills, on women’s empowerment and power sharing within communities. One
attitudes and values that prevent lesson already learned is that success depends on adults in the community
conflict and contribute to a culture reinforcing the skills and values children learn in school – and vice versa.402
of peace.401 Such programmes often
seek to reinforce empathy and tolerance
and an appreciation of diversity,
cooperation and respect. Others take
a life-skills approach, emphasizing
social and emotional development
and HIV prevention as well as peer
mediation and dispute resolution.
Such programmes target both formal
and informal education and take Peace education has been applied UNICEF collaborated with local
diverse forms, from developing in a range of contexts. In areas with education experts to build conflict
school curricula and material to ongoing conflict, programmes tend to resolution and non-violence into
campaigns for peaceful coexistence respond to the effects of such conflict the curricula of public and private
using art, theatre or sports. on children. In Aceh, for example, schools. Peace education is offered
178 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
DRAWING YOUTH INTO PEACEBUILDING IN LIBERIA
It is a widely held view in Liberia that the country’s conflict was fuelled
by disenfranchised youth. As part of the peacebuilding process, therefore,
the country carried out extensive consultations nationwide and hosted a
National Youth Conference in 2005, all of which fed into the development
of a National Youth Policy.
Cypriots, in politically neutral The policy has been generally well received. It raised the profile of
locations outside contested areas or
youth issues and empowered youth organizations to take part, actively and
areas of hostilities. But caution is
necessary. Although they can be formally, in high-level processes, including the Truth and Reconciliation
valuable, exchange programmes have Commission and the National Electoral Commission. However, awareness
sometimes resulted in questionable of the policy still needs to be raised, especially in rural districts. Another
outcomes, especially when children positive outcome appears to be improved perceptions of youth by adults,
are placed face to face with peers
many of whom previously held condescending views of the younger
who may not have experienced the
same hardships resulting from war. generation’s potential.407
Research has shown this can increase
frustration and alienation and, at
worst, be counterproductive.406
ADDRESSING ROOT
CAUSES OF CONFLICT
Since children and young people are
integral to successful peacebuilding,
they must also be part of any attempt education can affect future employ- As UNICEF’s post-crisis strategy
to address the structural and more ment opportunities and become the points out, it is not about doing more
immediate causes of conflict. seeds of conflict. Similarly, education during this time, it is about doing
Many observers think of political without the possibility of employ- more things differently. Below is a
agreements, security, economic ment can also breed dissent. brief discussion of the sectors that
development or good governance as It is clear that many international should be addressed:
key to peacebuilding and prevention. organizations and NGOs committed
What they often fail to see is the role to working for children’s rights now see Promoting good governance. The
that children can play in these processes. peacebuilding and conflict prevention development of good governance
There are implications for as important components of their is key to addressing equity and
children under each of these categories, work. The Christian Children’s Fund, accountability. It covers a range of
not only in terms of their potentially Save the Children, UNICEF and War activities, including strengthening
positive – or negative, if neglected – Child Holland, for example, all have public administration, and requires
impact, but also in terms of how peacebuilding programmes that the establishment of government
‘getting it right’ will enhance children’s actively engage children. But for peace systems that reflect the needs of
contributions to peacebuilding in to last, these interventions need to be the whole population, including
their communities for years to come. strategic, systematized, supported, and children and young people.
A number of sectors require new linked to national and international Post-conflict situations offer a
thinking and holistic approaches to mechanisms. In addition, improved window of opportunity for changing
address long-standing problems and programming requires assembling systems of governance: Constitutions
prevent future flashpoints. For and sharing a body of evidence on can be rewritten or new legislation
example, disparities in access to children and peacebuilding. devised, including laws that relate
specifically to children. Electoral political agenda and ensure they are and Guatemala have high rates of
democracy often receives high not excluded from the political process. criminality in part because of poor
priority in post-conflict contexts, Such policies and processes should demilitarization and security sector
but it often excludes adolescents at define the role of youth in society, reform. Furthermore, repressive
the very point when it is strategically and the responsibility of society to policies that routinely violate the
important to give them political youth. Their purpose should be rights of young people have become
alternatives to violence. This, too, threefold: to enable youth to identify the norm to combat criminality in a
needs to be addressed by supporting major issues that affect them; to number of countries in the Latin
young people to participate in certain promote the establishment of services America and Caribbean region.412
aspects of the political process. The and structures to meet their needs; It is vital to listen to how children
failure to do so in South Africa, for themselves perceive their security and
and to encourage youth to participate
example, led many young people to to consider their priorities when
in decision-making processes.410
feel alienated and betrayed – after designing policy and programmes.
having fought actively in the struggle While this is increasingly recognized,
Reforming the security sector.
against apartheid.408 children’s ability to play active roles
Programming options include Children and youth routinely talk
about the need for safety and security in creating safe spaces in which they
youth organizations, youth participa- can grow and flourish is often
tion in community decision-making as a primary concern.411 A secure
environment is vital for their develop- overlooked. One arena in which
and media made by young people children can have a big impact is at
for young people, as well as non- ment and for accessing basic services.
Without it they cannot participate the community level. In Zambia, for
traditional forms of expression, such example, children were instrumental
as music and theatre, that give young meaningfully in building peace in
their communities. Girls, moreover, in creating school councils that are
people a public voice. ‘Golden Kids helping curb violence in educational
News’, a popular Sierra Leone radio have specific security requirements.
institutions; in Angola, children are
programme ‘by kids and for kids’, is Security sector reform is now
reporting on violations of their rights.413
an example of how young people recognized as a core peacebuilding
Such actions can also place children
can get their opinions heard and activity. It comprises strengthening
in stronger positions to negotiate
kick-start debate on issues important government strategic planning,
with adults to prevent unacceptable
to them.409 justice systems, accountability
behaviour or violence.414
Developing national youth mechanisms and civilian oversight
policies is another way to ensure that of the military. Just as peacekeeping Creating well-functioning judicial
youth can contribute to democratic missions have standards and policies systems. Well-functioning judicial
governance. These policies should be specific to children, they must not be systems, including those for juvenile
drafted with the active participation overlooked when supporting States justice, are essential to protect
of youth representatives, reflecting in developing or reforming their children and fulfil their rights. Doing
their diverse regions, ages, gender and security sectors. This is true both this correctly means respecting
social strata, especially including from a human security standpoint human rights: Because children in
those who are marginalized. This (i.e., ensuring children’s safety) and conflict with the law often suffer
approach can promote accountability as a measure to prevent conflict. Post- from social and economic hardships
to young people, place them on the conflict countries such as El Salvador and are denied their basic rights,
180 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
CHILDREN AS ZONES OF PEACE415
good justice systems go hand in
The idea that a gathering of children should constitute a ‘zone of peace’ –
hand with equitable development.
In post-conflict countries, that is, a place where children are safeguarded and have access to essential
achieving a balance between recon- services – first emerged during the 1980s. Agreements were negotiated
ciliation and justice is all-important. between warring parties to stop the bloodshed during what were called
Research has shown that to restore ‘days of tranquillity’ or ‘corridors of peace’, the first of which was an immu-
respect for the rule of law and children’s nization campaign in El Salvador.416 The idea has transformed considerably
sense of justice it is important that
since the early days. It is now being implemented more systematically to
perpetrators be held accountable for
their actions. When they are not, a prevent some of the harmful effects of war on children and to promote their
lingering sense of injustice can participation in peacebuilding.
contribute to the desire for revenge During the conflict in Nepal, for example, children put the concept into
and ongoing social tensions. practice in partnership with government officials. They began by cultivating
Children and young people also the idea that schools, which had sometimes been used as recruiting
need to have a role in reconciliation
grounds for children, should be safe havens. The concept caught on and
efforts. Not only have they been
victimized by war, many have been led to formation of a national coalition as well as public commitment of
perpetrators as well: those children support by five major political parties. Child protection guidelines for
and young people who have been security forces were subsequently circulated by the Office of the Prime
associated with armed groups also Minister. When the Government declared schools to be zones of peace,
need a chance to heal and be accepted
the edict was respected by both warring parties.417 Now, in a post-conflict
back into their communities. Children
environment, the Children as Zones of Peace initiative supports government
have contributed to national recon-
ciliation processes in a number of efforts to set up comprehensive child protection systems at all levels. Child
countries, including Guatemala and representatives now attend village protection committees – one clear sign
South Africa. But what stands out that the programme is on the right track.
most is their role in Sierra Leone’s
Truth and Reconciliation Commission
(see box in chapter 6, ‘Children’s
participation in truth and recon-
ciliation commissions’). The key is
to ensure that children’s contribu-
tions to such processes are not mere
tokenism but are truly meaningful
and will lead to genuine reform.
A significant challenge to building broader national reconciliation the local level where children and
peace is ensuring that communities efforts. Effective reconciliation at the young people often play the most
receive the attention they deserve. community level lies at the heart of effective and powerful roles.
Communities bear the brunt of war converting societies from cultures of In Rwanda, children and young
but can often feel detached from war to cultures of peace. It is also at people have come together to create
182 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
fically to engaging children and causes of conflict. Programming affecting children into broader
young people in peacebuilding and should be designed to enable their conflict resolution and peace-
conflict prevention follow: participation and be appropriate building interventions. All pro-
1. Invest more heavily in conflict to their evolving capacities, and it gramming for children should be
prevention. Governments have should reflect their contributions more conflict-sensitive.
the primary responsibility for and perspectives. This must not
be a token exercise; rather, it should 5. Assemble and share a body of
preventing structural and more
be followed by concrete action. evidence on children and peace-
immediate causes of armed
conflict. The international building and conflict prevention.
4. Ensure that all development and All actors, including Member
community and the United humanitarian programming is
Nations play a supporting States, UN agencies and civil
sensitive to conflicts. Humanitarian
role, and they should invest in society, should monitor and
and development actors, UN
strengthening national capacities evaluate peacebuilding program-
Member States, UN agencies and
for peace and conflict prevention. ming to assess the capacities of
NGOs should assess the impact of
This involves both government children and young people in
their programmes and strategies
and civil society, including this role. A body of evidence
on conflict and peace. The goal is
children and young people. should be established, which
to better understand potential risk
2. Promote the links between child factors, underlying tensions, and could then provide guidance
rights and conflict prevention/ the capacities of children and in applying conflict-sensitive
peacebuilding. Governments, the youth to both prevent conflict approaches to development, post-
United Nations, and local and and build peace. This includes conflict transition and emergency
international civil society must improved integration of issues phases of programming. n
systematically build the links
between the rights of children and
their involvement in conflict
prevention and peacebuilding –
both vertically, from the local to
the international level, and ‘side-
ways’, in on-the-ground operations
and peacebuilding processes.
KEY RESOURCES
3. Empower children and young
‘Children and Security Sector Reform’, Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of
people to be forces for peace and Armed Forces (DCAF), <www.dcaf.ch/children-security/_publications.cfm>.
conflict prevention. Children
Global Campaign for Peace Education, <www.haguepeace.org/index.php?action>.
and young people are an integral
Global Partnership for the Prevention of Armed Conflict, <www.gppac.net>.
part of successful efforts to prevent
conflict and build peace. It follows Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) Peace Education Programme,
<www.ineesite.org/peaceed>.
that they must be specifically
United Nations Peacebuilding Commission, <www.un.org/peace/peacebuilding/>.
included in any attempt to address
the structural and more immediate
During preparation of this 10-year about the resources and support needed health, education, vocational
review of the Machel study, the views to be effective at the grass roots. The training and capacity building.
n
of 1,700 children in 92 countries were energy, insight and creativity with People’s Health Development
sought to help pave the way forward. which children responded were strong Association (Phnom Penh,
The material was gathered in a ‘Voices evidence that they are determined Cambodia): It offers life skills
of Youth’ companion booklet and and capable of being positive forces training and health services, a
launched as part of the presentation for change in their societies. youth centre and counselling for
to the General Assembly in 2007. Although the time and resources young people in Phnom Penh.
available for the follow-up survey
n
The booklet highlighted eight specific
allowed only limited outreach, positive Action des jeunes pour le
requests – or ‘demands’, in the words Développement Communautaire
of the children – that they would responses came from youth organiza-
tions in Afghanistan, Cambodia, the et la Paix (Goma, Democratic
like to see implemented in their Republic of the Congo): It
communities and across the globe: Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Haiti, Iraq, Somalia and Timor-Leste. advocates for human rights and
n We want our rights to be respected. The organizations were asked to for protection of marginalized
children and youth. It also
n We want justice and to be safe review the eight demands listed
provides training and safe spaces
from violence. above, consult with members of their
for peaceful dispute resolution.
organizations and communities, and
n We want to learn. answer the following questions: n Concelho Nacional Juventude
n
de Timor-Leste (Timor-Leste):
We want to be healthy. 1. What are the three most urgent It enhances the capacity of youth
n
demands in your community? organizations through facilitation
We want jobs and a means
to survive. 2. What needs to be done to realize and bridging with government and
n
those demands? donor agencies. It also facilitates
We want more support and care community reintegration through
for the excluded and forgotten. 3. What support do children, young dialogue and peace campaigns.
n
people and their organizations
We just want to be children. need to contribute to this change? n Union des Amis Socio Culturels
n We want to participate. d’Action en Développement
The participating organizations, (Port-au-Prince, Haiti): It supports
Since the focus of this report is on which work at the community level the creation of local youth groups
action, a follow-up survey was subse- on issues ranging from the protection and provides materials and training
quently undertaken among youth-led of child rights to media training to on education, health care, human
organizations to seek ways to satisfy conflict resolution, included: rights and the environment.
these demands. Youth organizations n Health and Development Centre n Iraqi Democratic Coalition for
are often even better positioned than for Afghan Women (Kabul, Youth Empowerment (Baghdad,
those headed by adults to understand Afghanistan): It implements Iraq): It improves opportunities
and connect with other children and projects related to women’s rights for young people by providing
young people. And because of their and gender-based violence against literacy and leadership training,
experience, many of these organiza- girls and women in Afghanistan and advocates for children’s and
tions can provide practical suggestions through work in the areas of women’s rights.
186 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
n Youth Development Organiza- for children, especially those who Access to basic services
tion (Bosaso, Somalia): It offers are abused and exploited. But youth- Young people see education, health
youth development programmes led organizations also pressed their care and nutritious food as vital to
in sports, education, health and case for change in their communities, their development. They suggest that
job creation and trains young noting the obligation of govern- NGOs and humanitarian organizations
people in using the media to ments to help foster changes through focus on reaching areas where
reach out to their communities. better implementation and moni- governments are unable or unwilling
toring of policies already in place. to provide basic services. Where
Theconcerns raised most frequently education is not available for all or
CALLS FOR ACTION
follow, along with examples of more families cannot afford to send children
The most urgent call made by these specific recommendations: to school, they want more support
youth-led organizations is to be free for home schooling and financial
to grow into adulthood safe from incentives for parents. Young people
Security and justice
violence of any kind. They made it also ask for youth-friendly information
clear that when armed conflict com- Young people ask for stronger about health, diseases and nutrition,
promises children’s security, wholesale legislation and better enforcement and they push for youth-friendly
violations of child rights follow. of the rule of law, especially in rural services in health centres.
Without security, children and areas. They see clear links between More specifically, youth organi-
young people are denied the right to security and peacebuilding, peace zations suggest:
n
attend school, to play and compete education, and constructive dialogue Offering home schooling as
with each other, and to learn the between youth and authorities. In an alternative in communities
skills necessary for future jobs. They their responses, they emphasize where schooling for girls remains
are denied the right to participate in preventive measures that foster peace a challenge (Afghanistan);
and tolerance within their communities.
n
decision-making that affects their
More specifically, they suggest: Improving the quality of com-
lives, their communities, their munity health services and
countries and the world. n Providing educational opportuni- protecting the rights of young
The role of the community is ties on the topics of peace and clients (Cambodia);
paramount. In their recommendations,
n
tolerance as an alternative to
children and young people emphasize Supporting young people in
‘hate campaigns’ (the Democratic
the importance of looking for solutions providing information to their
Republic of the Congo);
peers on topics that are relevant
n
through dialogue with parents and
Training police forces, judicial to their lives, for example, through
local elders. Families and communities
officials and those involved in youth magazines (Somalia).
are seen as best equipped to respond
custodial care on issues related to
to children’s educational, health and
justice for children (Somalia); Cultural and recreational
psychosocial needs, and to foster
peace and tolerance. n Organizing training courses for opportunities
Most of the recommendations parents on peaceful coexistence Young people ask for safe spaces and
recognize that the State bears principal and non-violent conflict community centres where children
responsibility for protecting and caring resolution (Iraq). can play, interact and develop freely.
188 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
Although young people can accomplish circumstances. These networks provide n Alternative approaches to ensure
great things through volunteering and them with a sense of solidarity and that they receive basic services,
the creative use of their own (often shared understanding. Together they including improved access to
limited) resources, funding is required can identify ideas and activities that health-related information and
to build strong organizations and have worked and can learn from context-appropriate educational
create programmes that reach and each other. opportunities as well as stronger
involve marginalized youth. outreach to rural areas;
Many young people are well aware
n
MOVING FORWARD
of the needs in their communities, Spaces to engage with their peers
but they often lack management The youth-led organizations that were and to express themselves through
experience and the knowledge of how consulted emphasized that solutions various mediums, including
to work within ‘the system’. Young need to be rooted in their communities. culture, music and sports;
Nevertheless, they also recognized
n
people need skills training on such
that governments and the international Opportunities to develop liveli-
issues as project management and
community have an important role to hood skills and greater support for
grant writing as well as technical
play in ensuring that the right policies employment schemes that reflect
training in advocacy and policy work.
Young people want to work hand are in place and are implemented. the needs of their communities;
n
In order to move towards full
in hand with adults to find solutions Institutionalized channels for their
and effective implementation of the
for problems in their communities active and sustained participation
demands expressed by children and
and countries. They have the creativity so they can help shape the decisions
young people, youth organizations
and energy to make a difference, but that affect their lives;
proposed the following priorities:
they benefit from the experience and
guidance of adults. n Improved security in their com- n Greater resources and guidance
The youth-led organizations munities brought about by child- as they organize themselves to
consulted also had a clear vision of friendly judicial procedures and a work with their peers, adults and
their potential contributions through greater focus on prevention and others in tackling the challenges
children’s parliaments, councils and peacebuilding measures; in their communities. n
other mechanisms. Although they
expect their governments to provide
them with the necessary space to
operate, they want to maintain their
independence, make their own deci-
sions, undertake awareness campaigns
on key issues, mobilize their peers,
and serve as a link between their KEY RESOURCE
communities and governments.
Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict,
Finally, those consulted want to Global Youth Action Network, UNFPA, UNICEF and Women’s Commission for Refugee
be supported as they reach out to Women and Children, “Will You Listen?” Young voices from conflict zones, companion
other youth organizations, young booklet to the 10-year Machel Strategic Review, UNICEF, New York, October 2007.
192 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“We ARE the future, and people should be aware of that. Right now,
we are inheriting a very unstable world.” – Young woman, 16, Colombia
programme standards on and prosecution of crimes against Criminal Court; applying the
children and armed conflict children in the context of armed universality principle where
in organizational policy and conflict and provide assistance relevant; ensuring that domestic
operational documents, such as to victims. legislation criminalizes arms
standard operating procedures, trade to countries with a record
(b) Member States should apply
manuals and strategic plans. In of illegally recruiting and using
targeted measures, including
this regard, it will be useful for child soldiers; and adopting
the Committee on the Rights sanctions where appropriate,
against individuals, parties to provisions that address money
of the Child to consider the laundering and permit freezing
implementation of these conflict and other entities within
their jurisdiction, including the the assets of persons or legal
standards and guidelines in entities accused of grave
their recommendations on private sector, that persistently
commit or are complicit in the violations against children
Member States’ efforts to
commission of grave violations in armed conflict.
translate international law
into domestic law. against children in situations of (c) For the purpose of child protection,
armed conflict:
n
the United Nations should, when
Progress towards harmonization
of inter-agency, government n The Security Council should possible, undertake dialogue with
and donor standards should establish mechanisms that make parties to conflict, including non-
be systematically monitored it possible to take sanction state actors, and develop systems to
through a standard framework measures in all situations of hold non-state actors accountable:
of indicators and benchmarks. concern regarding the children n The United Nations should,
n
and armed conflict agenda, when possible, engage in dialogue
The Inter-Agency Standing
including the exploration of and support the development
Committee should ensure that
establishing a sanctions com- of concrete and time-bound
standards pertaining to conflict-
mittee. The Security Council action plans with all parties to
affected children are incorpo-
should give equal priority to all conflict to halt recruitment and
rated in new cluster guidelines
and assessment tools. In categories of grave violations and use of children in violation of
particular, the Common all relevant situations of concern. applicable international law, and
Humanitarian Action Plan n All Member States should to address all violations and
guidelines should require clear adopt specific measures towards abuses against children in close
articulation of child-related ending impunity for violations cooperation with the Office of
strategic objectives. against children in armed the Special Representative of
conflict. Such measures may the Secretary-General as well
Recommendation 2: End include, inter alia, adopting as with UNICEF and the
impunity for violations extraterritorial provisions for UN country task forces on
against children relevant crimes; ensuring monitoring and reporting.
national provisions are in Continuous monitoring and
(a) Member States must ensure compliance with rules and verification of action plans
systematic and timely investigation provisions of the International should be ensured.
1 1 . L O O K I N G A H E A D : A P L AT F O R M O F R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S A N D K E Y A C T I O N S 193
Recommendation 3: Prioritize should implement existing legal information on all impacts on
children’s security instruments that address landmines children and violations of their
and explosive remnants of war rights; human and financial
(a) In all security-related matters, and develop a legally binding resources must be increased to
parties to conflict should recall instrument on cluster munitions: support these activities:
n n
that child rights are non-derogable
and should ensure that children States should review their All key stakeholders, including
are protected from death, injury, domestic legislation and practice Member States, UN entities
harm, arbitrary arrest and detention, in order to halt the illicit transfer and non-governmental organi-
torture and other cruel, inhuman of small arms and light weapons zations, are urged to dedicate
and degrading treatment. to countries where grave greater levels of human and
violations against children financial resources in order to
(b) All parties to conflict must ensure are committed. Violations of consolidate the monitoring,
safe and unhindered access to and arms embargoes should be reporting and response
delivery of humanitarian assistance criminalized and prosecuted. mechanism. Because they are
n
to all children in collaboration an integral part of the global
with humanitarian agencies: Member States should include
in their national reports under Monitoring and Reporting
n To address the challenges of the UN Programme of Action Mechanism, donors should
responding in insecure environ- information on measures taken or continue to fund activities that
ments, Member States, UN needed to protect children from prevent and respond to grave
agencies and non-governmental small arms and light weapons. violations against children
and support should be given
n
organizations should work
collaboratively to develop States are encouraged to ratify to building the capacities of
common approaches and the Convention on Cluster partners and systems at
specific advocacy efforts for Munitions adopted in May national and local levels.
improved humanitarian access. 2008 and actively support
its implementation. (b) Regarding Security Council
n Concerned governments and Resolution 1612 (2005), the capa-
other relevant actors should cities of the UN entities charged
ensure greater security and Recommendation 4: with implementation of the
safety of refugee and internally Strengthen monitoring mechanism should be enhanced
displaced communities in and and reporting as appropriate, at both the field
around camps and settlements. and the Headquarters level:
(a) Member States, United Nations
(c) Member States should fulfil entities and non-governmental n The Security Council Working
commitments under the Programme organizations must establish an Group on Children and Armed
of Action to Prevent, Combat inclusive system with a common Conflict established pursuant to
and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in framework, including agreed Resolution 1612 (2005) should
Small Arms and Light Weapons indicators and provisions for the also ensure that it has adequate
in All Its Aspects (UN document disaggregation of data and for the capacity and support for the
A/CONF.192/15) at the national, timely collection, verification, timely consideration of reports
regional and global levels. They analysis and reporting of as well as preparation, delivery
194 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
Georgia © UNICEF/NYHQ2008-0689/Volpe
and follow-up to its conclusions reforms, including those of B. CARE FOR AND
and recommendations. law enforcement institutions PROTECT CHILDREN IN
such as the police. ARMED CONFLICT
Recommendation 5: Promote (b) Member States should promote Recommendation 6: Ensure
justice for children the rule of law by ensuring access to basic services
children’s access to justice;
(a) Member States should uphold obstacles that affect children (a) Member States must ensure
international standards, norms within legal systems should be the continuity of an integrated
and guidelines on juvenile justice identified and addressed: package of such basic services as
n
and ensure that their national education, health, nutrition, water
To improve children’s access to
legislation and systems treat all and sanitation, HIV and AIDS
justice, the United Nations and
juveniles in a manner that takes NGOs should support commu- initiatives, reproductive health,
into account their particular nity-based legal and paralegal psychological support and social
vulnerability – including ensuring services for children, families services; the availability of these
access to legal assistance; focusing and communities as well as the services should be ensured and
on prevention and reintegration; legal empowerment of children all barriers to access removed,
resorting to detention only as and their communities. including costs:
a last recourse; and ensuring
separation of juveniles from (c) Member States should establish n Inter-Agency Standing
adults when they are detained: child-friendly mechanisms to Committee members (UN
promote the participation of
n Member States, in cooperation and non-governmental organi-
children in the decisions that affect zations) should continue to
with donors, UN entities and them and the protection of children
non-governmental organizations, work together to develop and
in all justice systems, including strengthen common tools for
should establish or sustain a transitional justice processes.
national system that includes a integrated rapid assessments and
distinct juvenile justice system n Member States and the inter- other information management
and promotes diversion, alter- national community should instruments; in addition, they
natives to deprivation of liberty support the participation of should ensure that data are
and restorative approaches. children in transitional justice adequately disaggregated by
processes in line with the age group, gender, ethnicity
n The policies and programmes child’s best interest and draw and other key criteria.
of UN agencies should be aligned on good practices with regard
with the ‘Guidance Note of to child-protective measures (b) United Nations entities, non-
the Secretary-General: UN and child-friendly procedures; governmental organizations and
Approach to Justice for in addition, they should provide donors should ensure that support
Children’ (September 2008). adequate resources to support for basic services is aligned with
Both Member States and UN the transitional justice processes, government systems, including
agencies should aim to integrate related programmes for when delivered by non-state
children’s concerns in legislative, children and their inclusion in providers, and is sustained
judicial and security sector reparations programmes. through all phases of a conflict:
1 1 . L O O K I N G A H E A D : A P L AT F O R M O F R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S A N D K E Y A C T I O N S 195
We must re-galvanize our political will, moral resolve and actions in the field to
maintain progress and fulfil the vision and recommendations of Graça Machel’s 1996 study.
n UN agencies and international ensure that reintegration n Donors and protection agencies
NGOs should support the standards are rights-based and should invest more funding
objective to transfer functions adhere to inclusive community- on research and evaluation to
to government and civil based approaches and multi- enhance the knowledge base on
society; this requires gradual sectoral programming, as well reintegration support, in
integration of actions into as have a strong emphasis particular on the well-being
policies, plans and programmes on gender-sensitive and of children who do not
while building and strengthening age-appropriate support. participate in formal demo-
national capacities. bilization processes.
n UN agencies and international
n In order to scale up activities and NGOs should advocate for a
increase benefits for children, Recommendation 8: End
biannual funding review of
the integration of sectors and gender-based violence
reintegration support to ensure
systems should be emphasized
that funding is long term and (a) Member States, with support
to facilitate the coordination of
a response between national flexible, and that programme from UN agencies and non-
governments, members of civil funding gaps are filled. governmental organizations,
society and international actors. (b) Strategies should ensure long- should give priority to protecting
Donors and international term sustainability and community- children from gender-based
partners must take into based approaches, with emphasis violence by adopting appropriate
consideration that this will national legislation and ensuring
on education and livelihood
be a long-term process and systematic and timely investiga-
support, including youth-oriented
must be willing to commit tion and prosecution of such
employment strategies and
resources to its success. crimes, in accordance with the
market analyses; particular wishes of survivors:
attention should be given to girls,
Recommendation 7: including ensuring confidential n UN agencies, relevant ministries
Support inclusive access to reintegration support and NGOs should collaborate
reintegration strategies to mitigate stigmatization: through the UN Action against
Sexual Violence in Conflict
(a) Stakeholders should ensure n Member States, UN agencies initiative to scale up assistance
that release and reintegration and NGOs must better integrate for child survivors. This includes
strategies and activities are in line reintegration concerns for multi-sectoral prevention and
with the Paris Commitments and children into broader national response; attention to child-
Principles, as well as Integrated strategies and socio-economic specific, gender-sensitive and
Disarmament, Demobilization frameworks. They should heavily age-appropriate approaches; and
and Reintegration Standards; emphasize links between integration of free services for
among other things, they should education, skills training and survivors into existing institutions.
be inclusive of all conflict-affected socio-economic development (b) All stakeholders must give particular
girls and boys: as an important goal for peace- attention to the specific needs of
n UN agencies and international building and a strategy to prevent child survivors as distinct from
organizations and NGOs should recruitment and re-recruitment. those of adults and ensure that
196 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
adequate resources are invested in (d) Member States, especially troop- expanding international and national
community-awareness campaigns contributing countries, and the capacities for knowledge acquisition
and education initiatives that seek United Nations system should and management. Research should be
to reach boys and men as well as enhance current efforts and ensure more aligned with needs in the field
girls and women: that rigorous systems are in place and should be documented, dissemi-
n To challenge the social, cultural, to promptly investigate and address nated and applied.
n
economic and political determi- allegations of sexual exploitation
Key stakeholders, such as Member
nants of violence, UN agencies and abuse, including systematic
States, regional organizations
and NGOs should ensure training, specialized investigation
capacity, stronger sanctions against and UN entities, should invest
adequate resources are invested significant resources in building
in public information and perpetrators, mechanisms for
referral to child protection actors, the base of expertise on child
education strategies that address protection, including training of
men and boys. This implies and the adoption and implemen-
tation of a comprehensive, child- local service providers and capacity
promotion of gender-equitable building of national institutions.
attitudes and behaviours in friendly policy on assistance and
support for survivors: Evaluations of the impact of
communities and participation
training should be routinely
of youth in developing key n UN agencies and international undertaken through such methods
messages and campaigns. NGOs should implement stan- as knowledge assessment.
dardized and systematic codes
n
(c) In addition to targeting the
of conduct for sexual violence The United Nations should
behaviour of perpetrators in
and exploitation, including a establish a global information
the strategy to prevent sexual
unified zero-tolerance policy management system. This system
exploitation and abuse, all
stakeholders should prioritize for all humanitarian staff and should build on existing data
livelihood support measures peacekeepers, and child-friendly collection systems; work with
that focus on women and girls: complaint mechanisms. specialized research institutions
to develop a collaborative metho-
n UN agencies, international dology to better gather, collate,
partners and NGOs should C. STRENGTHENING
analyse and distribute data on
support accessible education CAPACITY, KNOWLEDGE
conflict-affected children; and
and livelihood measures based AND PARTNERSHIP
establish agreed-upon indicators
on comprehensive analyses that that are relevant to the pro-
Recommendation 9: Improve
focus on girls and their families. gramme context.
capacity and knowledge for
Specifically, this includes part-
nerships with the private sector
quality care and protection n As part of humanitarian reform
of children and the cluster approach, expanded
for long-term employment
strategies and apprenticeship To address insufficiencies in the base cooperation is needed to develop
opportunities; vocational and of expertise and programme learning, indicators that examine the
skills training; participatory Member States and other stakeholders multifaceted experiences of
market assessments; and should invest more across all sectors children and young people in
micro-loans and credit. in building, strengthening and conflict settings.
1 1 . L O O K I N G A H E A D : A P L AT F O R M O F R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S A N D K E Y A C T I O N S 197
Recommendation 10: (ii) commitment to and pro- Recommendation 11:
Ensure complementarity motion of children and armed Operationalize the engage-
among key actors and conflict concerns by senior ment of regional bodies
mainstream children and management; (iii) integration
armed conflict concerns of these concerns into doctrine (a) Regional and intergovernmental
and policy frameworks, strategic bodies must more proactively
(a) All stakeholders, including UN plans, operational mandates, address children and armed
entities, donors and non-govern- reports to main bodies, and conflict concerns, including
mental organizations, must continue programmes and activities; through the establishment of a
to improve complementarity and (iv) adequacy of in-house high-level mechanism for advocacy,
cooperation across intersecting knowledge, expertise and the development of action plans
mandates. Benchmarks should be to implement declarations, and
training to inform policies,
established to bring the concerns capacity building of child rights
strategies and day-to-day
of children affected by armed expertise in their secretariats:
operations; and (v) adequacy
conflict into the mainstream of resource support to ensure n In order to more specifically
of the policies, priorities and these recommendations are translate commitments and
programmes of UN entities and implemented. declarations into action, regional
n
institutional processes: bodies should: (i) review
Protection outcomes for
n
previous commitments,
The United Nations, interna- children affected by armed
including through peer review
tional NGOs and members of conflict should be a measure mechanisms; (ii) include an
civil society should establish of success for the work of all agenda item dedicated to
partnership mechanisms at the stakeholders, including UN children affected by armed
national and subnational levels entities, donors and non- conflict in annual summit
along the lines of the country- governmental organizations. meetings; (iii) seize opportuni-
level humanitarian partnership ties, such as through regional
(b) The work of the Office of the
teams agreed upon by the Global follow-up to A World Fit for
Special Representative of the
Humanitarian Partnership. Children; and (iv) establish a
Secretary-General for Children
n Periodic assessments should be and Armed Conflict has demon- high-level advocate and child
undertaken to gauge progress strated a continuous need for a rights expertise in their peace
in mainstreaming against high-level Special Representative and security structures.
specific criteria: (i) the extent to advocate for children affected (b) Regional intergovernmental
to which issues affecting children by armed conflict. This role should bodies should ensure that
in armed conflict are brought strengthen that of Member States children and armed conflict
to the highest levels of decision- themselves, complementing UN considerations are built into their
making of Member States and system partners, such as UNICEF, peacemaking, peacekeeping and
the UN system, including the peacekeeping and political peacebuilding activities, with the
governing boards of agencies, missions, field leadership and support of the United Nations
funds and programmes; other child protection actors. when necessary.
198 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
“Teaching others and giving awareness of the importance of sharing and living
together in one country, sharing one culture can help. But the adults don’t come
to our meetings, and we can’t tell adults what to do.” – Young man, 17, Sri Lanka
1 1 . L O O K I N G A H E A D : A P L AT F O R M O F R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S A N D K E Y A C T I O N S 199
n Donors, Member States, UN n Provisions on children in peace peace. This includes improved
entities, and international and agreements should address pro- integration of issues affecting
local non-governmental organi- tection of children from all forms children into broader conflict
zations should seek to make of grave violations; accounta- resolution and peacebuilding
participatory processes bility for child rights violations, interventions.
sustainable, ensuring continua- including through truth and
(c) Private sector entities must be
tion of donor support and reconciliation initiatives; the
cognizant of the impact their
integration into local and establishment of institutional
activities and investments have
national systems. and legal reforms that protect
on children in countries affected
children from exploitation; and
by conflict and take measures
implementation of child-friendly
Recommendation 15: that include regulating trade
disarmament, demobilization
Integrate children’s rights in and joining corporate responsi-
and reintegration procedures
peacemaking, peacebuilding bility initiatives.
that ensure their full and
and preventive actions successful reintegration in
post-conflict structures.
(a) All peacemaking and peace- CONCLUSION
building processes should be (b) Member States, UN entities
This milestone publication has been
child-sensitive, including through and regional intergovernmental
prepared to serve as a reference,
bodies are urged to elaborate
specific provisions in peace advocacy and policy tool for Member
preventive approaches including,
agreements, the participation of States, humanitarian actors and civil
inter alia, early warning systems
children in those processes and society groups involved in the issue
and community conflict resolution
the prioritization of resources: of children affected by armed conflict.
and reconciliation:
n
It is also intended to provide the
n
The international community Humanitarian and development momentum needed to accelerate
should ensure that the protection actors, Member States, UN accountability and operationalize
of children and their concerns agencies and NGOs should legislation, policy and action at all
are systematically and clearly assess the impact of their levels and across all sectors to improve
incorporated in all peace programmes and strategies the care and protection of children.
processes at the earliest stages, on conflict and peace. The The most important challenge
irrespective of the mediating goal is to better understand ahead for all actors is translating
parties and whether the ini- potential risk factors, underlying international standards into national
tiative is led by the United tensions, and the capacities of action that can make a tangible
Nations, a regional body or children and youth to both difference in the lives of children
a national government. prevent conflict and build affected by war. n
200 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
ENDNOTES
1. United Nations, ‘Impact of Armed 11. Ibid., para. 48. 20. United Nations, ‘Children and Armed
Conflict on Children: Report of the Conflict: Report of the Secretary-
expert of the Secretary-General, Ms. 12. Ibid., paras. 49-50.
General’, UN document A/62/609-
Graça Machel, submitted pursuant to 13. This chapter draws from specific inputs S/2007/757, New York, 21 December
General Assembly Resolution 48/157’, to the Machel strategic review and 2007; and Global Coalition to Stop the
UN document A/51/306, New York, key research initiatives, including: Use of Child Soldiers, Child Soldiers:
26 August 1996. J. Freedman, ‘Contemporary Conflict Global Report 2008, Coalition to Stop
2. G. Machel, The Impact of War on Children, and its Consequences for Children: the Use of Child Soldiers, London,
Hurst & Company, London, 2001. Input paper on war economies’, 17 July 2008, pp. 305-306.
2007; A. Edgerton, ‘How Violent Conflicts
3. United Nations, ‘Report of the Special are Counted’, August 2007; the Inter- 21. United Nations, ‘Children and Armed
Representative of the Secretary-General national Peace Institute’s series on Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General’,
for Children and Armed Conflict’, Coping with Crisis, Conflict and Change; UN document A/62/609-S/2007/757,
UN document A/62/228, New York, and Human Security Brief 2006, pub- New York, 21 December 2007.
13 August 2007.
lished by the Human Security Centre.
22. United Nations, ‘Report of the Secretary-
4. United Nations, ‘Impact of Armed
14. United Nations, ‘Statement by the General on Children and Armed Conflict
Conflict on Children: Report of the
President of the Security Council’, in Somalia’, UN document S/2008/352,
expert of the Secretary-General,
UN document S/PRST/2007/24, New York, 30 May 2008, para. 89.
Ms. Graça Machel, submitted pursuant
New York, 29 June 2007.
to General Assembly Resolution 48/157’,
23. Submission to Machel strategic
UN document A/51/306, New York, 15. C. Wille with K. Krause , ‘Behind the review by the UNICEF country office
26 August 1996, para. 32. Numbers’, Chapter 9, Small Arms
in Indonesia.
5. Program on Humanitarian Policy and Survey 2005: Weapons of war, Small
Conflict Research, Transnationality, Arms Survey, Graduate Institute of 24. United Nations, ‘Report of the Secretary-
War and the Law: A report on a round- International Studies, Geneva, 2005, General on Children and Armed Conflict
table on the transformation of warfare, p. 230. in Nepal’, UN document S/2008/259,
international law, and the role of 16. ‘International Survey from the Control New York, 18 April 2008.
transnational armed groups, Program Arms Campaign’, Oxfam International,
on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict 25. International Crisis Group, ‘Colombia’s
Amnesty International and International New Armed Groups’, Latin America
Research, Harvard University,
Action Network on Small Arms, June 2006. Report, no. 20, 10 May 2007, p. 3.
Cambridge, MA, April 2006, p. 6.
17. ‘Persistent Instability: Armed violence
6. Stockholm International Peace Research 26. V. Thomas, Overcoming Lost Childhoods:
and insecurity in South Sudan’, Chapter
Institute, ‘Trends in Armed Conflicts’, Lessons learned from the rehabilitation
10, Small Arms Survey 2007: Guns and
SIPRI Yearbook 2008, SIPRI, Stockholm, and reintegration of former child soldiers
2008, pp. 43, 54. the city, Small Arms Survey, Graduate
in Colombia, Y CARE International,
Institute of International Studies, Geneva,
7. United Nations, ‘Report of the Special 2007. The survey also uncovered high London, 2008, p. 4.
Representative of the Secretary-General rates of victimization: On average, house- 27. United Nations, ‘Children and Armed
for Children and Armed Conflict’, holds were found to have experienced Conflict: Report of the Secretary-
UN document A/62/228, New York, at least one robbery, nearly two fights General’, UN document A/62/609-
13 August 2007. and close to one armed attack since the
S/2007/757, New York, 21 December
8. Human Security Centre, Human signing of the peace agreement. Guns
2007, para. 116.
Security Brief 2006, University of British were the predominant weapon used in
Colombia, Canada, 2006, pp. 15-23. these acts of violence. 28. V. Thomas, Overcoming Lost Childhoods:
Lessons learned from the rehabilitation
9. A. Mack, ‘Global Political Violence: 18. Control Arms, Shattered Lives: The case
for tough international arms control, and reintegration of former child soldiers
Explaining the post-cold war decline’,
Amnesty International and Oxfam in Colombia, Y CARE International,
Coping with Crisis Working Paper
International, London and Oxford, London, 2008.
Series, International Peace Institute,
New York, March 2007, p. 3. 2003, p. 4. 29. United Nations, ‘Children and Armed
10. United Nations, ‘Children and Armed 19. Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General’,
Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General’, Soldiers, Child Soldiers: Global Report UN document A/62/609-S/2007/757,
UN document A/62/609-S/2007/757, 2008, Coalition to Stop the Use of Child New York, 21 December 2007, paras.
New York, 21 December 2007, para. 46. Soldiers, London, 2008, p. 41. 101, 103.
ENDNOTES 201
30. United Nations, ‘First Periodic Report 44. Amnesty International, USA: Human 59. The number of children was calculated
of the Philippines on the Optional dignity denied – Torture and accounta- based on the set of 33 conflict-affected
Protocol on the Involvement of Children bility in the ‘war on terror’, Amnesty countries described later in this chapter
in Armed Conflict’, UN document International, London, 27 October 2004. and data from UNICEF’s State of the
CRC/C/OPAC/PHL/1, New York, World’s Children 2008 report.
45. United Nations, ‘Children and Armed
7 November 2007, para. 202. 60. Figures were calculated by UNICEF
Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General’,
31. United Nations Children’s Fund and UN document A/62/609-S/2007/757, New based on a combination of data from
IBON Foundation Inc., Uncounted Lives: York, 21 December 2007, para. 86. the Office of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees, the United
Children, women and conflict in the 46. Defence for Children International- Nations Relief and Works Agency for
Philippines, UNICEF and IBON, Palestine Section, 'Palestinian Child Palestinian Refugees, the US Committee
December 2007, p. 6. Political Prisoners 2006 Report', p. 2. for Refugees and Immigrants, and the
32. International Review of the Red Cross, Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre
47. United Nations, ‘Children and Armed of the Norwegian Refugee Council.
no. 863, September 2006. Conflict: Report of the Secretary-
33. United Nations, ‘Statement by the General’, UN document A/62/609- 61. United Nations Children’s Fund, The
S/2007/757, New York, 21 December State of the World’s Children 1996:
President of the Security Council’, UN
2007, para. 87. Children in war, Oxford University
document S/PRST/2007/22, New York,
Press, Oxford, 1996.
25 June 2007, para. 5; also see: United 48. United Nations Children’s Fund,
Nations Security Council Resolution ‘Humanitarian Action Update’, UNICEF, 62. B. Coghlan et al., ‘Mortality in the
S/RES/1625 (2005), 14 September 2005. New York, 21 September 2007, pp. 2-3. Democratic Republic of Congo: An
ongoing crisis’, International Rescue
34. The Kimberley Process is a joint 49. Communication with the UNICEF Committee and Burnet Institute,
initiative of governments, industry and country office in Nepal. New York and Melbourne, 2008, p. ii.
civil society that imposes extensive
requirements enabling members to 50. United Nations, ‘Report of the Special 63. Republic of Uganda Ministry of Health,
certify shipments of rough diamonds Rapporteur on the Promotion and ‘Health and Mortality Survey among
Protection of Human Rights while Internally Displaced Persons in Gulu,
as ‘conflict-free’.
Countering Terrorism: Martin Scheinin’, Kitgum and Pader Districts, Northern
35. United Nations, UN document UN document A/HRC/6/17, New York, Uganda’, World Health Organization,
A/HRC/4/035, New York, 19 February 21 November 2007, para. 70. UNICEF, World Food Programme,
2007, para 77. United Nations Population Fund and
51. T. Paffenholz and D. Brede, Lessons International Rescue Committee,
36. A. Mack, ‘Global Political Violence: Learnt from the German Anti-Terrorism July 2005, p. ii.
Explaining the post-Cold War decline’, Package (ATP), Deutches Gesellschaft
Coping with Crisis Working Paper für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) 64. J. Barenbaum, R. Vladislav and
GmbH, Eschborn, 2004, pp. 40-48. M. Schwab-Stone, ‘The Psychosocial
Series, International Peace Institute,
Aspects of Children Exposed to War:
New York, March 2007, p. 10.
52. Ibid. Practice and policy initiatives’, Journal
37. United Nations, ‘Report of the Special of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,
53. World Bank, World Development vol. 45, no. 1, 2004, pp. 42-44.
Representative of the Secretary-General Report 2007: Development and the next
for Children and Armed Conflict’, generation, World Bank, Washington, 65. United Nations, ‘Children and Armed
UN document A/62/228, New York, D.C., September 2006. Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General’,
13 August 2007. UN document A/62/609-S/2007/757,
54. Organisation for Economic Co-operation New York, 21 December 2007.
38. United Nations, ‘Global Horizontal Note and Development-Development
on the Monitoring and Reporting of Assistance Committee, ‘A Development 66. International Campaign to Ban
Grave Child Rights Violations’, Security Co-operation Lens on Terrorism Landmines, Landmine Monitor Report
Council Working Group, New York, Prevention: Key entry points for action’, 2007: Toward a mine-free world, Human
6 December 2007, p. 1. Guidelines and Reference Series, Rights Watch, New York, 2007.
39. United Nations, ‘Children and Armed OECD/N92-64-01908-1, OECD-DAC, 67. United Nations Children’s Fund,
Paris, 2003, p. 8. ‘Landmines and Explosive Remnants of
Conflict: Report of the Secretary-
General’, UN document A/62/609- War: Machel review thematic paper’,
55. United Nations, ‘A World Fit for
S/2007/757, New York, 21 December UNICEF, New York, June 2007
Children’, UN document A/RES/S-27/2,
(unpublished).
2007, para. 22. New York, 11 October 2002, para 7.
68. The reference to countries or territories
40. United Nations Assistance Mission 56. Council of Delegates of the International is intended to indicate the location in
to Afghanistan, Suicide Attacks in Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, which offending parties have committed
Afghanistan (2001–2007), UNAMA, 30th International Conference of the the violations in question and does not
Kabul, 1 September 2007, pp. 6, 11, Red Cross and Red Crescent: Resolutions, imply the involvement of States parties.
75-76 and 88. Resolution 3, Geneva, 26-30 November
2007, p. 81. 69. The 16 are: Burundi – the Wing of
41. United Nations, ‘Children and Armed Agaton Rwasaa; Democratic Republic of
Conflict: Report of the Secretary- 57. International Committee of the Red the Congo – Forces armées congolaises,
General’, UN document A/62/609- Cross, ‘International Humanitarian Law Front nationaliste et intégrationaliste
S/2007/757, New York, 21 December and the Challenges of Contemporary (Lendu) and Mai-Mai; Colombia – Ejercito
2007, para. 53. Armed Conflicts’, ICRC document de Liberación Nacional and Fuerzas
301C/07/8.4, Geneva, October 2007. Armada Revolucionarias de Colombia-
42. International Crisis Group, ‘Indonesia Ejército del Pueblo; Myanmar –
Backgrounder: Jihad in Central 58. This chapter in particular has benefited Tatmadaw Kyi (government army)
Sulawesi’, ICG Asia Report, no. 74, from several papers prepared for this and Karen National Liberation Army;
3 February 2004, p. 8. report on how violent conflicts are Nepal – Communist Party of Nepal;
counted (Edgerton 2007); on figures Philippines – Moro Islamic Liberation
43. United Nations Office of the Special relating to populations of humanitarian Front and the New People’s Army;
Representative of the Secretary-General concern, including refugees, internally Sri Lanka – Liberation Tigers of Tamil
for Children and Armed Conflict, ‘Report: displaced persons and child soldiers Eelam; Sudan – Sudan People’s
Visit of the Special Representative of (Donahue and Loaiza 2007); and on Liberation Movement/Army; Uganda –
the Secretary-General for Children and a preliminary analysis of progress Local Defence Units (allied to Uganda
Armed Conflict – Iraq and the region, towards the MDGs in countries affected People’s Defence Forces), Lord’s
13-25 April 2008’, UN OSRSG CAAC, by armed conflict (Donahue and Resistance Army and Uganda People’s
New York, August 2008. Loaiza 2008). Defence Forces.
202 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
70. Coalition to Stop the Use of Child 85. Armed conflict databases used to identify <www.berghof-center.org/std_page.php?
Soldiers, Child Soldiers Global Report countries included: (1) the Uppsala LANG=e&id=177>; Women’s Commission
2008, Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Conflict Database, maintained by the for Refugee Women and Children,
Soldiers, London, 2008. Uppsala Conflict Data Program at Untapped Potential: Adolescents affected
Uppsala University; (2) the Conflict by armed conflict, WCRWC, New York,
71. B. O’Malley, Education Under Attack:
A global study on targeted political Barometer of the Heidelberg Institute 2002; and C. O’Kane, Children and
and military violence against education for International Conflict Research; Young People as Citizens: Partners for
staff, students, teachers, union and and (3) Project Ploughshares’ Armed social change, Save the Children South
government officials, and institutions, Conflict Report. For each database, a list and Central Asia, Kathmandu, 2003.
UNESCO, Paris, 2007. was compiled of countries engaged in
93. Article 12 of the CRC reads as follows:
armed conflict on their own soil during
72. United Nations, ‘Children and Armed “1. States Parties shall assure to the
the period 2002-2006. The three lists
Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General’, child who is capable of forming his
were then compared, and any country
UN document A/62/609-S/2007/757, or her own views the right to express
that appeared on two of the three lists
New York, 21 December 2007. those views freely in all matters affecting
was included in the final list of conflict-
the child, the views of the child being
73. Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict, affected countries used for this research.
given due weight in accordance with
‘Sudan’s Children at a Crossroads: An
86. Of the 60 million children out of school the age and maturity of the child. 2. For
urgent need for protection’, Women’s
in conflict-affected countries, 19 million this purpose, the child shall in particular
Commission for Refugee Women and
are in India. A substantial portion of this be provided the opportunity to be
Children, New York, April 2007, p. 5.
number may not be included in the count heard in any judicial and administrative
74. United Nations, ‘Children and Armed if further analysis is able to determine proceedings affecting the child, either
Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General’, whether certain regions/states/provinces directly, or through a representative
UN document A/62/609-S/2007/757, of a country are affected by conflict and or an appropriate body, in a manner
New York, 21 December 2007. whether the data available are similarly consistent with the procedural rules
broken down. Source: A. Donahue and of national law.”
75. Ibid.
E. Loaiza, ‘Millennium Development Goals
76. United Nations, ‘Report of the Secretary- 94. See: J. Hart, Children’s Participation in
(MDGs) in Conflict Affected Countries’,
General on Children and Armed Conflict Humanitarian Action: Learning from
UNICEF Strategic Information Section,
in Uganda’, UN document S/2007/260, zones of armed conflict, Refugee Studies
Department of Policy & Planning,
New York, 7 May 2007. Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford,
February 2008 (unpublished).
2004, p. 4; Women’s Commission for
77. J. Annan, C. Blattman and R. Horton, 87. UNICEF, Progress for Children: A World Refugee Women and Children, Untapped
The State of Youth and Youth Fit for Children statistical review, Potential: Adolescents affected by
Protection in Northern Uganda: Number 6, UNICEF, New York, armed conflict, WCRWC, New York,
Findings from the survey for war December 2007. 2002, p. 1; Save the Children Norway,
affected youth, UNICEF Uganda, 2006. Building Peace Out of War: Children
88. The gender parity index (GPI) is obtained and young people as agents of peace –
78. Women’s Commission for Refugee
by dividing the net enrolment/attendance The young generation’s challenge,
Women and Children, Listening to
rates for girls by the rates for boys. GPI Workshop Study, 2005; Concerned
Youth: The experiences of young
people in northern Uganda, WCRWC, of 0.96 to 1.04 means that the percent- Parents’ Association, Accountability
New York, 2007. ages of boys and girls in school are & Reconciliation: Perspectives from
roughly equal. GPI of more than 1.04 children and youth in northern &
79. United Nations, ‘Children and Armed means that the percentage of girls in eastern Uganda, Concerned Parents’
Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General’, school is higher than the percentage of Association with Trans-cultural Psycho-
UN document A/62/609-S/2007/757, boys. GPI of less than 0.96 means that social Organisation, Save the Children
New York, 21 December 2007. the percentage of boys is higher than in Uganda and UNICEF, 2007; C. O’Kane
80. United Nations, ‘Report of the Secretary- the percentage of girls in school. and C. Feinstein, Participation is a
General on the Protection of Civilians 89. The under-five mortality rate is the Virtue that Must be Cultivated: An
in Armed Conflict’, UN document probability (expressed as a rate per analysis of children’s participation
S/2007/643, New York, 28 October 2007, working methods and materials within
1,000 live births) of a child born in a
para. 34. Save the Children Sweden, Save the
specified year dying before reaching
81. A. Harmer et al., Providing Aid in the age of five if subject to current age- Children Sweden, Stockholm, 2007, p. 6;
Insecure Environments: Trends in policy specific mortality rates. ‘Child Centred Programs’, Plan USA
and operations, Humanitarian Policy website, <www.planusa.org/who/
Group, Overseas Development Institute, 90. For further analysis, it would be helpful programs.php>; Christian Children’s
London, 23 September 2006. to determine whether certain regions/ Fund, Annual Report 2007, CCF,
states/provinces of a country are affected Richmond, VA, p. 9.
82. United Nations, ‘Report of the Secretary- by conflict and use data from those
General on the Situation in Afghanistan areas specifically. 95. See: J. Hart, Children’s Participation in
and its Implications for International Humanitarian Action: Learning from
Peace and Security’, UN document 91. Debt service is expressed as a percent- zones of armed conflict, Refugee
S/2008/159, New York, 6 March 2008. age of exported goods and services, not Studies Centre, University of Oxford,
including workers’ remittances. The Oxford, 2004, p. 7; and E. Delap,
83. Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict, debt referred to here includes only ‘Fighting Back: Child and community-
‘Caught in the Middle: Mounting viola- long-term public and publicly guaran- led strategies to avoid children’s
tions against children in Nepal’s armed
teed debt and repayments to the recruitment into armed forces and
conflict’, Women’s Commission for
International Monetary Fund. groups in West Africa’, Save the
Refugee Women and Children,
New York, January 2005, p. 31. Children UK, London, 2004, p. 26.
92. See, for example: J. Hart and B. Tyrer,
84. The analysis is based on 2008 UNICEF ‘RCS Working Paper No. 30: Research 96. The Women’s Commission for
research (by A. Donahue and E. Loaiza) with Children Living in Situations of Refugee Women and Children titles are:
undertaken for this report. It represents Armed Conflict – Concept, ethics and Listening to Youth: The experience of
an initial attempt to review data drawn methods’, Refugee Studies Centre, young people in northern Uganda
from Demographic and Health Surveys University of Oxford, Oxford, May 2006; (2007, p. 2); Precious Resources:
and Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys Y. Kemper, ‘Youth in War-to-Peace Adolescents in the reconstruction of
and organize it by MDG indicator. It Transitions’, Berghof Handbook for Sierra Leone (2002, p. 6); and Making
is expected that further review and Conflict Transformation, Berghof the Choice for a Better Life: Promoting
refinement of the process will deepen Research Center for Constructive the protection and capacity of Kosovo’s
the results. Conflict Management, Berlin, 2005, youth (2000, p. 4).
ENDNOTES 203
97. Save the Children Norway, ‘Material and 109. United Nations, ‘United Nations 120. Inter-Parliamentary Union and United
Resources: Children’s memorandum’, Millennium Declaration’, UN document Nations Children’s Fund, Child Protection:
2007, <www.reddbarna.no/default.asp? A/RES/55/2, New York, 8 September A handbook for parliamentarians,
V_ITEM_ID=11749>. 2000, para. 26. Handbook for Parliamentarians No. 7,
IPU and UNICEF, Geneva, 2004.
98. J. Hart, Children’s Participation in 110. United Nations, ‘A World Fit for
Humanitarian Action: Learning from Children’, UN document A/RES/S-27/2, 121. Although not addressed in this chapter,
zones of armed conflict, Refugee New York, 11 October 2002, paras. international criminal law is also a
Studies Centre, University of Oxford, 43 and 44, actions 20-32. relevant body of law. It is occasionally
Oxford, February 2004, pp. 29-31. referred to in regard to the (international)
111. These resolutions have consistently
99. Human Rights Watch, Trapped by urged: fulfilment and implementation criminalization of certain violations of
Inequality: Bhutanese refugee women of the Convention on the Rights of the children’s rights.
in Nepal, vol. 15, no. 8 (C), HRW, Child, its Optional Protocol on children
122. The four guiding principles underpinning
New York, September 2003, p. 9; and and armed conflict, and international
the Convention on the Rights of the
A. Naik, ‘Protecting Children from the humanitarian and human rights law;
Child are: non-discrimination (article 2);
Protectors: Lessons from West Africa’, ensuring humanitarian access; ending
impunity and bringing perpetrators to the best interests of the child (article 3);
Forced Migration Review, vol. 15,
October 2002, pp. 16-19. justice; ending the recruitment and use the right to be heard, often referred to
of children and securing their release, as the right to participation (article 12);
100. United Nations Children’s Fund, demobilization and effective reintegration; and the right to life, survival and devel-
Adolescent Programming Experiences that rape in armed conflict is a war crime opment (article 6).
during Conflict and Post-Conflict: Case and that particular attention is needed to
studies, UNICEF, New York, June 2004, 123. Article 1 of the CRC further specifies that
the vulnerability of girls during conflict;
p. 8; C. O’Kane, C. Feinstein and A. a child is anyone under 18 years of age,
addressing the proliferation of small
Giertsen, ‘Children and Young People “unless under the law applicable to the
arms and need for landmine action and
in Post Conflict Peace-Building’, education; that United Nations agencies child, the majority is attained earlier.”
Children in an Insecure World, edited by ensure that concerns relating to children 124. A General Comment is an interpretation
D. Nosworthy, Geneva Centre for the affected by armed conflict are fully by a treaty body of the content of human
Democratic Control of Armed Forces, reflected in UN field operations for the rights provisions, either related to a
Geneva, 2008; Women’s Commission promotion of peace, prevention and
for Refugee Women and Children, specific article or to a broader thematic
resolution of conflicts and implementa- issue. General Comments often seek to
Youth Speak Out: New voices on the tion of peace agreements; and, most
protection and participation of young clarify the reporting duties of States
recently, recognizing the UN Monitoring
people affected by armed conflict, parties with respect to certain provisions
and Reporting Mechanism (MRM)
WCRWC, New York, 2005, p. 33. and suggest approaches to implementing
established by the Security Council.
treaty provisions. They are also referred
101. K. Peters, ‘From Weapons to Wheels: 112. United Nations, ‘Resolution 1780 to as ‘general recommendations’.
Young Sierra Leonean ex-combatants (2007)’, UN document S/RES/1780
become motorbike taxi-riders’, Journal (2007), New York, para. 17. 125. See, respectively, the following
of Peace, Conflict and Development, Committee on the Rights of the Child
no. 10, 2007, p. 5; A. Dawes, ‘Political 113. The 11 countries are Burundi, Chad, General Comments: No. 1 – ‘The Aims of
Transition and Youth Violence in Post- Côte D’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Education’, UN document CRC/GC/2001/1,
Apartheid South Africa: In search of the Congo, Myanmar, Nepal, New York, 17 April 2001, para. 16; No. 3
understanding’, Years of Conflict: Philippines, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan – ‘HIV/AIDS and the Rights of the Child’,
Adolescence, Political Violence and and Uganda. UN document CRC/GC/2003/3, New
Displacement, edited by J. Hart, 114. Watchlist on Children and Armed York, 17 March 2003, para. 38; and
Berghahn Books, Oxford, 2008, p. 2. Conflict, <www.watchlist.org/advocacy/ No. 9 – ‘The Rights of Children with
102. Save the Children Norway, ‘Armed policystatements/>; and United Nations, Disabilities’, UN document CRC/C/GC/9,
Conflict and Peace-Building’, Information ‘Comprehensive Assessment of the New York, 29 September 2006, para. 55.
and Advocacy Newsletter, vol. 1, United Nations System Response to
126. United Nations Children’s Fund,
September 2007, p. 4. Children Affected by Armed Conflict’,
UN document A/59/331, New York, Implementation Handbook for the
103. J. Hart, ‘Children as Participants in 3 September 2004. Convention on the Rights of the Child,
Settings of Armed Conflict’, draft sum- third edition, UNICEF, New York,
mary of an e-discussion for UNICEF’s 115. United Nations, ‘Children and Armed September 2007, p. 660.
Adolescent Development and Conflict’, Security Council Report:
Cross-cutting report, no. 1, 4 February 127. According to article 39, States parties
Participation Unit, 2007, p. 2.
2008, p. 7. are to take all appropriate measures
104. Ibid. to promote the “physical and psycho-
116. Ibid., p. 8. logical recovery and social reintegration
105. J. Hart, Children’s Participation in
117. Save the Children, ‘Can the Powerful of a child victim of: any form of neglect,
Humanitarian Action: Learning from
Protect? How the UN Security Council exploitation, or abuse; torture or any
zones of armed conflict, Refugee
needs to shape up to protect children’, other form of cruel, inhuman or degrading
Studies Centre, University of Oxford,
Oxford, February 2004, p. 26. Save the Children UK, London, July treatment or punishment; or armed
2007, p. 14. conflicts.” Moreover, the recovery and
106. J. de Berry, ‘The Challenges of reintegration process is to take place
Programming with Youth in 118. Based on communication with Kendra
in an environment that promotes the
Afghanistan’, Chapter 9, Years of Dupuy of the International Peace Research
child’s health, self-respect and dignity.
Conflict: Adolescence, political violence Institute (PRIO) on research carried out
and displacement, edited by J. Hart, for ‘Education for Peace: Building peace 128. Revised guidelines regarding initial
Berghahn Books, Oxford, 2008. and transforming armed conflict reports to be submitted by States
through education systems’, PRIO and parties under article 8, para. 1, of the
107. L. Ackermann et al., Understanding and Save the Children Norway, Oslo. Optional Protocol to the Convention on
Evaluating Children’s Participation: the Rights of the Child on Involvement of
A review of contemporary literature, Plan 119. African Union, Call for Accelerated
Action on the Implementation of the Children in Armed Conflict, September
International (UK), London, 2003, p. 16.
Plan of Action Towards Africa Fit for 2007 (United Nations, ‘Revised Guide-
108. United Nations, ‘2005 World Summit Children 2008-2012, Second Pan-African lines Regarding Initial Reports to be
Outcome’, UN document A/RES/60/1, Forum on Children: Mid-Term Review, Submitted by States Parties …’, UN
New York, 25 October 2005, paras. 117 29 October–2 November 2007, African document CRC/C/OPAC/2, New York,
and 118. Union, Addis Ababa, pp. 4, 7 (e), 8. 19 October 2007).
204 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
129. Once this initial reporting round is 135. International Committee of the 143. China (estimated 110 million), Russian
completed, further reporting on the Red Cross, Customary International Federation (26.5 million), United States
implementation of Optional Protocol on Humanitarian Law, edited by Jean- of America (10.4 million), Pakistan
the Involvement of Children in Armed Marie Henckaerts and Louise Doswald- (estimated 6 million) and India
Conflict (OPAC) by the State party is done Beck, ICRC and Cambridge University (estimated 4-5 million). See: United
by incorporating it into its reporting Press, Geneva, 2005. Nations Children’s Fund, with inputs
obligation under the CRC (every five from other UN agencies, ‘Landmines &
years). As such, the first report under 136. International refugee protection Explosive Remnants of War: Machel
OPAC is a key opportunity for States and includes some fundamental rights review thematic paper’, UNICEF,
civil society more broadly (including and principles, including granting of New York, 14 June, 2007, p. 5.
national human rights institutions and access to the territory to seek asylum,
NGOs) to take stock of the implementation the principle of non-refoulement (no 144. Ibid.
process and existing gaps in meeting forced return) and access to fair and
obligations. Civil society actors can, for 145. As of 1 March 2008, 40 countries had
efficient refugee status determination ratified the protocol.
example, provide independent reports
procedures or prima facie status.
on national implementation as well as 146. Records show that between 12 July and
additional information to the Committee 137. In addition to these, other Executive 14 August 2006, Lebanon was littered
on the Rights of the Child so that their Committee Conclusions relating to with an estimated 1 million unexploded
views are taken into account during refugee children include: No. 47 (1987) submunitions and unexploded ordnance,
consideration of the reports. States and and No. 59 (1989) on Refugee Children; aggravating an already serious problem
civil society must also follow up on the
No. 84 on Children and Adolescents of anti-personnel landmines and explo-
recommendations of the Committee at
(1999); and No. 88 on Protection of sive remnants of war. See: International
the national level, since these constitute
the Refugee’s Family (1999). Campaign to Ban Landmines, Landmine
the benchmarks by which to measure
future progress in implementation. Monitor Report 2006; and Cambodia Mine/
138. In particular, see the UNHCR Guidelines
See: J. Connors, ‘How the International UXO Victims Information System, Casualty
on Policies and Procedure in Dealing Reports, 2000 and December 2006.
Community has Responded to Children with Unaccompanied Children Seeking
and Armed Conflict: What still needs 147. More specifically, the Committee has
Asylum (1997). Other guidelines on this
to be done?’, OHCHR, Geneva, requested States parties to abolish
topic include: UNHCR, Procedural
28 March 2006, p. 7. arms trade to countries where persons
Standards for Refugee Status Determi-
130. The Paris Commitments to protect nation under UNHCR’s Mandate, who have not reached the age of 18
children from unlawful recruitment or November 2003; and UNHCR Social may take a direct part in hostilities as
use by armed forces or armed groups Services Section, Guidelines for members of their State armed forces
had been endorsed by 58 governments Interviewing Unaccompanied Minors or non-state armed groups. For exam-
as of February 2007. See also: United and Preparing Social Histories, October ple, the Committee on the Rights of
Nations Children’s Fund, The Paris 1985. In addition to the right to seek the Child considers state practices and
Principles: Principles and guidelines legislation with regard to arms trade,
asylum and international protection
on children associated with armed whether arms are sold to countries
based on their own claims under the
forces or armed groups, UNICEF, using child soldiers (in contravention
1951 Convention, children may also
February 2007. of the Optional Protocol on the
be granted derivative refugee status as
131. Further complementing this legal frame- Involvement of Children in Armed
dependants if they are accompanied
work, the related issue of trafficking Conflict) and their response more
by a parent or guardian, based on the
was addressed by the Palermo Protocol generally to the proliferation of small
principle of family unity.
to Prevent, Suppress and Punish calibre weapons, in the following:
Trafficking in Persons, Especially 139. Although the Guiding Principles are Switzerland CRC/C/OPAC/CHE/CO/1,
Women and Children, which entered not technically binding as such, they para. 5; Bangladesh CRC/C/OPAC/BGD/
into force December 2003. have been drawn from existing norms CO/1, paras. 20, 21; Canada CRC/C/
in international human rights and OPAC/CAN/CO/1, paras. 14, 15.
132. Security Council resolutions related
humanitarian law and are gaining 148. United Nations Economic and Social
to children and armed conflict include:
Resolutions 1261 (1999), 1314 (2000), increasing international recognition. Council, ‘Rights of the Child: Report
1379 (2001), 1460 (2003), 1539 (2004) 140. The Convention had 156 ratifications of the Special Representative of the
and 1612 (2005). and two signatories as of 1 March 2008. Secretary-General for Children and
Armed Conflict, Olara A. Otunnu’, UN
133. See, for example: Committee on the
141. United Nations Children’s Fund, document E/CN.4/2005/77, New York,
Elimination of Discrimination against
with inputs from other UN agencies, 15 February 2005, paras. 15, 55.
Women, with regard to the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, CEDAW/C/ ‘Landmines & Explosive Remnants of
149. See: article 47 of the First Geneva
COD/CO/5, 2006, and the Committee War: Machel review thematic paper’,
Convention; article 48 of the Second
against Torture, with regard to its con- UNICEF, New York, 14 June 2007, p. 3.
Geneva Convention; article 127 of the
clusions on Sri Lanka (CAT/C/LKA/CO/2) The ‘Deed of Commitment’ is an instru-
Third Geneva Convention; article 144
and Nepal (CAT/C/NPL/CO/20), both ment designed specifically for non-state
of the Fourth Geneva Convention;
adopted in 2005. actors to enable them to comply with
article 83 of the 1977 Additional
the spirit and intentions of the Mine Ban
134. See: Convention I for the Amelioration Protocol I; article 19 of the 1977
Treaty and other international instru- Additional Protocol II; and article 6
of the Condition of the Wounded and
ments. The full document is available of the 2000 Optional Protocol.
Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, 1949;
Convention II for the Amelioration of online at Geneva Call, <www.geneva-
call.org/home.htm>. 150. For example, Norway has recently
the Condition of Wounded, Sick and
amended its General Civil Penal Code,
Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces 142. As of end 2007, 38 countries had ceased
at Sea, 1949; Convention III relative to incorporating a provision stipulating
production of anti-personnel mines, that a person who, in connection with
the Treatment of Prisoners of War, 1949;
including four States not party to the an armed conflict, conscripts or enlists
Convention IV relative to the Protection
Mine Ban Convention (Egypt, Finland, children under the age of 18 into armed
of Civilian Persons in Time of War, 1949;
Protocol I relating to the Protection of Israel and Poland). The international forces or uses them to participate
Victims of International Armed Conflicts, trade of this weapon has virtually actively in hostilities may be punished
1977; Protocol II relating to the Protection ceased, with a significant number for war crimes. This provision applies
of Victims of Non-International Armed of non-States parties having export to acts committed abroad if the act
Conflicts, 1977; Protocol III relating to moratoriums in place. See: International is considered a war crime under inter-
the adoption of an Additional Distinctive Campaign to Ban Landmines, Landmine national law. The provision entered
Emblem, 2005. Monitor Report 2007. into force 7 March 2008.
ENDNOTES 205
151. No Peace Without Justice and UNICEF 161. Ibid., para. 41. members of the Lord’s Resistance
Innocenti Research Centre, International Army, including leader Joseph Kony,
Criminal Justice and Children, NPWJ 162. I. Cohn, ‘The Protection of Children and
who was charged with 33 counts of war
and UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, the Quest for Truth and Justice in Sierra
crime and crimes against humanity,
New York and Florence, September Leone’, Journal of International Affairs,
including the forcible enlistment and
2002, p. 104. vol. 55, no. 1, Fall 2001, p. 2. Referred to
active use of children under 15 years
in UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre,
152. In addition to the Committee on the of age in hostilities. In March 2006,
‘Background Paper of the Expert
Rights of the Child, other treaty body Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, founder and
Discussion on Transitional Justice and
procedures can also promote national leader of the Union of Congolese
Children’, Florence, 10-12 November
implementation, including the Optional Patriots in Ituri, Democratic Republic of
2005, p. 7.
Protocol to the Convention against the Congo, was indicted by the ICC for
Torture, which establishes international 163. The decisions issued on 20 June 2007 war crimes, conscription and enlistment
and national mechanisms for visits to convicted three former soldiers – Alex of children under 15 and having them
places of detention, including where Tamba Brima, Brima Bazzy Kamara and participate actively in hostilities. Germain
children affected by armed conflict may Katanga, commander of the Patriotic
Santigie Borbor Kanu – of murder, rape
be held. The universal periodic review Resistance Force in Ituri, was transferred
and enlisting child soldiers. In August
mechanisms of the Human Rights to the ICC in October 2007 and charged
2007, the Special Court for Sierra Leone
Council (and its special procedures
also convicted Allieu Kondewa of the with three counts of crimes against
mandate holders) can play an important
Civil Defense Forces militia. humanity as well as six counts of
role as well by highlighting issues of
war crime, which include the illegal
particular concern to children affected 164. In June 2006, Charles Ghankay Taylor
by armed conflict and mainstreaming recruitment and use of children in
was transferred from the Special Court active hostilities.
child rights. See: J. Connors, ‘How
of Sierra Leone to The Hague and now
the International Community has 172. Ibid., pp. 9-10.
faces 11 counts of war crimes and
Responded to Children and Armed
Conflict: What still needs to be done?’, crimes against humanity. These include 173. UN Security Council, ‘The Rule of Law
Office of the United Nations High conscription or enlisting children under and Transitional Justice in Conflict and
Commissioner for Human Rights, the age of 15 years into armed forces or Post-conflict Societies: Report of the
Geneva, 28 March 2006, p. 7. groups and using them to participate Secretary-General’, UN document
actively in hostilities. S/2004/616, 23 August 2004, para. 34.
153. European Union, ‘EU Guidelines on
Children and Armed Conflict’, Ref. no. 165. ‘A UN Approach on Justice for Children’ 174. The Committee on the Rights of the
15634/03, COHOM 47/PESC 762/CIVCOM was endorsed by the Rule of Law Child has expressed these concerns
201/COSDP 731, Council of the European Coordination and Resource Group, in several instances. With regard to
Union, Brussels, approved by the chaired by the Deputy Secretary- the failure to provide compensation to
European Union General Affairs Council, General in March 2008. children, it did so in the cases of Croatia
Brussels, 8 December 2003, para. 6.
166. International Criminal Tribunal for the and Israel (CRC/C/15/Add. 243, paras.
154. J. Connors, ‘How the International former Yugoslavia (ICTY) ruling on the 64, 84-85, and CRC/C/15/Add.195, paras.
Community has Responded to Children rapes at Celibici on sexual violence as 58, 59, respectively); on the need to
and Armed Conflict: What still needs to a war crime and the International prosecute those who have violated
be done?’, Office of the United Nations children’s rights during conflict, in the
Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)
High Commissioner for Human Rights, case of Indonesia (CRC/C/15/Add. 223,
ruling on the Akayesu case (The
Geneva, 28 March 2006, p. 5. paras. 67, 243); and on the long pretrial
Prosecutor versus Jean Paul Akayesu,
155. A detailed analysis of this issue is Case No. ICTR-96-4-T). detentions in poor conditions and the
provided in: UNICEF Innocenti Research lack of proper rehabilitation services,
Centre, Innocenti Insight: Birth registra- 167. Nonetheless, these non-state justice in the case of Rwanda (CRC/C15/Add.
tion and armed conflict, United Nations systems must conform with human 234, paras. 70, 71). See: United Nations
Children’s Fund, Florence, 2007. rights standards. Children’s Fund, Implementation
168. United Nations, ‘Prevention and Handbook for the Convention on
156. UN Security Council, ‘The Rule of Law
and Transitional Justice in Conflict and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide’, the Rights of the Child, revised third
Post-conflict Societies: Report of the General Assembly Resolution, UN edition, UNICEF, Geneva, September
Secretary-General’, UN document document A/RES/260 (III), New York, 2007, p. 585.
S/2004/616, New York, 23 August 2004, 9 December 1948. 175. With regard to informal traditions of
para. 8.
169. ‘Rome Statute of the International justice and national human rights
157. UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, Criminal Court’, UN document commissions, see: UN Security Council,
‘Background Paper of the Expert A/CONF.183.9, adopted 17 July 1998, ‘The Rule of Law and Transitional
Discussion on Transitional Justice and entered into force on 1 July 2002. Justice in Conflict and Post-conflict
Children’, Florence, 10-12 November Societies: Report of the Secretary-
For details on the Statute see:
2005, p. 5. General’, UN document S/2004/616,
<www.un.org/law/icc>.
New York, 23 August 2004, para. 36;
158. Ad hoc international criminal tribunals
were established by the Security 170. UN Security Council, ‘The Rule of Law and ‘Principles Relating to the Status
Council as subsidiary organs of the and Transitional Justice in Conflict and of National Institutions’, endorsed by
United Nations. Post-conflict Societies: Report of the GA Resolution 48/134, specifically,
Secretary-General’, UN document the section on ‘Additional Principles
159. The nature and structure of mixed S/2004/616, New York, 23 August 2004, Concerning the Status of Commissions
tribunals vary, and they can be estab- para. 49. with Quasi Jurisdictional Competence’.
lished as a treaty-based court, e.g.,
Sierra Leone, a court that complies with 171. Radhika Coomaraswamy, Under- 176. For example, in the General Assembly
a treaty but is established under national Secretary-General and Special Repre- Report of the Committee on the Rights of
law, e.g., Cambodia, or as a special sentative of the Secretary-General for the Child A/61/41 of 2006, the Committee
chamber within a State Court, e.g., Children and Armed Conflict, ‘The encourages States parties to consider
Bosnia and Herzegovina. Protection of Women and Children assuming extraterritorial jurisdiction
160. UN Security Council, ‘The Rule of Law during Armed Conflict: Whose respon- (para. 22) and undertakes to develop its
and Transitional Justice in Conflict and sibility?’ presented at the 2007 own position with regard to whether
Post-conflict Societies: Report of the Chancellor’s Human Rights Lecture, the obligation to take all measures to
Secretary-General’, UN document University of Melbourne, 13 December implement OPAC – article 6(1) – requires
S/2004/616, New York, 23 August 2004, 2007, pp. 10-11. In October 2005, the ICC the application of universal jurisdiction
para. 38. issued arrest warrants for five senior (para. 23).
206 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
177. The universality principle is an element (forthcoming publication expected 197. UN Security Council, ‘The Rule of Law
of international law holding that some 2008). The International Center for and Transitional Justice in Conflict and
crimes are so grave that all countries Transitional Justice has also undertaken Post-conflict Societies: Report of the
have an interest in prosecuting them. a research project (report forthcoming) Secretary-General’, UN document
It is rooted in international law and on transitional justice, and disarmament, S/2004/616, New York, 23 August 2004,
codified in United Nations instruments. demobilization and reintegration (DDR) paras. 54-55.
It is only used when the justice system that analyses the relationship between
of the country where the violations transitional justice mechanisms (e.g., 198. Ibid., para. 54.
occurred is unable or unwilling to truth and reconciliation commissions)
and DDR for children, including both 199. United Nations, ‘UN Guidelines on
prosecute. See: UN Security Council,
the positive and negative effects. Justice in Matters Involving Child
‘The Rule of Law and Transitional
Victims and Witnesses of Crime’,
Justice in Conflict and Post-conflict 190. International Center for Transitional
Societies: Report of the Secretary- adopted by ECOSOC Resolution
Justice, ‘Draft Report of the Expert 2005/20 of 22 July 2005, UN document
General’, UN document S/2004/616, Discussion on Transitional Justice
23 August 2004, para. 48. E/2005/INF/2/Add.1 of 10 August 2005,
and Children’, 10-12 November 2005, Part III – Principles, para 8.
178. UN Security Council, ‘The Rule of Law pp. 9-10, and in particular its reference
and Transitional Justice in Conflict and to: A. Veale and A. Stavrou, Violence, 200. For example, article 37 of the CRC bars
Post-conflict Societies: Report of the Reconciliation and Identity: The reinte- the death penalty and life imprisonment
Secretary-General’, UN document gration of the Lord’s Resistance Army without possibility of release.
S/2004/616, 23 August 2004, para. 46. child abductees in Northern Uganda,
Monograph No. 92, Institute for Security 201. These include, among others: the
179. Ibid. Studies, Pretoria, November 2003, p. 47. United Nations Standard Minimum
Rule for the Administration of Juvenile
180. Ibid., paras. 46, 47. 191. Women’s Commission for Refugee Justice (‘Beijing Rules’), 1985; the
Women and Children, ‘Children and
181. Ibid., para. 47. United Nations Guidelines for the
Adolescents in Transitional Justice
Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency
182. Ibid., para. 26. Processes in Sierra Leone’, WCRWC,
New York, June 2007, pp. 9-10. (Riyadh Guidelines), 1990; and the
183. UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre United Nations Rules for the Protection
and the International Center for 192. Information on the International of Juveniles Deprived of their Liberty,
Transitional Justice, Children and Truth Criminal Court Victims Trust Fund, 1990. Other guidelines specifically
Commissions (forthcoming 2008). which is now operational, is available referred to by the Committee on the
at <www.icc-cpi.int/vtf.html>. Rights of the Child have included the
184. A detailed analysis of participation by
193. General Assembly Resolution 60/147 of ‘Guidelines for Action on Children
adolescents in various processes in
16 December 2005, adopting the Basic in the Criminal Justice System’
conflict and post-conflict situations is
Principles and Guidelines on the Right (Economic and Social Council
provided in: United Nations Children’s
to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims Resolution 1997/30, Annex).
Fund, Adolescent Participation in
Programme Activities during Situations of Gross Violations of International Human
202. For example, the Committee has
of Conflict and Post-Conflict: Case Rights Law and Serious Violations of
International Humanitarian Law. The expressed concern that national
Studies, UNICEF, New York, June 2004. practices are not compatible with arti-
Principles adopt a victim-oriented
185. For example, truth commissions in perspective, clarify the scope of the right cles 37, 39 and 40 of the Convention on
Argentina, El Salvador, Guatemala to a remedy, and in their guidelines, out- the Rights of the Child and international
and Peru each dedicated a chapter to line what can be done to realize it. They guidelines, that there is no adequate
children in their final reports. UNICEF do not limit the concept of reparation to and distinct juvenile justice system
Innocenti Research Centre and the monetary compensation but provide as in place and that training focused on
International Center for Transitional well for other forms of redress, such as children’s rights is needed. See: United
Justice, Children and Truth Commissions restitution, rehabilitation, satisfaction Nations Children’s Fund, Implementation
(forthcoming 2008). and guarantees of non-repetition. GA Handbook for the Convention on the
Resolution 60/147 recommended that Rights of the Child, third edition,
186. UNICEF Executive Director Carol “States take the Basic Principles and UNICEF, New York, September 2007,
Bellamy, press release issued Guidelines into account, promote respect p. 606.
26 February 1999. thereof and bring them to the attention of
members of the executive bodies of the 203. UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre and
187. UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre and
government, in particular law enforce- the International Center for Transitional
the International Center for Transitional
ment officials and military and security Justice, Children and Truth
Justice, Children and Truth Commissions
forces, legislative bodies, the judiciary, Commissions (forthcoming 2008).
(forthcoming 2008).
victims and their representatives,
188. For a detailed account of relevant human rights defenders and lawyers, 204. Sierra Leone Special Court, press
challenges and measures developed the media and the public in general.” release, 2 November 2002.
to encourage child and adolescent
194. Principle 4 and 15 of the ‘Basic 205. United Nations, ‘Rome Statute of
participation in this process, see,
Principles and Guidelines on the the International Criminal Court’, UN
for example: UNICEF, Adolescent
Right to a Remedy and Reparation document A/CONF.183.9, adopted
Participation in Programme Activities
for Victims of Gross Violations of 17 July 1998, article 26: Exclusion of
During Situations of Conflict and
International Human Rights Law and jurisdiction over persons under 18.
Post-Conflict: Case Studies, UNICEF,
Serious Violations of International Children under 18 may still be prosecuted
New York, June 2004; and UNICEF
Humanitarian Law’, General Assembly under domestic law.
Innocenti Research Centre, Outcome
Resolution 60/147, 16 December 2005.
Document (p. 11) and Background
206. Amnesty International, ‘United States of
Documents (published electronically, 195. United Nations, ‘Concluding Obser-
America: The threat of a bad example –
pp. 50-64), of the ‘Expert Discussion vations on OPAC by the Committee on
Undermining international standards as
on Transitional Justice and Children’, the Rights of the Child with regard to
10-12 November 2005. Guatemala’, UN document CRC/C/OPAC/ “war on terror” detentions continue’,
GTM/CO/1, New York, 8 June 2007, Amnesty International Report
189. For example, as part of their ‘Children 51/114/2003, 19 August 2003.
paras. 20-21.
and Transitional Justice Series’, the
UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre is 196. Another key challenge is ensuring 207. United Nations, ‘Concluding Observa-
initiating documentation on children that implementation of reparations tions of the Committee on the Rights
and transitional justice processes in programmes is guided by the best of the Child: Nepal’, UN document
Colombia, Liberia, Peru, Rwanda, interests of the child as well as a rights- CRC/C/15/ADD.261, New York,
Sierra Leone, South Africa and Uganda based and community-based approach. 21 September 2005.
ENDNOTES 207
208. United Nations, ‘General Comment No. Rights of Internally Displaced Persons; 235. United Nations, ‘Report of the Special
10 of the Committee on the Rights of as well as representatives of three NGO Representative of the Secretary-General
the Child: Children’s Rights in Juvenile consortia: International Council of for Children and Armed Conflict’,
Justice’, UN document CRC/C/GC/10, Voluntary Agencies (ICVA), InterAction UN document A/62/228, New York,
New York, 9 February 2007. and the Steering Committee for 13 August 2007, para. 79.
Humanitarian Response (SCHR).
209. United Nations, ‘A World Fit for 236. J. Thompson, Humanitarian Financing
Children’, UN document A/RES/S-27/2, 221. Inter-Agency Standing Committee, ‘IASC Trends: Child programming and
New York, 11 October 2002. Work Plan 2007’, document PR/0612/1956/0, protection, Consultant report for
<www.humanitarianinfo.org/iasc/_tools/ Machel 10-year strategic review,
210. Ibid., para. 43(b).
download.asp?docID=1956&type=any>. July 2007, pp. 7-8.
211. United Nations, UN document A/51/77,
222. Machel 1996, para. 305. 237. United Nations Central Emergency
New York, 12 December 1996, para. 36.
Response Fund, ‘CERF Figures’,
223. United Nations, ‘Report of the Special <ochaonline.un.org/cerf/CERFFigures/
212. United Nations, ‘Impact of Armed
Conflict on Children: Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General tabid/1924/Default.aspx>.
expert of the Secretary-General, Ms. for Children and Armed Conflict’,
UN document A/62/228, New York, 238. United Nations Office for the
Graça Machel, submitted pursuant to
13 August 2007, para. 66. Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs,
General Assembly Resolution 48/157’,
‘Humanitarian/Emergency Response Fund’,
UN document A/51/306, New York, 224. For information on the cluster approach <ochaonline.un.org/FundingFinance/
26 August 1996, para. 284. see <www.humanitarianreform.org> ResponseFunds/tabid/4404/Default.aspx>.
213. United Nations, ‘Report of the and Inter-Agency Standing Committee,
‘Guidance Note on Using the Cluster 239. Ibid.
Secretary-General: Comprehensive
assessment of the United Nations Approach to Strengthen Humanitarian
240. OCHA Sudan, ‘United Nations and
system response to children affected by Response’, IASC, Geneva, 24
Partners Work Plan for Sudan’,
armed conflict’, UN document A/59/331, November 2006. <www.unsudanig.org/workplan/chf/>.
New York, 3 September 2004. 225. United Nations, ‘Report of the Special 241. B. Willits-King, T. Mowjee and J.
214. Child protection advisers are currently Representative of the Secretary-General Barham, ‘Evaluation of Common/
deployed in the United Nations for Children and Armed Conflict’, Pooled Humanitarian Funds in DRC and
Integrated Office in Burundi (BINUB); UN document A/62/228, New York, Sudan’, OCHA ESS, December 2007,
UN Mission for Stabilization in Haiti 13 August 2007, para. 68. pp. 5, 18, 19, 52. <ochaonline.un.org/
(MINUSTAH); African Union/United OchaLinkClick.aspx?link=ocha&docId=
226. J. Freedman, ‘Contemporary Conflict
Nations Hybrid operation in Darfur 1088368>.
and its Consequences for Children:
(UNAMID); UN Missions in the
Input paper on war economies’, 242. Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness,
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Contribution to the Machel study an initiative of the Organisation for
(MONUC), Liberia (UNMIL), Nepal
10-year strategic review, 17 July 2007. Economic Co-operation and Development,
(UNMIN) and Sudan (UNMIS); and the
UN Operation in Côte d’Ivoire (UNOCI). 227. B. Verhey, ‘What Are Child Protection <www.oecd.org/document/18/0,2340,
Networks?’, UNICEF Innocenti Research en_2649_3236398_35401554_1_1_1_1,00.
215. Peacekeeping Best Practices Section, html>.
Centre, Florence, February 2006.
UN Department of Peacekeeping
Operations, ‘Lessons Learned Study: 228. R. Mountain, ‘Humanitarian Reform: 243. United Nations Development Programme,
Child Protection – The impact of child Saving and protecting lives in DRC’, ‘UNDP-Administered Multi-Donor Trust
protection advisers in peacekeeping Forced Migration Review, no. 29, 2008, Funds and Joint Programmes’, UNDP,
operations’, DPKO, May 2007. pp. 28-30. New York, <www.undp.org/mdtf/
overview.shtml>.
216. United Nations, ‘Children and Armed 229. United Nations, ‘Impact of Armed
Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General’, Conflict on Children: Report of the 244. For an overview of recent developments
UN document A/59/695-S/2005-72, expert of the Secretary-General, Ms. in humanitarian funding, see: P. Walker
New York, 9 February 2005, para. 68. Graça Machel, submitted pursuant to and K. Pepper, ‘The State of Humanitarian
General Assembly Resolution 48/157’, Funding’, Forced Migration Review,
217. Security Council Presidential Statement no. 29, 2007, pp. 33-35.
on Children and armed conflict, UN document A/51/306, New York,
12 February 2008 PRST/2008/6. 26 August 1996, para. 288. 245. B. Willitts-King, Practical Approaches to
230. See original document ‘The Paris Needs-based Allocation of Humanitarian
218. Machel 1996, paras. 281 and 303. Aid: A review for Irish Aid on donor
Principles: Principles and guidelines
219. ECHA and ECPS, which aim to enhance on children associated with armed
practices, July 2006, p. 20.
coordination between UN agencies, are forces or armed groups’, February 2007, 246. P. Walker and K. Pepper, ‘The State
two of four committees created by the <www.unicef.org/media/files/Paris_ of Humanitarian Funding’, Forced
Secretary-General in the framework of Principles__-_English.pdf>. Migration Review, no. 29, 2007.
the current UN reform process. Chaired
by the Emergency Relief Coordinator, 231. United Nations, ‘Special Measures for 247. Good Humanitarian Donorship, <www.
ECHA in particular ensures that political, Protection from Sexual Exploitation and goodhumanitariandonorship.org>.
peacekeeping and security issues are Sexual Abuse’, UN document ST/SGB/
part of humanitarian consultations 2003/13, New York, October 2003. 248. A. Stoddard, K. Haver and A. Harmer,
and the work of the Inter-Agency Operational Consequences of Reform
232. Inter-Agency Network for Education in Project Working Paper: Humanitarian
Standing Committee.
Emergencies, Measuring the Implemen- financing reform, Humanitarian Policy
220. The IASC includes such UN humanitarian tation and Impact of the INEE Minimum Group, Overseas Development Institute,
agencies as the Food and Agriculture Standards, INEE, New York, August June 2007.
Organization of the United Nations 2007, pp. 21-23.
249. P. Walker and K. Pepper, Follow the
(FAO), UNDP, UNFPA, UNHCR, UNICEF,
233. Inter-Agency Network for Education in Money: A review and analysis of the
World Food Programme (WFP) and
Emergencies, ‘Monitoring Systems for state of humanitarian funding, Feinstein
World Health Organization (WHO); the
Emergency Education’, <www.ineesite.org/ International Center, Tufts University, 2007.
International Committee of the Red
page.asp?pid=1132>.
Cross (ICRC); the International 250. The material on the CHAP is from
Federation of Red Cross and Red 234. Christian Children’s Fund, International J. Thompson, ‘Humanitarian Financing
Crescent Societies (IFRC); the World Committee of the Red Cross, International Trends: Child programming and
Bank; the International Organization Rescue Committee, Save the Children, protection’, consultant report for
for Migration (IOM) and the Secretary- Terre des Hommes, United Nations High Machel 10-year strategic review,
General’s Representative on the Human Commissioner for Refugees. July 2007, pp. 7-8.
208 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
251. UN document A/55/749, 26 January 262. UN News Centre, ‘UNESCO Says the Affected by a Complex Emergency:
2001, pp. 6-7. World Faces an 18 Million Teacher Afghanistan, 2002 and 2003’, Disasters,
Shortfall in Coming Decade’, 5 October the Journal of Disaster Studies, Policy
252. See Reports by the Secretary-General
2006, <www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp? and Management, vol. 30, no. 2, 2006,
on the follow-up to the special session
NewsID=20147&Cr=educat&Cr1=>. pp. 256-269.
of the General Assembly on children,
A/59/274, 17 August 2004; A/60/207, 263. B. O’Malley, Education Under Attack: 276. US Centers for Disease Control and
8 August 2005; and A/61/270, A global study on targeted political Prevention, ‘Emergency Measles Control
17 August 2007. and military violence against education Activities: Darfur, Sudan, 2004’, Morbidity
253. Ban Ki-Moon, Children and the staff, students, teachers, union and and Mortality Weekly Report, vol. 53,
Millennium Development Goals: government officials, and institutions, no. 38, 1 October 2004, pp. 897-899.
Progress towards A World Fit for United Nations Educational, Scientific
277. United Nations High Commissioner
Children, United Nations Children’s and Cultural Organization, Paris,
for Refugees, Reproductive Health in
Fund, New York, December 2007, 2007, p. 6.
Refugee Situations: An interagency
pp. 55-56.
264. Differences in the estimated number of field manual, UNHCR, Geneva, 1999,
254. See pages 58 to 60 of chapter 6 of children out of school in conflict-affected pp. 2, 11-18.
this document on international legal countries are due to the alternative 278. M. Toole and R. Waldman, ‘Prevention
standards and norms for a detailed methodologies used by UNICEF and of Excess Mortality in Refugee and
description of the Convention on the Save the Children. Displaced Populations in Developing
Rights of the Child mechanisms.
265. Save the Children, Last in Line, Last in Countries’, JAMA, vol. 263, 1990,
255. Organisation for Economic Co-operation School: How donors are failing children pp. 3296-3302.
and Development, ‘Principles for Good in conflict-affected fragile states, 2007,
International Engagement in Fragile 279. P. Salama et al., ‘Lessons Learned from
Save the Children, London, p. 20. Complex Emergencies over the Past
States and Situations’, OECD, Paris,
April 2007, <www.oecd.org/dataoecd/ 266. Ibid., p. 15. Decade’, The Lancet, vol. 364, 2004,
61/45/38368714.pdf >. pp. 1801-1813.
267. Ibid., p. 22.
256. S. Grantham-McGregor et al., ‘Early 280. H. Young et al., ‘Public Nutrition in
Child Development in Developing 268. A. Donahue and E. Loaiza, Millennium Complex Emergencies’, The Lancet,
Countries’, The Lancet, vol. 369, Development Goals (MDGs) in Conflict- vol. 364, 2004, p. 1899.
no. 9564, 10 March 2007. Affected Countries, UNICEF Strategic
Information Section, New York, January 281. A. Donahue and E. Loaiza, ‘Millennium
257. K. Kostelny, Psychosocial and 2008 (unpublished). Development Goals in Conflict-Affected
Protection Outcomes of CCSs: Research Countries’, UNICEF Strategic Information
on young children in Northern Uganda, 269. D. Guha-Sapir and W. Panhuis, ‘Conflict Section, New York, p. 7 (unpublished);
Christian Children’s Fund, Richmond, Related Mortality: An analysis of 37 and UNICEF, Progress for Children:
VA, 2008, pp. 4, 8-9, 11, 13, 33. datasets’, Disasters, vol. 28, 2004, A World Fit for Children statistical
pp. 418-428; and W. Moss et al., ‘Child review, Number 6, UNICEF, New York,
258. M. Vijayaraghavan et al., ‘Economic
Health in Complex Emergencies’, December 2007, p. 4.
Evaluation of Measles Catch-up and
Bulletin of the World Health Organization,
Follow-up Campaigns in a Country 282. Ibid.
Affected by a Complex Emergency: vol. 84, no. 1, 2006, p. 59. Another
Afghanistan, 2002 and 2003’, Disasters source noted that pneumonia, diarrhoea 283. D. Paul, ‘Heading Home? Protection
(in press), pp. 256-458. and malaria together caused 80 per cent and return in northern Uganda’,
of deaths among Congolese refugee Humanitarian Exchange Magazine,
259. A. Anderson et al., ‘Standards Put to the children in the United Republic of no. 36, Humanitarian Practice Network,
Test: Implementing the INEE Minimum Tanzania in 1999 (L. Talley, P. Spiegel Overseas Development Institute,
Standards for Education in Emergencies, and M. Girgis, ‘An Investigation of London, 2006.
Chronic Crisis and Early Reconstruction’, Increasing Mortality among Congolese
Humanitarian Practice Network Paper, Refugees in Lugufu Camp, Tanzania, 284. R. Brennan, M. Despines and
no. 57, HPN, London, December 2006, L. Roberts, ‘Mortality Surveys in
May-June 1999’, Journal of Refugee
p. 2. the Democratic Republic of Congo:
Studies, vol. 14, 2001, pp. 417-427).
Humanitarian impact and lessons
260. A. Donahue and E. Loaiza, ‘Millennium
270. R. Garfield, ‘Measuring Humanitarian learned’, Humanitarian Exchange
Development Goals (MDGs) in Conflict-
Emergencies’, Disaster Medicine and Magazine, no. 35, Humanitarian Practice
Affected Countries’, UNICEF Strategic
Information Section, New York, January Public Health Preparedness, vol. 1, Network, Overseas Development
2008 (unpublished); and United Nations no. 2, 2007, p. 111. Institute, London, 2006; B. Coghlan
Children’s Fund, Progress for Children: et al., ‘Mortality in the Democratic
271. R. Black, S. Morris and J. Bryce, ‘Where Republic of Congo: A nationwide survey’,
A World Fit for Children statistical and Why are Ten Million Children Dying
review, Number 6, UNICEF, New York, The Lancet, vol. 367, 2006, p. 50.
Every Year?’ The Lancet, vol. 361, 2003,
December 2007. Note: Statistics from 285. F. Mason and A. Taylor, A Review of the
pp. 2226-2234.
conflict-affected states are largely
Advances and Challenges in Nutrition
absent from the UNESCO EFA Global 272. A. Zwi et al., ‘Child Health in Armed in Conflicts and Crises over the Last 20
Monitoring Reports, because in many Conflict: Time to rethink’, The Lancet, Years, Food and Nutrition Technical
cases, figures are unavailable or inaccu- vol. 367, 2006, pp. 1886-1888. Assistance Project, Academy for
rate due to poor record-keeping and
273. N. Dadgar et al., ‘Implementation of a Educational Development, Washington,
population movements that complicate
already weak demographic data. For an Mass Measles Campaign in Central D.C., 2003.
alternative analysis based on a different Afghanistan, December 2001 to 286. G. Hogley Cotes, ‘Delivering Supple-
methodology, see Save the Children, May 2002’, Journal of Infectious mentary and Therapeutic Feeding
Last in Line, Last in School: How donors Diseases, vol. 187, supplement 1, in Darfur: Coping with insecurity’,
are failing children in conflict-affected 2003, pp. S186-S190. Field Exchange, Emergency Nutrition
fragile states, Save the Children, Network, vol. 28, 2006, p. 2; and
London, 2007. 274. B. Loevinsohn and A. Harding, ‘Buying
Results? Contracting for health service S. Roughneen and S. Fox, ‘Integrated
261. A. Anderson et al., ‘Standards Put to the delivery in developing countries’, The Community Health in Darfur: Interacting
Test: Implementing the INEE Minimum Lancet, vol. 366, 2005, pp. 676-681. with culture, dealing with insecurity’,
Standards for Education in Emergencies, Humanitarian Exchange Magazine,
Chronic Crisis and Early Reconstruction’, 275. M. Vijayaraghavan et al., ‘Economic no. 36, Humanitarian Practice Network,
Humanitarian Practice Network Paper, Evaluation of Measles Catch-up and Overseas Development Institute,
no. 57, HPN, London, December 2006, p. 8. Follow-up Campaigns in a Country London, 2006, p. 27.
ENDNOTES 209
287. P. Salama et al., ‘Lessons Learned 303. V. Curtis and S. Cairncross, ‘Effect of 318. UNICEF Canada, ‘HIV/AIDS, Conflict
from Complex Emergencies over the Washing Hands with Soap on Diarrhoea and Displacement’, report on the XVI
Past Decade’, The Lancet, vol. 364, Risk in the Community: A systematic International AIDS Conference affiliated
2004, pp. 1902, 1904. review’, The Lancet, vol. 3, 2003, p. 232. event, Toronto, 12 August 2006, hosted
288. Valid International, Community-based by UNICEF and UNHCR, pp. 26-27,
304. World Health Organization, Guidelines
Therapeutic Care (CTC): A field manual, for Drinking-Water Quality, third edition, <http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2006/
first edition, Valid International, Oxford, incorporating first addendum, vol. 1, hiv_aids_conflict_displacement.pdf >.
2006, p. 2. recommendations, 2006, WHO, Geneva, 319. United Nations Development
pp. 50-51. Programme, ‘United Nations System-
289. Ibid., p.150.
305. Office of the United Nations High wide Work Programme on Scaling up
290. Ibid., p. 3.
Commissioner for Refugees, Statistical HIV/AIDS Services for Populations of
291. WHO/WFP/UNICEF, ‘Joint Statement on Yearbook 2005, UNHCR, Geneva, 2007, Humanitarian Concern: Analysis of PRSPs
Preventing and Controlling Micronutrient p. 67. of countries of concern to establish
Deficiencies in Populations Affected by baseline indicators for output 1’, UNDP,
Emergencies’, World Health 306. United Nations, ‘UNICEF Water, New York, April 2007 (unpublished).
Organization, Geneva, 2007. Sanitation and Hygiene Strategies for
2006-2015’, UN document E/ICEF/2006/6, 320. United Nations Development
292. Inter-Agency Standing Committee, New York, 15 November 2005. Programme, ‘Analysis and Indicators
‘Women, Girls, Boys and Men: Different for Countries of Concern: Baseline and
needs – equal opportunities’, Gender 307. World Health Organization, Guidelines
OVIs for populations of humanitarian
Handbook in Humanitarian Action, for Drinking-Water Quality, third edition
concern’, UNDP, New York, October
IASC, December 2006. incorporating first addendum, vol. 1,
recommendations, WHO, Geneva, 2006, 2007 (unpublished).
293. World Food Programme, Gender p. 78. 321. This section draws from UNICEF’s latest
Mainstreaming in WFP: An integrated
assessment, WFP, Rome, 1998, pp. 3, 6. 308. J. Barenbaum, R. Vladislav and Child Protection Strategy, endorsed by
M. Schwab-Stone, ‘The Psychosocial the UNICEF Executive Board on 5 June
294. C. Reis, ‘Addressing Sexual Violence in Aspects of Children Exposed to War: 2008 (UN document E/ICEF/2008/5/Rev.1).
Emergencies’, Humanitarian Exchange Practice and policy initiatives’, Journal Other calls for child protection systems
Magazine, no. 32, Humanitarian Practice of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, are made in Save the Children’s
Network, Overseas Development vol. 45, no. 1, 2004, p. 42. ‘Protecting Children in Emergencies’,
Institute, London, 2005, p. 33. <www.savethechildren.org/publications/
309. Inter-Agency Standing Committee, advocacy/policy_brief_final.pdf>, and
295. H. Young et al., ‘Public Nutrition in
Guidelines on Mental Health and
Complex Emergencies’, The Lancet, the United Nations Secretary-General’s
Psychosocial Support in Emergency
vol. 364, 2004, p. 1900. study on violence against children.
Settings, IASC, Geneva, 2007, p. 2.
296. World Health Organization, Management 322. Research suggests that some foster
310. J. Duncan and L. Arntson, Children in
of Severe Malnutrition: A manual for parents clearly provide excellent care.
Crisis: Good practices in evaluating
physicians and other senior health At the other end of the spectrum,
psychosocial programming, Save the
workers, WHO, Geneva, 1999, fostering can involve overt exploitation
<http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1999/ Children Federation, Washington, D.C.,
2003, p. 10. and abuse, and widespread discrimina-
a57361.pdf>. tion. Source: D. Tolfree, ‘Children in
297. Infant and Young Child Feeding in 311. Ibid. Residential Care’, a paper delivered at
Emergencies Core Group, Operational 312. R. Dybdahl, ‘Children and Mothers in the Second International Conference on
Guidance for Emergency Relief Staff War: An outcome study of a psycho- Children and Residential Care, Stockholm,
and Programme Managers on Infant social intervention program’, Child 12-15 May 2003, p. 5.
and Young Child Feeding in Development, vol. 72, no. 4, 2001, pp. 1-2.
Emergencies, Emergency Nutrition 323. M. de la Soudiere, J. Williamson and
Network, Oxford, 2006. 313. Women’s Commission for Refugee J. Botte, The Lost Ones: Emergency
Women and Children, Untapped care and family tracing for separated
298. F. Grünewald, ‘Darfur and the Dynamics Potential: Adolescents affected by children from birth to five years,
of Crisis Management’, Humanitarian UNICEF, New York, April 2007, p. 14.
armed conflict – A review of programs
Exchange Magazine, no. 30, Humani-
and policies, WCRWC, New York, 2000,
tarian Practice Network, Overseas 324. D. Tolfree, Facing the Crisis: Supporting
pp. 9, 37.
Development Institute, London, 2005. children through positive care options,
314. United Nations Children’s Fund, Save the Children Fund, London, 2005, p. 2.
299. H. Young et al., ‘Public Nutrition in
Working with Children in Unstable
Complex Emergencies’, The Lancet, 325. ‘Freedom, Security and Justice
Situations: Principles and concepts to
vol. 364, 2004, p. 1900. for Separated Children?’, European
guide psychosocial responses, UNICEF,
300. L. Fewtrell et al., Water, Sanitation and New York, 2003, pp. 22-23. Conference, Brussels, 3 November 2004
Hygiene: Quantifying the health impact (sponsored by Defence for Children
at national and local levels in countries 315. K. Ehntholt and W. Yule, ‘Practitioner International, Save the Children and the
with incomplete water supply and sani- Review: Assessment and treatment of Separated Children in Europe Programme).
tation coverage, WHO Environmental adolescents who have experienced
war-related trauma’, Journal of Child 326. United Nations High Commissioner
Burden of Disease Series, no. 15, World
Health Organization, Geneva, 2007, Psychology and Psychiatry, vol. 47, for Refugees, ‘UNHCR Guidelines on
pp. 43, 45. 2006, p. 1197. Determining the Best Interests of the
Child’, UNHCR Geneva, May 2008.
301. World Health Organization, Frequently 316. Such networks include the Grupo de
Asked Questions in Case of Emergencies: Acción Comunitaria (GAC), Regional 327. Under the UNHCR-led protection
Health risks – Drinking-water and sanita- Psychosocial Support Initiative cluster, UNICEF is the designated focal
tion, 2008. (REPSSI), Regional Emergency point agency and ‘provider of last
Psychosocial Support Initiative, The resort’ for child protection.
302. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate International Federation Reference
Change, Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Centre for Psychosocial Support, and 328. International Committee of the Red
adaptation and vulnerability, contribution the International Federation of Red Cross, Annual Report 2007, ICRC,
of Working Group II to the Fourth Cross and Red Crescent Societies. Geneva, pp. 95-97.
Assessment Report of the Intergovern-
mental Panel on Climate Change, 317. M. Lowicki-Zucca et al., ‘Estimates of 329. United Nations Children’s Fund,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, HIV Burden in Emergencies’, Sexually ‘Humanitarian Action: Donor update’,
2007, pp. 42, 44, 48-49. Transmitted Infections, 2008 (in press). UNICEF, New York, 8 March 2004.
210 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
330. A. Hepburn, J. Williamson and T. with armed forces and groups and good 353. United Nations, ‘Children and DDR’,
Wolfram, ‘Separated Children: Care and practice to support their release and section 5.30, Operational Guide to the
protection of children in emergencies – reintegration. It is addressed to States. Integrated Disarmament, Demobilization
A field guide’, Save the Children The second document, ‘The Paris and Reintegration Standards (IDDRS),
Federation, Westport, CT, 2004, p. 34. Principles’, provides detailed programme UN DDR Resource Centre, New York,
guidance to practitioners to ensure that p. 221, PDF available at <www.unddr.org/
331. Anecdotal evidence has shown that iddrs/iddrs_guide.php>.
all disarmament, demobilization and
many separated children are inclined to
reintegration processes are designed 354. International Labour Organization,
migrate to urban centres or engage in
to improve the quality of care for and Prevention of Child Recruitment and
hazardous work. More comprehensive
protection of children. For copies of these Reintegration of Children Associated
data collection is required, however,
to understand these links. documents, see <www.un.org/children/ with Armed Forces and Groups:
conflict/english/parisprinciples.html>. Strategic framework for addressing the
332. The Paris Principles refer to the term economic gap, ILO, Geneva, 2007.
‘recruitment’ as the compulsory, forced 343. The Paris Principles: The principles
and voluntary conscription or enlist- and guidelines on children associated 355. J. MacVeigh, S. Maguire and J. Wedge,
ment of children into any kind of armed with armed forces or armed groups, Stolen Futures: The reintegration of
force or armed group. ‘Unlawful recruit- February 2007, <www.unicef.org/ children affected by armed conflict,
ment or use’ is recruitment or use of protection/files/ParisPrinciples_EN.pdf>; submission to the 10-year review of the
children under the age stipulated in the and the Operational Guide to the 1996 Machel study on the impact of
international treaties applicable to the Integrated DDR Standards, <www.unddr. armed conflict on children, Save the
armed force or armed group in question org/iddrs/iddrs_guide.php>. Children UK, London, 2007, p. viii.
or under applicable national law. 356. ‘UN System-wide Policy Paper for
344. G. Landry, Study on Reintegration of
Source: The Paris Principles: Principles Employment Creation, Income-
Children in Armed Conflict, Canadian
and guidelines on children associated Generation and Reintegration in Post-
with armed forces or armed groups, International Development Agency,
Gatineau, Quebec, December 2007, p. 7. Conflict Settings’, May 2008, p. 29.
February 2007, p. 7.
345. World Bank, ‘Child Soldiers: Prevention, 357. K. Peters, ‘From Weapons to Wheels:
333. Ibid. Young Sierra Leonean ex-combatants
demobilization and reintegration’, no. 3,
334. V. Achvarina and S. Reich, ‘No Place become motorbike taxi-riders’, Journal
Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction
to Hide: Refugees, displaced persons, of Peace, Conflict & Development,
Unit, Washington, D.C., May 2002, p. 1.
and the recruitment of child soldiers’, March 2007, p. 2.
International Security, vol. 31, no. 1, 346. Office of the Special Representative of
358. ‘UN System-wide Policy Paper for
Summer 2006, pp. 127-164. the Secretary-General for Children and Employment Creation, Income-
Armed Conflict, UNICEF, Global Youth Generation and Reintegration in Post-
335. The Paris Principles: The principles Action Network, UNFPA, Women’s Conflict Settings’, May 2008, p. 30.
and guidelines on children associated Commission for Refugee Women,
with armed forces or armed groups, “Will You Listen?” Young voices from 359. G. Landry, Study on Reintegration of
February 2007, p. 8. conflict zones, companion booklet to Children in Armed Conflict, Canadian
the Machel 10-year strategic review, International Development Agency,
336. Sweden’s Ministry for Foreign Affairs,
UNICEF, New York, 2007, p. 5. Gatineau, Quebec, December 2007,
Stockholm Initiative on Disarmament,
pp. 13-14.
Demobilisation, Reintegration: Final
347. G. Landry, Study on Reintegration of
report, 2006, p. 9. 360. Women’s Commission for Refugee
Children in Armed Conflict, Canadian
Women and Children, Listening to
337. School for Peace Culture of Autonomous International Development Agency,
Youth: The experiences of young
University of Barcelona, Analysis of Gatineau, Quebec, December 2007,
people in northern Uganda, contribution
the Disarmament, Demobilisation and p. 10.
to Machel 10-year strategic review with
Reintegration (DDR) Programs Existing support from UNICEF, June 2007, p. 16.
in the World during 2006, Bellaterra, 348. B. Verhey, Reaching the Girls: Study
Spain, March 2007, pp. 21-23. on girls associated with armed forces 361. School for Peace Culture of Autonomous
and groups in the Democratic Republic University of Barcelona, Analysis of the
338. World Bank, ‘Child Soldiers: Prevention, of Congo, Save the Children UK, Care, Disarmament, Demobilisation and
demobilization and reintegration’, no. 3, International Foundation for Education Reintegration (DDR) Programs Existing
Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction & Self-Help (IFESH), IRC, November in the World during 2006, Bellaterra,
Unit, Washington, D.C., May 2002, p. 2. 2004, p. 2. Spain, March 2007, p. 7.
339. Formally called the ‘Cape Town 349. Women’s Commission for Refugee 362. United Nations Inter-Agency Standing
Principles and Best Practices on the Women and Children, ‘Participatory Committee, Guidelines for Gender-based
Prevention of Recruitment of Children Research Study with Adolescents and Violence Interventions in Humanitarian
into the Armed Forces and on Demobi- Youth in Sierra Leone’, WCRWC, Settings: Focusing on prevention of
lization and Social Reintegration of New York, April-July 2002, p. 6. and response to sexual violence in
Child Soldiers in Africa’. emergencies, IASC, Geneva, 2005, p. 3.
350. A. Veale and A. Stavrou, Violence,
340. See also: United Nations Children’s 363. United Nations Population Fund,
Reconciliation and Identity: The reinte-
Fund and the Coalition to Stop the Use ‘UNFPA & Young People: Imagine the
gration of Lord’s Resistance Army child
of Child Soldiers, Guide to the Optional largest generation of adolescents in his-
abductees in northern Uganda, Institute
Protocol on the Involvement of Children tory’, UNFPA, New York, 2003, p. 3.
for Security Studies, December 2003,
in Armed Conflict, December 2003,
pp. 36-38. 364. United Nations Inter-Agency Standing
<www.unddr.org/tool_docs/option_
protocol_conflict[1].pdf>. Committee, Guidelines for Gender-
351. This approach is now strongly
based Violence Interventions in
341. For further details on the United emphasized in the Paris Principles
Humanitarian Settings: Focusing on
Nations Integrated Disarmament, and other guiding principles.
prevention of and response to sexual
Demobilization and Reintegration 352. Female member of a focus group inter- violence in emergencies, IASC, Geneva,
(IDDR) standards, see <www.unddr.org/ viewed by Jenny Pearlman Robinson 2005, p. 3.
index.php>; to download the operational and Juliet Young, Gulu district (Uganda),
guide, see <www.unddr.org/iddrs/iddrs_ 365. The 2005 IASC guidelines indicate (p. 8)
12 May 2007, from Women’s Commission that the terms ‘victim’ and ‘survivor’
guide.php>.
for Refugee Women and Children, can be used interchangeably. Most
342. Two outcome documents resulted from Listening to Youth: The experiences often, ‘victim’ is used in the legal and
this process. The first, a short document of young people in northern Uganda, medical sectors. ‘Survivor’ is generally
entitled ‘The Paris Commitments’, Contribution to the Machel 10-year preferred in the psychological and
reaffirms international standards relating strategic review with support from social support sectors because it
to the protection of children associated UNICEF, June 2007, p. 16. implies resiliency.
ENDNOTES 211
366. Women’s accounts from 2003 extracted 376. ‘From Words to Action, Final 392. A. Barbolet et al., The Utility and
from Amnesty International, Lives Conference Report’, International Dilemmas of Conflict Sensitivity,
Blown Apart: Crimes against women in Conference on War-Affected Children, Berghof Research Center for
times of conflict, Amnesty International, Winnipeg, Canada, 10-17 September Constructive Conflict Management,
London, 2004. 2000, pp. 62-63. Berlin, April 2005.
367. United Nations Institute for Training 377. P. Collier, Development and Conflict, 393. Canadian International Development
and Research, ‘Training for Civilian Oxford University, Oxford, 1 October Agency, ‘Education and Peacebuilding:
Personnel in Peacekeeping Operations 2004, p. 1, <www.un.org/esa/documents/ A preliminary operational framework’,
on the Special Needs of Women and Development.and.Conflict2.pdf>. CIDA, Gatineau, Quebec, 1999.
Children in Conflict’, UNITAR, Geneva,
378. As noted by Collier et al. 2008: “Nine 394. Save the Children, Rewrite the Future:
November 2006, <www.unitar.org/
of the 32 conflicts active in 2005 had One year on, Save the Children,
wcc/flyer.pdf>; Save the Children, The
been inactive in the previous year, London, September 2007, p. 4.
State of the World’s Mothers 2003,
and in 2006 there were a further four
Save the Children, 2003, pp. 24-26.
new active conflicts. All of these new 395. P. Rose and M. Greeley, Education in
368. Among the codes of conduct, UNHCR conflicts in 2005 and 2006 were conflict Fragile States: Capturing lessons and
adopted one in 2002, and the United relapses, further emphasizing the identifying good practices, paper pre-
Nations Secretary-General’s Bulletin importance of our focus on post- pared for the DAC Fragile States
‘Special Measures for Protection from conflict situations.” Working Group, May 2006, pp. 2, 3, 4,
Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse’ 7, 22.
379. Executive Office of the Secretary-
(ST/SGB/2003/13) was issued in October
General, Inventory: United Nations 396. P. Buckland, Reshaping the Future:
2003. Also see: UN Department of
capacity in peacebuilding, United Education and post-conflict reconstruction,
Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO),
Nations, New York, September 2006, World Bank, Washington, D.C., 2005.
Ten Rules: Code of personal conduct p. 6.
for blue helmets, 1998, and We are 397. T. Jackson, Equal Access to Education:
United Nations Peacekeepers, 1998. 380. United Nations, ‘Progress Report on the A peace imperative for Burundi,
Prevention of Armed Conflict: Report of International Alert, London, 2000, p. 5.
369. For details of an example in Indonesia, the Secretary-General’, UN document
see: Amnesty International, ‘Indonesia: A/60/891, New York, 18 July 2006. 398. P. Bauman, P. Gazala and M. Ayalew,
The impact of impunity on women in Comparative Analysis of the Impact of
Aceh’, AI Index: ASA 21/60/00, Amnesty 381. Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro, World Report on
Tsunami and Tsunami Interventions on
International, London, 23 November Violence Against Children, United
Conflicts in Sri Lanka and Aceh/Indonesia,
2000, p. 13. Nations, Geneva, 2006, p. 6.
2006; executive summary available at
370. Women’s Commission for Refugee 382. United Nations Department of <http://web.mit.edu/cis/www/migra-
Women and Children, Beyond Firewood: Economic and Social Affairs, World tion/pubs/rrwp/34_tsunami.htm>.
Fuel alternatives and protection strategies Youth Report: Young people’s transition
to adulthood – Progress and challenges, 399. A. Barbolet et al., The Utility and
for displaced women and girls, WCRWC,
UNDESA, New York, 2007. Dilemmas of Conflict Sensitivity,
New York, March 2006, pp. 1-5.
Berghof Research Center for
371. J. Schipper, Study on Funding for 383. United Nations, ‘Statement by the Constructive Conflict Management,
Sexual Violence in Conflict, UN Action President of the Security Council’, UN Berlin, April 2005, p. 8.
against Sexual Violence in Conflict document S/PRST/2008/6, New York,
(unpublished), May 2007. 12 February 2008. 400. United Nations, ‘Resolution 53/25:
International Decade for a Culture
372. The implications of the growing 384. Global Partnership for the Prevention of Peace and Non-Violence for the
proportion of young people in the of Armed Conflict, ‘People Building Children of the World, 2001-2010’,
world’s population has been the focus Peace: A global action agenda for the New York, 10 November 1998.
of a number of recent global reports, prevention of armed conflict’, Global
in particular UNDP’s Youth in Conflict Partnership for the Prevention of Armed 401. M. Sinclair, Learning to Live Together:
(2006) and the UN’s World Youth Conflict, The Hague, 2007, pp. 3, 6. Building skills, values and attitudes for
reports in 2005 and 2007. Data drawn the twenty-first century, UNESCO, Paris,
385. Global Partnership for the Prevention of 2004, pp. 21-22; and UNESCO, UNHCR
from population statistics in: United Armed Conflict website, <www.gppac.org/
Nations Children’s Fund, The State of and INEE, Inter-Agency Peace Education
page.php?id=1513>.
the World’s Children 2008: Child survival, Programme: Skills for constructive living –
UNICEF, New York, December 2007. 386. Alliance of Civilizations, <www.unaoc.org/ Overview of the programme, UNESCO,
content/view/92/127/lang,english/>. Paris, November 2005, pp. 8, 14-15.
373. Collier et al. argue that if the true costs
associated with political violence, such as 387. IASC Sub-Working Group on 402. P. Baxter and V. Ikobwa, ‘Peace Education:
disease, prolonged poverty, economic Preparedness and Contingency Planning, Why and how?’, Forced Migration
damage and increased likelihood of <www.humanitarianinfo.org/iasc/content/ Review, vol. 1, no. 22, pp. 22-28; and
trafficking and criminality are factored subsidi/swg_preparedness/default.asp? UNESCO, UNHCR and INEE, Inter-
in, a conflict can cost from $60 billion to bodyID=14&&publish=0&publish=0>. Agency Peace Education Programme:
$250 billion, depending on how these Skills for constructive living – Overview
388. For more details on Security Council
costs are calculated. P. Collier, L. of the programme, UNESCO, Paris,
Resolution 1612 as an option for pre-
Chauvet and H. Hegre, ‘The Security November 2005, pp. 11-13.
vention, see ‘Preventive Strategies for
Challenge in Conflict-Prone Countries’,
Children and Armed Conflict: Imple- 403. J. Hart, Children’s Participation in
Copenhagen Consensus 2008 Conflicts
mentation of Security Council Resolution Humanitarian Action: Learning from
Challenge Paper, Copenhagen
1612 and other policies’, Forum on zones of armed conflict, Refugee
Consensus Center, Frederiksberg,
Children and Armed Conflict, Peace- Studies Centre, University of Oxford,
Denmark, April 2008, pp. 8-12.
building – The Canadian Peacebuilding Oxford, February 2004.
374. M. Chalmers, Spending to Save? An Network, March 2008.
analysis of the cost effectiveness of con- 404. G. Salomon, ‘Does Peace Education
389. Save the Children Sweden, Child Really Make A Difference?’, Peace and
flict prevention, Centre for International
Protection in Emergencies: Priorities, Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology,
Cooperation and Security, Department
principles and practices, Save the
of Peace Studies, University of Bradford, vol. 12, no. 1, 2006.
Children, Stockholm, 2007, p. 48.
Bradford, UK, 12 June 2004, p. 2.
405. J. Hart, Children’s Participation in
390. Ibid., p. 19.
375. United Nations, ‘Progress Report on the Humanitarian Action: Learning from
Prevention of Armed Conflict: Report of 391. The peacebuilding framework for zones of armed conflict, Refugee
the Secretary-General’, UN document Guinea-Bissau had not yet been finalized Studies Centre, University of Oxford,
A/60/891, New York, 18 July 2006. during the writing of this report. Oxford, February 2004, pp. 26-27.
212 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
406. Ibid. p. 26. 411. Office of the Special Representative of p. 34, ‘Children as Zones of Peace’,
the Secretary-General for Children and <www.unicef.org/sowc96/14zones.htm>.
407. R. Johnston, ‘Developing a National Armed Conflict, Global Youth Action
Youth Policy: A programme review’, Network, UNICEF, UNFPA and Women’s 417. Ibid., p. 11.
United Nations Development Programme, Commission for Refugee Women and
New York, November 2007. 418. ‘Never Again Rwanda’s First Youth
Children, “Will You Listen?” Young Theatre Festival’, <www.neveragain
408. United Nations Development voices from conflict zones, UNICEF,
rwanda.org/index.php?mod=article&
Programme, Youth and Violent Conflict: New York, October 2007.
cat=news&article=24>.
Society and development in crisis? 412. UNICEF submission to the Machel
UNDP, New York, 2006, p. 26. 419. K. Peters, ‘From Weapons to Wheels:
strategic review from the Latin America
Young Sierra Leonean ex-combatants
and Caribbean region.
409. See, for example: Search for Common become motorbike taxi-riders’, Journal
Ground website, <www.sfcg.org/ 413. C. O’Kane, C. Feinstein and A. Giertsen, of Peace, Conflict and Development 10,
programmes/sierra/sierra_talking.html>; ‘Children and Young People in Post- March 2007, p. 21.
and R. Taouti-Cherif, Evaluation of conflict Peace-Building’, Seen, but not
Search for Common Ground-Talking Heard! Placing Children and Youth 420. K. Emmons, Adult Wars, Child Soldiers:
Drum Studio: Sierra Leone election on the Security Governance Agenda, Voices of children involved in armed
strategy 2007, Search for Common edited by D. Nosworthy, Geneva Centre conflict in the East Asia and Pacific
Ground, Washington, D.C. and Brussels, for the Democratic Control of Armed Region, UNICEF East Asia and Pacific
January 2008, pp. 15-16, 20. Forces, (forthcoming 2008). Region Office report, 2002, pp. 57, 74-75.
410. R. Johnston, Youth and Violent Conflict 414. Ibid. 421. K. Peters, ‘From Weapons to Wheels:
Programme Review: Developing a Young Sierra Leonean ex-combatants
415. Ibid.
national youth policy in Liberia, United become motorbike taxi-riders’, Journal
Nations Development Programme, 416. United Nations Children’s Fund, The of Peace, Conflict and Development 10,
New York, 2006. State of the World’s Children 1996, March 2007, p. 3.
ENDNOTES 213
INDEX
A restrictions on humanitarian access in, 24 Annan, Kofi, 66, 84, 172, 173
reviving education in, 117 Anti-government guerrillas, 8
Abduction of children, 9, 18, 23–24 role of military forces in response to
humanitarian emergencies, 110 Anti-malaria measures, 122
Aceh (Indonesia). See also Indonesia
school attacks in, 22 Anti-personnel mines, decrease in child casu-
Free Aceh Movement (Gerakan Aceh alties from, 21
Merdeka) in, 10 scurvy in, 128
peace education in, 177–178 suicide bomb attack against Baghlan Antiretroviral therapy, 143
province in, 13 in conflict and post-conflict settings, 143
tsunami in, 176
targeting of children as perpetrators in, 13 improving coverage of, 143
Action Contre la Faim’s nutritional use of children in suicide attacks in, 21
programmes Armed conflicts
vaccination programme in, 109, 123
in Afghanistan, 129 changing nature of contemporary, 3
in Darfur, 129 Africa continuing legacy of, 31
in Southern Sudan, 129 promoting peace education among disease and, 20
refugees in, 177 drug trafficking mafias and, 10–11
Action des jeunes pour le Développement
Communautaire et la Paix (Goma, rape as weapon in Great Lakes region, 23 effect on communities, 20
Democratic Republic of the Congo), 186 African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of effect on schools, 22–23
Action for the Rights of the Child, the Child, 60 emotional distress and, 20
launching, 94 African Union’s 2007 ‘Call for Accelerated as fluid and less easily defined, 8
Action’, 53 geographical disparities and, 30
Acute respiratory infections, 122
impact of on children, 8, 82
Administrative detention, 18 Aid per capita for conflict and non-conflict
states, 31 interruption and disintegration of basic
as conflict-related violations against services in, 18
children, 25 AIDS, 124, 125, 142–144 joblessness as by-product of, 23
Adolescents. See also Young people combating, 29 military resolution for, 8
acute malnutrition in, 131 in humanitarian framework, 144 negotiated settlements for, 8
programming and funding for, 143 number of children killed in, 19
Advocacy networks, 89
Aid workers, preventing targeting of, 110 in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, 131
Aerial bombardment in dealing with poverty as by-product of, 23
terrorism, 13 Albania
recruitment of children for, 21–22
Afghanistan child-friendly spaces in, 108
revenue sources for, 11–12
armed conflicts in, 10, 131 peace education in, 178 scale and scope of, 19
back-to-school campaigns in, 117 Algeria, identification as conflict-affected sources of social protection in, 18
child-friendly spaces in, 108 country, 26, 27 trend of, 8
children in seeking solutions to problem Alliance of Civilizations, 174 Armed forces
of insecurity, 37
Amnesty International, report of grave recruitment of children for, 21–22
detention of children in, 77
abuses against child detainees, 13 Armed groups
education in, 117
Angola diversification of, 8
formation of Child Well-Being Committees
in, 37 abduction in, 24 miscategorization of, 10
Health and Development Centre for back-to-school campaigns in, 117 proliferation of, 10–11
Afghan Women in, 186 recruitment of children for, 21–22
identification as conflict-affected country,
health services in, 124, 186 26, 27 strategies adopted by, 8
identification as conflict-affected country, justice and reconciliation in, 72 Armed political violence, 10
26, 27 pellagra in, 128
juvenile justice in, 13 Arms
progress for children in, 49 prohibiting trade in small, 63
killing in, 21
re-recruitment in, 153–154 reducing proliferation of, 78–79
lowest MDGs achievers, 28
security sector reform in, 180
maiming in, 21 Asphyxia, guidelines for managing, 126
struggle between Popular Movement
mistaken identity and collateral damage for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and Asset wars, emergence of, 11–12
in, 13 National Union for Total Independence
nutrition programmes in, 129 of Angola (UNITA) in, 12 Asthma, 125
psychosocial support programmes in, 139 Youth Voice radio project in, 90 Asylum countries, assistance of victims in, 65
INDEX 215
B lowest MDGs achievers, 28 in conflict prevention, 172
malnutrition in, 128 consequences for, 17–31
Back-to-school campaigns, jump-starting sexual violence in, 23 early relief efforts inspiring focus on
education through, 117 rights of, 105
Chechnya, armed conflict in, 30
Baghlan province, Afghanistan, 2007 suicide emergency spaces for, 108
bomb attack against, 13 Checkpoint closures, effect of, on access to empowering, as forces for peace, 183
education, 14
Balkans finding appropriate care for separated and
Child-focused funding, 97 unaccompanied, 146–150
rape as weapon in, 23
changes in approach and understanding,
role of military forces in response to Child-friendly spaces, 108
147–148
humanitarian emergencies, 110
Child-headed households, children living Machel study on, 147
Basic services, 195 in, 146 progress in policy and practice, 148–149
restriction of access to, 14 Childhood illnesses, community manage- giving right start in life, 106
Beslan school, hostage-taking at, 13 ment of common, 125 grave violations against, 18, 21–26, 46–49,
Child-led organizations, supporting, 41 55, 84, 100, 118, 192–194, 200
Birth registration systems, absence of
in Haiti, 46
functioning, 19 Child mortality, reducing, 28
in Somalia, 90
Bosnia and Herzegovina Child participation monitoring and reporting on, 51, 82, 84
child participation in peacebuilding in, 35 addressing diversity and disparity, 39 118
criminal tribunals in, 66 facilitating in political processes, 41 impact of armed conflict on, 8, 82
Botswana, transactional sex in, 148 at field level, 35 improving capacity and knowledge for
global developments in, 34–35 quality care and protection of, 197
Breastfeeding, promoting, 131, 132 increasing participation of and support
as human right, 34
Burundi for, 199–200
Machel study (1996) on, 34
back-to-school campaigns in, 117 integrated approach to justice for, 79
mainstreaming, 41
detained children in, 25 involvement of, in political violence and
overcoming constraints to, 35–36 confrontational politics, 37–39
displaced persons in, 20 in peacebuilding, 35, 36, 38 keeping our focus on, 15
education in, 117, 176 practice standards in, 35 mainstreaming action for, in peacekeeping
grave violations of children’s rights in, 47 promoting ethos of, 39–40 mandates, 49–50
identification as conflict-affected country, pursuing sustainability of, 41 as peacemakers, 34–41
26, 27
remaining gaps in, 36–40 as ‘perpetrators’, 76
peacebuilding in, 175
in truth and reconciliation commissions, 71 prioritizing security, 194
sexual violence in, 23
Child protection promoting justice for, 195
Youth Voice radio project in, 90
evolution of efforts to strengthen, 82 recruitment or use of, by armed forces
and armed groups, 21–22
incorporation into peace process, 55
C as refugees, 19, 25, 51, 65, 85, 104–105,
incorporation into peacekeeping operations 113, 146, 148–149
and missions, 84
Cambodia reparations to, 72, 74
networks for, 90
criminal tribunals in, 66 responding to uniqueness of, 104–105
systems of, 145
peace education in, 178 Security Council action on recruitment
United Nations role in peacekeeping of, 46–47
Camp environments, education in, 118 in, 199
seeing experience of, through their
Canada Child protection advisers eyes, 148
humanitarian policy of, 119 inclusion in peacekeeping missions, 84 supporting participation of, in justice
integrating, into missions by Department processes, 79
leadership in Mine Ban Treaty (1997), 53
of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) and targeting of
Ottawa process initiation of, 63 Department of Political Affairs, 88 as ‘perpetrators’, 13
Canadian International Development Child recruitment, 151–160 as victims, 13, 21
Agency, 175
Machel study on, 152 as zones of peace, 181
Capacity, ensuring, for response, 94–98 progress in policy and practice, 152–156 Children’s Rehabilitation Centre, documenta-
Cape Town Principles, 93, 152, 153, 158 Children tion of human rights violations, 11
Care and Protection of Children in abduction of, 9, 18, 23–24 Child rights
Emergencies Agency Learning Network, 100 bringing, into peace negotiations and early relief efforts and, 105
agreements, 50–51 integrating, in peacemaking, peacebuild-
Catch-up programmes (life skills, literacy),
providing, 156–157 building response around diversity of, 111 ing and preventive actions, 200
care and protection of, 103–169 media’s role in raising awareness of, 90
Central African Republic
in armed conflict, 195–197
allegations of rape in, 68–69 Child rights programming, 106–109
child protection systems in, 145
armed conflicts in, 131 mainstream, in emergencies, 111
child recruitment and, 151–160
identification as conflict-affected country, Child slavery, 26
26, 27 education rights of, 112–121
sexual violence in, 23 gender-based violence and sexual Child soldiers, recruitment or use of, 18
exploitation and, 161–169
signing agreement for release and Child survival interventions, 122
reintegration of 400 children associated health services for, 122–127
providing rapid and appropriate, 127
with armed groups, 65 HIV in, 142–144
legal framework for, 104 Cholera, vaccines for, 125
Central Emergency Response Fund (CERF),
95–96 mental health in, 138–141 Christian Children’s Fund, 37
nutrition in, 128–133 formation of Child Well-Being Committees
Certification schemes, Kimberley Process
and, 12 responding to uniqueness of every in Afghanistan and, 37
child, 104–105 Uganda, 108
Chad unaccompanied and separated
grave violations of children’s rights in, 47 children and, 146–150 Civil society, reinforcing, 89–90
identification as conflict-affected country, water, sanitation and hygiene in, Cluster approach to inter-agency cooperation,
26, 27 134–137 89, 93–94
216 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
Cluster munitions, banning, 63 Consolidated Appeals Process (CAP), 95–97, Democratic Republic of the Congo
144, 168 abduction in, 24
Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers,
21–22, 89 Control Arms Campaign, 9 armed conflicts in, 131
Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, child recruitment in, 152
Colombia
Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or child separation in, 149
abduction in, 24
Punishment (1984), 24–25 common humanitarian fund/pooled funds
armed conflict in, 10
Convention on Cluster Munitions, 53, 79, 194 in, 96
detained children in, 25
crimes against children in, 68
enforced disappearance in, 25 Convention on the Prohibition of the Use,
Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of data collection in, 126
identification as conflict-affected country,
Antipersonnel Mines, 63 decentralized partnership mechanisms
26, 27
in, 92
restrictions on humanitarian access in, 24 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC),
44, 58–60, 91, 104, 176, 192 deliberate targeting in, as victims, 21
school attacks in, 22
article 24 of, 122 detained children in, 25
sexual violence in, 23
article 38 of, 44 emergency response funds in, 96
Columbia University Program on Forced ending atrocities in, 165
Migration and Health, 162 Convention Relating to the Status of
Refugees, 62 exploitation of country’s rich mineral
Committee against Torture, 61 resources and, 12
Core Commitments for Children in gap in media coverage in, 136
Committee on the Elimination of Emergencies, 83, 136, 142–143
Discrimination against Women, 61 girls in, 155
Cost barriers, reducing, for access to basic grave violations of children’s rights in, 47
Committee on the Rights of the Child, 59, services 110
humanitarian impact of war in, 20
62–63, 74–75, 77, 94, 192–193
Côte d’Ivoire identification as conflict-affected country,
‘Day of General Discussion on the Child’s
child recruitment in, 153, 175 26, 27
Right to be Heard’, 35
delisting of armed groups in, 46 informal demobilization in, 152
on the Optional Protocol notes, 11
grave violations of children’s rights in, 47 malnutrition in, 128
Common Humanitarian Action Plan (CHAP), identification as conflict-affected country, progress for children in, 49
95, 97, 193 26, 27 restrictions on humanitarian access in, 24
Common humanitarian fund/pooled funds, sexual violence in, 23 Save the Children’s 2003 study ‘Going
96, 97 Home’ in, 107
Counterterrorism measures, 13–14, 76–77
Communicable diseases, 122 challenges posed by, 4, 13 sexual violence in, 23, 163
current methods of, 14 United Nations investigations in, 90
Communities, taking steps to ensure security
of, 87–88 Youth Voice Radio project in, 90
Crime of aggression, International Criminal
Community-based approach to children’s Court (ICC) jurisdiction on, 68 Denmark, humanitarian policy of, 119
rights, 107–109 Crimes against humanity, ICC jurisdiction Department of Peacekeeping Operations
Complementarity, ensuring, 198 on, 68 (DPKO), 84
Criminal tribunals Codes of conduct for UN and non-UN per-
Comprehensive Peace Agreement on Sudan sonnel in the, 164
(2005), 51 development of special, 66–67
work of, 66–67 integrating child protection advisers into
Concelho Nacional Juventude de Timor-Leste missions by, 88
(Timor-Leste), 186 Criminal violence, 10, 39
Department of Political Affairs, integrating
Conflict Culturally sensitive approaches to reconcilia- child protection advisers into missions by, 88
addressing root causes of, 179–182 tion and social justice, 73
Development, harmful effects of conflict
changing nature of, 7–15 Curfews, effect of, on access to education, 14 on, 26–31
direct consequences of, 4 Customary international law, 58, 61–62 Deworming medications, 123, 133
harmful effects of, on development, 26–31
Diarrhoea, 123, 125, 129, 131, 134–135
indirect consequences of, 4–5
socio-economic situation before, 30–31 D Diplomatic engagement. See Political and
diplomatic engagement
Conflict-affected countries, identifying, 26–27 Darfur. See also Sudan
Direct conflict deaths, 8, 9
Conflict mediation, 155 access to health services in, 23
armed conflicts in, 30, 131 Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration
Conflict prevention, 172–183, 199. See also (DDR) programmes, 151, 154–155
Peace child-friendly spaces in, 108
providing long-term funding for formal
giving form to concept, 172–173 GOAL in, 129 and informal, 159
Machel study (1996) on, 173, 182 hygiene promotion, in, 135
malnutrition in, 130, 131 Diseases. See also Health services
progress and gaps in policy and practice,
173–176 measles immunization campaign in, 123 addressing chronic, 125
nutrition programmes in, 129 controlling major, 123–124
Conflict-related violations against children
Peace Agreement (2006) in, 51 deaths due to, 19
administrative detention, 13, 25, 77
restrictions on humanitarian access in, 24 impact of armed conflict on, 20
enforced disappearance of, 25
forced displacement, 25 Dakar Conference (Education for All), 114 Dispersed populations, nutrition programmes
in, 129
hazardous work, 26 Death registration systems, absence of
identification of, 18 functioning, 19 Displacement, effects on children, 19
sexual exploitation and abuse, 25–26 Debt bondage, 26 Domestic violence on gender-based violence, 162
torture, 24–25 Dracunculiasis (Guinea worm disease), 124
Debt servicing, 29
Conflict sensitivity, 176 in conflict and non-conflict states, 31 Drinking water, providing safe, 29
Confrontational politics, children’s involve- Declaration on the Protection of All Persons Drug trafficking mafias, 10–11
ment in, 37–39 from Enforced Disappearance (1992), 25
Due process, demand of, 25
Congo. See also Democratic Republic of Demobilization process, illegal armed groups
the Congo and Republic of the Congo outside, 11 Durable Solutions Committee in Guinea, 149
INDEX 217
E European Union Guidelines on Children in Geographical disparities, armed conflicts
Armed Conflict, 64 and, 30
Early warning systems, creating effective, Executive Committee on Humanitarian German anti-terrorism programme, 14
174–175 Affairs (ECHA), 88
Global developments in children’s
Education Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, 90 participation, 34–35
achieving universal primary, 9, 28 Global framework, building for justice, 58
addressing holistically, 117–118 peace education initiatives on, 177
in Afghanistan, 117 F
Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis
in camp environments, 118
Families, separation from, 4 and Malaria, 143
catch-up programmes (life skills, literacy),
156–157 Family-based care Global Partnership, Knowledge Generation
and Sharing Network, 174
checkpoint closures, effect of, on access channelling investment to children in, 150
to, 14 institutionalization versus, 146–147 Global partnership for development,
children’s access to, 14 developing, 29
investing in, 149
expanding opportunities for older children Global Partnership for the Prevention of
and out-of-school youth, 119–120 Family separation, 146
Armed Conflict, 174
financing, in emergencies, 119 Field workers, preparing practical guidelines
Global standards, setting, 92–94
global standards in raising quality of, in for, 87
education quality in emergencies raised
emergencies, 114 Financial resources, increasing, 95–97 by, 114
incident reporting on attacks on schools, 22
Firewood Collection, mitigating risks Global warming, effects of, 134
in Iraq, 116
associated with, 166
jump-starting, through back-to-school GOAL, 129
campaigns, 117–118 Forced displacement as grave violation
against children, 25 Good Humanitarian Donorship, 97, 199
peace, 176–179
providing safe place for, in emergencies, 118 Fourth Geneva Convention, 13, 61 Grave violations against children, 21–26, 49,
55, 192–194
as road to peace, 176 Fragmented violence, problems in measuring the Human Rights Council on, 52
in Sudan, 115, 117 and categorizing, 8
Machel strategic review on, 48
in Uganda, 117 France, leadership of, chair of Working Security Council’s framework for engage-
Education for All Group, 48–49 ment on Children and Armed Conflict, 54
commitments, 112 Free Children from War, 92–93, 153 Security Council monitoring on six, 46
Dakar Conference, 114 Secretary-General monitoring mechanism
Funding continuity, 97–98 on, 47
Education rights Security Council Resolution 1612 focus
changes in approach and understanding, on, 118
114–115 G Security Council Resolution 1780 condem-
global standard in raising quality in nation of, in Haiti, 46
emergencies, 114 GAVI Alliance, 123 Security Council Resolution 1769 on ,
Machel study on, 113–114 Gender in Darfur, 51
progress in policy and practice, 115–118 becoming more sensitive, 115–116 in Somalia, 90
protecting, 112–121 in defining experience of childhood, 105 System-wide Monitoring and Reporting
Mechanism, 82
El Salvador education and, 113
2005 UN Secretary-General’s report on
immunization campaign in, 181 nutrition and, 130 children and armed conflict, 18
security sector reform in, 180 in promoting equality, 28 World Fit For Children agenda on ending, 100
water and sanitation and, 135
Emergencies Grenada, back-to-school campaigns in, 117
financing education in, 119 Gender-based violence, 151
Guantánamo Bay, 77
global standards in raising quality of ending, 161–169, 196–197
education in, 114 Machel study on, 162 Guatemala
health interventions in, 109 progress in policy and practice, arms in, 9
mainstreaming hygiene promotion in, 135 163–167 child participation in peacebuilding in, 35
remaining gaps, 167–169 security sector reform in, 180
Emergency Nutrition Network, development
of, 130 getting to reality of, 162 Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement,
HIV associated with, 143 62
Emergency response funds, 96
sensitizing police to, 167 Guinea, 153
Emergency spaces for children, 108 unlawful, 4 Durable Solutions Committee in, 149
Emotional distress, during and after armed General Assembly refugee children in, 149
conflict, 20
Resolution 46/182 of, 88 Guinea-Bissau, peacebuilding in, 175
Empowering Hands, 155 Resolution 62/214 of, 164
Guinea worm disease (dracunculiasis), 124
Enforced disappearance as conflict-related work of, on political and diplomatic
violations against children, 25 engagement, 44–45
218 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
Harun, Ahmad Mohammed, 68 I Department of Peacekeeping
Operations (DPKO), 84
Hazardous work, 18
Illegal detention, 4 Office for the Coordination of
as conflict-related violations against Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), 85–86
children, 26 Impact of War on Children, The, 2 Office of the United Nations High
Health and Development Centre for Afghan Impunity Commissioner for Human Rights
Women (Kabul, Afghanistan), 186 (OHCHR), 84–85
adopting specific measures to end, 78
United Nations Development
Health services, 131, 186 ending, 60–61, 66–79, 167, 192–193 Programme Bureau for Crisis
in Afghanistan, 23, 110, 124, 186 Incident reporting on school attacks, 22 Prevention and Recovery, 85
in Cambodia, 186 United Nations High Commissioner
India, identification as conflict-affected for Refugees (UNHCR), 85
in Darfur, 23 country, 26, 27 United Nations Monitoring and
changes in approach, 122–123 Reporting Mechanism (MRM), 86
Indonesia. See also Aceh (Indonesia)
delivering effectively, 123 Guidelines for Gender-based Violence
child-friendly spaces in, 108
disease management and, 122–127 Interventions in Humanitarian Settings, 93
emergency response funds in, 96
emergency, 109 Focusing on Prevention of and
identification as conflict-affected country, Response to Sexual Violence in
gaps in, 125–126 26, 27 Emergencies and UNHCR, 166
improving maternal health, 28–29 legislative reform in, 13 Guidelines for HIV/AIDS Intervention in
Machel study on, 122 participation of youth in political process Emergency Settings, 93, 124
progress in policy and practice, 123–125 in, 14 Guidelines on Mental Health and
recommendation, 126–127 recruitment of children in, 13 Psychosocial Support in Emergency
Settings, 93, 124, 140
safeguarding, 122–127 Infant feeding, supporting, in emergencies, 132 Health and Nutrition Tracking Service, 125
Health technologies, exploring and applying, 127 Infections in neonates, guidelines for Task Force on Gender, ‘Guidelines for
managing, 126 Gender-based Violence Interventions in
Hib, vaccines for, 125 Humanitarian Emergencies’, 130
Informal social networks, disappearance of, 20
HIV, 124–125, 142–144, 195 International Campaign to Ban Landmines, 89
combating, 29 Information
International Conference of the Red Cross
ensuring linkages in programming developing common set of indicators in and Red Crescent, humanitarian law and, 15
throughout emergency, 144 managing, 87
strengthening, 99–100 International Conference on War-Affected
in humanitarian framework, 144
Children (2000), 2, 172–173
increasing support to, 144 Insecticide-treated mosquito nets, 122
International Convention for the Protection of
inter-agency guidelines on, 142, 144 All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, 25
Insecurity, Afghan children in seeking
Machel study on, 142 solutions to problem of, 37
International cooperation on nutrition, 130
mainstreaming, across sectors, 143–144
Institutional and security sector reforms, 74–75
progress in policy and practice, 142–143 International Criminal Court (ICC), 76
refining programmatic response, 142–143 Institutionalization, family-based care versus, child-friendly procedures, 75
146–147 establishment of, 60–61, 67–69, 82
remaining gaps, 143–144
Instruments of war, alleviating threat from, on sexual violence, 163
risk of contracting, 151
62–63 Working Group and, 49
sexual violence and, 161
Integrated, broad-based response, to International Criminal Tribunals for the for-
Hizb-e Islami, 10 nutrition, 130–131 mer Yugoslavia (ICTY) and for Rwanda
Holistic approach to malnutrition, 128–129 (ICTR), 66
Integrated Disarmament, Demobilization and
Reintegration Standards, 93 International Decade for Culture of Peace and
Horizontal Note, 49
Non-Violence for the Children of the World, 177
Hospitals, armed conflict attacks on, 18, 22–23 Intentional separations, 146
International Guidelines for Landmine
Hostage-taking at Beslan school, 13 Inter-agency collaboration and Unexploded Ordnance Awareness
humanitarian reform and, 88–91 Education, 93
Human costs, further accounting of, 20
on mental health, 139 International humanitarian law
Humanitarian access, denial of, 18, 24 Inter-agency consensus on mental health, Convention on the Rights of the Child
139–140 (CRC) and, 59–60
Humanitarian aid, education moving from
peace dividend to essential aspect of, 114–115 compliance with, 45, 64
Inter-agency cooperation, cluster approach
humanitarian access, 24
Humanitarian Policy Group, 97 to, 89, 93, 124–125
promoting, 61–62
Humanitarian programming, 40 Inter-Agency Guiding Principles on violation of, 13, 72
Unaccompanied and Separated Children,
Humanitarian workers, deliberate attacks 93, 148 Internationalization of terrorism, 12–14
against, 24
Inter-Agency Network for Education in International Labour Organization (ILO)
Human resources, investing in, 94–95 Emergencies (INEE), 89, 93, 114 Conventions, 26, 60, 169
Human rights Gender Task Team, 115 International legal standards and norms
advancing international, 58–61 Minimum Standards for Education in advancing, 58–65
Emergencies, Chronic Crises and Early universal implementation of, 192–195
children’s participation in, 34 Reconstruction, 93, 114, 116
Human Rights Council, 51–52, 85, 192 International Red Cross, 95, 136
Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), 88,
Universal Periodic Review mechanisms 97, 193 International Rescue Committee, 116–117, 126
of, 192 cluster approach to inter-agency coopera- Care and Protection of Children in
tion, 89, 93, 124–125 Emergencies Agency Learning Network,
Human Security Centre, analysis of conflicts 100
by, 8 education cluster, 121
in Democratic Republic of the Congo, 20
formation of a Gender Working Group
Hunger, eradication of extreme, 28 within, 115 in Guinea, 149
Hygiene promotion, 134–136 Global Protection Cluster International Save the Children Alliance, 119
mainstreaming, in emergency response, 135 Child Protection Working Group of, 84 Action for the Rights of the Child, 94
INDEX 219
International standards Landmine Monitor reports, 89 deaths due to, 19
ensuring consistency between, and Lebanon developing early indicators for, 131–132
national legislation and practice, 64 holistic approach to, 128–129
breastfeeding in, 131
internally displaced persons, 62 three-pronged approach to treating chil-
juvenile justice, 13 early childhood development, 106
dren with acute, 132–133
translating, into national action, 63–64 identification as conflict-affected country,
26, 27 Maternal health, improving, 28–29
Inter-Parliamentary Union on child
protection, 54 Liberia, 50, 67, 158, 177 Measles, 122, 123–124
abduction in, 24 immunization for, 122
Inter-state conflicts, decline in, 4, 8, 10
back-to-school campaigns in, 117 in Ethiopia, 132
Intra-state wars, growth of, 4, 10 child-friendly spaces in, 108 vaccines against, 122, 133
‘Introduction to Child Protection in child recruitment in, 153 in Afghanistan, 109
Emergencies’, publication of, 95 demobilized children in, 158 Measles vaccination campaign, 109
Involuntary separations, 146 disarmament, demobilization and reinte-
gration (DDR) in programmes, 151 Médecins Sans Frontières, 124
Iraq in Niger, 126
drawing youth into peacebuilding in, 179
abductions in, 24 pull-out from Afghanistan, 23
emergency response funds in, 96
children in suicide bombings in, 13
girls in, 155 Media, role in raising awareness of children’s
detention of children in, 13, 25, 77 rights, 90
education rights in, 116 identification as conflict-affected country,
26, 27 Mental health and psychosocial recovery,
identification as conflict-affected country,
26, 27 reconciliation process in, 71 138–141
killing or maiming in, 21 reintegration programme for children building capacity to implement
in, 153 programmes, 141
mistaken identity and collateral damage
in, 13 sexual violence in, 23 building professional networks and peer
Youth Voice radio project in, 90 support, 141
restrictions on humanitarian access in, 24
changes in approach and understanding,
school attacks in, 22 Liberian Child Protection Network, 71 139
socio-economic situation before conflict, 30
Liberian Truth and Reconciliation implementing support guidelines, 141
Iraqi Democratic Coalition for Youth Commission Act, 71 Machel study on, 138–139
Empowerment (Baghdad, Iraq), 186
Life-saving interventions, 122–123 progress in policy and practice, 139–140
Israel providing flexible, longer-term funding, 141
detention of children in, 25, 77 Life skills, providing catch-up programmes
in, 156–157 strengthening evidence to improve
identification as conflict-affected country, programming, 141
26, 27 Literacy, providing catch-up programmes
in, 156–157 Micronutrient deficiencies, addressing, 129
Palestinian children in prisons in, 13
sexual violence in, 23 Local non-governmental organizations, 89 Middle East, psychosocial support pro-
grammes in, 139
Lome Peace Accord on Sierra Leone (1999), 51
Military battle deaths, 8
J
Military functions, outsourcing of, to private
Janjaweed, 11, 68 M security companies, 11
Japan, humanitarian policy of, 119 Military resolution for armed conflicts, 8
Macedonia, child-friendly spaces in, 108
Jemaah Islamiyah, 13 Millennium Declaration by United Nations
Machel, Graça, 2–3, 5, 49, 114, 172–173 (UN) Member States, 26
Jeunes Volontaires, 153
Machel review, 1996–2000, 2 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
Joblessness as by-product of armed 1. Eradicating extreme poverty, 28
conflict, 23 Machel study (1996), 2–5, 8, 12, 58, 84,
99–100, 104, 108–109, 2. Achieving universal primary education,
Job opportunities, increasing, for youths, on child recruitment, 152 9, 28, 112
157–158 3. Promoting gender equality and
on children’s participation, 34
Judicial systems, creating well-functioning, empowering women, 28
on conflict prevention, 173
180–182 4. Reducing child mortality, 28
on education rights, 113–114
Juvenile Justice Code, 13 5. Improving maternal health, 28–29
on gender-based violence, 162
6. Combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and
on health services, 122 other diseases, 29
K on HIV, 142–144 7. Ensuring environmental sustainability,
on mental health and psychosocial basic sanitation and safe drinking
Killing, 21 recovery, 138–139 water, 29
of children, 4, 18, 87 on nutrition, 128 8. Developing global partnership for
on water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), development, 29
Kimberley Process, 12 134 analysing specific indicators, 27–29
Knowledge sharing, strengthening, 99–100 Madrasas as source of children as perpetra- impact of conflict as measured by, 26–31
Kosovo, 39, 66, 126 tors, 13 limited progress towards, 18
participatory research with adolescents Maghreb states of North Africa, needs of Mindanao (Philippines) Muslim and
in, 35 urban youth in, 14 indigenous groups in, 14
youth councils in, 37
Maiming of children, 4, 18, 21 Mine Ban Treaty (1997), 63
Kushayb, Ali, 68 Canada’s leadership in, 53
Malaria, 122
combating, 29 Monitoring and reporting, 87, 88
L prevention and management of, 123 on grave violations of children's rights,
47, 48, 118–119
Malaria Control in Complex Emergencies, 124 in Nepal and Uganda, 84
Landmines, 21, 62–63, 89, 194
alleviating threat from, 62–63 Malnutrition, 122. See also Nutrition mechanisms, 86
Mine Ban Treaty (1997), 63 acute, in adolescents, 131 in Somalia, 90
Canada’s leadership in, 53 community-based management of, 129 strengthening, 194–195
220 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
Monitoring framework, common programme, 99 Non-UN personnel, codes of conduct for, 164 Palestinian children
Mothers, counselling traumatized, 131 Non-violence, teaching, 177–178 in Israeli prisons, 13
in terrorist attacks, 13
Mozambique, 148 Norway, humanitarian policy of, 119
approaches to justice and reconciliation Paramilitary forces, 8
Norwegian Refugee Council, 95
in, 72 use of, 10, 11
transactional sex in, 72 Nutrition, 128–133. See also Malnutrition
Paris Commitments, 53, 93, 153,
in Afghanistan, 129, 131
Mujahidin KOMPAK, 13 Principles and, 60
in Chad, 128, 129, 131
Multi-donor trust funds, 96–97 in Darfur, 129–131 Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness, 96
in Democratic Republic of the Congo, 128, Paris Principles, 60, 76, 93, 151, 153, 158,
Multi-sectoral approaches, 109 159, 160
131, 132
promoting, in health services, 123 on child reintegration, 151
in dispersed populations, 129
Multi-vitamins and minerals, scaling up use gender and, 128–130 Participatory assessments, 85, 148
of, 133
integrated, broad-based response to,
130–131 Participatory programming, 38–40
Mutilation in gender-based violence, 162
international cooperation on, 130 nature and scope of, 34
Myanmar
Machel study on, 128 Partnership mechanisms, decentralizing,
abduction in, 24 92, 198
in Nepal, 128
identification as conflict-affected country,
26, 27 Save the Children on, 130 Peace. See also Conflict prevention
prevent the recruitment and use of saving lives through sound, 128–133 building a culture of, 176–179
children, 46 in Sudan, 128, 129, 131, 132 children as zones of, 181
restrictions on humanitarian access in, 24 working under framework of public, 128 teaching, 177–178
Peacebuilding Commission, establishment of,
O by United Nations (UN), 173
N
Peace Diamond Alliance in Sierra Leone, 90
Namibia, transactional sex in camps in, 148 Occupied Palestinian Territory
Peace dividend, education moving from, to
abduction in, 24 essential aspect of humanitarian, 114–115
National and local partners, building capacity
armed conflicts in, 131
of, 87 Peace education, 176–179, 187
back-to-school campaigns in, 117
National courts, role of, and informal identification as conflict-affected country, taking critical look at, 178–179
administration of justice systems, 69–70 26, 27 Peacekeeping
National laws, promoting implementation peace education in, 178 inclusion of child protection advisers in
of, 64–65 restriction of access to basic services missions on, 84
in, 14 mainstreaming action for children in, 49–50
National structures and systems, building
and strengthening, 92 school attacks in, 22
Peacemaking
National systems, developing, 91 Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian bringing children into, 50–51
Affairs (OCHA), 85–86
National Union for Total Independence of children’s rights in, 34–41, 200
Angola (UNITA), struggle between Popular Office of the Special Representative of the developing mechanisms for post-conflict,
Movement for the Liberation of Angola Secretary-General for Children and Armed 175
(MPLA) and, 12 Conflict, 2, 82–83
People’s Health Development Association
Needs-based programming, child rights Office of the United Nations High Commissioner (Phnom Penh, Cambodia), 186
programming versus, 106–109 for Human Rights (OHCHR), 84–85
recruiting expertise on child rights, 92 Perpetrators, children as, 13, 76
Negotiated settlements for armed conflicts, 8
Older children. See Young people Peru, peace education in, 178
‘Neighbourhood’ method in ending gender-
based violence, 162 Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Philippines
Children in Armed Conflict (OPAC), 59–61, 192 children in paramilitary structures in, 11
Neonatal health, promoting, 125 implementing, 65 detained children in, 25
Nepal Optional Protocol to the Convention on the grave violations of children’s rights in, 47
abduction in, 24 Rights of the Child, 52, 152–153 identification as conflict-affected country,
armed groups in, 10 26, 27
Oral rehydration, 122, 123
child participation in peacebuilding in, 35, Muslim and indigenous groups in, 14
181 Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD), 96 Pneumococcal disease, vaccines for, 125
detention of children in, 77
Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, 90 Police, sensitizing, to gender-based violence,
donor restrictions in, 14
OECD-DAC Guidelines for a Development 167
enforced disappearance in, 25 Co-operation Lens on Terrorism
grave violations against children in, 47, 84 Prevention, 15 Police functions, outsourcing of, to private
security companies, 11
identification as conflict-affected country, ‘Principles for Good International
26, 27 Engagement in Fragile States and Polio, 124
malnutrition in, 128 Situations’, 101
Political and diplomatic engagement, 43–55
peace agreement in, 51 Orphanages, 146–147, 150 action on recruitment of children and
school attacks in, 22, 175 Ottawa process, initiation of, in Canada, 63 other rights violations, 46–47
sexual violence in, 23 advances made by Security Council
Out-of-school youth, expanding educational Working Group, 48–49
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) opportunities for, 119–120
contract to deliver a package of services, 123 bringing children into peace negotiations
and agreements, 50–51
NGO Working Group on the Convention on engagement by regional bodies in, 52–54
the Rights of the Child, 152 P
grave violations of children’s rights, 46–48
Nigeria, identification as conflict-affected Pakistan human rights council in, 51–52
country, 26, 27 back-to-school campaigns in, 117 mainstreaming action for children in
Non-state groups and actors, labels applied identification as conflict-affected country, peacekeeping mandates, 49–50
to, 10 26, 27 reach of Security Council in, 45–46
INDEX 221
recommendations on, 54–55 Refugees, 25 S
work of General Assembly in, 44–45 children as, 146
protecting rights of, and those internally Safe spaces, 108, 117, 187–188
Political processes, facilitating in children’s
participation, 41 displaced, 62 in Democratic Republic of the Congo, 186
222 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
child recruitment in, 153 child-friendly spaces in, 108 Trade, prohibiting in small arms and light
criminal tribunals in, 66 child recruitment and, 175 weapons, 63
gender-based violence in, 167 grave violations of children’s rights in, 47 Trafficking
girls in, 155 identification as conflict-affected country, on gender-based violence, 162
‘Golden Kids News’, 180 26, 27 separation from, 4
lack of job opportunities in, 157 innovative job programmes in, 158 for sexual exploitation, 23, 26, 161
participatory research with adolescents killing or maiming in, 21
in, 35 Transactional sex, risk of, for unaccompanied
malnutrition in, 128
or separated children, 148
peacebuilding in, 175 monitoring programmes in, 47, 99
Peace Diamond Alliance in, 90 peace education in, 178 Transitional Federal Government, in Somalia, 10
progress for children in, 49 tsunami in, 176 Transitional justice, 38, 60, 66
reconciliation and social justice in, 35, 38, mechanisms of, 70–72, 74–75
72, 73, 182 Sudan. See also Darfur
recovery programmes in, 155 abduction in, 24 Transition gap between humanitarian and
arms in, 9 development operations, 173
refugee children in, 149
reintegration of ex-combatants, 153, 182 back-to-school campaigns in, 117 Traumatized mothers, counselling, 131
sexual violence in, 23, 167 common humanitarian fund/pooled funds
in, 96 Truth and reconciliation commissions
Truth and Reconciliation Commission in, children’s participation in, 35, 38, 71
35, 38, 71, 181 Comprehensive Peace Agreement
between north and south in, 9 mechanisms of, 70–71
United Nations investigations in, 90
education in, 115, 117 in Sierra Leone, 35, 38, 181
Youth Voice radio project in, 90
farming and life skills in, 157 Tuberculosis (TB), 124, 125
Small arms
GOAL in, 129
deadly and destabilizing effects of, 9 Turkey
grave violations of children’s rights in, 47
light weapons and, 62–63 armed conflict in, 30
health services in, 124
identification as conflict-affected country,
Social justice identification as conflict-affected country, 26, 27
in Angola, 72 26, 27
building global framework for, 58 killing or maiming in, 21 Tutu, Desmond, 89–90
culturally sensitive approaches to, 73 lowest MDGs achievers, 28
improving children’s access to, 68, 79, malnutrition in, 128, 129
168, 195 U
measles immunization status, surveys
in Mozambique, 72 in, 132
Uganda
in Sierra Leone, 73 post-conflict needs assessments in, 175
abduction in, 24
special protections for children involved restrictions on humanitarian access in, 24
in, 75–76 armed conflict in, 30
sexual violence in, 23, 163
in Uganda, 72 births in, 30
small arms and light weapons in, 9
upholding, 57–79 child participation in peacebuilding in, 35,
Suicide attacks 36
Social support structures, reinforcing, 89–90 in Iraq, 13 child recruitment in, 152
Socio-economic situation, before a conflict, rise in, 21 Christian Children’s Fund in, 107
30–31 crimes against children in, 68
Sulawesi (Indonesia), recruitment of children
Somalia in, 13 development in war-torn areas of, 30
armed conflicts in, 10 early childhood development pro-
Sustainable reintegration, services that
emergency response funds in, 96 grammes in, 109
support, 154
grave violations of children’s rights in, 47, ‘Empowering Hands’ in, 155
90 Sweden, humanitarian policy of, 119 grave violations against children in, 47, 84
identification as conflict-affected country, health services in, 124, 125
26, 27
T HIV in, 143
killing or maiming in, 21
identification as conflict-affected country,
lowest MDGs achievers, 28 26, 27
Taliban, 10
listening to youth in, 5 justice and reconciliation in, 72
post-conflict needs assessments in, 175 Task Force on Children Affected by Armed
Conflict, 83 malnutrition in, 30
restrictions on humanitarian access in, 24 mortality rate of children in, 20, 30
role of military forces in response to Taylor, Charles Ghankay, 67
participatory research with adolescents
humanitarian emergencies, 110 in, 35
Teachers, ensuring of adequate compensa-
sexual violence in, 23 tion for, 116–117 poverty in, 30
Special Court in Sierra Leone, 67 Terrorism psychosocial support programmes in, 139
Special Rapporteur of the Commission on challenges posed by, 4 reviving education in, 117–118
Human Rights (2000), 25 internationalization of, 10, 12–14 school attendance in, 30
Special Representative for Children and number of incidents of, 12 sexual violence in, 23, 163
Armed Conflict, 51–52 vulnerability in, 159
Thailand
Special Representative of the Secretary- armed conflict in, 30 Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping
General on human rights and transnational Operations, 26
corporations, 12 identification as conflict-affected country,
26, 27 UNESCO, 117
Sphere Humanitarian Charter and Minimum school attacks in, 22
Standards in Disaster Response, 93 UNHCR, 117
Timor-Leste
Sphere Project, 136 UNICEF, 45, 54, 60, 65, 83–84, 112, 135
back-to-school campaigns in, 117
minimum standards for health services, 124 in Aceh, 177
child-friendly spaces in, 108
Sprinkles, 133 Back-to-School Campaign in Afghanistan,
justice and reconciliation in, 72 117
Sri Lanka Torture, 18 Cape Town Principles, 152
abduction in, 24 as conflict-related violations against Core Commitments for Children in
aid programming in, 176 children, 24–25 Emergencies, 93, 136, 142–143
INDEX 223
Emergency Field Handbook, 124 High Commissioner for Refugees, 62, Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH),
Free Children from War, 153 85, 113 134–137
Go to School Initiative, 115 launching of, 94 Machel study on, 134
in Guinea, 149 inter-agency training initiative, 92 progress in policy and practice, 134–136
Liberia, 153 Integrated Disarmament, Demobilization Weapons
and Reintegration Standards, 160
recruitment minimum age, 153 alleviating threat from, 62–63
mainstreaming within, 91
Union des Amis Socio Culturels d’Action en prohibiting trade in light, 63
Mission for the Stabilization of Haiti, 8
Développement (Port-au-Prince, Haiti), 186 Witnesses, taking steps to ensure security
Monitoring and Reporting Mechanism
(MRM), 47, 86, 118–119 of, 87–88
Union of Islamic Courts, 10
Office of the Special Representative of the Women, empowerment of, 28
United Kingdom’s Household Economy Secretary-General for Children and Armed
Approach on nutrition, 130 Conflict, 2, 64, 82–83 Women’s Commission for Refugee Women
and Children, 35, 72, 100, 117, 166
United Nations (UN) Populations Fund, 86
Action against Sexual Violence in Conflict, UNICEF, 83–84 ‘World Fit for Children, A’, 45, 55, 82, 99,
164, 168, 196 World Food Programme in, 129, 130 100, 192
Assistance Mission in Sierra Leone, 50 World Food Programme in school feeding
Universal Periodic Review (UPR), 52
Capacity in Peacebuilding Inventory, 173 programmes, 118
codes of conduct for personnel of, 164 User fees, abolishing, 125–126
World Programme of Action for Youth
Comprehensive Strategy on Assistance (2007), 174
and Support to Victims of Sexual
Exploitation and Abuse by Staff and V World Report on Violence against
Children, 174
Related Personnel, 164
Department for Disarmament Affairs, 178 Vaccines World Summit: A functioning justice system, 67
Development Fund for Women, 86 in Afghanistan, 109, 123
Development Programme Bureau for in Darfur, 123
Crisis Prevention and Recovery, 85 in El Salvador, 181 Y
in establishing Peacebuilding against Hib, 125
Young people
Commission, 173 against measles, 109, 122
demand for action, 185–189
establishment of mission in Liberia, 50 against pneumococcal disease, 125
developing national, 180
General Assembly, 72 against rotavirus, 125
empowering, as forces for peace, 172, 183
disarmament, demobilization and Victims
reintegration standards in DDR, 153 expanding educational opportunities for,
taking steps to ensure security of, 87–88 119–120
Guidelines on Appropriate Use and
Conditions of Alternative Care for targeting of children as, 13, 21 increasing job opportunities for, 157–158
Children, 148 Vitamin A supplementation, 123 increasing participation of and support
Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy for, 199–200
and Reparation for Victims of Gross Vocational training, providing catch-up listening to, 5
Violations of International Human programmes in, 156–157
supporting organizations led by, 41
Rights Law and Serious Violations of Voluntary Principles on Security and Human
International Humanitarian Law of, 72 Youth Development Organization (Bosaso,
Rights, 90
Somalia), 187
Special Session on Children, 15, 45, 82
adoption of ‘A World Fit for Yugoslavia
Children’ at, 45, 82 W ad hoc tribunals in, 66, 76
Resolution 46/182, 88 sexual violence in, 23, 163
Resolution 62/214, 164 War Child Holland, 179
Van Boven/Bassiouni Principles of, 72 War crimes, International Criminal Court (ICC)
Voices of Youth Companion, 186 jurisdiction on, 68 Z
Girls’ Education Initiative, 115 Warfare, shifting landscape of contemporary, Zaire, child separation in, 149
Global Compact, 90 8–10
Zambia, security sector reform in, 180
Guidelines on Appropriate Use and Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict, 25,
Conditions of Alternative Care for 49, 89 Zimbabwe
Children, 148 school attacks in, 22
Water
Guidelines on Justice in Matters Involving transactional sex in camps in, 148
Child Victims and Witnesses of Crime, 70, clean, 122
75, 93 improving safety, 135 Zinc supplements, 123
224 M A C H E L S T U D Y 1 0 - Y E A R S T R AT E G I C R E V I E W : C H I L D R E N A N D C O N F L I C T I N A C H A N G I N G W O R L D
Office of the Special Representative of the
Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict
United Nations S-3161
New York, NY 10017, USA
Tel: (+1-212) 963-3178
Website: www.un.org/children/conflict
April 2009