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Quality education is education that

works for every child and enables


all children to achieve their full potential.

The Child-Friendly Schools Manual was developed during three-and-a-half years of continuous work,
involving UNICEF education staff and specialists from partner agencies working on quality education.
It benefits from fieldwork in 155 countries and territories, evaluations carried out by the Regional Offices
and desk reviews conducted by headquarters in New York. We particularly acknowledge the contributions
of colleagues who participated in two CFS Writers’ Workshops held in Glen Cove, New York, in June 2005
and August 2006.

Project managers and final writers: Cream Wright (lead writer), Changu Mannathoko and Maida Pasic.

Edited, produced and distributed by UNICEF’s Division of Communication.


MANUAL TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction 5.5 Reducing risks and increasing
References protection
5.6 School organization and management
Chapter 1 – Purpose, scope and concept 5.7 Child-friendly education in emergencies
1.1 Background
1.2 Purpose and scope Chapter 6 – Learners, teachers and school
managers
1.3 Precursors of an evolving model
6.1 School reform and learning
1.4 Promise of a consolidated CFS model achievement
6.2 Preparing teachers
Chapter 2 – Dynamics of theory in practice 6.3 School head as leader and mentor
2.1 Overview 6.4 Organizing classrooms and learning
2.2 Implementation as an eclectic process spaces
2.3 Key principles, desired features and 6.5 Pedagogic materials
standards 6.6 Learning and teaching methods
2.4 Putting children first 6.7 Curriculum
2.5 Implementation of models in various
countries
Chapter 7 – Costs and benefits
7.1 ‘Costing’ the elements
Chapter 3 – Location, design and construction
7.2 Estimating resource requirements
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Pedagogy and design
Chapter 8 – Monitoring and evaluating
3.3 Locating schools or learning spaces
8.1 Why monitor and evaluate?
3.4 Additional elements in design
8.2 What needs to be monitored and
3.5 Factors influencing design evaluated?
3.6 Design with involvement of all 8.3 A focus on dynamic monitoring and
3.7 Remaining challenges evaluation
8.4 The learner as the focus of monitoring
Chapter 4 – School and community and evaluation
4.1 School-community links 8.5 Monitoring and evaluation to support
4.2 The school as a learning community CFS mainstreaming
4.3 The school in the community 8.6 Monitoring and evaluation to support
investment
4.4 Reaching out to the community and
beyond 8.7 An overview of experience with CFS
monitoring and evaluation
4.5 Communities and child-friendly
learning spaces 8.8 Who should monitor and evaluate, and
what are their potential roles?
4.6 Policy implications
8.9 Other issues on monitoring and
4.7 Supervision and oversight evaluation of CFS models
8.10 The way forward
Chapter 5 – Schools as protective environments
5.1 Introduction Chapter 9 – Mainstreaming child-friendly
5.2 The right to learn in safe, healthy concepts
environments 9.1 Understanding mainstreaming
5.3 Children at special risk 9.2 Simulation modelling and
5.4 Assessing threats to health, safety and mainstreaming
security

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CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
© UNICEF/NYHQ2008-0293/Markisz

INTRODUCTION
WHY A CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL?

Schooling is the one experience that to stand in unfurnished classrooms,


most children worldwide have in being hungry, thirsty or unwell; it can
common and the most common also mean being frightened by the
means by which societies prepare threat of punishment, humiliation,
their young for the future. On any bullying or even violence at the hands
given day, more than a billion children of teachers and fellow pupils.
are in primary or secondary school:
689 million in primary school and These conditions thwart learning.
513 million in secondary school. They are made worse when learners
They are in permanent or temporary are without competent teachers to
buildings, in tents or under trees – guide them, textbooks to learn from
sharing the experience of learning, or exercise books to write in, or if
developing their potential and they have textbooks of inferior quality
enriching their lives. But schooling is that reinforce damaging stereotypes.
not always a positive experience for Learning is further stymied when
children. It can mean shivering in cold, schools have no toilets, running water
unheated buildings or sweltering in hot, or electricity. It is a challenge to reach
airless ones. It can mean being forced the 101 million primary-school-age

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CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
children around the world who do Recognizing that different children
not attend school. But it is perhaps face different circumstances and have
even more daunting to rectify the different needs, such schools build
deplorable conditions endured by on the assets that children bring from
millions of children already in school, their homes and communities and
conditions that are antithetical to also compensate for shortcomings
learning, children’s well-being and in the home and community
their future livelihood. environment. They enable children
to achieve, at a minimum, the
And children face negative conditions knowledge and skills prescribed
not only in school. The home and in the curriculum. They also help
community environment can also them develop the ability to think
pose challenges that make it difficult and reason, build self-respect and
for children to enrol in school, respect for others, and reach their full
attend regularly, complete the final potential as individuals, members of
year of the cycle or achieve the their communities and citizens of the
prescribed level of learning. Food world. Child-friendly schools (CFS)
and water insecurity, undernutrition, embrace a multidimensional concept
parasitic infestations, unhygienic of quality and address the total needs
surroundings, chronic poverty, of the child as a learner.
household chores, harmful traditional
beliefs and practices, domestic
overcrowding, gender discrimination,
The case for a CFS manual
HIV and AIDS, domestic violence,
childcare deficiencies and the Various school models illustrate ways
increasing prevalence and severity to improve the quality of education.
of natural disasters related to climate However, it is the CFS models
change are factors that can wreak that have emerged as the most
havoc with a child’s right to attend comprehensive in their approach
and complete school. Schools and the most widespread, both in the
must therefore focus on the whole number of countries in which they
child, which means taking into have been put into practice and the
account conditions in the family or geographical distribution of those
community that might be hindering countries. Not surprisingly, CFS
his or her educational progress. models vary from country to country.

Fulfilling the education-related As the main proponent of these


Millennium Development Goals CFS models, UNICEF has the
(MDGs) requires not just getting all responsibility of providing a coherent
children into school, but making account of them, summarizing their
sure that all schools work in the best main features so as to create a
interest of the children entrusted prototype that can serve as the basis
to them. This means providing for developing national capacities
safe and protective schools to design and implement CFS in a
that are adequately staffed with wide range of countries. The same
trained teachers, equipped with prototype can also enable countries
adequate resources and graced with to incorporate CFS standards
appropriate conditions for learning. into their educational plans and

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INTRODUCTION: WHY A CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL?
realistically estimate the cost of (d) Provide practical guidance on
achieving basic education for all the design, construction and
with attention to quality standards. maintenance of child-friendly
schools as safe, welcoming
It is against this background that environments in which children
UNICEF embarked on the preparation can learn, emphasizing links with
of this CFS manual, a practical guide the community, the influence of
that aims to: pedagogic considerations, cost-
effectiveness and sustainability.
(a) Provide an introduction to
the child-friendly concept, its (e) Provide practical guidance on the
underlying ideology and the key operation and management of
principles from which the main child-friendly schools, elaborating
characteristics of a child-friendly on the role of school heads,
school can be derived in different teachers, non-teaching staff, pupils,
contexts and circumstances. parents, communities and local and
national education authorities.
(b) Outline, with supporting
arguments, the multiple ways in (f) Provide practical guidance on
which CFS models consistently classroom processes in child-
contribute to quality education in friendly schools, emphasizing
a wide range of national contexts. such key features as:
(c) Highlight the intrinsic value of CFS i. The role of teaching/learning
models for developing quality in aids and materials in creating
any education system as: a stimulating environment that
is managed by the teacher and
i. Flexible models that offer enriches the overall classroom
‘pathways’ to quality rather experience for the learner.
than prescribe blueprints that
should be rigorously copied in ii. The interaction between
all situations. teacher and learners, with the
teacher as authority figure and
ii. Heuristic models that offer facilitator of learning and the
opportunities to move learner as active participant
towards the quality standards in a democratic process that
through a series of cumulative involves mutual respect.
improvements rather than
impose an overwhelming ‘one- iii. The pedagogic process, which
off’ or ‘all-at-once’ approach. is both structured enough to
facilitate measurable learning
iii. Reforming models that require progress and flexible enough
serious reflection on basic to facilitate the use of a variety
principles and issues relating of techniques for promoting
to the whole child as a learner achievement of learning
and the conditions that make for outcomes.
successful learning rather than
unreflectively apply a number (g) Highlight the importance of
of technical inputs that are cultivating a sense of community
assumed to influence the quality in child-friendly schools by use
of education. of such features as:

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CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
i. Daily rituals, including (h) Provide a ‘minimum package’
morning assembly that may that offers guidance and tools for
involve prayers, a school song addressing environmental risks
and/or pledges to school, and vulnerabilities to climate
community or nation. change within schools and
their surrounding communities.
ii. Periodic rituals marking rites
These inquiry-based activities
of passage, such as special
for empowerment include
events for new students on
participatory risk-mapping and
opening day, a graduation
facilities-based environmental
ceremony for students
solutions to support children
completing school, an annual
and their communities in
prize ceremony, thanksgiving
adapting to changing conditions
day, founders’ day or
and reducing risk through
memorial day.
preparedness and response.
iii. Identity symbols, including
(i) Provide a rich menu of examples,
school uniforms, sport teams
from various country contexts, of
and colours, a school crest or
actual child-friendly schools that
emblem.
illustrate the principles, strategies
iv. Rules and regulations that and actions of good practice.
are fair, in the best interest
A single manual cannot do full justice
of children, applied in a
to this ambitious set of objectives.
transparent, democratic
Therefore, the present manual is
manner, do not result in the
part of a total resource package
humiliation or suppression of
that includes an e-learning package
learners, do not undermine
for capacity-building in the use of
the authority of teachers and
CFS models and a collection of field
school managers and do not
case studies to illustrate the state of
alienate schools from the
the art in child-friendly schools in a
communities they serve.
variety of settings.
© UNICEF/NYHQ2006-2268/Pirozzi

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INTRODUCTION: WHY A CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL?
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Chabbott, C. (2004). UNICEF’s Child-friendly
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Dierkx, R. J. (Forthcoming). Micro-action
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guidelines for planners in Iran. secondary school movement: The
contradictions of public policy. Comparative
Education Review, 34(3), p. 350-368.
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Portillo, Z. (1999, April 8). Latin America UNICEF. (2002). Putting a face and a memory
gets poor marks. Retrieved 21 October 2008 to each student’s name: An interview with Mrs.
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Rodraksa, N. (2005, March). Batik painting in
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REFERENCES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
Purpose, scope and concept

1.1 Background

1.2 Purpose and scope

1.3 Precursors of an evolving model

1.4 Promise of a consolidated CFS model


CHAPTER 1
PURPOSE, SCOPE AND CONCEPT

1.1 BACKGROUND

Significant progress has been made attendance as child labour, HIV and
in the past decade towards fulfilling AIDS, civil conflict, natural disasters,
Millennium Development Goal 2 chronic environmental degradation
(MDG 2) – universal access and and deepening poverty continue to
completion of primary school by threaten gains in school enrolment and
2015 – even though the related completion rates in many countries.
interim target of MDG 3 – gender
parity in primary and secondary The challenge in education is not
education by 2005 – was not achieved simply to get children into school,
globally. Many countries have scored but also to improve the overall quality
impressive gains in both enrolment of schooling and address threats
and closing the gender gap in to participation. If both quality and
education. access are tackled, children who are
enrolled in primary school are likely
Recent data show a decrease in the to continue, complete the full cycle,
number of children not enrolled in achieve expected learning outcomes
school, from 94 million in 2002 to and successfully transition to
75 million in 2006. However, far too secondary school.
many children who are enrolled
still fail to complete their education, There is an organic link between
dropping out due to poor school access and quality that makes the
quality and other factors. At any latter an integral part of any strategy
given time, the number of children for achieving the education MDGs
attending school is far less than the and Education for All (EFA) goals.
number enrolled, since dropping out School quality must therefore be of
of school is not immediately reflected central interest to policymakers and
in enrolment data. practitioners concerned with the
low primary education survival and
An estimated 115 million primary- completion rates in various regions of
school-age children were not the world. In West and Central Africa,
attending school in 2002 (UNESCO- for instance, only 48.2 per cent of the
UIS & UNICEF, 2005), and around 101 children enrolled in the first grade
million were not attending school survive to the last grade of primary
in 2006 (UNICEF, forthcoming). In school. The comparable survival rate
addition to poor education quality, for countries in Eastern and Southern
such persistent challenges to school Africa is 64.7 per cent.

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CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
These trends have given rise to of the child as paramount at all
concerted efforts to tackle the times. This makes the child central
issue of quality in basic education to the educational process and the
worldwide, with such agencies as main beneficiary of key decisions in
UNICEF intensifying their work to education. But it does not mean that
address education quality more CFS models are inflexible ideological
systematically. It is in this context that blueprints. Because they are
UNICEF’s strategy and programming grounded in the reality of resource
have evolved over time, culminating constraints and lack of capacity for
in child-friendly school (CFS) models designing and implementing ideal
as comprehensive ways of dealing solutions (see Chapter 2), they adhere
with all factors affecting quality. to the principle of ‘progressive
realization’ of children’s right to
Like most reality-based innovations, quality education.
the CFS models are not simply
an abstract concept or a rigid CFS advocates are willing to
methodological prescription. They negotiate priorities regarding what
represent pragmatic pathways is in the best interest of the child and
towards quality in education that make trade-offs based on what is
have evolved (and are still evolving), feasible for schools and education
from the principle of education as systems to accomplish within a given
a human right to a child-centered time frame, using available resources
ideology that regards the best interest and capacities.

1.2 PURPOSE AND SCOPE

The purpose of a CFS model is and support of all parties in a


to move schools and education position to facilitate children’s right
systems progressively towards to a quality education. These parties,
quality standards, addressing all or ‘duty bearers’, include parents,
elements that influence the well- communities, teachers, school heads,
being and rights of the child as a education planners and civil society
learner and the main beneficiary groups, as well as local and national
of teaching, while improving other governments and their external
school functions in the process. partners. Their involvement enables
Quality standards should make it schools and education systems to
possible for all children to access provide the conditions and resources
school, survive from grade to grade necessary for achieving the quality
and complete the cycle on time; they standards CFS models envision.
should also provide an enriched
educational experience through As for scope, CFS models embrace
which students can thrive, develop a concept of quality that goes well
and achieve their full potential. To beyond pedagogic excellence and
this end, CFS models are concerned performance outcomes. The focus
with harnessing the full involvement is on the needs of the child as a

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CHAPTER 1: PURPOSE, SCOPE AND CONCEPT
© UNICEF/NYHQ2008-0299/Markisz
whole, not just on the ‘school bits’ express their views and opinions as
that educators traditionally feel they do with helping children learn
responsible for. The scope of a CFS to follow rules and regulations or
model includes multidimensional show deference to school authorities.
coverage of quality and a holistic Quality in these models comes not
concern for the child’s needs. only from the efficiency of setting the
school apart in a special place as a
In pursuit of quality, therefore, CFS community that pursues learning, but
models cut across sectors to address also from the effectiveness of linking
the child’s needs comprehensively. the school to a wider community
Within this intersectoral and from which it derives its sense of
holistic framework, CFS models are engagement with reality and confirms
concerned as much with the health, the relevance of its curriculum.
safety, security, nutritional status and
psychological well-being of the child Against this background, quality
as they are with teacher training and needs to be evaluated along several
the appropriateness of the teaching dimensions, including:
methods and learning resources used
for schooling. They have as much to (a) How well boys and girls are
do with promoting child participation prepared to start and continue
and creating space for children to school;

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CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
(b) How well they are received by in classroom interaction as well
schools and teachers prepared to as in the broader operation and
meet their needs and uphold their management of the school;
rights;
(h) The extent to which effort and
(c) How far their general health resources are invested in creating
and well-being are addressed stimulating classrooms that
as an integral part of promoting support active learning for all;
learning;
(i) The availability of adequate
(d) How safe the schools are as places environmentally sustainable
for learning and how completely facilities, services and supplies
they provide an overall gender- that support the needs of the
sensitive environment that is whole child and also of all
conducive to learning; children;
(e) The extent to which schools and (j) The use of pedagogy that
teachers respect the rights of challenges and dismantles
children and operate in the best discrimination based on gender,
interest of the child; ethnicity or social background
(f) The extent to which child-centred
Proponents of CFS maintain that
teaching methods are embraced
all of these factors, interacting in
as good practice and standard
a dynamic and organic manner,
methodology by teachers and the
constitute the ‘packaged solution’
school;
that can be confidently described
(g) How far child participation is as a ‘child-friendly school’.
encouraged as standard practice

1.3 PRECURSORS OF AN EVOLVING MODEL

The evolution of child-friendly schools methodology. This ‘single-factor’


travelled a practical as well as a approach to school quality produced
theoretical track, and it is important to improvements, but they were
understand the combination of action frequently compromised by other
and reflection that has culminated in factors in the education setting. For
CFS models as the standard for quality instance, teacher training might have
in UNICEF’s work in basic education. produced gains, but a lack of textbooks
Like other agencies, UNICEF helps and materials in schools often
countries improve the quality of the undermined these gains. Similarly,
education they offer their children. introduction of life skills content in the
Twenty years ago this assistance curriculum, including good hygiene
involved mainly interventions related practices, was often compromised
to pedagogic factors such as teacher because many schools did not
training, supply of text books and have an adequate water supply or
learning materials, advocacy for enough toilets to produce meaningful
policies on class size and teaching behaviour change in learners.

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CHAPTER 1: PURPOSE, SCOPE AND CONCEPT
TABLE 1: EXAMPLES OF THE LIMITATIONS OF SINGLE-FACTOR INTERVENTIONS

Single-factor Improvements and gains Compromising factors


approach

Teacher • Number of qualified teachers • Irrelevance of curriculum to local


development increased context
• Better informed teachers • Lack of materials and learning/
teaching aids
Provision of • Individual study facilitated • Not connected to teacher development
textbooks • Academic performance boosted and culturally irrelevant
• Insufficient quantity of textbooks

Hygiene and life • Awareness of health and hygiene • Acute lack of sanitary facilities
skills education raised in children • Acute lack of safe water for drinking
• Children empowered to participate in and hand washing
caring for themselves and others • Quality of life skills education often not
gender-responsive or age-appropriate

School • More schools provided with access • Lack of connection to curriculum


environment and to water and sanitation • Facilities subject to vandalism and
environmental • Renewable energy sources for misuse
education electricity found • Lack of capacity for facilities
• Trees and gardens planted at schools maintenance

School as • Partnerships with parent-teacher • Poor capacity development for parents


a community associations and school governing and community leaders
outreach boards forged • Restricted spaces for young people to
• Young people’s organizations formed participate

Because it is concerned with the whole Measures taken in school, such


child and its intersectoral approach as providing water and sanitation,
to programming for children, UNICEF school meals and counselling, have
works to improve water supply become essential components of
and gender-sensitive sanitation overall quality of education. Studies
facilities; promote good hygiene have consistently shown that they
practices; address nutritional needs influence access, retention and
through school-based interventions; completion. Links between water
increase access to energy; and and sanitation in schools and school
address challenges posed by climate access and retention rates are well
change through improvements in documented, for instance, as are links
disaster risk reduction, preparedness between school meals and access
and response capacity. UNICEF and attendance among children in
also supports measures that help disadvantaged communities. Hindsight
reduce the negative impact of suggests that UNICEF’s shift from a
child labour, child trafficking and single-factor approach to a package
gender-based violence. These are approach in promoting education
all child protection issues that have quality has been a significant phase in
serious implications for education. the evolution of CFS models.

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CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
Another important phase has been Since there are examples of child-
the shift from targeted to system-wide friendly schools in many countries,
interventions in education. Addressing UNICEF country offices often engage
the needs of disadvantaged in ‘show-and-tell’ about CFS models.
groups often means that UNICEF’s Far more difficult has been the effort
work is directed towards specific to formulate a definitive package,
communities or population groups. clearly defining and laying out key
Such interventions, typically designed parameters of child-friendly schools
as ‘projects’, tend to be relatively that could be adopted as an integral
small-scale or localized and involve part of a national education plan. The
innovative ‘problem-solving’ package should include cost details
strategies as well as persistent and variables that can be projected
investment of effort and resources to in any simulation model used to
make them work for the population decide on feasible priorities for a
they aim to help. As a result, UNICEF given country.
has been able to report improvements
in access, retention or learning There are two further challenges.
achievement in its operational areas, First, it is not enough to work with
which tend to perform better than the national counterparts to make schools
national average for gains in such child-friendly. It is also necessary
quality indicators. Such narrowly to cultivate local capacity for
focused interventions continue to be designing, operating and managing
necessary in some circumstances, but child-friendly schools as part of the
they are not the most efficient way of national education system. In Kenya,
providing quality basic education for for example, when free primary
all children. education was declared, UNICEF
successfully advocated for the
If education systems are fully inclusion of most of its child-friendly
inclusive, quality education can be interventions and key strategies in the
extended to all groups as a matter of new Education Sector Support Plan. It
routine. Bringing this about requires then became essential for UNICEF to
systems-level interventions. Instead shift from projects that make schools
of just ‘doing’ child-friendly schools child-friendly towards helping to build
in local communities, CFS models are Kenyan national capacity to reproduce
‘sold’ as good practice for the entire the CFS model countrywide.
education system. Shifting to systems
interventions supports change across Second, a systems approach implies
the whole sector and helps countries working more closely with other
set standards for quality throughout partner agencies. In this regard,
the education system. This realization UNICEF engaged with other models,
has pushed UNICEF to advocate that such as the Escuelas Nuevas that
countries adopt child-friendly schools originated from work on quality
as a comprehensive quality model education in Colombia, as well as
in their national education plans and with other quality frameworks
priorities, which in turn has raised concerned with parts of the picture,
the issue of clarity, defining what such as Focusing Resources on
CFS is and how countries can utilize Effective School Health (FRESH),
such a model. which deals mainly with the health

6
CHAPTER 1: PURPOSE, SCOPE AND CONCEPT
and nutrition aspects of CFS. With By early 2000, UNICEF was expanding
different models seeking to achieve the definition of quality for key
similar outcomes in education, quality, elements of child-friendly schools. By
clarity and coherence have become the end of 2001, UNICEF emphasized
critical for selling CFS models as a comprehensive and complex
packages that countries can adopt quality package that was nuanced
in their national education plans to fit different country realities.
and priorities. This has given rise to variations on
the CFS theme within the agency.
Parallel with these programming A global survey of the concept
changes on the ground, UNICEF has and its application within UNICEF
also been investing in theoretical programmes reveals a mixed picture,
reflection and concept-building related making it difficult to sell the concept
to child-friendly schools. The child- to countries or partner agencies
friendly school concept was first as a coherent model for quality in
used in a systematic way by UNICEF, education. There has been a tendency
Save the Children and the World to overprescribe on child-friendly
Health Organization in the mid-1990s, schools and to underemphasize
largely as the educational equivalent training and capacity for using the
of the ‘baby-friendly hospitals’ that CFS model in education systems.
contributed to quality standards in Despite these difficulties, steady
health. With UNICEF’s influence, the progress has been made with the
concept of child-friendly schools was CFS model, and the number of
soon widened beyond health and countries in which UNICEF is using
nutrition issues to include concerns the approach increased steadily, from
with broader elements of quality in an estimated 33 countries in 2004 to
education, such as gender sensitivity, 56 countries in 2007.
inclusiveness and human rights.
The problem, however, is that the
In 1995, UNICEF’s Innocenti Research emerging CFS models present a
Centre held a workshop on the theme confusing picture. They tend to focus
‘What is a child-friendly school?’ that on ‘defining characteristics’, but the
resulted in an informal summary number of characteristics varies
outlining 13 Characteristics of a Rights- from as few as 6 to as many as 16
Based School that are essential to the depending on the context. These
CFS concept. In subsequent working models also attempt to define child-
papers, CFS was presented as an friendly schools in terms of ‘key
‘umbrella’ under which the diverse components’, including pedagogy,
activities and goals of UNICEF’s work health, gender sensitivity, community
on schools might be consolidated participation, inclusiveness and
and rationalized. While these efforts protection. (See Chapter 2.)
did not produce a formally accepted
definition of the CFS model, the Following recent emergencies there
idea of ‘13 defining characteristics’ has been an increasing emphasis on
gained currency and continues to be the architectural aspects – location,
a reference point for the advocacy design and construction – of child-
and implementation of child-friendly friendly schools. This emphasis reflects
schools. not only the need to provide physical

7
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
facilities, promote good pedagogy chronic environmental degradation
and gain cost-efficiency, but also and sudden-onset disasters
the need to address environmental be reduced through structural
issues, community participation, improvements, mapping and
the safety of school locations and preparedness activities? These are
the provision of ‘safe areas’ within critical questions for the CFS models,
schools. Most recently, issues of and they highlight links between
electric power (including solar, home, school and community in
wind and other alternative sources) a way that goes well beyond the
and Internet connectivity are being conventional sense.
explored as part of the focus of CFS
models. It is likely that, as in the Schools can be designed, constructed
earlier case of water and sanitation, and operated in any community.
these elements will also become part However, if the principles underlying
of CFS models in some countries. CFS models are taken seriously,
questions arise about the type of
An additional challenging dimension setting in which schools of this
to CFS models is the emerging nature are feasible and within which
question of when and where it is they can thrive. In order to achieve
appropriate to introduce CFS models. its potential, a child-friendly school
A prime example was seen in Bam may require a supportive social,
(Iran) after the 2003 earthquake. cultural and political environment.
Here and in similar situations, It can be argued that such schools
UNICEF expanded the CFS concept are more likely to be viable and
to encompass more holistic concerns sustainable in societies that are just,
relating to child-centred homes, democratic, peaceful and tolerant.
child-centred communities and Embracing diversity through
child-centred cities, taking up major tolerance, inclusiveness and fairness
environment, health, protection and is the starting point for recognizing
civic issues as highlighted in the and facilitating the right to quality
Convention on the Rights of the Child education for all children regardless
(CRC). This is significant in that it of their background. When there
highlights the links between schools is a social, cultural and political
and communities in a novel sense climate open to child participation
and gives rise to several questions: and respect for children’s rights from
Is it necessary to have a supportive the level of the family up through
environment encompassing the the local community and into the
home, community, city and society at wider society, it is more likely than
large for child-friendly schools to be not that a country can develop a
viable? Is the process of establishing policy framework, set national plans
child-friendly schools also an attempt and priorities, and make the type of
to change standards and practices budget allocations that are supportive
in homes, communities, cities and of child-friendly schools.
society at large? Is it possible to ‘build
back better’ after natural disasters or Proponents of child-friendly schools
civil conflict by using child-friendly suggest that even in the poorest
schools as springboards for change communities, if supportive elements
in the wider society? Can risks of are present, it is possible to make

8
CHAPTER 1: PURPOSE, SCOPE AND CONCEPT
© UNICEF/NYHQ2005-0594/Estey
schools child-friendly, albeit within on proven good practices and embrace
the restrictions of available resources. new concerns as the reality of different
On the other hand, proponents also situations demands. Such is the nature
suggest that part of the benefit of of the model that this manual seeks
making schools child-friendly in to explain and outline. It is a model
any situation is that doing so can of quality that has taken many twists
result in positive change in homes, and turns in its evolution and is richer
communities and the wider society. for that process. It sets out a creative
Either way, child-friendly schools can tension around child-centredness
be seen as a dynamic model that can that builds on real-world experiences
bring about change not only in schools of what works best for children in
and education systems, but also in different circumstances as well as on
homes, communities and societies. the theoretical ideals needed to define
and promote quality in education.
These considerations suggest that In this regard, a CFS model is not so
it is counterproductive to regard the much about a destination at which
CFS model as rigid, with a preset schools and education systems can
number of defining characteristics arrive and be labelled successful. It has
or key components. It needs to be more to do with the pathways along
understood as flexible and adaptable, which schools and education systems
driven by certain broad principles that endeavour to travel in the quest to
invite dialogue and bargaining, draw promote quality in education.

9
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
1.4 PROMISE OF A CONSOLIDATED CFS MODEL

If the underlying ideology and key (c) A focus on the well-being of the
principles that drive the defining whole child, including attention
characteristics of child-friendly to the different needs of different
schools in different contexts can be groups according to such factors
harnessed into a comprehensive as their gender, physical ability
guideline with illustrative practical and socio-economic status, will
examples, the great promise of this help address disparities that
approach to quality can be fully stem from home and community
realized in the form of a consolidated backgrounds, creating a more
child-friendly school model. As a tool level playing field for all learners
for planning quality basic education to achieve their full potential
in national systems, this model through education;
would greatly enhance the chances (d) An emphasis on inclusiveness
of achieving the EFA goals and the will enable countries to tap and
education MDGs. A consolidated harness the full potential of their
CFS model also promises a more human resources;
participatory and comprehensive
approach to planning for quality (e) A more conducive learning
education. For example: environment will help minimize
the repetition and drop-out rates
(a) Stronger links between schools that also contribute to poor
and their communities will quality due to internal inefficiency
facilitate the consultative process, within schools and education
a prerequisite for developing systems;
credible education sector plans (f) Child-centred pedagogy is more
that can attract external support likely to produce independent
in line with the good governance thinkers who can make
requirements of the Monterrey constructive contributions to
Consensus,1 the Fast Track a participatory democracy and
Initiative and the UN Decade adapt to changing circumstances;
of Education for Sustainable
Development; (g) Child-centred pedagogy will also
enable teachers to improve their
(b) The same stronger links will make professional status as facilitators
it more likely that communities of learning, custodians of
will identify with and be children’s well-being while they
supportive of their schools, are in school and authority figures
ultimately strengthening the in the management of links
process of providing quality basic between the school and
education for all children; the community;

1
The Monterrey Consensus is a compact between developing countries and major donor countries
that commits the former to demonstrating political will and good governance in providing education
and other services to their population, while committing the latter to funding the financing gaps
that prevent these services from reaching the population.

10
CHAPTER 1: PURPOSE, SCOPE AND CONCEPT
(h) A child-centred, gender-sensitive for and how they can influence
pedagogy is also more likely change in the wider society
to produce school graduates through their current child, family
who will be job creators and and community links and the
entrepreneurs rather than future activities of their graduates.
merely job seekers;
If this rich potential of child-
(i) A focus on the whole child
friendly schools is to be realized,
will result in diverse non-
it is necessary to mount a major
educational needs of children,
advocacy campaign that is evidence-
including checks of their health
based and backed by countries and
and nutrition status, being
major donor partners willing to
addressed through the school
invest in the child-friendly approach.
system, a particularly important
In this regard, UNICEF and other
consideration for countries with
partner agencies must invest in
weak service delivery systems
measures that:
that cannot adequately reach
populations across all sectors;
(a) Provide a mapping of child-
(j) The holistic philosophy of child- friendly school types, showing
friendly schools is likely to their range and adaptations made
produce a major shift in thinking to the basic concept in response
concerning what schools are to different situations;

© UNICEF/NYHQ2006-0829/Noorani

11
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
(b) Formally evaluate the impact of
child-friendly schools in a wide
range of country contexts;
(c) Support national capacity-building
for the use of CFS models to
implement quality education
standards by providing training
expertise and resources such
as this reference manual, the
e-learning package and a handbook
of case studies on child-friendly
schools;
(d) Support national capacity to
conduct rights-based causality
analysis through consultation
across sectors to ensure optimal
cooperation with health,
environment, water, finance and
other relevant ministries;
(e) Support the establishment of
monitoring and evaluation
mechanisms that include gender-
sensitive quality indicators to help
countries track progress and make
adjustments in the way they use
CFS models to improve quality in
their education systems;
(f) Help leverage financing for
countries that incorporate child-
friendly school standards as part of
their strategy for building quality in
their education systems;
(g) ‘Accompany’ countries that are
in the process of implementing
CFS models by providing useful
guidelines and working closely
with their nationals to set up and
operate child-friendly schools in
different communities.

12
CHAPTER 1: PURPOSE, SCOPE AND CONCEPT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 2
Dynamics of theory in practice

2.1 Overview

2.2 Implementation as an eclectic process

2.3 Key principles, desired features and standards

2.4 Putting children first

2.5 Implementation of models in various countries


2.5.1 Broad overview of trends
2.5.2 Specific country examples
2.5.3 Child-friendly spaces in emergencies and their aftermath
2.5.4 Child-friendly learning spaces outside school
2.5.5 Linkages between child-friendly schools and early child development
CHAPTER 2
DYNAMICS OF THEORY IN PRACTICE

2.1 Overview
2.1. OVERVIEW

This chapter explores the various In essence, the CFS model is a


options for implementing child-friendly pathway to quality education rather
school (CFS) models. These options than a rigid blueprint. The application
depend on the dynamic interaction of child-friendly school concepts and
between theory (including ideology, principles in different countries and
concepts and principles) and practice the impact of practical realities in
(or practicalities such as resources, determining what is feasible in these
capacities and opportunities). It is this situations has given rise to guidelines
interaction that determines the nature for implementing CFS models. These
and features of child-friendly schools. guidelines underscore the need for
flexibility in implementing the models
The influence of theory is highlighted while demonstrating the limits of
when concepts and principles are variation. The main contentions to be
interpreted in different contexts and discussed in this chapter include:
by different practitioners to produce
a variety of institutions that are (a) Implementation is an eclectic
identifiable as child-friendly schools. process, since child-friendly
Even when institutions have been schools are created on the basis
destroyed in emergencies, concepts of key principles that ultimately
and principles can be applied to shape their main features.
create temporary shelters that are True CFS design requires the
child-friendly learning spaces. On the application of principles, not
other hand, the influence of practice is prescribed characteristics.
manifested in how available resources,
(b) The main features of a given
existing capacity and opportunities
child-friendly school result from
for change produce a variety of child-
applying certain principles to a
friendly school types. Both theory
particular setting and context.
and practice influence outcomes in
There is no fixed set of features
the implementation of CFS models.
that must be in every child-friendly
The types of schools that result from
school.
this interactive process share enough
similarities to be classified as child- (c) When child-friendly school
friendly, yet they also exhibit important principles are applied consistently
differences that help explain the in different settings and contexts,
dynamic and flexible nature of similar, although not identical,
CFS models. characteristics ensue, which should

1
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
not be mistaken for the products of scale, as implementation of child-
a rigid recipe or blueprint. friendly school models shifts from
single-school pilots to clusters of
(d) Some characteristics, such as
schools to district-wide, province-
child participation in the learning
wide and finally sector-wide
process, may be intuitively
coverage.
recommended for child-friendly
schools, since they can be (j) When the implementation process
considered the inevitable, logical is driven by key principles rather
outcomes of applying CFS than a fixed set of characteristics,
principles to almost any setting or it is possible to create child-
context. friendly schools in a wide variety of
contexts and circumstances.
(e) Making schools child-friendly is
not an ‘all-or-nothing’ process. It (k) Adherence to a fixed set of
can begin with one principle and characteristics can produce
phase in others over time in a superficial models of child-friendly
strategic sequence that fits local schools that create confusion,
realities, promoting a ‘progressive invite scepticism and trivialize the
realization’ of the CFS model. concept itself.
(f) The key principles that drive the (l) The complexity of applying child-
child-friendly school process are so friendly school principles to
interrelated that interpreting and different contexts means that as
implementing any one principle efforts move from individual pilots
invariably sets off a chain reaction and demonstration models to large
that leads to related principles. numbers of schools and eventually
to entire school systems, each
(g) The role of teachers and school
setting yields valuable lessons.
heads is so central to the CFS
model that their training can (m) A major challenge for large-
usually be a good starting point scale implementation across
for making schools child-friendly. the education sector is a lack
Teachers and school heads do not of standards, guidelines and
simply work in these schools, they specifications to be used in
make schools child friendly and incorporating key elements of
maintain schools’ child-friendly child-friendly schools in processes
nature. that are essential to a sector-wide
investment approach, such as
(h) Important synergies are gained
scenario-setting, projecting and
by linking key elements of the
costing.
child-friendly school model. For
instance, connecting teacher (n) For the child-friendly model to
training to the preparation be taken seriously as an area for
and provision of appropriate national investment in quality
pedagogic materials makes the education, CFS programming
implementation of quality learning requires a logical, consistent
in the classroom more efficient. approach that can be applied in
different settings.
(i) There are cost savings to be
gained through economies of

2
CHAPTER 2: DYNAMICS OF THEORY IN PRACTICE
2.2 IMPLEMENTATION AS AN ECLECTIC PROCESS

In 2003, a review of global efforts and applied in a variety of contexts


to implement child-friendly schools to identify appropriate features
found that a wide range of conceptual or characteristics of child-friendly
interpretations had been applied, schools. Once these features have
resulting in a variety of manifestations been determined, they can be used
of child-friendly schools in different to develop CFS standards in a given
countries (Chabbott, 2004). This lack district, province or country. In addition
of coherence was attributable to the to being a more coherent, predictable
tendency to define child-friendly and logical model, this approach
schools in terms of prescribed features promotes a democratic process of
or characteristics, which did not dialogue and consultation in the
necessarily translate well from country interpretation of leading principles and
to country. The review found that the setting of standards. It discourages
child-friendly schools were defined in mechanical application of a given set
terms of anywhere from 6 to 12 ‘fixed’ of fixed characteristics.
characteristics. Most characteristics
appeared desirable, although it is In practice, it is also possible for CFS
unclear where these characteristics design and implementation to begin
originated. with a specific key characteristic or
feature and shift progressively to
The Convention on the Rights of the achieving the model that is ideal for
Child (CRC) was often cited to support that particular context. In this sense,
these prescribed characteristics. The implementation of the CFS model is an
CRC was an ideological framework for eclectic process, which becomes more
child-friendly schools, but in defining grounded, logical and predictable
the child-friendly school concept the by using standards to mainstream
‘real’ linkages to the core principles of the model into national planning
the CRC were not clearly established. processes.
It was therefore not evident whether
such prescribed characteristics are Efforts to implement child-friendly
a finite set or an expandable list, schools in different countries have
nor, if expandable, how additional undergone two distinct phases.
characteristics for child-friendly There was an early phase during
schools would be generated. This which efforts were not intended to
made it difficult to treat child-friendly create child-friendly schools but were
schools as a coherent model that designed to improve some aspect
could be implemented in a logical, of schooling. These efforts usually
consistent, predictable manner in predate the adoption of the child-
different contexts. friendly school concept by UNICEF and
focused more on seizing opportunities
This fundamental weakness can for change than on building a fixed
be addressed by means of a sound set of characteristics. Over time, the
process for designing child-friendly changed schools that resulted came
schools based on key principles with to be described ex post facto as child-
clear origins that can be interpreted friendly schools.

3
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
In the later phase, after adoption of (PAGE) in Zambia did not begin with
the CFS model by UNICEF, efforts the intention of creating child-friendly
were deliberately meant to make schools but with the intent to help
schools child-friendly. Nevertheless, provide quality education for girls
the design and implementation of that would promote gender parity
child-friendly schools has been an and empowerment. A multisectoral
eclectic and sometimes superficial approach to dismantling the many
process in both phases: What gets barriers that prevent girls from
done first and how things proceed accessing and performing in schools
tend to be determined by such evolved. This entailed a variety of
practicalities as what is attractive to interventions – developing community
or accepted by the national and local capacity, providing learning and
education authorities. teaching materials, creating single-
sex classrooms in math and science
In Bangladesh, for example, the – designed to improve the learning
Intensive District Approach to environment for girls and resulted in
Education for All (IDEAL) project did these schools being classified as child-
not begin with efforts to implement a friendly.
certain number of CFS characteristics.
It was a reform designed to improve In Egypt, community schools were
the quality of learning as integral to inspired by Colombia’s Escuelas
expanding access for achieving the Nuevas model and predate the CFS
Education for All (EFA) goals. IDEAL framework in UNICEF. Here too the
began in 1996 by experimenting initial intent was not to create child-
with multiple ways of teaching and friendly schools. Rather, the focus
learning, sensitizing teachers to the was on cultivating strong local
different ways in which children learn community engagement in education
and helping them adapt their teaching (a CFS principle) in order to provide
styles accordingly. This invariably quality learning opportunities for
became a starting point for greater children who did not have access to
child-centredness (a CFS principle) mainstream schools. Subsequently,
in schools and classrooms. Over these community schools generated
time, there appears to have been a additional features, such as stimulating
chain reaction through which IDEAL classroom environments and learner
generated new features as part of the participation, that have brought them
process of strengthening quality. These closer to classification as child-friendly
included safe learning environments, schools.
community involvement in school
planning and management, and Similar efforts to provide quality
assessment of learning achievement. learning opportunities for
As a result, IDEAL’s structure and disadvantaged populations in West
process of education reform created and Central Africa began in the mid-
new characteristics that allowed the 1990s with integrated approaches to
project’s schools to be classified as strengthen community involvement.
child-friendly schools. These reforms predated the launch of
the CFS model by UNICEF. However,
Similarly, the Programme for the by 2001, 7 of the 24 countries in the
Advancement of Girls’ Education region were engaged in reforms

4
CHAPTER 2: DYNAMICS OF THEORY IN PRACTICE
© UNICEF/NYHQ2005-2301/Pietrasik
purposely designed to promote child- trained to be ‘friendly’ facilitators.
friendly/girl-friendly schools. These The transformations are depicted
CFS initiatives included setting up in ‘before and after’ photographs of
multigrade community schools that classrooms and schools that show the
make education viable in sparsely simple measures employed to promote
populated rural areas and creating change, such as:
satellite schools that make it possible
for children to get an education (a) Brightly painted rooms, clean
close to home until they are old floors and colourful displays on
enough to transfer to regular walls;
schools farther away.
(b) Child-appropriate furniture
In the Eastern and Southern Africa arranged flexibly for a variety of
region, more deliberate efforts to learning approaches;
promote child-friendly schools took (c) Pupil activity centres or learning
place in countries including Ethiopia corners created around the
and Kenya, where converting existing classroom;
schools into child-friendly ones was a
major focus of UNICEF’s investment (d) Adequate water and sanitation
in education. These efforts centred facilities;
on classroom processes and the (e) Provision of recreation kits;
school environment to promote
more ‘joyful learning’, immersing (f) Nutritious school meals.
children in a highly participatory
learning process within a resource- Little systematic work has been
rich environment guided by teachers done to evaluate the impact of these

5
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
measures on improved learning, sector planning has produced patchy
better all-round development and results almost everywhere the attempt
other outcomes associated with to mainstream child-friendly schools in
child-friendly schools. However, less the education system has been made.
rigorous evidence, such as views
expressed by teachers and parents In Azerbaijan, for instance, the
and observations linked to the ‘before Government has selected some of the
and after’ realities, suggest at least an prescribed CFS characteristics and
initial upsurge in quality of education. rejected others. UNICEF continues
It appears that most children thrive as to advocate for the acceptance and
learners in these new environments, fuller implementation of child-friendly
and many teachers who work in them school characteristics, because to
express a new sense of professional do otherwise would mean that child-
pride in what they do as facilitators friendly schools could become a menu
of learning. These impressionistic of features from which governments
conclusions need to be quantitatively select rather than a model based on
evaluated. key principles relating to what is in the
best interest of children regarding their
Despite such positive signs, efforts right to quality basic education.
to mainstream child-friendly schools
into national plans and priorities in A similar challenge exists in other
countries such as Ethiopia and Kenya countries where advocates continue
have been only partially successful. to press governments to accept and
Even when governments have agreed implement the full set of prescribed
in principle to adopt child-friendly characteristics for child-friendly
schools as a model for improving the schools. Some progress is being made
quality of education, they have failed in these countries, resulting in serious
to include adequate programming government efforts to implement
tools for setting scenarios, making some CFS elements in various
projections and costing options categories of schools. The hope is that
for incorporating child-friendly if governments can be persuaded to
schools into the education planning adopt a CFS policy, this patchwork of
process. This results from becoming CFS elements will spread to as many
bogged down on a fixed set of CFS schools as possible. The reality is that
characteristics rather than focusing even with powerful advocacy and
on key principles that can promote a governments’ willingness to adopt
planning dialogue around the desired such a policy, the major challenge
aspects of child-friendly schools. Such of adequate planning tools for
a dialogue is vital in determining mainstreaming the CFS model into
the key features of child-friendly the education sector planning process
schools for a country and for setting remains.
national standards that can be used as
variables in national education sector This challenge is most evident in East
planning. Asia and the Pacific. Since UNICEF
first introduced the concept in the late
The lack of a consistent, logical 1990s, countries in the region have
approach for incorporating CFS taken the lead in demonstrating the
features and standards into education benefits of CFS models and adopting

6
CHAPTER 2: DYNAMICS OF THEORY IN PRACTICE
CFS policy. In Thailand, for example, UNICEF in selected schools in some
the Child-Friendly School Initiative of the country’s most disadvantaged
helps schools and communities provinces. The Ministry of Education
create partnerships to help track and has set up high-level policy and
ensure children’s school participation, technical teams to work on principles,
learning and well-being. UNICEF has features and standards for child-
provided technical support to help friendly schools in China, and the
the Government develop standard results of their work will be used in
architectural designs based on CFS a pilot exercise to mainstream child-
principles that are expected to be used friendly schools in the education
to construct new schools and renovate planning process of selected provinces.
existing ones as part of the drive to It will then be rolled out to other
implement a CFS policy in Thailand. provinces throughout the country.
These measures will undoubtedly UNICEF is committed to providing
produce benefits for quality education guidance and technical support to the
in that country and enhance the use of Government in this important area.
CFS models to provide quality basic
education for children elsewhere. The second development with regard
to incorporating CFS elements into
These developments, however, fall education sector planning models
short of systematic mainstreaming of and processes has been at the global
child-friendly schools into an education level. In joint support to countries
system. There needs to be a more developing credible plans for achieving
holistic approach in which specific the education MDGs and the EFA
CFS principles are used to decide on goals, three United Nations agencies
key elements and standards for child- – the United Nations Development
friendly schools in a given country and Programme (UNDP), United Nations
on the extent to which these features Educational, Scientific and Cultural
will be adapted to different parts of Organization (UNESCO) and UNICEF
the country or at different stages of – have decided to modify an
the national implementation process. existing education simulation model
These features and standards can then and commit to a single education
be included in education planning simulation model (EPSSim) to
models as an integral part of the support education sector planning
many variables used in the national in developing countries. UNICEF has
education sector planning process. worked with UNESCO to incorporate
CFS elements into this model, ensuring
Two developments in 2007 hold that CFS principles are a visible part of
promise that child-friendly schools policy dialogue and that CFS elements
can be successfully mainstreamed in are considered in scenario-setting
education systems. In China, major during the planning process. The
advancements towards mainstreaming existence of a single model also means
CFS as a model for implementing the that CFS standards can be part of the
Government’s policy of nine years planning process and that selected CFS
of compulsory basic education and elements included in a sector plan can
what is termed the ‘whole child’ be properly analysed in terms of costs
education policy have followed the over the plan period.
successful piloting of CFS models by (See Chapter 7.)

7
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
2.3 KEY PRINCIPLES, DESIRED FEATURES
AND STANDARDS

Key principles based on the processes and investment plans in


Convention on the Rights of a consistent and reliable way.
the Child (CRC) can be used to
generate the desired features, or Consideration of the CFS model
characteristics, of child-friendly begins with generic key principles
schools in particular settings. that are subject to interpretation.
These in turn can be reviewed It is generally agreed that the CFS
against the reality of available concept as introduced in the 1990s
resources over a given time was inspired by the principles of
frame to arrive at a set of feasible child rights as expressed in the
standards for the design and CRC. As the ideological foundation
implementation of child-friendly of child-friendly schools, the CRC
schools in a given country. (See gives rise to the generic or key
Diagram.) This approach makes it principles that drive the process of
easier to incorporate child-friendly making schools child-friendly.
schools into national planning

KEY PRINCIPLES DESIRED FEATURES

1 2
Derived from CRC Generated from
and interpreted in the interpretation
line with national of key principles
plans and priorities and reviewed
to generate major against reality
desired features

GAP ANALYSIS CFS STANDARDS

4 3
To reveal areas in Based on review
which schools do of desired features
not meet CRC- and the reality of
inspired goal for available resources
all children to have and expertise over
a quality education a given time frame

8
CHAPTER 2: DYNAMICS OF THEORY IN PRACTICE
The application of the CRC to In some cases, the physical design
education provides us with a rights- and infrastructure of a school may
based approach, stressing that all exclude children. The design may
children have a right to education – inadvertently obstruct access and
they are rights holders. Education is participation for children with
not a privilege that society grants to disabilities, or the lack of separate
children; it is a duty that society fulfils toilet facilities may dissuade girls’
towards all children. One of the most participation. The way in which a
self-evident principles generated school is managed or its prevailing
by the rights-based ideology is ambience also may discourage some
inclusiveness, which requires schools children from participating in the
to be open and welcoming to all education process. When bullying
children without exception. The is part of the school culture, for
school does not just passively receive instance, or certain populations are
children who seek schooling but routinely demeaned or stigmatized
actively seeks out all eligible children by school practices, some pupils will
for enrolment. Beyond enrolment, it drop out.
also helps children stay in school and
attend regularly. This means that fair, A child-friendly school is not just
transparent and non-discriminatory a child-welcoming school but also
rules for accessing school are a child-seeking school. It works
necessary but not sufficient. There to attract and retain children from
must also be strategies and measures different backgrounds, respects
in place to tackle the barriers that diversity and ensures non-
prevent children from taking the discrimination. Some innovations
opportunities to participate in that have helped make schools more
education. inclusive are:

Factors that keep children out of (a) Local school mapping and
school include household poverty, community monitoring systems
ethnicity or minority status, orphan to help track enrolment and
status, gender, remote rural location, identify children who are out of
need to work and early childhood school;
illness caused by exposure to
unsafe and unhealthy environmental (b) Satellite schools that ensure
conditions (such as contaminated younger children in remote
water and indoor air pollution). communities can go to school
Other exclusionary factors can be close to home until they are old
fostered within the school itself. enough to attend existing primary
Marginalization by teachers who fail schools farther away;
to engage students in the learning (c) Community schools that provide
and teaching process, do not speak education opportunities for
their language, do not believe they children who do not have access
are capable of learning or do not have to the existing standard schools;
the pedagogic skills to handle the
diversity these children bring to the (d) Mother tongue instruction in the
classroom prevent them from having early grades and multilingual/
a quality learning experience. multicultural education designed

9
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
to ease the transition from home that brought in new principles,
to school and render education leading inexorably towards child-
more relevant to minority friendly school status. Second,
populations; through discussion of inclusiveness
it is possible to choose the most
(e) Non-formal education appropriate measure to solve the
programmes that are equivalent problem of a particular situation.
to the formal system but have Applying different solutions will
flexible schedules to cater to mean that schools end up with
the learning needs of children different features, yet they are all
engaged in daily or seasonal addressing the issue of inclusiveness.
income-generating activities
(working children);
The principle of inclusiveness
(f) Special efforts to combat effectively enables the progression
exclusion and stigmatization of towards child-friendly school status
children affected by HIV and AIDS; by leading to the implementation
of measures that promote access
(g) Safe spaces to facilitate children’s and retention of children from a
right to education in emergency wide diversity of backgrounds. So,
situations; is it enough just to get all children in
(h) Promoting birth registration and school? What if children are enrolled
strengthening community-based in squalid ‘boot camps’ or rote
early learning opportunities that learning centres that pass for schools
help meet the legal requirements – has their right to education been
for enrolment and better prepare fulfilled or violated?
children from disadvantaged
populations for schooling (school The rights-based approach stresses
readiness); that as rights holders, children should
have a say in the form and substance
(i) Building partnerships through of their education, as should
a mix of education and non- those who facilitate their rights.
education partners who can This is the principle of democratic
promote the principle of inclusion. participation, through which children,
parents, communities, employers,
Efforts to put the CFS principle of political leaders and others have a
inclusiveness into practice lead to role in determining the structure,
clear observations. First, because content and process of education.
child-friendly school implementation It is only through such democratic
is an eclectic process, it can begin participation that child-friendly
with any key CRC principle. Yet schools can claim to be fulfilling
implementation of any one principle children’s right to education. This
quickly generates a chain reaction, is simply a reaffirmation of good
leading to other principles and curriculum design principles,
factors that are important for child- which promote ‘negotiation’
friendly schools. This explains of the curriculum by different
why programmes that began by stakeholders, including children.
implementing one key quality issue However, there are important
invariably generated further concerns caveats in applying this principle

10
CHAPTER 2: DYNAMICS OF THEORY IN PRACTICE
© UNICEF/NYHQ2005-2120/Pirozzi
that have to do with the legitimate have aspirations for their children
roles of different stakeholders and that schools should reflect. They
the place of objective expertise also expect certain benefits from
in determining content and other investing in education, and schools
aspects of the learning/teaching should realize these benefits as fully
process. The rigours of knowledge as possible. In the same way, other
and the learning process cannot be stakeholders, such as employers
trivialized in the name of democratic or civic and religious leaders,
participation. To do so would give normally contribute to the process
child-friendly schools a bad name. of negotiating the curriculum by
advocating for knowledge, skills,
In the process of negotiating the norms, values and behaviours that
curriculum, it is generally accepted should be acquired and upheld in
that policymakers are mandated with society.
outlining a vision of society and the
country’s priorities for development. These varied inputs by different
This usually has implications for stakeholders need to be processed
the role of education and the type and administrated by professionals,
of education in which the country such as curriculum planners, subject
should invest. It is also accepted specialists, school managers and
that parents and communities classroom teachers, whose main role

11
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
is to translate vision, aspiration and powerful voices, could easily drown
expectation into a viable curriculum out the voices of children. This is
that can be interpreted and why the CRC, with its rights-based
implemented in schools. Part of this approach to education, emphasizes
role involves safeguarding standards the importance of safeguarding
regarding forms of knowledge and the interests of the child by making
what constitutes education. For such interests central to all decision-
instance, witchcraft and magic are making in education. This is the
not normally accepted as forms child-centred principle (See 2.4),
of knowledge for educational perhaps the most important principle
purposes. Similarly, exclusive use generated from the CRC and its
of rote learning and memorization rights-based ideology. It needs to be
does not count as education. applied with caution, because the
Just as importantly, enforcing a issue of what is in the best interest
particular political ideology or of the child can be contentious. Who
religious viewpoint to the exclusion decides what is in the best interest of
of other possibilities amounts to the child? Is it the same as the best
indoctrination rather than education. interest of all children, and if not,
These are matters that must be which child’s interest should be given
safeguarded by professionals who priority? Does it mean that children
work on curriculum. rule and whatever they want they
should get?
Discussing a key principle like
democratic participation brings up These and other controversies
issues of the school’s accountability are part of the discussion of this
to various stakeholders. This principle, and it can be argued that
discussion can be a springboard for even children themselves may not
examining links between schools always know what is in their best
and their communities on the one interest, especially at a young age.
hand and links between schools They need to take certain judgements
and central or local policymakers and decisions on trust from parents,
and administrators on the other. teachers and others who have an
Whatever the starting point, there is obligation as well as the authority
always a sense in which other key to safeguard their welfare. Even so,
areas of concern will be brought into it is always important to promote
the discussion, to be given attention child participation as one of the
as part of the process of making features of the child-centred principle
schools child-friendly. and to include children’s views
in the process of negotiating the
Having all children in school curriculum and other aspects of a
and establishing the democratic child-friendly school. For example,
participation of key stakeholders young children can express their
in negotiating curriculum content, views through drawing and playing
structure and method would games relating to CFS components.
represent good progress towards It is also possible to obtain the views
fulfilling children’s right to a quality of children by engaging them in
education. However, the participation open discussion on such issues as
of the adult stakeholders, many with discipline.

12
CHAPTER 2: DYNAMICS OF THEORY IN PRACTICE
2.4 PUTTING CHILDREN FIRST

Because the principle of child- a process that is guided and facilitated


centredness is so critical to child- by the teacher. Ideally, children will
friendly schools, it deserves special be able to do all this in a manner that
attention. Child participation has will not harm them but will instead
already been briefly discussed as one stimulate, motivate, encourage and
of the features of this principle. The reward them as learners trying to
aspect in which child participation make sense of their surroundings.
matters most is in the classroom The implication is that to assist the
process of learning and teaching. continuous development of children
Learning is central to education and, in a constantly changing world, every
in line with the child-centred principle, learning experience and every learning
the child as learner is central to the
process of teaching and learning. In
other words, the classroom process
should not be one in which children
are passive recipients of knowledge
dispensed by a sole authority, the
teacher. Rather it should be an
interactive process in which children
are active participants in observing,
exploring, listening, reasoning,
questioning and ‘coming to know’.
This is at the heart of the classroom
process in all child-friendly school
models, and it is critical for teachers
to be well trained in this pedagogy.

Children are active agents in constant


discovery of the world around them.
Every day brings new learning
opportunities and experiences,
while every place is a new learning
environment to explore, starting with
the home and the local community.
There is always new knowledge to
be gained, and there are always new © UNICEF/NYHQ2006-0402/Pirozzi

skills to master, new facts to learn, new


emotions to experience, new ideas to
explore, new puzzles to ponder and
new ways to understand.

For children, many situations represent


an unknown challenge that they must
make sense of as they listen, act, react,
reflect and interact with others through

13
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
environment should place children For children to develop their full
at the centre as active agents of their potential, schools must provide
own learning process, allowing them learning opportunities that help
to develop to their full potential with develop children’s abilities to think
appropriate guidance and an informed and reason, build up their self-respect
freedom of choice. and respect for others, and think
ahead and plan their future. Sadly, the
environment in which many children
develop is not always conducive to
TEACHING AND LEARNING: AN even basic learning, let alone skills
UNBREAKABLE BOND acquisition. Too often, it is a harsh,
uncaring environment that can be
“In general, the heart of the detrimental to the emotional, social
matter in education is the and physical health and well-being of
interaction between the student the child.
and the teacher. It is in this
process that quality education is Whether a school or an informal
created.”(Education International, learning space, environment plays a
2003) This is the reason the Dakar significant role in the development of
Framework for Action refers children’s potential. It is in recognition
specifically to the need for “well- of the importance of the environment
trained teachers and active learning that delegates to the World Education
techniques” in order to achieve Forum, held in Dakar in 2000, pledged
quality learning outcomes. To be to “create safe, healthy, inclusive
effective, teaching and learning and equitably resourced educational
must include a variety of interactive environments conducive to excellence
methodologies, looking also at the in learning.”
different learning styles of girls
and boys, to create stimulating,
The environment for learning is a
participatory and child-friendly
critical feature of child-friendly school
learning environments. This is
particularly true when addressing
such sensitive issues as HIV and
AIDS and reproductive health. Learning to
live together
The role of teachers is to facilitate
Learning Learning
participatory learning rather than to be to do
conduct lectures in a didactic style,
and it can only be accomplished if
their crucial role and status are fully
Learning
recognized, if they are supported to know
through quality pre- and in-
service training to reach sustained
transformation in the classroom
and if they are involved at all
stages of educational planning –
defining policies and programmes,
choosing methods and modes of
delivery and evaluating results.

14
CHAPTER 2: DYNAMICS OF THEORY IN PRACTICE
models. But it is also important ensure that investments in such areas
from a child-centred perspective as teacher training or provision of
to consider what children bring textbooks are not undermined by a
to this environment and how this lack of attention to other crucial areas
environment should cater to other required for the child to take advantage
aspects of a child’s well-being in order of what is offered. Child-friendly
to support learning. In other words, approaches may appear to cost more
while excellence in learning through in the short term, but they are much
active participation is the ultimate more efficient investments in the long
goal, consideration of the whole term because they provide savings by
child and his or her well-being is also addressing problems of low or delayed
crucial. Many children start school enrolment, increased absenteeism,
poorly prepared for learning because repetition and dropout due to such
they have not had appropriate early issues as basic health, nutrition and
child development (ECD) care and safety.
support. Also, for children who are
malnourished or infested with worms Healthy for children. Schools alone
or suffering from repeated bouts of cannot guarantee children’s health,
malaria or other illnesses, learning will but they should not make their health
be difficult. worse. Unsanitary and unsafe learning
environments result in injury and
The environment in a child-friendly illness. Girls abandoning or being
school must respond to these withdrawn from schools that fail to
challenges, many of which can be provide separate toilets is just one
met by applying the principle of child example of how environmental factors
centredness through: can undermine student participation
in education. Providing safe water
Starting with the child. Consider and appropriate sanitation facilities
each child holistically and coherently, are basic first steps in the creation
embracing the particular characteristics of a healthy, child-friendly learning
every child contributes to the rich environment. Other important
diversity of the school. Every child’s elements include establishing and
developmental and learning needs enforcing rules to make the learning
should be considered throughout the environment free from drugs,
life cycle, and every child’s ability, alcohol and tobacco, eliminating
health and nutritional status, as well exposure to hazardous materials,
as any discriminatory pressure they providing sufficient numbers of
may be subjected to because of ergonomically designed benches
their gender, race, ethnicity or other and chairs and adequate lighting,
factor, should be acknowledged. allowing opportunities for physical
This approach enables all children to exercise and recreation, and ensuring
access, participate in and profit fully that first-aid equipment is properly
from learning opportunities. Additional maintained and readily available. Such
efforts and resources are required to a healthy environment provides an
allow child-friendly schools to take appropriate venue for school feeding
such a holistic and coherent approach and other health-related interventions
from early child development to basic like deworming, micronutrient
primary education and beyond, but supplementation and malaria
they are cost-effective in that they prevention.

15
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
Safe for children. The physical training teachers and parents in
learning environment must be able non-violent discipline, as well as
to accommodate all children in the establishing and enforcing codes of
community in safe locations with conduct that protect children from
access to energy for school electricity, sexual harassment, abuse, violence,
an especially important consideration bullying, physical punishment, stigma
in rural locations that are off the and discrimination. Special attention
grid. The environment needs to be should be given to orphans and
designed to meet the basic needs of children made vulnerable by HIV and
children. Schools need to provide AIDS. In situations with high levels of
access to clean water for drinking and violence, counselling and mediation
hand washing and take gender into programmes and persons should be
account by providing separate and identified.
private restrooms for boys and girls
and, if applicable, secure dormitory Work can be richly rewarding for
accommodations. Schools must those charged with the responsibility
identify and eliminate causes of injury of implementing a CFS policy in the
in school buildings and on school education system. The main purpose
grounds, ensure that emergency of such work should be not only to
response equipment is properly increase the learning effectiveness,
maintained and readily available, efficiency and reach of education
establish emergency procedures and systems but more fundamentally to
practise emergency response. Child- enable all children to realize their
friendliness can be further promoted right to learn. It should also be about
through children’s involvement in expanding the focus of attention
activities that make the school cleaner, beyond formal schooling into broader
prettier and more environmentally environments and spaces where all
sustainable, including planting sorts of learning takes place, especially
vegetable gardens, trees or flowers, in times of crisis. Ideally, it is also
painting walls or removing debris from about making connections between
school grounds. the school, the home and the wider
environment through a holistic, child-
Protective of children. When the centred approach.
school environment is perceived
as unwelcoming or threatening, But to date, UNICEF and its national
attendance suffers. In general, a child- partners have not fully utilized this
friendly, protective environment is ideal approach. A mixed picture
not only conducive to learning, but emerges from efforts to implement and
also to play and healthy interaction. mainstream child-friendly schools. On
Harassment and antisocial behaviour the one hand, there is little doubt that
cannot be allowed; abuse, bullying many of these efforts have improved
or sexual exploitation must be the quality of education and helped
confronted. Child protection and set new standards for the well-being
safety in homes has a direct impact of children in schools. On the other,
on children’s capacity to attend class it is also clear that the process and
and to learn, and children must also outcome of implementing CFS models
feel safe as they travel from their have been patchy in most places, far
homes to school. Interventions to from being mainstreamed in education
address these situations include systems.

16
CHAPTER 2: DYNAMICS OF THEORY IN PRACTICE
© UNICEF/NYHQ2007-1393/Pirozzi
A final issue worth considering is attend school and continue learning.
the extent to which child-friendly For such policies to be pragmatic,
school models are feasible in a policy they need to be linked to other
environment that is not child-friendly. sectors and broadly collaborative
It may be that child-friendly education with various stakeholders in health,
policies are a requirement to environment, infrastructure and
guarantee success in the promotion other areas. Most importantly, such
of equal rights and opportunities for national policies should be the
all children. These would provide a basis for ensuring that child-friendly
framework for regulating provision approaches receive a proportion of
of and access to education in a the national budget adequate to run
transparent and equitable manner, the new system, covering appropriate
and would also provide a rationale teacher salaries and teacher support
for increased investments to address measures as well as investments
safety, protection, health and in training, materials provision and
nutrition issues as part of the process other requirements.
of making schools child-friendly.
At the community level, there may
At the national level, child-friendly also be a need for supportive policies
education policies may include and practices so that local resources
promotion of fee-free enrolment, can be mobilized in support of child-
promotion of the use of local friendly schools. Additionally, policies
languages in schools, requirements must advocate and support children’s
to include disabled children in regular rights and CRC principles. In dealing
schools, provisions for pregnant with rights, such issues as nutrition,
girls to complete their education, health, violence prevention and
regulations that prohibit corporeal discrimination on the basis of gender,
punishment and regulations allowing ethnicity or class must be considered
HIV-infected and -affected children to by the local community.

17
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
2.5 IMPLEMENTATION OF MODELS
IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES

2.5.1 Broad overview of trends began in Colombia and spread to other


countries in the region.
In a number of countries in Central
and Eastern Europe and the The East Asia and the Pacific region
Commonwealth of Independent States, has been developing and applying
the concept of Global Education has the CFS framework since it was first
been integrated into the CFS approach, introduced in the 1990s, producing
preschool activities have been various manifestations. In Indonesia,
emphasized in some programmes, for example, training in what the
and community-based education country calls Active, Joyful and
management information systems Effective Learning is a principal activity.
have been utilized to locate and In the Philippines, schools are part of
reach disadvantaged and excluded a wider framework of child-friendly
children. Global Education is also families, communities, provinces and
promoted in the Middle East and the country as a whole.
North Africa as a means of improving
quality and incorporating key CFS In Eastern and Southern Africa,
elements such as child rights, national standards exist to promote
children’s participation in democratic child-friendly and gender-sensitive
processes and interactive learning. school environments in a number
The community school model piloted of countries. And schools that are
in Egypt and extended to a number healthy, safe and protective are looked
of other countries incorporates all to as means of support for children
major components of child-friendly and families affected by HIV and AIDS.
schools, with a special emphasis on In both African regions, child-friendly
gender equity, teaching processes and and girl-friendly initiatives are clearly
community participation. linked. In West Africa, girl-friendly
school models have been implemented
In India, in the aftermath of the Gujarat in Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Gambia,
earthquake, the CFS concept has been Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau,
applied in emergencies as a framework Mauritania, Nigeria and Senegal, and
for the reconstruction and restoration a child-friendly/girl-friendly school
of primary education. In Afghanistan, manual has been developed.
reopened schools are used to deliver a
wide range of services, and community
support and involvement has been 2.5.2 Specific country examples
critical. And in Latin America and the
Caribbean, where inclusive quality Q Malawi: Intersectoral partnerships
education for all is a key goal, the for child-friendly schools
CFS framework has been used in
a number of countries – Bolivia, The Malawian child-friendly school
Colombia, Guyana, Honduras and model stresses the importance of
Nicaragua – sometimes building on intersectoral partnerships. UNICEF
or associating with earlier initiatives and the World Food Programme work
such as the Escuelas Nuevas, which in partnership with the Government,

18
CHAPTER 2: DYNAMICS OF THEORY IN PRACTICE
non-governmental organizations and for International Development-UNICEF
other civil society organizations to partnership.
provide quality primary education.
The collaboration encompasses Prospects for closing the gender
teacher training on child-friendly gap now appear to be improved, as
methods, school feeding for both the GEP has leveraged increased
boys and girls attending primary day complementary funds from the six
schools, and take-home rations for selected states. However, serious
girls and orphans. Schools are also concerns remain about the overall
provided with furniture, teaching quality of schooling in Nigeria, with
materials and water and sanitation the question ‘What about the boys?’
facilities, along with life skills training, being increasingly raised and a
deworming services and micronutrient growing reverse gender gap in the
supplementation. south in favour of girls. To address
this imbalance, the focus in the south
Q Nigeria: Gender components of is on overall school quality and a
child-friendly schools within diverse broader approach to gender. CFS
realities principles remain at the core of the
Nigeria-UNICEF country programme,
The Child-Friendly School Initiative with different emphases in different
was launched in Nigeria in 2002, geographical and cultural areas
with the goal of creating 600 child- coupled with a diversified resource
friendly schools by 2007. Initial CFS mobilization strategy to enable
interventions were planned for the scaling up on quality Education for All
six northern states where the overall nationally and girls’ education in the
level of enrolment is lowest and the north.
gender gap highest. While gender
equity was a key dimension in the Q The Philippines: Multiple
CFS model from the outset, greater components of child-friendly schools
success was achieved in the overall
enrolment rate in child-friendly schools Effectiveness.
than in reducing the gender gap.
Child-friendly schools in the Philippines
From 2002 to 2004, the African Girls’
aim to enhance school effectiveness
Education Initiative (AGEI) focused
on interventions to attract and retain through capacity-building activities
girls in school, addressing structural that enable teachers and school heads
constraints at the policy level, not to have a better understanding of
least the shortage of female teachers child development, which is critical if
in rural schools in the north, where they are to apply appropriate teaching
they are particularly needed as role practices and foster more meaningful
models. Lessons learned from AGEI relationships with students and
were scaled up with the launch of a their families.
national Strategy for the Acceleration
of Girls’ Education in Nigeria (SAGEN), Protection.
the development of a common strategy Child-friendly schools have succeeded
to support girls’ education (SAGEN+) in transforming the norm in classroom
and the launch of a US$48 million Girls’ discipline from one that condones
Education Project (GEP), a Government verbal and physical abuse to one that
of Nigeria-United Kingdom Department calls for a ‘shoutless and stickless’

19
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
a socio-economic, academic, health
and nutrition profile that enables the
teacher to know the child better and
understand his or her strengths and
barriers to learning. It also permits
the teacher to identify children at risk
(non-readers, absentees and potential
dropouts, physically and sexually
© UNICEF/NYHQ2005-0315/Estey

abused children, students with learning


disabilities and attention deficits) and
intervene appropriately. In metropolitan
cities, child-friendly schools work with
community councils to identify out-of-
school children and bring them back to
school.

Q Mongolia: Policy support

In order to establish and maintain


form of discipline. Also through CFS, child-friendly learning environments,
a school protocol was developed for Mongolia adopted a national policy
identification, reporting and referral aimed at improving the quality of
of cases of abuse, violence and education and the implementation of
exploitation. This was approved for child rights. The policy provides support
all schools by the Department
to all stakeholders from the national to
of Education.
the sub-national level and underscores
the collective commitment to children
Community involvement. by policymakers, school managers,
As one of its most important tasks teachers, parents and communities. The
and part of how it defines itself, the CFS training programme is integrated
child-friendly school engages in into the curriculum of national teacher-
genuine partnerships with families training colleges, as well as in-service
and communities. This has raised teacher training and distant learning
awareness of the importance of programmes. Additionally, basic
education and generated better education monitoring and management
understanding of the constraints faced systems include CFS indicators.
by principals and teachers, resulting
in an improved school-community
relationship. Schools that are successful 2.5.3 Child-friendly spaces in
in this area take pride in being truly emergencies and their aftermath
schools of their communities.
Child-friendly spaces/environments
Inclusion. (CFS/E) have been developed
Child-friendly schools seek out and as a rights-based approach to
assist at-risk children through the guaranteeing children’s rights to
Student Tracking System, which survival, development, participation
monitors and tracks individual children. and protection in situations of crisis or
The system puts together relevant instability. The CFS/E initiative offers
information about the child to create an integrated approach to promoting

20
CHAPTER 2: DYNAMICS OF THEORY IN PRACTICE
physical and emotional security, Child-friendly spaces/environments
social and cognitive development, have been established in a number
and health and nutritional status. At of countries affected by armed
the operational level, child-friendly conflict or natural disasters. First
schools and environments attempt to launched in Kosovo in 2000, the child-
integrate primary and fundamental friendly spaces initiative provided
health, primary education, childcare basic services to large numbers of
and psychosocial development services Kosovan refugee children and women.
into a protective environment that is Preventive maternal-child health and
both family-focused and community- psychosocial services, pre- and primary
based. Centres set up as part of the school education, and recreation
CFS/E approach provide a safe, caring were provided within one identifiable
space where children can engage in site, which also served as a space for
structured recreational and educational the protection of children and their
activities and have access to basic caregivers. Since then, the concept has
primary health and nutrition services. been adapted to respond to emergency
The centres have programmes geared conditions in Angola, Colombia, El
to preschool children, primary-school- Salvador, Liberia, Timor-Leste, Turkey
age children, youth and parents. and the North Caucasus region.
Minimum standards have been
established to ensure that sufficient Q Albania: The CFS/E initiative was
space and equipment are provided.
designed as an innovative community-
oriented, integrated services strategy
In the face of a global environment in response to the influx of Kosovan
altered by climate change, refugees. It incorporated educational,
desertification and the degradation of recreational, health and psychosocial
natural resources, as well as conflict
facilities – normally in tents – run
situations and their devastation, rapid
by non-governmental organization
restoration of learning in emergency
partners and child professionals from
situations and their aftermath is crucial.
within the refugee community. Lessons
Education interventions aim to establish
learned have served as the basis
safe environments for learning,
for the development of subsequent
recreation and psychosocial support;
play a dual role in rehabilitation, approaches in other contexts
or restoring a sense of normalcy
and healing in children’s lives, and Q North Caucasus: An assessment
prevention; and contribute to values of of the education system in the city of
peace, tolerance and respect for human Grozny revealed that up to one third
rights. Safe learning spaces established of school buildings were destroyed
in emergency situations also offer a in the Chechen conflicts. Children
gathering place for children and their attended classes in alternative
families where other programmatic premises, normally without the most
services can be implemented. Such basic equipment, and in the absence of
learning spaces need to become electricity and functioning stoves the
protected environments where pupils situation for preschool age children was
and teachers have the opportunity even worse. The child-friendly school/
to build resilience, heal and engage environment approach integrated active
in self-expression. Play, sports, learning and recreation with elements
storytelling and other recreational related to child protection, child rights,
activities are critical elements. mine awareness, psychosocial and

21
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
healing activities, and HIV and AIDS, during emergency and crisis situations.
addressing both camp-based schools These efforts should be an overall
and mainstream schools that had large strategy to expand all children’s
displaced populations. The approach and adolescents’ right to learning
helped re-centre the education and participation outside the school
strategy around child protection environment, taking advantage of all
activities that moved families and possible opportunities available to
communities from emergencies into children and youth. These spaces or
reconstruction. Special efforts also environments should be seen as a
focused on preschool populations in ‘critical reinforcement’ to the formal
well-organized centres with indoor learning process while expanding
and outdoor playing spaces and opportunities to strengthen additional
equipment. life skills building and participatory
initiatives.
Q Gujarat: In the aftermath of the
massive earthquake that struck in 2001, Other opportunities include sports and
a major effort was made to get children recreational activities, journalism (print
back into school as quickly as possible and radio), school tutoring, debate
so as to reinstitute learning and re- clubs, health education, job-skills
establish some normalcy in their lives. training and community activities.
Multiple stakeholders were enlisted in These are often undertaken after
this effort, including non-governmental school, during vacation periods or as
organizations that mobilized part of weekend initiatives and can
communities to create tent schools. expand the notion of child-friendly
The child-friendly spaces strategy learning spaces.
helped provide a haven for children
and ensured that they were able to
resume normal activities. Nearly 2,300 2.5.5 Linkages between child-
schools were established in temporary friendly schools and early child
shelters, facilitating access for nearly development
400,000 children across 17 worst-
affected blocks and preventing the Building on the life cycle perspective
loss of an academic year. Moreover, and recognizing the importance of the
psychosocial interventions in primary early years, child-friendly approaches
schools proved so successful that the should extend to the preschool years
Government decided to include them as a way to enhance the scope, equity
as part of pre-service teacher training. and quality of early interventions.
School reconstruction emphasized This in turn contributes to improved
safety standards and equity, with developmental readiness among
quality improvement a key aim. children, timely entry into school and
better learning outcomes. Moreover,
child-friendly approaches in both early
2.5.4 Child-friendly learning child development and lower primary
spaces outside school grades can ease the transition from
home to school and help build linkages
The promotion of other child-friendly between families, community-based
learning spaces, environments and service providers, and teachers and
opportunities goes beyond a response other school officials.

22
CHAPTER 2: DYNAMICS OF THEORY IN PRACTICE
TABLE 2.1

EARLY CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS AND LEARNING SPACES


CHILDHOOD
YEARS Home setting Community setting School setting System/policy
0–3 Caring (health, nutrition, Health, hygiene, nutrition, Child-to-child Basic services
hygiene, water, water, sanitation, social programmes teaching system and
sanitation), stimulating, welfare services. Access schoolchildren how to policies
interactive, gender- to energy for cooking, care for and play with that support
sensitive; availability of community gardens their young siblings. families and
appropriate play and for food. Parenting communities.
reading materials. Smoke- programmes.
free indoor environment.

3–5 Caring (health, nutrition, Community-based quality Supports early Basic services
hygiene, water, childcare centres. learning programmes for promoting
sanitation), stimulating, Early learning in safe, in the community by and maintaining
interactive, gender- protective, stimulating providing professional community-
sensitive; availability of settings. Access to guidance, training based early child
appropriate play and energy for cooking, and criteria. Safe, development
reading materials. Smoke- community gardens for healthy environment centres.
free indoor environment. food. with access to water,
sanitation, food,
energy.
5–6 Caring (health, nutrition, Safe, protective centre- Supports or provides Establishes
hygiene, water, based group learning group learning and maintains
sanitation), stimulating, opportunities. Prepares spaces. Collaborates group learning
interactive, gender- children for schooling. with community and opportunities
sensitive, promoting Ensures that children parents to create for children to
child’s developmental are free from disease, quality early learning start school
preparedness for school; undernutrition, abuse and centres. Safe, healthy physically,
availability of play and exploitation. environment with emotionally,
reading materials. Smoke- access to water, cognitively
free indoor environment. sanitation, food, ready.
energy.

6–8 Caring (health, nutrition, Proximity provides Ready to receive –


hygiene, water, safe route to school. the child and
sanitation), stimulating, Protective; ensures that attend to individual
interactive, gender- children are physically, needs. Ensures that
sensitive. emotionally, cognitively child is physically,
Encourages learning; ready for school and that emotionally,
collaborates with all attend. After-school cognitively ready for
teachers; participates in programmes for children school. Partners with
school events; availability at risk of dropping out, parents to prepare
of play and reading faltering, repeating. children for smooth
materials. Free of labour Engages children in transition to school.
that prevents child from environmental activities. Relevant curriculum,
attending school. Smoke- teaching and learning
free indoor environment. processes.

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CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
Q Bangladesh: The people of the sanitary latrines. In addition, Para
Chittagong Hill Tracts are among the Centres are used as outreach sites
most disadvantaged in the country for immunization and distribution of
with regard to access to health vitamin A for children, health services
and education facilities. Hence, for pregnant women and newborns,
an integrated child development and birth registration. Caregiver
project was developed to provide education provides information
them with learning opportunities. on child protection and includes
Multigrade centres, called Para messages about the creation of safe
Centres (community centres), were and secure environments for children
established to serve children from 3 and equal care for girls and boys.
to 5 years of age. Selected community
women were trained in child-centred Early child development activities can
teaching and learning processes to also be built into child-friendly spaces
work in the centres, and an existing during emergencies in an effort to
learning package was modified for support young children’s emotional
children from 4 to 6 years of age well-being and learning potential
(athough even younger children often during natural disasters, humanitarian
go to the centres). Para Centres are crises and transition. Examples
also used as a one-stop delivery point include Afghanistan, where toys
for other services to children. They were distributed to young children
disseminate messages on sanitation, for therapeutic play, and Liberia,
hygiene and early child development where child-friendly spaces serve as
directly to families and assist them the entry point for implementation
in the installation of appropriate of early childcare and development
water sources and the building of activities.

© UNICEF/2003/Yeo

24
CHAPTER 2: DYNAMICS OF THEORY IN PRACTICE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 3
Location, design and construction

3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 General approach and key considerations
3.1.2 Basic elements for a good school
3.1.3 Additional elements for a child-friendly school

3.2 Pedagogy and design


3.2.1 Classrooms
3.2.2 Facilities
3.2.3 Outdoor spaces

3.3 Locating schools or learning spaces


3.3.1 School size and location
3.3.2 Mobility
3.3.3 Assessment of topographical risk

3.4 Additional elements in design


3.4.1 Clustering
3.4.2 Dwellings
3.4.3 Landscaping
3.4.4 Hygiene, sanitation, water
3.4.5 Early childcare facilities
3.4.6 Emergency situations

3.5 Factors influencing design


3.5.1 Gender
3.5.2 Access for the disabled
3.5.3 Climate
3.5.4 Cost of infrastructure

3.6 Design with involvement of all


3.6.1 Users
3.6.2 Gender needs
3.6.3 Partners

3.7 Remaining challenges


3.7.1 Low cost
3.7.2 Multidisciplinary teams
3.7.3 Provision of land for schools
3.7.4 Schools in general community improvement projects
3.7.5 Coordination
CHAPTER 3
LOCATION, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Construction projects provide ample ways to play a strong role in


the overall plan: ensuring community participation in the process;
ensuring adherence to child-friendly principles in building design and
construction; and ensuring that the end results contribute to realizing
goals for children and women. [Education agencies] that decide to
engage in construction, therefore, must go beyond the mere ‘bricks
and mortar’ aspects, and also take into account ‘software’ aspects in
the planning. These include the maintenance and use of facilities, the
quality of services, how the community is mobilized, the extent and
nature of community participation. All of these should be determinants
of success for [agency-assisted] construction projects. In short,
whether or not to engage in construction is a programmatic decision.

Extract adapted from Construction Guidance Note (Draft),


UNICEF, Programme Division, October 2006

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Child-friendly schools are not maintenance of new child-friendly


architectural phantoms from a schools and the important factors
strange place. They are schools with for renovating and adjusting existing
attributes typically associated with schools to make them child-friendly.
good schools in many countries. The approach centres on the child,
However, they have additional the main user of these learning
elements that complement and spaces and environments, with
reinforce the principles and practices the understanding that family
of the child-friendly approach and community participation is
to education. fundamental for best results. In this
regard, the main objectives in child-
This chapter examines the planning friendly school planning are:
and design of new spaces and
environments for child-friendly • Attract students (increase access);
schools and sets out quality planning • Improve attendance rates;
standards for improving existing
• Improve retention and completion
schools and temporary structures
rates;
used as schools. It focuses on location,
design, construction, operation and • Improve learning achievement;

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CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
• Provide safe, inclusive, welcoming prominence in design considerations
environments for all children; for a child-friendly school. This will
help reinforce the child’s self-identity
• Provide enabling learning
and promote a sense of belonging to a
environments, including
place and group.
accommodating children with
physical and mental/learning
disabilities; When their architecture is a reflection
of the community, culture, natural
• Build a sense of community within environment and the family,
the school (institutional ethos); schools are more than just shells or
physical structures. When a school
• Involve parents and the community
is envisioned and created with the
(support and participation);
child at its centre and supported by
• Cultivate harmony between the the family and the community, the
school and its community; physical structures become interactive
places to learn and teach – places
• Harmonize buildings, school
where teachers facilitate and manage
grounds and environment as
the learning process and students
children interact with them.
learn and explore new possibilities
that match their abilities and potential.
3.1.1 General approach and key The school becomes an integrated,
considerations holistic system that retro feeds itself
from the surrounding elements, giving
A structure for learning (school) and it an identity. It is this dimension that
its immediate environment (school promotes community ownership of
grounds) must offer basic minimum schools and gives schools a sense of
standards to encourage and facilitate belonging to the communities they
the main objectives of a child-friendly serve. This dimension is one of the
school. These have much in common most essential considerations for the
with any good school; therefore the design of child-friendly schools.
child-friendly school needs to be
conceived as an improvement on Schools must be anchored in the
the basics of existing good schools. reality of their location in terms of
A child-friendly school also must culture, environment and links to
respond to the environmental and families and the community. But if that
cultural context of its location. A were all, schools would be parochial
universal, standardized approach places antithetical to learning that
does not respond to the unique is grounded in the total heritage of
characteristics of a place and culture human knowledge. Schools are not
and could result in detachment and simply a means of learning about local
alienation of the community. reality; they are also the gateways to
the legacy of human endeavours and
School marks an important early possibilities.
milestone in the child’s lifelong
journey of intellectual and School architecture should promote
psychosocial development. Therefore, harmony with local reality while
an understanding of the child’s own also incorporating the best external
culture and environment should have influences. A remote, rural school,

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CHAPTER 3: LOCATION, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
for instance, should conform to additional elements that make the
its environment but also take difference between a ‘good’ school
advantage of such innovations as and a ‘child-friendly’ school. Many
modern hygiene practices, popular major catastrophes have provided
games and sports, and technology. opportunities to create new school
Similarly, a school can reflect the local systems based on CFS principles from
authoritative hierarchy and a culture the ashes of old school systems.
of respect for elders, while also
promoting such values as children’s In Bam (Iran), for example, the
participation in their learning process community, families and students
and giving them a voice in the worked together on a school design
school as a whole. The architecture project to ‘build back better’ after the
of the child-friendly school can 2001 earthquake. In examples from
promote both harmony with the African countries, new approaches
local environment and openness to were implemented not only to design
the benefits of external influences. schools but also to achieve active
This is an important challenge in community participation in the
the architecture and design of any creation, design and construction
good school, particularly so for child- of an environmentally sound child-
friendly schools. friendly school.

The possibilities for design of


3.1.2 Basic elements for child-friendly schools vary among
a good school countries and areas. In some cases,
there will be extensive parent and
The basic planning and design community involvement in all aspects
requirements that make for a good of location, design, construction and
school are the foundation on which maintenance; the focus could be on
further elements can be added to turn using local building materials and
them into child-friendly schools. The the skills of community artisans.
challenge in many countries goes In other cases, the issue might be
beyond simply designing and building conforming to sophisticated building
new schools that are child friendly to codes and materials standards as well
renovating and converting existing as providing for high-level technical
schools into child-friendly schools. supervision of building contractors.
The extent of this latter challenge In all cases, the issue is to apply CFS
depends on what already exists and principles in order to create a child-
whether they are actually ‘good’ friendly school. (See Table 3.2.)
schools. Table 3.1 summarizes basic
planning and design standards related There are three elements in child
to a good school. development that are essential for
child-friendly school design – safety,
health and nutrition. These three must
3.1.3 Additional elements for be adequately addressed if the school
a child-friendly school is to become an inclusive, holistic
learning landscape that provides a
Theoretical considerations and safe, enabling learning environment
practical experience have generated where children can thrive.

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CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
TABLE 3.1: BASIC PLANNING AND DESIGN STANDARDS FOR EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES

Structure The building is to be structurally stable, weatherproof according to local environmental conditions,
climatically comfortable, easily exited in case of emergency and well integrated with the environmental
and cultural context.

Administrative Separate space for faculty/administrative personnel gives privacy to students and teachers and
offices maximizes the use of classroom space, enabling staff to work separately from students. Proximity
between classrooms and administrative offices is recommended to monitor students’ activities and
create ‘safety through transparency’.

Safe water Fresh potable water should be available to students within the school. Proper plumbing infrastructure
allows for the distribution of safe water. If such a setup is not possible, a borehole/well should be
included in the school compound. This can be augmented with a rainwater catchment system in the
roof as appropriate.

Hygiene A separate space should be provided with water and soap or other cleaning agent for children to wash
facilities their hands.

Toilets/latrines Separate toilets or latrines should be available for girls and boys. Privacy, cleanliness and safety are
major considerations when planning location and design of facilities.

Light, air, sun, Classrooms need good fresh-air circulation to avoid heat and excessive humidity. To ensure adequate
dust, glare, daylight, a minimum of 20 per cent of the classroom floor area should be window area. Electricity
reflection, or another means of power is needed to provide light and to operate equipment. Classrooms must
humidity, noise be sufficiently shaded from direct sunlight, glare (direct light) and reflection (indirect light). Schools
and odour should not be located close to sources of excessive noise (traffic, railways, industries, informal sector
activities) or excessive pollution or odours (waste belts, abattoirs). When this is not possible, design
measures should be used to minimize the impact of these problems.

Colour Materials and finishes should be the light, natural colours of the materials themselves, selected in
harmony with warm natural hues as accents (reds, oranges, maroons, ochres and linen/khaki/off-
whites) dictated by local, cultural preferences. For example, timber may be finished using clear varnish
to preserve the natural beauty and warmth of the material. Or brighter accents can be used for play
corners, decks, corridors and furniture. Learning spaces should be light and relaxed in colour, not
gloomy, dull or dark.

Power The school should have a power source to provide light, connectivity for communication equipment
(electric or (computers, radios, television) and other appliances (refrigerators, stoves). Alternative sources of
alternative) energy (solar, wind and biogas) can be integrated into the design of schools where appropriate.

Safety Fire prevention and emergency evacuation plans must be part of the design process and built into the
provisions school programme. Combustible materials should not be used for structural purposes unless treated
to resist fire. Construction materials should be free of components or elements that can be hazardous
to children. When construction is finished, school sites should be free of all fluid, solid and gaseous
wastes. Schools should not be located close to industrial or other hazards.

Health At a minimum, schools should have a first-aid kit or medicine cabinet for basic emergencies or
provisions accidents. Proximity to a clinic enables health personnel to visit the school periodically and permits
children to be taken to the clinic for treatment of health problems. This proximity is accomplished in
many developing countries through clustering the main social service facilities in the same location.

Library A designated space where books and learning resources are available in a proper reading environment
is central to learning and teaching activities. The library or resource room needs to be strategically
located within the school for easy access, but away from noisy areas for a greater degree of quiet.

Landscaping School grounds form an integrated, holistic unity with school buildings and their users, but in
conventional school planning they are often neglected. Trees are vital for filtering sun, dust and noise
and for beautifying the school. Indigenous trees, shrubs and flowers should be planted in the school
compound along with edible plants meant to teach children food production and conservation. Trees
also have a softening and calming effect on the learning environment and its users. Planning the school
landscaping is a good way to involve children in the realization of a child-friendly school.

4
CHAPTER 3: LOCATION, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLE 3.2: ADDITIONAL FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS FOR A CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOL

Flexible Flexible spaces increase child participation in class and allow teachers to provide a more dynamic
spaces environment for learning and teaching. Such spaces provide opportunities for group activities, areas
for manual projects and easy access to open spaces. Individual classrooms or other facilities that
create outdoor space between structures give students a chance to be in open areas when in transit
between classes. Classrooms should be accessible for all children; ramps and wide doorways should
be provided for less mobile children.

School library In child-friendly schools, the library and resource room is likely to have some connection to the local
and resource community. Where it is feasible and in line with school practice, these facilities should be located and
room designed so they are accessible to the community. In other cases, skilled and knowledgeable persons
in the community may be considered resources for learning about local culture, history and handicrafts.

Bathrooms Teachers need to have separate facilities for men and women. For pupils, designated separate
bathrooms for boys and girls within or close to the classrooms are the most practical and safest
arrangement. These facilities can also be designed and located so that they are shared among clusters
of classrooms to protect younger children.

Relaxation At the nursery and lower-elementary level, rooms where children can relax are appropriate in the
rooms close to design of child-friendly schools. In general, homelike elements next to learning spaces provide a
learning areas friendly, inviting atmosphere for this age group.

Individual Along with flexible learning spaces for large and small groups (project-based learning/teamwork),
spaces individual learning spaces should also be provided, since individual children have their own learning
styles and some will need space to be on their own at times to study or reflect.

Open spaces Easy access to open spaces from classrooms allows children to be in close contact with their
environment and to engage in physical activities. Open spaces can be designed as play yards
for sports, school gardens and orchards, decks or verandas for outdoor learning activities, open
performance spaces, wide corridors and courtyards, trellises, canopies, shaded pavilions, niches,
alcoves, play lofts and enclosed backyards. In typical child-friendly schools, the community would
be allowed to use some of these spaces after school hours for town meetings, local gatherings and
other events.

Kitchen Space for school meal preparation should be designed and provided with equipment and furniture that
ensure food is kept fresh and away from flies and other pests that undermine food quality.

Clinic Where there is a campus or cluster of social services, having the school near a clinic provides students
with general health services and allows for the care of children in need of permanent monitoring
of health conditions. Such a health facility would normally serve the entire community, either after
school or by providing separate access for school and community patients. This basic link provides a
connection between school, community and the family, revolving around the child’s well-being.

Protective The protective element of child-friendly school design has two main aspects:
• To counteract bullying and abuse, teachers and parents must be trained in non-violent, child-based
discipline strategies and interventions. This means no beatings, canings or other humiliating forms
of punishment. Designing classrooms and other spaces so that activities are readily visible from the
outside can deter child abuse.
• Depending on location and context, the enclosure and boundaries of schools can vary in form and
function. The goal is to find a balance where a fence can provide protection to the child from outside
elements (such as traffic, animals), can define boundaries to keep children within the school and can
also serve to section off an area for gardening and orchards.

5
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
3.2 PEDAGOGY AND DESIGN

Learning is at the heart of schooling, teaching spaces and the selection of


and anything that facilitates learning school furniture.
should be at the core of school design.
This inherent principle gives rise to There are many other factors that
key elements in the design of schools. influence a school’s physical design,
For instance, it is obvious that healthy such as local environmental and
children learn better than sick ones, climatic conditions, building materials,
and that children are particularly level and availability of local human
vulnerable to illnesses in hostile capacity, resources and priorities. In
environments. School design should the same way that the CFS model itself
include health protection, which allows is not a blueprint, there is no blueprint
children to be at their best. Designated for the design of child-friendly schools,
hand-washing areas and first-aid kits, but there are guidelines that illustrate
for instance, are important aspects of how child-friendly principles help
child-friendly schools. generate standards for high quality in a
variety of circumstances.
School design must be in tune with
children’s normal developmental Experience with child-friendly schools
stages. Children learn differently at suggests that school sizes should
different stages of development. For ideally be kept to a maximum of 60
instance, younger children do not have to 75 children in preschool, 200 to
the same skills, knowledge and ability 400 in elementary school and 600 to
to learn complex concepts as older 800 in secondary school. Research
children. Developmental differences shows that, compared to large schools
are important not only in the design (more than 2,000), small schools (100
of child-friendly schools, but also in to 150 children) offer children greater
the selection of teaching/learning opportunities to participate in extra-
materials, the creation of learning/ curricular activities and sports and

© UNICEF/NYHQ2005-1660/Mohan

6
CHAPTER 3: LOCATION, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
to exercise leadership roles, critical • Safety: Transparency in school
elements of a child-friendly school. design, so people can look inside
the classroom and other school
Improved school facilities and up-to- units, can protect children from
date technology are widely recognized abuse by teachers or older students,
to enhance learning, boost students’ particularly during after-school hours.
and teachers’ morale, increase (See Chapter 5.)
motivation, modernize educational
• Mobile furniture: In child-friendly
methods (interactive self-learning) and
schools, mobile furniture replaces
enable teachers to focus on facilitating
benches or desks that may have
learning rather than on confronting
been bolted to the floor. The designer
problems caused by dated systems.
needs to consider the children’s age
However, these facilities and modern
group, so chairs and desks fit the
technology can only bring about
students’ sizes comfortably. When
improvements if there is also quality
seats are movable, children can work
teaching, effective management and an
alone or in groups. Chairs or stools
encouraging environment for children
are easier to move around than
to engage with such technology. In this
benches.
regard, experience with child-friendly
schools has highlighted the importance • Children’s home base: Storage
of buildings that encourage flexible, facilities in or near the classroom for
participatory approaches and enable children’s class projects, artwork, bags
innovative learning and teaching and coats are necessary. Students
methodologies through multiple need to have private, lockable storage
opportunities for learning, both indoors areas to keep their belongings – even
and outdoors. if just a tiny space.
• National and international standards:
3.2.1 Classrooms Classrooms need blackboards
and, in the lowest grades, child-
• Size and space: Classrooms can height rails for hanging students’
vary in size and serve different work and posters. The range and
functions, with children moving expense of these vary widely. It is
from one to another for different best to utilize local material and
purposes. Instead of being single- community maintenance. National
purpose spaces, they can allow for a and international standards exist and
number of different activities, such should be followed. A blackboard
as reading, research, group work and and teacher’s desk in front of the
art. Direct access to the outdoors from classroom encourages a focus on the
the classroom enables children to teacher as the resource for learning.
make better use of the outdoors as a If the teacher can move about, giving
learning resource, but there should assistance to groups or individual
be one or more intermediate spaces students, children will be more
(e.g., corridors) that link the outdoors actively involved.
with the indoor learning environment.
In that way, there will be a range of Before design begins, it is important
learning spaces gradually changing to know a country’s existing building
in character – and multiple learning regulations. In some countries, the
opportunities. government may not have highly

7
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
defined regulations, or the regulations built on trust. Innovations need to have
in use may not reflect current quality tangible value. A full-scale model for
standards to protect against potential testing or certification of quality by
disasters, such as floods, hurricanes a well-respected institution may be
and earthquakes, or against hazardous needed to gain local approval, which
conditions or toxic building materials is a crucial first step. Without this
and finishes. In that case, the planner approval, construction will likely be
should recommend the adoption delayed because of the community’s
of international standards for given misgivings about quality and risks.
hazardous profiles. Often a country These delays can be costly, can
adopts well-accepted building codes damage the contractor’s relationships
that may neither conform to the and create negative impressions
international codes nor be adequately with funding partners. For this
enforced. The project must adopt on- reason, the final architectural design,
the-ground standards and practices technical working drawings and
and ensure that the codes are construction details, which include
enforced. all innovative design decisions, must
be reviewed and officially approved
A child-friendly school should be before contracts are approved and
innovative enough to offer ministries construction begins.
and communities a new opportunity
to improve education quality. But
innovations in space, form and shape, 3.2.2 Facilities
construction methods and building
materials are sometimes resisted by • Toilets, water for hand washing and
the people completing the work. The drinking: Children and teachers need
resistance may be from contractors gender-separated toilets and water
and materials suppliers who are for hand washing and consumption.
unfamiliar with a technique or have not School toilets that provide privacy
previously worked with the material, and facilitate menstrual hygiene
or it may originate in the Ministry of (personal hygiene rooms) must be
Education, the school’s hierarchy or the at a safe location and maintained
construction inspection agencies. in a non-discriminatory way. For
adolescent girls and female teachers,
This resistance can be a particularly washing places must be provided
serious issue if the ministry’s pre- with enough water and privacy to
existing schools have recently failed wash and dry cloths and rags used
during a natural disaster. These during menstruation. Mechanisms
catastrophes can reveal that the to provide or replace cloths, pads or
school board and local contractors sanitary products for menstruation at
did not comply with proper quality school are also helpful.
precautions, constituting a possible • Water recycling: Water used for
case of fraud. In such a supercharged hand washing should be recycled
atmosphere, the presentation of and used to water the orchards and
innovative designs to an embattled vegetable gardens. Human and
ministry and construction industry may animal waste could be utilized in the
be undermined by negative publicity. production of compost. The type of
solutions should correspond to local
These situations call for careful, patient conditions and be accepted by the
presentations as well as relationships communities.
8
CHAPTER 3: LOCATION, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
• Hygienic area for food vendors and space with sink and water taps. The
school kitchen: Food and nutrition lab needs adequate natural cross
are integral elements in educational ventilation and solar shading.
programmes and in many ways as
important as the school pedagogy.
A separate area for a kitchen and the 3.2.3 Outdoor spaces
storage of food should be planned
from the beginning. Bringing food • Recreational space: Ideally, every
and drink from outside the premises schoolyard should contain enough
should be discouraged, because food space for locally popular sports,
brought from home or sold at kiosks/ games and extra-curricular activities
shops may not have been prepared (drama, singing, dancing) and for
hygienically or preserved according school eco-gardens, orchards and
to acceptable health standards. farms/woodlots. Children should
be involved in laying out the
• Storage of medicine: A designated games area since they understand
space should be set aside to properly the requirements. When space
store medicine. A refrigerated space constraints make organized sports
may be required depending on the impossible, it is important to try
types of medications. to find alternative spaces within
• Health clinic: A doctor’s office the community. Often the space
integrated with the school layout available at the school site is limited,
can function as a school clinic and and administrators may be driven to
community health centre. Like maximize the classroom space at the
nutritional status, children’s health is expense of adequate open spaces for
crucial to the learning process. children to play. The designer and
project team need to be sensitive
• IT centre and library: An information to these competing priorities,
technology centre should be yet emphasize the importance of
equipped with computers, Internet recreation in the overall performance
connection and anything else that of the school. Sometimes the child-
would allow students and the friendly school replaces damaged
community to benefit from access to or destroyed classrooms. In these
the World Wide Web. instances, the designer and project
team need to balance the urgency
• Laboratory: A separate classroom
of returning children to class with
or an area within the classroom
the need to remove waste and
can serve as a basic laboratory for
create spaces for recreation. A
the study of natural sciences. Core
small budget for waste removal,
areas for a small science cluster
land clearance and landscaping by
(physics/biology/chemistry) for
the local community can reap large
both lower and upper primary and
rewards. The school does not consist
secondary schools should include
of buildings alone, but also of the
such elements as teacher space,
school grounds, which for much
display space, charts, an emergency
of the year are just as important to
shower, outside biology court
learning as the buildings themselves.
(potted plants, flowers, animals),
storage space for equipment, well- • School grounds and food production:
ventilated storage space for toxic Children can be encouraged to help
and acidic waste, a preparation room raise vegetables, fruits, domestic
for lab experiments, and clean-up animals and fish, and the school
9
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
grounds can be used to help them • Multifunction open-air stage: When
learn effective methods of food possible, an outdoor stage can serve
production and conservation as a classroom and performance
(making jams, chutneys, etc.). When space for certain classes or school
choosing the foods to produce, it activities. Such a space can also
is important to create a culturally function as a meeting place for
relevant experience. The production community activities after school
should be done in close consultation hours since schools are sometimes
with the community. This will help the only places for communities
avoid the potential to exploit children to gather. Events may include
for school income-generating graduation, opening of the school
activities. Apart from the potential year and important holidays that
for food production, indigenous parents, teachers and students
shrubs, plants and trees on the celebrate at school.
school grounds create learning
Most child-friendly schools/spaces
opportunities and beautify the
are in tropical (warm/humid) or arid
environment.
(dry/hot) environments. Here, the
• Fencing: Planning should take into use of outdoor spaces for teaching is
consideration the need for and type common and should be included in
of fencing around a school. Often in the design. Often the school year will
rural settings, the school will need to include several months during which
be physically separated from the rest study within walled classrooms is
of the community in order to create impractical because of high humidity
a child-friendly space and maintain or stifling heat. The same school year,
that space differently from the rest however, will have months when using
of the environment. The fence and enclosed classrooms is necessary. In
gates are also important to protect these cases, the design should include
the property during non-school verandas or covered shade enclosures
hours. In the case of school gardens, that enable the teacher and students to
the fence protects the garden from move easily from enclosed rooms to
pilferage and animal pests. open spaces.

3.3 LOCATING SCHOOLS OR LEARNING SPACES

3.3.1 School size and location spaces that include flowers, shrubs
and trees – the latter as filters of sun,
The size of schools, where they are dust and noise and for shaded outdoor
placed and the way they are arranged lunches, outdoor learning and beauty.
influence learning and how children Traditional school planning rarely
relate to one another, adults and considers these issues in the planning
the community. Studies show that and design phases.
children prefer variety, flexibility and
ease of maintenance in schools and Schools and school grounds should
learning spaces. In addition, children be an integral part of the learning
often state a preference for green process. Buildings are not merely

10
CHAPTER 3: LOCATION, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
shelters; they also serve as tools noise, odour, dust, waste belts,
for learning and teaching. The size fuel depots, small- and large-scale
of each school and the layout and industries, traffic, crime and vandalism.
organization of the learning spaces A central location also promotes a
and environments should be based on sense of ownership among children
physical and curricular needs. Above and community members.
all, spaces should be well defined, well
proportioned, fit for multiple learning
activities and integrated with outdoor munity
spaces and environments. Com

DIAGRAM 1: SPATIAL ARRANGEMENT

Child

ol
Fa m

o
ch
C1 OS y S

il
C2
T/A
G The school should ideally be within
walking distance for all children. When
children need to use transportation to
C3 get to school, the cost increases and
poor children are likely to be excluded.
Distance is also a major factor in girls’
attendance. In an effort to enrol more
children, the government of Uttar
Pradesh, India, adopted a walking
distance of 1.5 kilometres as the norm
C Classroom for schools in the plains and
T/A Teachers/administration 1 kilometre in mountainous areas. A
+ Intermediate spaces study in Egypt (Lone, 1996) showed
G Garden 30 per cent enrolment for girls when
OS Open stage
schools were 3 or more kilometres
from the children’s homes and more
than 70 per cent when they were within
Decisions about school locations 1 kilometre of home.
must involve community members,
including students, teachers and The location of child-friendly schools
community leaders, along with is important for the safe and proper
government representatives from functioning of facilities. The school
water and sanitation, health, parks should be located where people live,
and recreation, and social welfare. either in the village or settlement it
Locations should protect children serves or close to it. This will make
from safety, health and environmental interaction between school personnel,
hazards, such as flooding, excessive children and parents easier and

11
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
provide a greater chance to foster comfort. Anti-seismic design in areas
teamwork. Child-friendly schools/ prone to earthquakes and hurricane-
spaces must signal that teaching proof design in areas with extreme
and learning are valued by the winds, tsunamis and natural disasters
community. must also be weighed.

DIAGRAM 2A: FOOTING FOR


3.3.2 Mobility TIMBER POST

Schools do not have to be permanent


structures. They can follow children
in mobile communities. New schools
can be designed to be quickly
dismantled and moved with nomadic
families to new locations.

The telecommunication
revolution has spread globally,
and countries with rich access to
telecommunications have seen a
rapid growth in virtual learning
communities. Distance learning
and cyber-schools and spaces are
providing teachers and children
in remote areas with access to
resources previously unavailable.
In Sierra Leone, for instance,
teachers use the Internet to
request assessment materials from
international colleagues.

3.3.3 Assessment of
topographical risk

Land conditions (such as bearing


capacity, landslide risk, slope of
terrain), water levels, the amount
and intensity of annual rainfall and
the potential impact of local winds
on school structures should be
carefully evaluated prior to selecting
the location. A thorough study of
microclimatic conditions (bioclimatic
analysis) is fundamental to NOTE: The softer the ground, the deeper
understanding the environment and the post should be placed to withstand
the basis for good tropical design that wind and movement.
addresses children’s and teachers’

12
CHAPTER 3: LOCATION, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
DIAGRAM 2B: CONCRETE FOOTING
DETAILS MOBILE SCHOOL IN NAMIBIA

The Norwegian Association of Namibia


Washer (NAMAS) runs an educational programme
Wood plate for the semi-nomadic Himba people in
Northern Namibia. The school consists of
an administrative centre and 30 mobile
classroom tents. Originally, the tents
Concrete block
core at every were of poor quality – they were too
anchor location dark and too hot, and they undermined
students’ and teachers’ productivity.
Additionally, maintenance costs were
high. NAMAS replaced the old tents with
Norwegian tents consisting of a heavy-
duty aluminium frame and a roof and
wall covering of long-lasting sun- and
heat-reflecting polyester with a 25-year
lifespan. The resulting structure was
both child-friendly and teacher-friendly.
20 cm

Anchor bolts in Additionally, because these tents do not


concrete floor have mid poles, they can be used for
slab, 20 cm deep permanent housing. With construction
time about 3.5 hours and dismantling
about an hour, the classroom can be
easily transported.

3.4 ADDITIONAL ELEMENTS IN DESIGN

3.4.1 Clustering providing teacher housing should not


be ignored, because it may enhance
Clustering small buildings around the sense of ownership and social
gathering areas can effectively create control. Additionally, it can ensure
variety and levels of intimacy in that the teaching staff are available
learning spaces, where rooms can on school premises at all times, which
move from public to semi-private is especially important during the
spaces or from group to individual rainy season when many roads are
spaces. inaccessible in some areas.

3.4.2 Dwellings 3.4.3 Landscaping

In certain settings, teachers’ houses Of the many costs of building a child-


of adequate quality, function and size friendly school, landscaping is likely
may be offered, depending on policy to be among the lowest, yet it has one
and resources. The importance of of the greatest influences on school

13
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
STANDARDS USED IN THE SWASTHH1 guidance, and the community was
PROJECT, JHARKHAND (INDIA) involved with plant stock selection,
planting and maintenance. Generally,
ELEMENT STANDARD/NORM the plant stock should be local and
Compound wall The compound wall must known to the community. This is
cover the school area and be another opportunity to enhance a
strong enough to keep out sense of community ownership.
intrusions or threats (e.g., from Creative landscaping has a relatively
cattle). low cost but a high impact on the
Toilet Two toilets separated by appearance of the final child-friendly
gender and two urinals per school.
250 children.

Safe drinking Three litres per child per day. 3.4.4 Hygiene, sanitation, water
water
Facilities for Specific area with water and It seems obvious that facilities for
hand washing soap. Recycling water should children require different dimensions
be part of the overall design. than those for adults. Nevertheless,
Play area A clear, level area for sports
‘adult-size’ designs are too often
that can accommodate at least used for schools, and even where
one class per session. Sports these are adapted, the changes are
equipment is recommended. usually minimal. Important details are
overlooked, and the fact that children
Gardens A designated area for plants,
fruits and vegetables. The
have different physical abilities than
harvest will be used for the adults tends to be ignored. In the
midday meal. Children should design of child-friendly schools,
participate in the maintenance child-sized adaptations of toilet seats,
and recording of vegetable urinals, taps, doorknobs, locks and
yield to promote a sense of
handrails are crucial. Equally important
ownership.
is adapting to physical abilities by
Garbage A designated area for garbage considering the weight of doors and
disposal disposal and a compost toilet covers, the strength needed to
system; dustbins and brooms open taps and fetch water. In schools
are needed. Children must with a large age spread in the student
participate in cleaning and body, separate facilities for younger
maintaining the classroom.
children, older children and teachers
are recommended. When the same
1
SWASTHH stands for School Water and
Sanitation towards Health and Hygiene. facilities are used by different age
groups, special provisions can be
made to allow smaller children to
aesthetics. While most agree that make use of the facilities, such as a
‘good’ landscaping is of high value, the step in front of the toilet seat or an
actual design, plant selection, garden additional seat cover with a smaller
preparation and maintenance are not hole.
simple or straightforward. In India, for
instance, the rebuilding period after Additionally, special adaptations
the Gujarat emergency in 2001 was for disabled schoolchildren must
the first time that local agricultural be incorporated into the design and
institutions were consulted for design the location of water and sanitation

14
CHAPTER 3: LOCATION, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
facilities. Too often, the needs of women are not to be seen when
children with disabilities are ignored entering a toilet. At the same time,
or simply forgotten. young women are afraid of being
harassed or assaulted in secluded
When dealing with hygiene, sanitation areas. This requires balancing different
and water, it is also important that considerations, setting priorities and
the facilities be accessible, which participatory decision-making. Design
will encourage hygienic behaviour can become difficult when these
and reduce the spread of diseases at aspects conflict and different users
school. Too often being ‘hygienic’ is have different preferences. Even a
so complex, because of bad design, well-designed facility risks not being
that many children fail to practise used if its location has been poorly
good hygiene. Therefore, water and considered.
sanitation facilities should be simple
and easy to use.
3.4.5 Early childcare facilities
Construction needs that will ensure
ample, accessible water and sanitation A key component of the continuum
capacity should be calculated not just between child-friendly schools and
on the basis of the total number of local communities is linking the care
students, but also on other factors, of younger children who are not yet
such as the school timetable, ratio in school with these schools. When
of girls to boys, projected growth early childcare is located within
of the school population and other or near the school, older children
developments. For instance, in early who are attending school can leave
childhood centres and lower primary their younger siblings at the centre.
schools (up to age 8 or 9) sharing This frees older siblings to attend
of toilets by boys and girls may be school and ensures that the younger
possible. children are not brought into already
overcrowded first-year classrooms.
Natural lighting and ventilation of In emergencies, these centres can
toilets are important for cleanliness provide parents and siblings with
and removal of bad odours. There an opportunity to be involved in
should be enough light to inspect activities outside the crisis, reducing
for cleanliness; therefore, the use their depression and despair. Because
of natural light is recommended, in young children provide moments of
combination with light colours for the pleasure and joy that bring back a
interior. To ensure proper ventilation, sense of normalcy, they are a source
at least two openings are needed. of healing for many families.
Young children appreciate small Essential considerations in creating
openings at eye level. An opening in early childcare facilities include:
the door allows a teacher to move
the latch from the outside if a child Separate facilities: Early childcare
accidentally gets locked in. centres need not be official buildings,
but should be dedicated, protected
Finding the right location requires spaces. They need plenty of light and
looking at different practical, air, and should include smaller-sized
environmental and cultural aspects. In toilets, a cooking space and storage
some Islamic countries, for instance, for supplies and materials. They need

15
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
to be free of hazardous objects and such as different flooring materials,
protected from the elements. wall textures or colours; or by changes
in lights or ceiling or floor height. Such
Caregivers based on ratio and age:
separate, well-defined boundaries
Supervision is critical for keeping
support social interaction, encourage
children safe and engaged in age-
exploratory behaviour and prevent
appropriate activities. The ratio of
interruption of ongoing play. In
children to caregiver depends on their
general, the classroom should have at
age, the facility and the country’s
least four distinct activity zones:
resources. However, there should be
no more than 20 children per caregiver • Gross motor skill zone. Toddlers
in the 4- to 6-year-old range, 10 per and preschool-age children need
caregiver for the 2- to 3-year-old range space where they can dance, climb,
and 4 per caregiver for infants. jump and move things about. The
area should be large enough to
Space: A childcare centre needs to be
accommodate structures, such as a
sufficiently large to give each child
slide or tunnel, and open enough to
space to move and explore. Children
allow for riding and push-and-pull
in these age ranges do not have to
toys.
be seated in chairs, but could instead
have mats to sit on, materials to learn • Dramatic-play zone. Make-believe
from and room to play on their own and imagination are important for
or in small groups. An early learning pre-kindergarteners. Providing
environment involves a combination props, such as kitchen appliances,
of teacher-directed and child-directed living room furniture or a theatre
activities. area, encourages such play. While
the dramatic-play zone should be
Research has shown that well-
adjacent to the gross motor skill zone
functioning early childhood
to allow for easy movement between
centres are not just scaled-down
the two, a clear division between the
elementary schools or simply
spaces should be visible to promote
open play spaces. Early childhood
a sense of semi-private space.
centres must incorporate specific
design elements to achieve a safe, • Arts and crafts zone. This is the ‘wet’
enjoyable developmental and area of the room, where children can
learning environment. For instance, experiment with sand, water, paint,
the centres should allow from 4.5 to paste and other messy materials.
5.5 square metres of space per child, The arts and crafts zone should be
with a minimum of 3.8 metres per next to a water source, such as a sink
child. A larger classroom improves and gooseneck faucet, and have a
programmatic flexibility, provides washable floor. Good lighting is also
space so children can engage in important.
concurrent quiet and active play, and
• Quiet zone. Young children need
decreases aggressive behaviour.
personal space that permits
Classrooms need to be spatially interaction with an adult caregiver
differentiated. Activity areas can be and provides an area for solitary
separated by physical objects like play, looking at books or simply
movable partitions, open shelves, resting. The quiet zone should have
cabinets and plants; or by visual signs carpeting, comfortable chairs and

16
CHAPTER 3: LOCATION, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
pillows, a low bookshelf for books that can endure emergencies. Since
and stuffed toys, and a space (out of UNICEF inputs are generally a small
reach of toddlers) for objects such as portion of the total rehabilitation and
plants or an aquarium. reconstruction effort, the agency
should strive to offer practical,
Safety: With young children, safety is affordable and innovative designs for
a major concern. A group that includes educational facilities that governments
older children (6 years old and above) and communities will want to adopt
needs to be carefully managed or the on a national scale.
young children will be overshadowed
and left out. Teachers and caregivers Schools as emergency shelters:
must be sure that children do not have Sometimes child-friendly schools
sharp objects to play with, that there must go beyond education, acting as
are no dangerous places nearby and shelters or gathering places during
that there are no contaminants in the emergencies. This is particularly
area. Food needs to be served directly common in hurricane-, earthquake-
after cooking, not kept for long periods and flood-prone locations. Schools
of time. are often the strongest buildings
in the community, and they can be
3.4.6 Emergency situations designed to accommodate multiple
functions, serving as shelters and
In the past, UNICEF built schools classrooms at the same time. It is
or advocated school designs in crucial to understand the importance
emergency-prone areas that did not of establishing a minimum set of
always withstand calamity: Schools standards for schools, especially
often collapsed following earthquakes when their main educational function
or floods, and those that did survive can be affected by other events and
failed to provide adequate shelter. situations.
UNICEF now advocates a range of
The dual-function model can reduce
innovative designs based on ‘disaster
the amount of time children are forced
risk reduction’ for child-friendly
to be out of school. Many children
environments, while at the same
spend months, even years, out of
time respecting existing customs
school when their classrooms are
and practices. In the Philippines,
being used as shelters. Regardless
for instance, schools rebuilt after
of whether an emergency situation
typhoons now have more durable
exists, all designs should consider
design and construction elements.
the specific emergency profile of
These schools have also been
a given locale. Some locations are
designed to provide temporary
flood prone, others susceptible to
shelter for adults in an emergency,
drought, earthquakes or hurricanes;
while allowing for school activities to
still others have been engaged in
continue at certain times of the day.
long-term civil or military conflict.
While radical innovation may be Many locations have multiple-
rejected by local communities or risk profiles, and a design that is
governments, lockstep adherence good for some conditions may be
to existing designs that no longer disastrous if used in the presence
work is counter to creating schools of others – for example, using

17
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
lightweight prefab materials made for is particularly high risk, then the
earthquake conditions in a high-wind designs will need to be independently
zone. During the process of defining evaluated for compliance with the
the hazard profile, it is important to profile. In the case of post-emergency
define these conditions in such a way reconstruction, construction designs
that they can be fully and objectively should be professionally reviewed by
evaluated by architects, suppliers independent, qualified institutions to
and contractors. If the hazard profile confirm their safety. These evaluations

DIAGRAM 3: TYPICAL CLASSROOM CROSS SECTION

1
2

+ 2,600 mm 4
3
5 Gable walls

6
7

Blackboard 8
2,100 mm x 1,200 mm
9

1,450 mm
10
Concrete floor 80 mm + 30 mm sand/cement finish 11
0 mm*
12
13 Selected fill in two layers of 150 mm each; for black
-250 mm cotton (expansive) soil, compressed sand bed.
14
-600 mm**
6,500 mm at centre 15

KEY: 1. Galvanized corrugated steel sheets and 10. Stabilized block bench or fired brick with
ridge, gauge 28.0 hardwood top, up to 450 mm
2. IPE 140 beam truss (slope 22 degrees) with 11. Tie beam, UPE 140
Z-beam purlins 12. Ramp
3. Overhang, 900 mm 13. Anti-termite barrier
4. Truss and column are bolted with M12 bolts 14. Large stone foundation with mortar mix 1:4,
5. Wall plate, UPE 140 or stabilized soil block up to 250 mm above
6. Steel louvre windows, 2,020x2,020 mm field
(including frame), pivotal at 300 mm from 15. Drainage, cement tile, 600x600x50 mm, with
top gravel, 1,200 width, 300 mm depth
7. Light well, 600x1,900 mm, provides light
when louvres are closed * Finished floor
8. Steel pipe, 20 mm ** Depth depends on depth of hard core
9. Column, steel pipe 125 mm or IPE 140
anchored to foundation

18
CHAPTER 3: LOCATION, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
are available from numerous teachers and orphans with HIV or
engineering universities. Meeting AIDS was situated close to the school
the hazard profile is an important campus. Vegetable gardens and trees
benchmark with the government and were planted nearby. In the campus
local communities and can assure that model, the perimeter is open. Spaces
the child-friendly school will survive the are designed to be highly visible so
hazards it faces. that community members can take
responsibility for each other’s security.
Campuses and compounds: The need The campus boundaries are additionally
for complex, integrated services for secured by fencing and a guard.
children in emergencies has given rise
to new ways of thinking about security, The central focus on children’s return
schooling and even housing. Innovative to normal routines such as schooling
designs, often building upon local also encourages adults to look beyond
knowledge and skills, place services for the tragedies of the moment to the
children at the centre of the community protection of their children. There
within protective circles. is an urgent need to integrate the
government’s emergency preparedness
In Malawi, for instance, the complex with child policies. For example, child-
problems created by HIV and AIDS friendly safe learning spaces can morph
required innovative solutions. Thus, into child-friendly schools and child-
schools and recreation spaces were friendly communities. Early childcare
placed in the same compound as centres and nurseries can sprout within
medical services, and housing for the same school grounds as the child-

MALAWI: PERMANENT SCHOOL IN MPHUNGA

Schools in Malawi are usually constructed from locally burned bricks,


corrugated sheets and wooden beams supporting roofs of corrugated sheets.
Such construction leads to environmental problems. The technology used for
burning bricks is primitive, causing over-consumption of wood and increased
deforestation. Roof beams, even if treated, are soon damaged by termites.
Classrooms are too hot, with temperatures reaching 40 degrees Celsius. They are
suitable neither as learning spaces for children nor as working places for teachers.
Education quality is deteriorating.

UNICEF, in collaboration with Norwegian Authorities, chose an innovative


technology based on the use of heavy-duty aluminium structure as a load-
bearing construction for roofs and walls. Local grass was used for thatched roofs
and walls were made of cement-reinforced mud blocks. Such a combination of
traditional and modern materials resulted in well-functioning educational facilities,
respecting the Malawian building tradition. Nine classrooms, nine dwellings
for teachers, a health clinic, a doctors’ office and voluntary testing centre, and
kitchens for school feeding were built, as well as latrines and water points.
Construction of one classroom unit of 50 square metres cost about US$4,700. The
project resulted in a cool, well-ventilated and properly lit child-friendly school.

19
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
friendly school. Safe learning spaces Emergency and education
can reduce the costs of providing professionals have learned that
the next generation with access to the most important resource for
needed knowledge and skills. the protection of children and of a
nation’s human infrastructure is the
The child-friendly strategy has commitment that adults bring to
been developing through local and the process. Parents in relocation
international partnerships during camps are often the first to start
emergencies over the past decade. their own schools and learning
Built on a human-rights approach spaces to help restore a sense of
that affirms the value of individual normalcy, before government or
children’s lives, the child-friendly international aid arrives. Aid agencies
approach expands existing support and governments can often work
networks and resources for children more rapidly and effectively if
– families, neighbours, governments they build on local knowledge and
and donors. It places a high value on relationships instead of importing
the quality of the relationships within more generic programmes packaged
these social networks. internationally.

ZAMBIA: EDUSPORT SCHOOL

The Kicking AIDS Out (KAO) centre in a rural district north of Lusaka
was initiated by the EduSport Foundation, a Zambian non-governmental
organization, in June 2005. The EduSport Foundation promotes education
through sport, especially football, as a tool through which physical activities,
information and education can contribute to HIV and AIDS prevention,
particularly among children and young people in rural areas.

The first stage of the KAO centre consists of four classrooms and a teacher’s
house, totalling 220 square metres. The centre will provide education,
dormitories for orphans without relatives, management, health services
with a voluntary testing centre, water and sanitation, and food and medicine
storage. The innovative approach focuses on food production and skills
training meant to provide not only nutrition for students, but also a source
of income to cover operational costs. Sports grounds are an important part
of the project. The EduSport Foundation plans to establish 10 similar centres
throughout Zambia.

The local community was involved in the project and responsible for
implementing its first stage. The construction took about four weeks. Local
materials, such as grass for thatching and mud blocks for walls, were used.
The load-bearing structures for walls and roofs are aluminium; the floors
are concrete slab. The construction cost of a classroom (50 square metres)
was US$4,700. The centre, to be developed in stages and in accordance with
funding, is a child-friendly school model, offering safe care to orphans. The
community will be responsible for the centre’s operation with support from
the EduSport Foundation.

20
CHAPTER 3: LOCATION, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
DIAGRAM 4: KICKING AIDS OUT —
EDUSPORT CENTRE IN ZAMBIA

Sports ground
Access road (volleyball, basketball)

Fruit farm Gardening Sports ground (games)

7 6 1 2 4 5

8
9 3 School courtyard
(games)
8

8 8 8 3 3 3 3
15
Access road
Sports ground
12 11 14 14 10 (football, athletics)
13 13 16
14 14

Technical core 17
(water, electrical power)

18

19

Animal husbandry

KEY: 1. Management 11. Sanitation (staff)


2. Security guard technical service 12. Medicine storage
3. Classrooms 13. Food storage
4. Skills training 14. Sanitation (students)
5. Teacher’s house 15. Kitchen
6. Voluntary testing and counselling 16. Chicken run
7. Ward 17. Rabbits
8. Accommodations (students) 18. Goats
9. Guest house 19. Pigs
10. Staff house

21
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
INDIA: AFTER THE EARTHQUAKE

A massive earthquake struck the Indian state of Gujarat on 26 January


2001. The earthquake registered 7.9 on the Richter scale, according to the
United States Geological Survey, killing at least 17,000 people and leaving
more than 700,000 homeless. Early estimates valued the total damage at
approximately US$1.2 billion. More than 12,000 schools, 800 anganwadis
(early childcare centres) and many health institutions were severely
damaged.

In addition to physical and material damage, the earthquake’s devastation


directly affected nearly 3 million children and 2.5 million women. As many
as 1,000 students were killed in the city of Bhuj alone. An estimated 200,000
children enrolled in the schools in Kutch district were affected, and nearly
800 schools were damaged. According to the Indian Office for Disasters, the
situation called for community-based care for the entire region, especially for
the vulnerable.

The Gujarat earthquake occurred in a region where the frequency and


intensity of earthquakes were well documented (Zone V on the national and
international measurement scales), as were risks for cyclonic winds up to 150
kph, drought and flash flooding. It was important to know these risks before
undertaking the reconstruction process, because such risks dramatically
affect design requirements and the cost and complexity of construction.

For example, many sites in the Gujarat reconstruction required high plinth
construction due to flash flooding. Also, it should not be assumed that the
particular emergency condition being addressed presents the most difficult
design or engineering challenge: In Gujarat, the additional strength needed
to comply with Zone V earthquake resistance was not as difficult or as costly
as compliance with the wind-load factors required for cyclonic winds up to
150kph.

UNICEF supported the construction of the schools, using the occasion as an


opportunity to demonstrate the concept of child-friendly spaces. The first
buildings were designed to be cyclone and earthquake resistant, highlighting
the importance of safe, secure learning environments. Equity issues were
also important. Some of the new features introduced included ramps for
the physically challenged, separate toilets for boys and girls, drinking-water
facilities, fencing, and school furniture for students and teachers. Children
were engaged in planting trees and growing school gardens wherever
possible. Schools were also used to demonstrate water conservation.

All told, 169 schools, consisting of 610 classrooms, were built using child-
friendly learning space designs. The new infrastructure showed a positive
impact on both enrolment and attendance. The review team identified these
schools as useful models to demonstrate child-friendly spaces with separate
toilets for boys and girls, school gardens, play areas and potable water.

22
CHAPTER 3: LOCATION, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
3.5 FACTORS INFLUENCING DESIGN

3.5.1 Gender Obstructions should also be eliminated


from the school grounds. The sports
Just as it is in other parts of society, and extra-curricular areas, shaded
gender discrimination is pervasive outdoor lunch and learning spaces
in schools and learning spaces. In and school gardens should be made
many cases, discrimination is related handicapped-accessible. Circulation
to cultural beliefs and traditions. paths and routes must be accessible
Sometimes it is caused by failure to everyone, and their surfaces should
to recognize problems and needs. be maintained regularly, especially
Although it has been stated that during the rainy season. The design
adolescent girls drop out of school needs to follow established norms for
because they lack separate facilities, accessibility while being sensitive to
so far, none of these claims have been overall aesthetics, all of which usually
supported by studies or quantitative adds a small amount to the final cost.
evidence. What has been shown is that Design considerations are not enough,
inappropriate provisions for school however: Teachers and other school
hygiene, sanitation and water do affect personnel must be reminded of their
adolescent schoolgirls’ absenteeism responsibilities to disabled children.
(a first step towards dropping out of
school) and their sustained interest in
3.5.3 Climate
schooling.
Analysis of the microclimatic aspects
3.5.2 Access for the disabled of a site will influence the design
(form, shape, mass, colours, order), the
For the approximately one in five of orientation of buildings and the choice
the world’s poorest people who are of building technologies, construction
disabled, access to basic services is a details and materials for the school,
daily struggle. The concept of access and the layout and organization of the
for the disabled is often unknown in learning spaces.
rural or poor urban school/learning
space settings. Wheelchair access A study in Bam (Iran), for instance,
ramps in a child-friendly school may found that its harsh bioclimatic
be the first acknowledgement of the conditions – a dry-hot zone with
existence of disabled children in the regular strong, dust-laden winds
community and of their right to attend and temperatures reaching up to 50
school. With only small adjustments degrees Celsius – called for specific
(for example, a ramp) schools can be design guidelines for child-friendly
made accessible for these children. environments that included orienting
There also should be wider doors buildings along the east-west axis,
(1,000 millimetres) and adequate heavy external and internal walls,
corridor space in which to manoeuvre use of water and plants to produce
a wheelchair; plinths or doorsteps humidity, utilization of north winds for
obstructing entrance to classrooms air circulation and cooling in summer,
and offices should be avoided. and use of verandas, porches, trellises,

23
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
and trees to produce comfortable, the financial outlays of donor and
shaded places for children. government. But reducing costs does
not necessarily translate into good
results. In Sierra Leone, for instance,
3.5.4 Cost of infrastructure the costs of a child-friendly pavilion
loft classroom were extensively
Putting non-governmental reduced due to the large community-
organizations or village education input component. The cost went from
committees in charge of school around US$10,000 or US$12,000 for a
construction promotes community conventional classroom of 54 square
participation and also reduces cost. metres to an average of US$5,000
Reliance on ‘community contribution for the child-friendly classroom of
of labour for construction’ shifts the an average 100 square metres of
social cost to communities and reduces learning space including play/learning

DIAGRAM 5:

Plan 1: Existing classroom


BASIC IMPROVEMENTS
Stairs
• Easy exit provided by the second
door
• Better cross ventilation by adding
windows and wall openings
• Deck for outdoor activities
• Garden
• Separate toilets for boys and girls
• Multi-activity classroom
• Veranda for shaded area

Plan 2: Improved classroom

Veranda
Bio-fence

Ramp

Garden

Outlook
deck

Toilets

24
CHAPTER 3: LOCATION, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
GENDER-SENSITIVE SCHOOL DESIGN

Several factors need to be taken into consideration in designing schools that


address girls’ needs.

During menstruation, most low-income women in developing countries use


cloth or rags to absorb blood, materials that can cause bad odours and are
subject to leaking. In some cultures and among the very poor, women might
use no means at all to absorb menstrual blood. Spending long hours at school
without being able to wash properly can be an inconvenience to menstruating
women and cause them embarrassment. Both schoolgirls and female teachers
will opt to stay away from school on those days, resulting in absenteeism for
10 per cent to 20 per cent of school time. Consequently, girls fall behind in
learning, which may very well be the first step towards dropping out.

Children begin to become aware of their development and physical changes


at prepubescence (age 10 to 12). This awareness creates a need for gender-
related privacy, which becomes particularly acute when toilet use and
menstruation are concerned. If no privacy is provided, children will choose to
look for an informal private place or wait until after school hours. In situations
when they need to go to the toilet frequently, such as during episodes of
diarrhoea, they prefer not to attend school rather than use facilities where
others who see their ‘embarrassing’ condition may tease them.

decks and loft (micro-library). But the tasks, such as repainting, can be done
buildings were never finished – a stark by adults with help from the children.
reminder that shifting social cost does Allocation of funds for the ongoing
not necessarily reduce or eliminate upkeep of the school should be
the cost. It further underscores the decided by the democratically elected
importance of overall management. school board.
No matter how well a school is
designed and built, it will not function Construction budget: School
smoothly if it is not well managed and construction costs should normally
maintained. be determined by the basic standards
for the design, labour costs and the
Planning must also adequately budget cost of materials for the child-friendly
for the cost of maintenance. Once the school (Dierkx, 2003). But these cost
child-friendly school is completed, its factors can vary greatly depending
regular cleaning and maintenance can on circumstances. The abundance
involve children. Sweeping, yard work of and access to local materials and
and other chores can be part of the local building skills can encourage
daily schedule and can involve even strong community involvement if the
young children. When the school has culture of community participation is
active relationships with parents and well rooted. On the other hand, the
other community members, many reality of poor infrastructure (roads,
of the larger maintenance and repair communication), lack of security,

25
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
absence of local building skills and prices have stabilized. It may also be
materials, and a limited history of useful to explore partnerships with
community participation may result in non-governmental organizations and
a monopoly for certain construction not-for-profit organizations that provide
firms, especially when there is a construction services.
demand for construction work by the
government and the international Maintenance budget: Governments
development community. As a result, have neglected budgeting for
such locally ‘overheated’ construction maintenance costs in the past, resulting
markets spawn inflated prices for in the need to replace classrooms
school construction. If this inflation faster than their expected design life.
exists, it may be wise to wait until the Relying just on the community can be
construction market has relaxed and problematic, since the cost of effective

CASE STUDY 1
LOCATION

The location of schools or any new extensions within the school compound must
be a conscious design exercise that takes into account different aspects of the
basic planning process. The movement of the sun, direction of the wind, soil
capacity, proximity to the seashore or riverbank, existence of a water source and
questions of accessibility are just some of the important factors to be considered
in designing and building a school.

The photograph shows a relatively new toilet facility at Ban Thalaenok School in
the south of Thailand. The facility was designed in Bangkok without a proper site
survey. There was no site visit to determine existing conditions and identify the
best location for the new toilets in relation to the rest of the school. As a result,
the toilets were built next to a steep staircase that leads to the canteen. They are
completely inaccessible because of the grade difference.

The person in the photograph is a 41-year-old teacher trying to climb to urinals


meant for 5- to 11-year-old primary students. The toilets, never used, stand as a
testament to a missed opportunity to improve children’s lives.
© UNICEF/2007/Vasquez

26
CHAPTER 3: LOCATION, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
maintenance is often out of reach for maintaining the school grounds and
many communities. When deciding buildings before things break down
on construction standards, materials’ or the grounds become inaccessible
durability should be the key factor. or polluted (flooding, soil-erosion,
Government budgets for classroom solid and fluid waste) prevents
construction should include financing damage and the extra cost of dealing
for maintenance throughout the life with preventable problems. This
of the school building. However, a type of preventive maintenance is
‘culture of maintenance’ is not yet just as important as the periodic or
fully rooted in many nations and scheduled maintenance over the life
needs to be strengthened at all school of a building.
levels. For example, cleaning and

CASE STUDY 2
CONSTRUCTION

In a natural disaster, victims usually deal with


both the forces of nature and the damage left
in their wake. Homes, hospitals and schools
can be destroyed by earthquakes, tsunamis
and cyclones. Therefore, school reconstruction
must be guided by prevention rather than
response. Reducing risk in emergencies can
save hundreds, even thousands, of children.

© UNICEF/2008/Vasquez
Schools that are structurally sound can also
serve as shelters for the entire community.

Cyclone Nargis, which struck Myanmar in May


2008, had devastating consequences. More
than 140,000 people were killed or missing.
Women, especially, were the cyclone’s victims,
ravaging the stability of the social network.

Many of the devastated schools showed


signs of poor maintenance or of negligent
supervision during their construction. Yet, in
many schools, rafters, trusses and concrete
foundations were found intact. These ‘parts’
had been built to specifications, but the
interconnection of the parts was weak: Rafters
were not properly connected to the brick walls
© UNICEF/2008/Vasquez

with metal straps, or wood connections were


done improperly. Wood posts that were not
treated for humidity and water damage were
rotten, further weakening the connection of the
superstructure and foundation. These pictures
show intact rafters blown away and badly
maintained wood posts still attached to the
foundation.

27
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
CASE STUDY 3

DESIGN

Designing a school goes beyond planning a building with four walls, windows
and a door. A school must be adapted to the specific conditions of the local
community and the geographical characteristics of the site; it must be concerned
with the local economy and projections of demographic growth.

Primary schools in Myanmar, which have five grades, use a multigrade system
within the classroom. A school may have one big classroom for all five grades
and only three teachers, all conducting classes simultaneously. When building
new classrooms, the challenge in Myanmar was to provide separate spaces
for the students while minimizing the walking distance for teachers between
classrooms. Five separate classrooms were not feasible, and one classroom was
inadequate.

The new classroom design provides two separate spaces with a ‘nucleus’ to
accommodate two teachers. (See diagram below.) For now, one teacher can
supervise two grades with separate entrances and a reading corner, allowing for
reduced noise levels. A primary school could have three of these structures with
three teachers. If the Government increases faculty hiring, the schools would
be ready to receive two more teachers and achieve the optimum ratio of one
teacher per grade.

Veranda
Classroom
264 square feet Stairs

Books
Nucleus

Books

Stairs Classroom
264 square feet

Veranda

28
CHAPTER 3: LOCATION, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
3.6 DESIGN WITH INVOLVEMENT OF ALL

3.6.1 Users government counterpart, ministry


of education, representatives of the
Active involvement of users is essential construction trades and community
in all phases of the design process. In leaders. Community expectations are
most countries, standardized designs likely to be the least articulated in the
for schools reduce costs and control planning and discussions that lead to
quality. Using them can be a good a final design. This can result in critical
solution, but applying a standard design errors.
too rigidly can actually drive up costs.
In general, when properly coached Consulting by convenience may
and guided, potential users are able to overlook design needs. Child-friendly
assess their existing practices and find school/spaces may be built where
solutions for their own needs. Their there are no pre-existing schools
involvement during the design stage or where previous schools have
will lead to better solutions and increase had restricted enrolments that have
acceptance of these solutions. denied entry to minority subgroups.
It is therefore essential for the project
team to know the full complement
3.6.2 Gender needs of communities being served and,
to the extent possible, address their
Besides having different physical expectations of their new school. This
needs than boys and men, women is a time-consuming step that is easily
and girls may have different roles in overlooked in the rush to show progress
society and thus different points of to donors and governments. It is a step,
view and knowledge. When women however, that can make the difference
and girls are not adequately involved in between community ownership with
school planning, design, construction, excellent outcomes and complete
operation and maintenance, their rejection of a costly investment.
opinions and needs may not be
identified and included. Girls and boys, The CFS ideal is to see that all children
female and male teachers, and mothers are equitably offered high-quality
and fathers must be equally represented education. This cannot be accomplished
during decision-making activities. The simply by completing smart-looking
school environment is a model of the new schools. The slow process of
community as a whole and is therefore meeting and understanding community
the place where children learn about issues is a wise investment, one that
gender roles and cooperation between reaps other benefits. As a school site is
women and men. approaching completion, for instance,
the risks of theft and vandalism
dramatically increase. Providing 24-
3.6.3 Partners hour security to multiple remote sites
is generally impossible, but if the local
The child-friendly school project team community has been consulted and is
must meet multiple expectations, in agreement with the project, it may
including those of the donor, partner, provide site protection gratis.

29
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
SCHOOLS WITH A TWIST: on site, it takes seven to eight weeks
TAKING COMMUNITY SCHOOLS to construct one school at a cost of
TO CHILDREN IN RURAL SIERRA just over US$5,000. Each entity in the
partnership makes a contribution:
LEONE
Communities provide manual labour
and local materials (sand, stones
In Sierra Leone, an estimated 375,000 and bush sticks); parents ensure that
school-age children, mostly girls, live children enrol and attend school;
in poor, remote communities with no the education ministry recruits and
access to educational facilities. The pays teachers; and GMC coalition
country’s brutal civil war destroyed members pay for skilled labour
much of the education infrastructure. and mobilize communities. UNICEF
Moreover, the end of the war sparked provides the overall coordination,
such a surge in school enrolment, contributes construction materials,
especially among over age children, trains teachers and supplies
that there is no room for younger educational materials.
ones.
The community school initiative is
To address the needs of younger an innovative, low-cost, sustainable
children who cannot walk long approach to education that makes
distances, a strategy was developed use of a broad partnership and high-
to take schools to children in their level community involvement. “This
own communities over a four-year is a new thing that has come to our
period. A partnership – composed of community,” said Chief Sullay Turay,
UNICEF; the Ministry of Education, the head of Rorinka community,
Science and Technology; the Global Bombali District. “Our little children
Movement for Children coalition in can now attend school without
Sierra Leone (GMC-Sierra Leone); waiting until they are 10 years old to
and the communities themselves be able to walk to the nearest school.
– agreed to support low-cost, child- Indeed, this is development.”
friendly school facilities that would
quickly get rural children into school.
This initiative has proved that
partnerships do work and that even
The first phase established 410 poor communities can be effectively
community schools designed for engaged in developing education
grades 1 to 3. These children would opportunities for their children. In
then be mainstreamed into larger post-conflict countries like Sierra
primary schools as they grew older Leone, taking affordable and
and could walk longer distances. sustainable schools to children is
one step in helping the country meet
UNICEF supported the design of its commitment to the Millennium
an elegant facility – a simple one- Development Goal of having all
classroom, integrated, multipurpose children complete a full course of
pavilion that incorporates various primary education by 2015.
activities from formal learning for
children and adults to community Source: UNICEF Country Office
theatre. It features two activity decks Sierra Leone 2005 Annual Report.
and a loft that serves as an office and
micro library. Once all materials are

30
CHAPTER 3: LOCATION, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
3.7 REMAINING CHALLENGES

3.7.1 Low cost programming, such as after a


tsunami or earthquake, a three-track
New materials and technologies modality could be followed, each with
combined with appropriate traditional a specific timeline:
technologies often are the best
architectural and technical solutions 1. Rapid multidisciplinary response
for school construction given the team – short cycle, from three
local climate, culture and socio- weeks to three months, with
economic circumstances. Technology various experts from education,
choices made by governmental health, child protection, water
policymakers and decision makers and sanitation, environmental
are often based on their perception planning and community
of ‘what development is and what planning, as well as an economist,
it is not’. However, they often lack architect, engineer or logistics
knowledge of the immediate and expert;
longer-term implications of a specific 2. Midterm multidisciplinary
‘technology package’ choice. For response team – longer
example, a high-tech solution implies term, from 3 to 24 months,
building materials and methods that with experts drawn from UN
are usually not found nearby and agencies to enhance inter-agency
are often costly. It also implies that cooperation;
foreign expertise and contractors
must be hired, which adds to 3. Long-term implementation – after
the costs. It usually means that 24 months, elements of child-
maintenance or ‘spare parts’ are not friendly schools that are to be
known or not easily available, and sustained in post-emergency
that further drives up costs. Often a programming can be integrated
blend of technologies, selected by into programmes.
the child-friendly school team and
the ministerial school planning unit, The multidisciplinary teams ensure
offers the most effective solution. that planning, development and
This blend will vary according to the implementation of child-friendly
country and the specific case, and will school interventions are holistic
be one of the most influential factors and harmonize educational, social,
in the final cost. cultural, economical, technological,
safety, health and environmental
aspects.
3.7.2 Multidisciplinary teams

The child-friendly schools programme 3.7.3 Provision of land for


must explore the formation of schools
multidisciplinary, self-reliant teams
that could be deployed on short In areas where there has never been
notice and cover the whole breadth of a school, it will be difficult to obtain
the sector-wide education approach a centrally located plot of land that
(SWAP). In emergency education allows for the common location

31
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
of a school, early childcare centres, 3.7.4 Schools in general
sport areas and a close community community improvement
connection. In some cases, local projects
governments will allocate the least
desirable land for school construction. When development banks or other
In these cases, it is imperative to obtain major financers undertake projects
an environmental study of the land to to improve communities, schools are
determine the presence of hazardous often left out because they fall under
materials. the responsibility of the education
ministry and other ministries are not
authorized to undertake projects within
the school compound. Removing these
boundaries would allow schools to be
part of major improvement projects
that generally fall into other areas,
such as water and sanitation, road
improvement and electrical supply.

3.7.5 Coordination

Donor agencies and organizations


should reach a common agreement
on cost recovery and community
participation for school construction.
Questions arise, such as: Are
communities required to provide
unskilled labour and transportation
of supplies, or will all work be
subcontracted? Must the community
provide the land for school
construction, or must the organization
buy it? Does the community arrange
and pay for school toilets and water
supply? These questions are relevant
in all programme settings but
especially in emergency situations.
© UNICEF/NYHQ2007-1374/Pirozzi

32
CHAPTER 3: LOCATION, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 4
School and community

4.1 School-community links

4.2 The school as a learning community


4.2.1 Role of the school head
4.2.2 Role of the teacher

4.3 The school in the community


4.3.1 Role of school heads and teachers together
4.3.2 Role of families and caregivers
4.3.3 Role of education bodies and other local authorities

4.4 Reaching out to the community and beyond

4.5 Communities and child-friendly learning spaces


4.5.1 Organizing learning opportunities

4.6 Policy implications

4.7 Supervision and oversight


CHAPTER 4
SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY

Ambohitnibe, Madagascar, 26 March 2007 – In the middle of an


isolated community, an hour’s walk from the nearest road, there is a
primary school that is setting the standard for child-friendly education
in Madagascar.

In the past five years, enrolment at the Ambohitnibe School has gone
from 155 to 207, graduation rates have almost doubled and drop-
out rates have been reduced sharply. The reason for this success? A
contract signed between parents, teachers, school administrators, local
community members and students to keep children in a quality school.

Since the contract was signed, parents committed to their children’s


education have renovated the school building, opened up a canteen,
constructed solar panels for hot water and provided learning tools to
help students with arithmetic. Soon, the parents will begin work on a
library and football field.

Source: <www.unicef.org/infobycountry/madagascar_39221.html>

4.1 SCHOOL-COMMUNITY LINKS

How child-friendly schools are linked The links between schools and their
to their communities is critical. Schools communities can vary in pattern and
are communities unto themselves and intensity. At one extreme are schools
child-friendly schools in particular that simply have a physical presence.
promote a strong sense of community. They are not linked with, dependent on
But schools do not exist in isolation. or accountable to their communities
They reside within the communities in any serious sense. Other schools,
they serve and must cultivate especially child-friendly schools, are
relationships with them. In addition to organically linked in multiple ways. It
the immediate community, usually a is essential to understand the basis of
geographical catchment area, schools this rich linkage.
also can have links with a more diffuse
community, such as former students In emergency situations where schools
and alumni associations, youth groups have been destroyed, community
such as the Boy Scouts and Girl links can be major factors in restoring
Guides, faith-based organizations normalcy and rebuilding education.
or language groups associated These relationships are bridges that
with the school. can help communities create safe,

1
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
child-friendly learning spaces during such as school meals. There are also
emergencies, and the creation of such opportunity costs to families, because
spaces helps communities recover children are not available to perform
more quickly from catastrophe. household chores or engage in
income-generating activities.
What follows is an analysis of the
interactive nature of the school as a Viable school financing depends on the
community and its linkage to the larger links between schools and homes and
community around it. The analysis communities to determine how these
highlights ways in which schools can costs are shared. At one extreme,
reach out to their communities and as is the case with self-help schools,
draw them into their world. all costs may be borne by homes
and communities. (See Box, page
Learning does not begin when children 3.) Sometimes governments support
walk through the school doors nor community efforts by financing
does it end when they exit for the teachers’ salaries. At still other times,
day. It takes place all the time and governments, central or local, bear
everywhere, throughout life. There is all the costs, with opportunity costs
a pedagogic dimension to the links borne by homes. School officials
between schools and homes and tap into these different funding
localities. Children bring to school sources in order to operate viable,
their family and community beliefs, sustainable education programmes,
practices, knowledge, expectations and in the course of operations, they
and behaviours. Similarly, when they may seek supplementary funding
return from school they bring back from governments or levy additional
to their homes and communities charges on pupils’ families or
new forms of knowledge, practices, communities to meet additional costs.
behaviours, attitudes and skills. In all cases, viable, sustainable school
Children are engaged in a continuous, financing depends on a healthy link
dynamic process of bridging the world between schools and the communities
of school and the world of home and that they serve.
community. They learn from both
worlds, facilitated by teachers, family A third sense in which schools are
members, neighbors and others. linked to homes and communities is
Linking schools and communities is the sociopolitical or developmental
widely recognized as good pedagogic dimension. In highly centralized
practice. political systems, government control
of schools is usually strong, with
There is an economic dimension to minimum community involvement
these links as well. A wide range of beyond contributing local resources.
costs is involved in the provision Schools serve primarily to achieve
and uptake of education, and these national development goals, such
costs are borne by various parties. as cultivating human resources
Unit cost (per pupil) is based on the for economic growth, modernizing
amortized cost of facilities, furniture society or instituting cultural
and equipment, teachers’ salaries, change. Teachers and school
operational overheads, learning and authorities are accountable to
teaching supplies, transport, school a central ministry rather than to
fees, uniforms and other services, their communities.

2
CHAPTER 4: SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY
© UNICEF/NYHQ2004-1239/Pirozzi
Decentralized political systems
call for reduced school oversight KENYA: HARAMBEE SCHOOLS
by the central government and
for strong local control and active Community financing has been a prominent
community involvement. Teachers aspect of Kenya’s educational system,
and school authorities are likely dating back to the harambee schools.
to be accountable to their local Harambee means ‘let us pull together’.
communities, and while there may During the colonial era, local communities
be some emphasis on contributing established these independent schools.
Their independence stemmed from local
to broad national goals, the school’s community support in contrast to the
focus will have more to do with local support of the colonial government or local
realities and aspirations. missionaries, the two groups then most
responsible for educational development.
School-community links generally
are based on a combination of In the early post-independence period faith-
pedagogic, economic and socio- based organizations, eager to quench the
economic dimensions. Many good thirst for education and put their imprint on
the harambee movement, encouraged local
schools have a strong link to the
communities to continue to raise funds for
communities they serve, influenced schools. With support from local dignitaries,
by one or more of these factors. the harambee movement developed a distinct
For child-friendly schools, these are political character, as local politicians curried
also important factors. But there is favour with their constituents by funding new
a more fundamental sense in which schools and sustaining existing ones. As a
child-friendly schools are linked with result, failure or success of the harambee
communities – the child’s right to schools depended not on religious groups’
sponsorship but instead on local politicians’
quality basic education. Therefore,
skills in attracting local and international
school and community links are funding.
not optional. They are a defining
imperative of the child-friendly Source: Mwiria, K. ‘Kenya’s Harambee Secondary School
school. Movement: The contradictions of public policy’, Comparative
Education Review, 1999

3
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
A rights-based approach to education are more suitable. Instead of creating
means that governments are separate schools, however, they can
the ultimate duty bearers, with a try to change existing schools to better
responsibility to ensure access to address their children’s needs.
quality basic education for all children.
However, parents and communities When a rights-based approach to
are ‘first-line’ duty bearers, responsible education is taken seriously, as with
for accessing available opportunities child-friendly schools, parents and
for their children and for supporting communities must be closely involved
quality education in their community. in all aspects of the school and must be
Parents and communities have a duty prepared to support it by shouldering
to lobby their government for schools the fair and reasonable costs required
that can provide quality education for to promote quality education. Parents
their children. In the absence of such should have a vested interest in what
government provision, parents and schools offer and in the outcomes
communities still have a duty to their of the education process for their
children and need to establish schools children and communities. In turn,
that can provide quality education. This schools have an obligation to be
is the essence of community schools. sensitive to the communities they
serve, to care for and protect the
Even where the government provides children entrusted to them, and to be
schools, communities that feel accountable to the local community in
alienated or judge these schools to their governance and management.
not be in the best interest of their School boards and parent-teacher
children may decide to establish committees are the governance and
more appropriate schools. This is why management mechanisms through
ethnic, religious or language minorities which this linkage and accountability
sometimes set up schools they believe are manifested.

© UNICEF/NYHQ2006/0320/Pirozzi

4
CHAPTER 4: SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY
4.2 THE SCHOOL AS A LEARNING COMMUNITY

While learning takes place all the of schools as learning communities are
time and everywhere, schools are highlighted in Table 4.1 below. These
specially designated institutions characteristics provide an operational
dedicated to the purpose of learning. framework for understanding schools
They represent societies’ efforts to as learning communities and are the
concentrate resources and skills for skeleton on which other aspects of
quality education within a prescribed community life are built. The extent to
curriculum that includes effective, which schools become true learning
efficient teaching and learning communities depends on the richness
modalities. Some basic characteristics of additional elements.

TABLE 4.1: BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SCHOOL AS A LEARNING COMMUNITY

Characteristics Outline of basic characteristics

Location specific There is a specifically prescribed place or location (school) in which the learning/
teaching process is designated to occur.

Time bound Learners and teachers assemble at the location at designated times and stay for
prescribed time periods (day/term/year) for learning to take place.

Time structured School day is structured into periods in which different subjects or curriculum areas
are covered. School year is structured into terms, with a prescribed number of weeks.

Learner Learners are usually grouped by age (cohorts) and channelled into levels, classes or
structured grades that correspond to age and the prescribed learning for that age group.

Programme Prescribed learning is structured into subjects or disciplines that are taught separately
structured and that together constitute a programme for a given grade, level or education cycle.

Prescribed Curriculum reflects national goals and priorities, possibly open to regional/local/
learning community variations, and involves set standards evaluated through tests and
examinations.

Sequenced Curriculum is sequenced so that objectives are achieved at one level before learners
learning progress to the next level.

Specialist Staffing consists of qualified, trained professionals (teachers) with knowledge of the
staffing subject matter, pedagogic skills, etc.

Specialist Standard furniture and equipment are unique to schools and part of defining
resources characteristics (desks, blackboard, etc.).

5
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
The school community includes level of education. Some schools
children of different age groups may choose to focus on a niche
(cohorts), teachers, the school academic area, such as mathematics
head and non-teaching staff. Roles, or social studies. Other schools may
responsibilities, rules and procedures build a reputation on consistently
govern how a school functions. taking in children from the most
These relate not only to learning, but disadvantaged backgrounds and
also to the safety, security and well- helping them become successful
being of the learners, the status and learners.
authority of the teachers and school
head, the relationship between Additionally, many schools develop
learners and teachers, and the scope a reputation for a second layer of
of the links with outside parties such institutional character by cultivating
as the community or government such attributes as being a safe,
ministry. Over time, schools generate reliable place for children to learn,
norms, values and standards that a champion of sports, a place for
become part of the school culture building young people’s morals
and contribute to its traditions and and character, a beautiful, well-kept
institutional ethos, giving it a unique institution with modern facilities, or
character as a community. a place where children are treated
fairly and properly cared for. Child-
A first layer of institutional character friendly schools usually develop
is a school’s reputation for promoting a reputation for being inclusive.
learning as its core function. This They admit children from different
reputation may come from a track backgrounds and treat them all fairly,
record of excellent examination regardless of their status, social
results or a history of success in class, ethnicity, religion, gender or
preparing students for the next disability.

© UNICEF/NYHQ2007-0325/Nesbitt

6
CHAPTER 4: SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY
Aside from a school’s reputation, learned at home will hopefully
there are basic forms of behaviour replace that behaviour with the more
that define the school as a community, positive conduct promoted within
such as the rituals and routines the school, adopting such values
children and teachers engage in as non-confrontation and peaceful
(prayers in the morning, flag-raising, negotiation. In the process, they will
singing the school song or serving help change the negative behaviours
a midday meal) and the common in their homes.
rules and values to which everyone
subscribes. Over time, schools Transmitting school attributes into
cultivate an ethos or ‘organizational the larger community is not always
ambience’ that gives further depth simple for child-friendly schools.
to the sense of community. A In some areas, issues of discipline
school with a good ethos is usually may be conditioned by community
characterized by student and teacher values and practices that regard
cohesion, high expectations of corporal punishment as desirable for
students, positive teacher attitudes building character and self-discipline.
toward students, a stress on rewards In contrast, child-friendly schools
and consistent, shared values, norms believe that discipline is necessary to
and standards. Such schools are help children learn correct behaviours
more likely to develop students who and to maintain classroom order, but
perform well academically, have self- their key attributes are nonviolent
discipline and high attendance records discipline and protecting the rights of
than schools with a poor ethos, children. Within child-friendly schools,
which tend to create opposite student teachers learn appropriate, respectful
behaviours. approaches to discipline through
in-service training and mentoring by
In a sense, all these characteristics the school head, and they implement
and attributes are ‘fenced’ within effective discipline that respects
the school as a community and help children’s rights and contributes to a
determine a way of life within the positive learning environment. (See
school boundaries. For instance, Chapter 6 on classroom discipline.)
children may behave negatively As children learn and succeed in
outside of school, but clearly school in the absence of corporal
understand that such behaviour will punishment, parents will come to
not be tolerated in school. The child- accept the school’s approach and may
friendly school fences in positive gradually shift their thinking.
attributes and fences out negative
qualities, much the same way it fences
in safety and protection and fences 4.2.1 Role of the school head
out risks and dangers.
A sense of community within child-
However, since the child-friendly friendly schools is cultivated by
school exists in and serves the the school head, whose leadership
wider community, the attributes determines whether a school takes
cultivated within the school will also a child-friendly path or not. The
influence that wider community. For school head’s decisions and style are
instance, children who bring to school excellent barometers of a school’s
disrespectful or violent behaviour child-friendliness.

7
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
Adherence to admissions rules that community, and must work closely
are fair and transparent can help with government agencies and other
ensure the inclusion of children organizations that serve children. In
from diverse backgrounds. Similarly, addition, the school head must be
mentoring and support by the school able to adjust the internal workings of
head for the appropriate training and the school to cope with rapid changes
continuous professional development and developments in technology,
of teachers raise classroom standards school financing, school size and
and foster improvement in teaching teachers’ conditions of service.
methods. Adequate planning by
the school head, with appropriate The school head serves as a custodian
involvement of teachers, learners, of child-friendly school values and
parents and the community, can raise is a mentor, supporting the staff’s
curriculum standards and help the professional development and helping
school meet learning achievement to cultivate the most appropriate
goals and successfully implement behaviours and teaching practices.
other important policy directives or As a leader and team builder, the
targets. school head guides the school as an
institution and plays a pivotal role in
The school head must respond creating and maintaining its ethos.
to increasing student diversity, The school ethos and character are
including issues of gender, disability considered so important that many
and cultural background, must institutions recruit alumni or teachers
manage partnerships and networks who previously taught there to
with other schools and the wider become the school head.

© UNICEF/NYHQ2006-1150/Neeleman

8
CHAPTER 4: SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY
In a child-friendly school, the school 2. Cultivate a strong sense of
head is a friendly, accessible person community that embraces all who
who encourages students’ participation are part of the school. The school
in school life and promotes links head is the driving force that shapes
between the school community, the character of the institution and
parents and the wider community. its ethos. He or she is the prime
Under the school head’s direction, gatekeeper of the school’s traditions
the school also provides a protective and reputation. Maintaining
environment where children are free of the school culture requires a
corporal punishment, violence, gender management style that encourages
stereotypes, bullying and stigma. the entire school community to
share the common values and rules
The head of a child-friendly school will that support good practices within
also ensure that the school is managed the school. In a child-friendly school,
in a fair, equitable and transparent the ethos is rooted in the rights of
manner. School rules and regulations children and staff to fair and equal
will be just, clear, available to all and opportunities and treatment within
applied in an open manner in all the school community.
cases. Student participation will be
encouraged, as appropriate, in various The school head must address
aspects of school life, including the threats to this sense of fair and
application of fair rules and regulations. equal treatment, because failure to
do so will undermine the school’s
Evidence suggests that school heads community spirit. The school
who become successful leaders head’s style must reinforce the
concentrate their efforts on four broad tradition and culture of the school
goals: through such actions as giving
daily or weekly talks to the whole
1. Promote powerful learning-teaching school, emphasizing care and
processes that facilitate educational respect for the school grounds
achievement for all children. This and surrounding environment,
occurs when school leadership encouraging extracurricular
sets realistic, but high expectations activities and strengthening rituals
for both children and teachers, by, for instance, selecting a school
in the classroom and throughout song or holding a founder’s day or a
the school, and provides various thanksgiving parade.
ways for them to pursue learning
through the active participation 3. Value and expand the proportion of
of the learner and the reflective children’s social capital. Children are
guidance of the teacher. The school not empty vessels to be filled with
leadership can make or break this information, but young people with
type of transformative pedagogy personalities, names and knowledge
by the goals that are set and the to share. The new knowledge
resources that are made available. they acquire in school builds on
More importantly, the school head their learning from home and the
needs to encourage teachers and community. Children’s participation
learners to confront obstacles that in the classroom and school is
affect progress, seek out available facilitated by school leaders who
guidance and make the most invest in children’s capabilities.
creative use of limited resources. (See box, page 11.)

9
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
4. Cherish and encourage the wider community. A school and its
development of families’ pupils benefit most when teachers are
educational cultures. A culture of committed to cultivating a learning
learning is important throughout community with a strong sense of
the life cycle of a child, from belonging and caring among all
early childhood through all children and adults.
levels of education. In poor, rural
communities, many parents are Unlike the school head, who manages
illiterate and the school leadership the entire school, teachers facilitate
has to reach out to them to help learning, handle the classroom and
them benefit from and encourage help their students transfer what they
their children’s schooling. have learned in the classroom to
non-school settings. They also work
with the school head in laying a solid
4.2.2 Role of the teacher foundation and providing a model
of a better future for all. Successful
Teachers are pivotal to effective and teachers in child-friendly schools strive
efficient learning. They are vital, along to improve their performance, take
with the school head, to promoting advantage of learning opportunities,
a sense of community within the create new connections and promote
school and to building links to the collaboration among teachers.

4.3 THE SCHOOL IN THE COMMUNITY

There are many ways in which the 4.3.1 Role of school heads and
community can be drawn into the teachers together
school, beginning with community
involvement in the initial decision- School heads provide school
making on the design, building (or leadership and must initiate the
renovating) and maintenance of support and involvement of family
school buildings and grounds, to and community. The more willing they
ongoing transparency, accountability are to recruit parents and community
and participation in management members for school tasks, to listen
and decision-making. Additionally, to their views and share decision-
parent-teacher associations (PTAs), making, the more likely school-
by allowing the participation of and family partnerships are to take hold.
communication with parents, create Management and administrative
openness that encourages parents to support can be provided to carry out
track their children’s progress. school programmes through district or
local authorities’ budgets, materials,
School heads and teachers assume space, equipment or staff.
the critical role in building school-
community links by reaching out to School managers are instrumental in
the community and drawing it in. But making sure that teachers receive the
parents, other community members professional development they need to
and children themselves have crucial be engaged in family and community
parts to play as well. involvement. Ensuring that all school

10
CHAPTER 4: SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY
© UNICEF/NYHQ2005-1641/Mohan
staff acquire the necessary skills for
working with parents and families is KENYA: CHILD-SEEKING AND
critical to effective partnerships. PARTICIPATORY SCHOOLS

The school district, cluster or education Even with Kenya’s declaration of


system should offer professional free primary education in 2003,
some 1.7 million children and
development for teachers on: adolescents are still out of school.
Building on the principles of child
• Collaborating with parents, families participation, a ‘child-to-child’ census
and communities; was designed to seek out children
not in school, determine why they
• Family dynamics and non- were out of school and bring them
traditional family structures; back in. Schoolchildren and their
teachers were trained to go into their
• Communication between the school, neighbourhoods to ask children why
family and the community; they were out of school. The most
frequent answers to these surveys
• Reducing barriers to family and
were poverty, lack of school uniforms,
community involvement in school; domestic work and distance from
• Environmental education for school. Solutions were discussed
and, through community dialogue
sustainable development, including and support, some 7,000 of the 9,000
access to water for drinking and out-of-school children in one of the
washing, clean household energy, three pilot districts – half of them girls
food security; – were brought back into school. This
approach highlighted the power and
• Appreciating and working with potential of children’s participation
diverse cultures. to such an extent that it has been
included within the national education
The school governing bodies or PTAs sector plan.
should help identify volunteers who
can help teachers and other school volunteers take teachers on community
staff develop sensitivity to students’ walks that introduce them to the
families and the community. This can be neighbourhood and their pupils’ lives
accomplished, for instance, by having outside school.

11
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
Another possible approach is to reliable and unconditionally supportive
involve school staff and pupils in agent for learning, so the engagement
participatory action research. This of families in the promotion and
may include small teams of teachers strengthening of children’s learning
and students who meet monthly can be among the most effective
to study school-family-community and lasting of interventions. This
relationships, discuss the challenges is particularly critical in the case of
and opportunities that arise in families made vulnerable by poverty,
involving families and the community disease, conflict, lack of water, fuel
in the school and devise interventions or other resources, or by domestic
to build active community violence; in families in isolated
participation. Kenya and Uganda have communities not reached by limited
conducted child-to-child surveys using government services; and in ethnically
this approach. marginalized or excluded families
(EAPRO, 2005).
Once the groundwork has been laid
and there is two-way communication Parents who feel positive about
between the school and the family school and are involved in its life are
and community, schools can establish likely to be the best advocates for the
partnerships by creating an action school’s values, policies and practices
team committed to developing a at home, whether by encouraging
comprehensive family-community homework, promoting anti-harassment
involvement programme. Members of or supporting cooperation with others.
the team bring their own perspective, Where there is no contact between
experience and skills to the initiative. home and school, problems in the
The action team is responsible for child’s life may go unrecognized by
a baseline study – developing goal the school and will not be properly
statements, identifying strategies addressed. Even in underprivileged
to meet the goals, establishing families, high levels of parental
implementation plans and using
evaluation tools.
UGANDA: COMMUNITY-BASED
Strengthening teacher capacity CHILD REGISTRATION
in the area of family-community
collaboration can be supported by In rural Uganda, investing in a
providing teachers with incentives to community-based birth registration
(CBR) system provided effective tools
engage in these relationships. for monitoring various children’s rights,
including enrolment in early childhood
care activities and primary schools. The
4.3.2 Role of families and system places emphasis on registering
caregivers children from poor and marginalized
households and children living in child-
A child-friendly school is a family- headed and female-headed households.
friendly school. It builds relationships These children are then issued birth
registration cards that ensure their
with parents and caregivers who
enrolment in primary school at the
have primary responsibility for the appropriate time. With this low-cost
well-being of children at all stages intervention, more than 500,000 children
of their development. An informed, were registered in just two years.
caring family can be the most stable,

12
CHAPTER 4: SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY
© UNICEF/NYHQ2005-2102/Bannon
support and a positive school climate and have a critical role to play in
foster self-confidence and self-esteem. preparing them for school. Early
childhood is a time of developmental
Families and caregivers have particular leaps; it provides the greatest
roles to play in preparing their opportunity for change, but too often
children for a child-friendly school and it is the time when services are fewest.
supporting and providing guidance to Parenting styles and the number of
the school. In a child-friendly school: resources available for children will
either help young children develop the
• Parents and households have skills, attitudes and behaviours required
regular, meaningful two-way to flourish in a school community
communication with the school; or thwart their abilities to actively
participate.
• Parents have an integral role in
assisting school learning; An effective way to prepare parents
• Parents are full partners in decision- and caregivers to nurture school-family
making about education outcomes connections is for communities to
for their children; develop and organize early childhood
centres. Through their involvement,
• Parents are welcome in the school parents begin to understand how to
and their support for children’s manage a centre and participate in
learning is sought. the centre’s decision-making. In such
community-based centres, families
Often families and households do not learn essential skills and their attitudes
feel empowered to take on these roles, change as they see first hand how their
nor are schools prepared to support participation can make a difference. The
them. Therefore, it is important to early childhood centres are not only
involve families in their children’s important in readying young children
education and establish community- for school, but also in preparing
school links at the earliest stages. families, particularly women, for their
Families are children’s first teachers role with schools. (See Box, page 14.)

13
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
NIGERIA: UNICEF AND PARTNERS CREATE A MODEL
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOL

Model Primary School in New Owerri, group meets three times each term
Nigeria, is a bold testimony that and other times as needed.
initiatives to make schools child-
friendly can succeed. Before 2000, Sir Sam Iheakama, second vice-
it was a neglected primary school chairman of the PTA, points out that
with buildings in various states of the World Bank Estate where the
dilapidation and a population not school is located is a community
very different from those of schools unto its own, where residents share
in similar conditions. The school’s common, strong sentiments about
turnaround began in 2002, when it their children’s education. He reports
was classified by UNICEF as child- that PTA meetings are always well
friendly. Since then, a vigorous attended, with over 80 parents at each
partnership between UNICEF, the Imo meeting. According to Iheakama, the
State Primary Education Board and the community has a positive view of the
school’s PTA has blossomed, making Model Primary School and “parents
all aspects of the school welcoming to all wish their children should pass
children. through this school.”

A large compound provides ample Improving water and sanitation


playing space for the school’s 1,136
pupils. Girls outnumber boys, with
The PTA has improved personal
girls’ enrolment at 53 per cent and
hygiene among the pupils by
boys’ at 47 per cent. The students are
providing washbasins and stands for
spread over 52 classes, each with one
each of the school’s 16 classrooms, as
assigned teacher. Twelve other staff
well as soap and toilet paper rolls for
members perform various roles in
the latrines.
the school. Demands for admission
continue unabated, as the school is the
first choice of many in the community. Model Primary School has a full
But only 16 classrooms are currently complement of ventilated improved
available, and the large student pit latrines for both boys and girls.
population has stretched the school’s The water supply is adequate; the
facilities. State Primary Education Board
provided two water drums that are
constantly refilled. During break time,
School and community work excited pupils, their plastic cups and
hand in hand bowls in hand, run to fetch drinking
water from the handpump-equipped
The key strength of the school is its borehole provided by UNICEF in
active PTA, which is involved in many collaboration with the State Rural
of the ongoing projects, including Water Supply Agency. The borehole, a
construction of 10 new classrooms. key component of making the school
It also helped beef up security in the child-friendly, benefits more than the
school by installing burglar-proofing pupils and teachers in the school.
on doors. The PTA takes its role Since it is the most regular source of
seriously. According to P. M. Okoro, water in the vicinity, the World Bank
the association’s vice-chairman, the Estate also depends on the borehole

14
CHAPTER 4: SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY
© UNICEF/NYHQ2007/1011/Asselin
for its water supply. Community A good start through reading
members have praised its usefulness and play
and have expressed their appreciation
to the school staff, especially the Some 120 children are enrolled in
headmistress. the school’s early childcare section.
Here, the emphasis is on psychosocial
Some 1,360 titles are housed in the stimulation of the youngsters, who play
school’s well-stocked library, many of and learn in an environment filled with
them provided by UNICEF. A full-time pictures and toys. Emelia Onyekwere
librarian trained in library management is the section’s head teacher. Along
for primary schools oversees the with four other teachers, she leads
collection. her charges in classes that include
singing, dancing, body movement and
“UNICEF’s presence is manifesting observation, especially of the age-
in our school,” says Eugenia Chima, appropriate objects located indoors and
the school’s current headmistress. outside the classroom. Three out of five
She noted that in efforts to make it school days, the PTA provides midday
child-friendly, the school had received meals for pupils in the early childcare
desks, chairs, books, library equipment, section. For some of these children, this
sanitation materials, a borehole, early is a rare opportunity to eat a nutritious
childhood care, first-aid kits and other meal, and with their teachers’ help, they
items. She said that running the school also learn how to eat properly.
has changed her life: “The whole
community calls me ‘blessed mummy’ Source: <www.ungei.org/infobycountry/
because of the school. Even if I retire nigeria_321.html>
now, I feel fulfilled.”

15
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
Strengthening links: school authorities about events at
home or in the community;
• The school has a PTA that meets
• In case of illiterate parents or
and communicates regularly,
those who are not speakers
and involves parents from all of the majority language, the
backgrounds (not just the elite); school provides oral messages or
• The PTA has a plan of action translates communications into
coordinated with school parents’ language;
authorities to develop, implement • The school hosts events that
and monitor annual school plans; involve children and families,
• The school promotes parents’ such as inviting parents for an
participation in discussions evening of music, drama or
and decision-making on school poetry reading that demonstrates
policies and activities; the lessons their children are
learning;
• The school utilizes various
communication tools to reach out • The school provides the space for
to parents; environmental and community
gardens where PTA members can
• The school provides information support food security;
to parents on its reforms, policies,
goals; • The school head may present
awards to children or teachers
• The school invites parents to – such as best attendance, most
discuss concerns about their improved, special helper, star of
children and provides regular the month, sports awards – at an
opportunities for them to inform event involving the community.

GHANA: CELEBRATING CHILDREN’S ACHIEVEMENTS WITH PARENTS

At Zangum School in the northern region of Ghana, the head teacher realized that
the parents of his students had little understanding of what their children were
learning in school. To help them understand their children’s education process, he
organized an afternoon each semester to celebrate the students’ achievements.

The activities at these afternoons varied from the younger children’s reciting the
alphabet, singing songs or acting out a drama to teach malaria prevention, to
older students’ reading poems or stories that they had written while other children
translated them into their parents’ language. The head teacher used these events
not only to recognize achievement, but also to highlight important messages
regarding the school, and the events were highly anticipated by the community, the
students and the teachers. Through these activities, parents, many of whom had
never been to school themselves, discovered what their children were learning, the
value of their children’s education and how they could support it. Discipline in the
school improved, and attendance and participation in the PTA grew.

16
CHAPTER 4: SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY
GHANA: THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN PTAS

Kparigu, a remote rural village in Ghana, had regular PTA meetings that
were well attended by fathers but rarely by mothers. The headmaster was
concerned about the lack of women’s involvement and especially wanted to
ensure that girls’ issues were well represented. Therefore, he made a point
of talking with the mothers on his walks around town, at the market and at
church, always subtly bringing up the subject of involvement in the PTA. In
the course of these discussions, he learned that most women had not been
to school, so they thought they would not be able to contribute. They also
thought the PTA was ‘men’s business’.

Talking about these concerns on a one-to-one basis and later at a PTA


meeting, he found out the biggest stumbling block for women was the
timing of the meetings. The headmaster generally held the meetings in late
afternoon, when the sun was not too hot but it was not yet dark, but this, he
learned, was the women’s busiest time of day, when they return from market
and prepare evening meals. The headmaster changed to a suggested time:
“Fridays right after prayers because both Muslims and Christians don’t go to
farm on those days and it is before cooking begins.”

Engaging the community women and changing to a more suitable time for
them allowed the women gradually to become a much stronger presence in
the PTA. They enriched the dialogue not only on gender issues but also on a
range of topics affecting all children.

4.3.3 Role of education bodies and to monitor school planning and


and other local authorities progress. Both local and national
education authorities monitor the
Child-friendly schools promote performance of specific schools.
broad-based alliances among
communities, local governments, The local education authorities
civil society and the private sector. are responsible for supervision of
With the need for a cross-sectoral teachers, school managers and
perspective, different actors must be headmasters/headmistresses and
fully appreciated and accommodated for the allocation of learning spaces,
to ensure that the child-friendly tools and instruments. They are
school concept is implemented. accountable to the community for
resource allocation. In decentralized
Local school authorities have government systems, community
obligations and responsibilities members, parents and children have
towards schools in their greater opportunities to participate
municipalities. It is their duty to in planning, implementing,
provide resources and funding for monitoring and evaluating child-
teachers and administrators, to friendly education activities and
provide quality learning materials governance.

17
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
4.4 REACHING OUT TO THE COMMUNITY AND BEYOND

A child-friendly school is an
integral part of the community and BRAZIL: NEIGHBOURHOOD AS
proactively reaches out to it, both SCHOOL PROJECTS
seeking its support in improving
child-friendliness and in turn A new concept of education has been
supporting community development. developed in Vila Madalena, a small
Such interlinkage is especially district in Brazil’s largest city, São
important in areas mired in poverty. Paulo. Known as ‘Neighbourhood
as School’, it is conducted by a non-
governmental organization, Cidade
Learning takes place in a variety of Escola Aprendiz, which since 1997 has
circumstances in the child’s wider been turning squares, alleys, cinemas,
environment – at home, after school, ateliers, cultural centres and theatres
in religious institutions and in into classrooms.
interactions with other community
members. (See Box, this page.) The Neighbourhood as School, an
Child-friendly schools are sensitive extension of formal school education,
to the knowledge, values and aims to expand learning spaces in
the community, creating a pedagogic
traditions students bring from the laboratory in which learning is knowing
larger community; at the same time, oneself and socially intervening in the
children acquire new knowledge and community through communication, art
skills that they take back into the and sports.
community. The school can extend
its outreach by sending children The success of the Neighbourhood
home with take-home messages as School concept is driven by a
that convey information on the partnership among schools, families,
importance of hygiene, HIV and public authorities, entrepreneurs,
associations, craftspeople, non-
AIDS prevention, environmental
governmental organizations and
sustainability and other topics. In volunteers – indispensable powers
this way, the school contributes to in community education. Everybody
community development. educates; everybody learns at
qualification centres, so the experience
Establishing such a dialogue gives helps educators and social leaders
the community a sense of school nourish the learning systems.
ownership, so that the school is
not seen as something outside the
community. This dialogue across Child-friendly schools reach out
boundaries is what distinguishes beyond their confines, seeking
child-friendly schools from other partnerships with other actors who
schools. They often become oases contribute to the school’s effective
for the wider community, sometimes implementation of all aspects of
providing the only space for town child-friendliness. These include
or village meetings and festivities. health care and social welfare
These links anchor the school as a professionals and institutions
supportive, attentive and relevant that contribute to child health and
community institution. nutrition. Child-friendly schools need

18
CHAPTER 4: SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY
accommodate different communities
(various religions, races or political
affiliations). The sense of solidarity
and shared identity created by
building ethos and teaching peaceful
coexistence, negotiation, nonviolence
and care for the environment can
influence larger-scale nation-building.

Strengthening school outreach:


© UNICEF/NYHQ2005-1393/Nesbitt

• School sets up a specific plan for


school-community collaboration;
• School sends messages regularly
to parents and school committee
members on school activities and
children’s progress;
• School and community establish
parent-teacher-community
associations that meet regularly;
these partnerships, as they often lack • School encourages students to
the resources necessary to provide all participate in community activities;
the elements to be fully child-friendly.
• Parents and community participate
in school improvement projects;
The child-friendly school’s outreach
can go beyond the geographical • School invites other local agencies
community. Many schools (ministries), the private sector,

GHANA: STUDENTS TEACHING COMMUNITIES TO PREVENT MALARIA

In Kparigu, in the northern region of Ghana, children in the senior primary


classes completed a module on malaria prevention. As part of their lesson, they
were encouraged to inform their families and the community about their project
as it progressed. This project combined skills from their science, art, music,
woodworking and life skills classes. The children developed and enacted a play
for younger children and family members about the life cycle of a mosquito and
transmission of malaria. They went into the community and identified sources of
standing water. Using techniques learned at school, they created proper drainage
and minimized sources of standing water.

The community was extremely interested. When the adults saw the children out in
the community, they asked about the project and how it would reduce the incidence
of malaria. Enthusiasm was high, and community members joined in the efforts and
continued to implement the strategies long after the event. As a result, standing-
water sources in the community have been significantly reduced, contributing to
the control of malaria. The community learned in a concrete, relevant way how
children’s education contributes to the well-being of all.

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CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
community leaders and parents to children to interact with their
participate in planning and school parents;
management;
• School partners with local private
• School networks with community sector, non-governmental and
to increase school access for community-based organizations to
excluded children, especially girls, assist schools and families;
domestic workers, children with
• School health and nutrition
disabilities and minority children;
programmes are planned and
• School engages community in implemented jointly with health
volunteer programmes (facility and social welfare workers,
and environment maintenance) teachers, parents and others;
and recruits people with special
• Students are taught songs and
knowledge and skills as classroom
poems with health and safety
resources;
messages and are encouraged
• Teacher assigns homework (take- to share them with their younger
home messages) that requires siblings and family members.

UGANDA: CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS SUPPORTED BY THE GIRLS’


EDUCATION MOVEMENT

Girls’ Education Movement (GEM) members are active in child-to-child methods


for reaching out to non-enrolled children. Using proceeds from their income-
generating activities, GEM members purchase learning materials for needy pupils,
a pragmatic approach to addressing retention. GEM clubs also promote girl-
friendly practices and develop ways to bring out-of-school girls back to class, such
as purchasing sanitary towels for them. GEM members also engage community
members, strengthening school-community partnerships and interaction.

MEXICO: INCLUSION OF INDIGENOUS CHILDREN

Child-friendly schools have been promoted since 2000 in Chiapas and Yucatan,
Mexican states characterized by large indigenous populations and high rates
of marginalization. Child-friendly schools are critical in generating participation
among children, teachers and parents and in achieving sustainable development in
the context of indigenous culture. Child-friendly schools improve learning through
intercultural and bilingual teaching, active involvement by students, families and
community, and civic education based on democratic values, respect for diversity
and promotion of equity, cooperation and participation. They also work towards
a healthy, clean and friendly school environment. A parallel initiative, Community
Participative Learning, promotes civic education and activities where families and
communities learn about children’s rights in a culturally sensitive and respectful
manner and are encouraged to participate in the organization of community life
around the school. Similar efforts under the All Children in School initiative seek
to ensure basic quality education for all boys and girls. As a result, schools have
higher student achievement, better trained and more motivated teachers, an
improved school environment that includes toilets and water facilities, increased
community participation in education and a heightened sense of cultural identity,
which contributes to higher self-esteem.

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CHAPTER 4: SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY
4.5 COMMUNITIES AND CHILD-FRIENDLY
LEARNING SPACES

Child-friendly learning spaces are often, opportunities for all children, parents,
but not always, established in situations families and communities often take
of emergency and crisis to compensate a greater role in developing learning
for the lack of adequate, safe and spaces during emergencies.
supportive learning environments. In
chronic emergency and rehabilitation Local authorities are usually responsible
situations, they can play an important for identifying such spaces; however
role in providing basic social services, their establishment and operation are
representing points of continuity and more likely to fall to parents and the
stability. local community. Although their focus
is on learning, child-friendly spaces may
Besides functioning as learning spaces, include integrated social services, such
child-friendly areas may also serve as health, nutrition and social welfare.
as a place for play and stimulation, Learning may also take place in local
recreation and life skills activities, and houses where children come together
for cultural and sports events. During for complementary or after-school
a crisis, children need psychosocial activities that are school-related but
support, counseling and safe places more voluntary in purpose, content and
where they can participate in learning application.
and recreation to regain stability in their
lives. The child-friendly spaces seek Local community participation, often
to provide children with this normalcy through civil society organizations, is
through regular activities necessary for key to the success of learning in child-
their development. friendly spaces, because it is usually
parents and community volunteers who
In all circumstances, child-friendly take the initiative to operate the learning
spaces call for the increased activities offered in these spaces. Also,
participation of children, parents and because these are alternative learning
communities in decision-making about spaces, for children who fall outside
children’s education, recreation and formal, mainstream institutions, it is
play. These spaces also can serve as often necessary to mobilize children
community centres that strengthen to participate. To effectively integrate
adults’ coping skills and provide a venue marginalized children, learning spaces
for feeding, health care and distribution need to be trusted by the community,
of relief and rehabilitation items. and those in charge have to have the
know-how to engage in effective social
mobilization and communication with
4.5.1 Organizing learning young people.
opportunities
Community contributions to child-
Child-friendly learning spaces are friendly spaces, such as tools,
essential during emergencies and other equipment, land and direct teaching or
situations where children fall outside administration, are essential to foster
formal school settings. Although a sense of belonging and ownership
governments and education authorities by children and their families. Like
are obligated to provide learning the formal school system, child-

21
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
educational centres combining libraries
and Internet access, part of the city’s
Lighthouses of Knowledge project,
are located next to schools to bridge
learning between the formal school
system, the local community and
families.

Strategic steps:
• Identify spaces within the
community where learning can
take place;
© UNICEF/NYHQ2006-0325/Pirozzi

• Involve the school management


and PTA in the selection process;
• Create and implement alternative
learning programmes for all
children, including those out
of school, through outreach
and collaboration with non-
governmental and faith-based
organizations;
• Develop and introduce life
friendly spaces must be safe, healthy,
skills, HIV and AIDS prevention
protective and inclusive. The education
programmes and ways to adapt to
system must oversee these informal
changing environments through
spaces to ensure that they meet all
formal and complementary
requirements.
education activities for children in
and out of school;
Alternative spaces for learning can
be set up just about anywhere, • Identify meeting places where out-
in churches, mosques, temples, of-school children can be mobilized
community halls, rooms within the for inclusion in both formal and
community chief’s office, libraries, a non-formal learning activities;
compound, allocated land, an unused
• Utilize existing resources and
room in a private house, even a boat.
identify new resources inside and
In the Maldives, for instance, madrasas
outside the community;
were used for learning activities other
than reading the Koran when it was • Collaborate with the private
agreed that children also need to read sector to equip alternative and
other literature and learn about the complementary learning spaces;
world outside their communities.
• Join forces with sports, leisure and
cultural organizations;
In Nicaragua and Iran, mobile libraries
represent not only opportunities for • Identify community members and
children to learn but for their families volunteers with the skill and time to
and the larger community as well. In support learning activities in child-
Curitiba, Brazil, lighthouse-shaped friendly spaces.

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CHAPTER 4: SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY
4.6 POLICY IMPLICATIONS

The changes recommended to for this standard of schooling. To


make learning environments child- ensure viability, child-friendly schools
friendly imply a substantial change in must be evidence-based, supported
accountabilities, monitoring systems, by a system of continual monitoring,
training, curriculum, school admission evaluation, feedback and advocacy.
practices, the structure and content of (See Chapter 8.)
schools and early child centres, and
the role of families and civil societies. Many developing countries implement
Unless these changes are backed child-friendly schools through an
by strong policy commitments and accelerated process of school reform.
specific means of accountability, they The entire school community works
will not occur and children’s rights will collaboratively towards a shared
not be realized. Therefore, political purpose by meeting, talking and
support at the highest level is required learning from each other’s experiences.

4.7 SUPERVISION AND OVERSIGHT

Approaching education and learning


from a CFS perspective requires a VILLAGE EDUCATION
different form of supervision and COMMITTEES:
management of schools and learning ACCOUNTABILITY TO THE
activities. Few education systems, COMMUNITY
especially in developing countries,
have effective supervision and In many communities, oversight
performance appraisal systems for for education and teacher quality
teachers and administrators, and falls to the Village Education
implementation of such systems is Committee, which may have
almost always under constraints. different functions and different
levels of responsibility depending
on the community. Important roles
The introduction of the child-friendly include monitoring children within
education and learning framework the community, assessing the
therefore provides an opportunity quality of education, identifying
to review and change the way rights abuses and locating children
teachers and administrators are who are not in school. However, the
supervised and managed. It also power vested in the group and who
provides an opportunity to establish is represented on it make a major
difference in its functioning. The
and strengthen the monitoring and
committees monitor schools and
oversight systems and mechanisms serve as a forum for parents’ and
to improve accountability for resource children’s decision-making.
allocation and utilization.

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CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
Family and community involvement in • Establish a code of conduct for
the monitoring of learning activities is teachers and child-friendly education
crucial in a child-friendly learning model managers and a community
and must be integrated into the model monitoring system
from its inception. Governing bodies for appraisal and reporting;
at all levels must be invited to discuss
• Develop a child-centred
how the child-friendly school will be
management system that builds
regulated. Children’s voices must be
on the principles of child-friendly
included via open forums throughout
education and children’s rights;
the process to strengthen their influence
and participation. Hotlines and other • Establish an effective, transparent
forms of reporting systems should to be feedback system on resource
formulated and agreed upon. allocation and utilization with
opportunities for community
Strategic steps: input through the PTA;
• Review education management • Develop a hotline or other method
systems to determine how education for reporting abuse and exploitation
is perceived and managed; of students.

EGYPT: THE COMMUNITY SCHOOL MODEL

In the rural hamlets of Upper Egypt, where primary schools were previously
non-existent and girls were particularly deprived, community schools have
been established as a means of providing children with a quality education.
Modelled after the BRAC experience in Bangladesh, the schools are located in the
communities and are free, with no hidden costs. Local ownership is a key feature,
with communities donating space, ensuring that children come to class and
managing the schools through a local education committee in each hamlet.

Young women with intermediate degrees are recruited locally and trained as
facilitators to provide quality education through interactive techniques and locally
relevant educational content, including health, the environment, agriculture and
local history. Graduates of community schools are eligible to take the government
schools’ standardized exams at the end of grades 3 and 6.

The project serves as a catalyst for development and, given the emphasis on
girls and the involvement of women facilitators, for change in gender roles and
expectations. Lessons learned from the quality components of the community
school model are being mainstreamed through the Girls’ Education Initiative and
the model itself is being extended through the establishment of additional girl-
friendly schools.

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CHAPTER 4: SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 5
Schools as protective environments

5.1 Introduction

5.2 The right to learn in safe, healthy environments


5.2.1 Healthy environments
5.2.2 Safe and protective environments

5.3 Children at special risk

5.4 Assessing threats to health, safety and security


5.4.1 Mapping safe spaces

5.5 Reducing risks and increasing protection


5.5.1 Legal frameworks
5.5.2 Policy frameworks and setting standards

5.6 School organization and management


5.6.1 Teachers’ roles and responsibilities
5.6.2 Children’s participation
5.6.3 Protective aspects of the curriculum
5.6.4 Partnerships with the community
5.6.5 Monitoring and evaluation in protective environments

5.7 Child-friendly education in emergencies


CHAPTER 5
SCHOOLS AS PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS

More than 50 per cent of children who die in earthquakes each year die
inside their school buildings.

• In Pakistan, more than 17,000 children attending early morning


classes perished when their school buildings collapsed following the
earthquake in late 2005.

• In developed countries, local schools and hospitals are typically


designed to ensure survivability and are designated as safe shelter for
affected community members.

It is neither expensive nor technically difficult to structurally improve


most school buildings.

• The estimated average cost per school ranges between $1,000 and
$1,500, assuming use of local labour and materials and low-cost design
options.

Source: Safe at School Campaign, Disaster Resource Network,


an initiative of the World Economic Forum.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Millions of children attend schools There are many ways in which schools
that are reasonably safe most of the fail to protect the children entrusted
time. But schools in most developing to their care. The sources of risk
countries fail to protect children from and danger are many and complex.
the consequences of natural disasters There are cases of children, especially
and accidents. At a time of increasingly girls, burned alive in boarding
unsafe environments, and as scientists schools where doors are ‘securely
predict with relative certainty locked’, ostensibly to protect them. In
that climate change will increase some countries, children risk being
both the severity and prevalence kidnapped for ransom or, in what
of natural disasters, schools that is becoming a disturbing pattern
cannot withstand catastrophes are among the youth population, caught
unacceptable. up in gang-related violence. Schools
are sometimes targets for violent
The problem, however, is not only attacks during civil conflicts, putting
with natural disasters and accidents. children at risk of kidnapping and

1
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
forced recruitment as child soldiers, are tuned into these developments
labourers or sex slaves. can gauge when it is time to
take preventive measures. When
The UN Study on Violence against the school community takes its
Children reveals that children responsibility to prepare seriously,
worldwide are at risk of violence in forward-thinking attention
and around the school. The threats can bring about appropriate
range from rape, sexual abuse, sexual preventive measures.
harassment and physical beatings
• Prevention: School authorities
to verbal abuse, bullying, taunting,
should take precautionary
stereotyping and other forms of
measures to avert risks to
humiliation. At times, teachers,
children’s health and safety.
school authorities and peers are the
Giving flu shots and other
perpetrators of such abuse.
vaccines to all children at the right
time helps prevent serious illness.
Sometimes schools fail to protect
Designated traffic crossing points
children from exposure to health
for children can prevent vehicle
hazards, such as pollution, toxic
accidents. Community mapping
substances, noise and fumes, or
of environmental risks and
may place them in unhygienic
vulnerabilities to natural disasters
environments that compromise their
can head off potential calamities.
health. Schools may be remiss by
And using proper hand-washing
not adequately predicting, preventing
procedures and following other
and preparing for threats to children’s
health practices prevents the
health and safety in the face of a
spread of disease. In the same
rapidly changing environment.
way, prohibiting weapons in
schools, providing appropriate
In child-friendly schools, attention
supervision of play areas and
should be given to these key
designing classrooms so that
elements:
activities within them can be easily
observed from outside are ways
• Prediction: School authorities to help prevent bullying, assaults
need to foresee imminent risk or and abuse in and around schools.
possible dangers that could affect Fencing off areas of potential
children within the school, its danger, such as swimming pools
vicinity or the wider community. or water wells, and clearing or
These may range from seasonal spraying areas of stagnant water
influenza to more dangerous where mosquitoes can breed are
potential pandemics such as avian
all prevention measures that the
flu, or vector-borne diseases such
school community can invest in to
as malaria and dengue fever,
protect children and staff.
which are emerging in colder
climates as temperatures rise. • Preparedness: Schools must have
They may be dangers posed by resources and procedures in place
impending extreme weather or the to deal swiftly and decisively with
school’s proximity to hazardous specific dangers to children’s
sites. In some countries, political health and safety. Warning
tension brings the risk of violence systems, from a simple school
in the community. Schools that bell to more sophisticated tools

2
CHAPTER 5: SCHOOLS AS PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
such as text messages, can allow They should review procedures
schools to alert students, families constantly to make sure they keep
and school personnel to a danger up with any changes in the school or
or emergency. Training teachers wider community.
and students in simple first-aid
skills, installing fire extinguishers This chapter details protection
and emergency lighting, scheduling issues and the safety dimension of
evacuation drills and creating child-friendly schools. It explores
designated assembly points, safe expectations and realities of
areas and ways of calling for schools in promoting the emotional,
assistance can help prepare the psychological and physical well-being
school community to respond to of children. Threat categories and
accidents and emergencies. risk assessments are identified as a
basis for reviewing strategies and
Child-friendly schools normally have interventions to make schools healthy,
clear policies, plans, measures and safe and protective for children.
budgets to address these elements.

5.2 THE RIGHT TO LEARN IN SAFE,


HEALTHY ENVIRONMENTS

The Convention on the Rights of the and protective environment through


Child (CRC) spells out the obligations the provision of school-based health,
of governments to facilitate children’s nutrition, water and sanitation services,
right to learn in a safe and secure and codes of conduct against violence.
environment, whether a conventional
school or a designated learning space
in an emergency. The CRC specifically 5.2.1 Healthy environments
calls on all States Parties to take
appropriate measures to ensure Child protection in school starts with
protection of children from all forms a healthy child. Good health and
of violence, injury, abuse and neglect, proper nutrition are prerequisites for
to ensure that school discipline is effective learning. Research shows that
administered in a manner consistent healthy, well-nourished children learn
with the dignity of the child and to better, and school health and nutrition
ensure children’s right to the best programming is recognized as a means
possible health care. (See Box, page 4.) of improving children’s nutritional
status, learning achievement and
Child-friendly schools and learning general well-being. Even short-term
spaces should embrace these hunger can adversely affect a child’s
principles and standards in creating a ability to learn. Deficiencies of iodine
learning environment where children or iron have been shown to reduce
are free from fear, anxiety, danger, children’s cognitive and motor
disease, exploitation, harm or injury. skills and even their IQ. Similarly,
They need to create a healthy, safe worm infestation causes anaemia

3
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD: CHILDREN’S RIGHTS TO HEALTHY,
SAFE AND PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS

Article 2 Education must be provided without discrimination on any grounds.

Article 19 States Parties shall take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social
and educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or
mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment
or exploitation, including sexual abuse. Protective measures should include
prevention and identification, reporting, referral, investigation, treatment and
follow-up of instances of child maltreatment.

Article 24 States Parties recognize the rights of children to the enjoyment of the highest
attainable standard of health and agree to take appropriate measures to ensure
the provision of necessary medical assistance and health care to all children, to
combat disease and malnutrition, to provide adequate nutritious foods and clean
drinking water, taking into consideration the dangers and risks of environmental
pollution, to ensure that parents and children are informed, have access to
education and are supported in the use of basic knowledge of child health and
nutrition, hygiene and environmental sanitation and the prevention of accidents.

Article 28 States Parties are obliged to take all appropriate measures to ensure that school
discipline is administered in a manner consistent with the child’s human dignity.

Article 29 States Parties agree that the education of the child shall be directed to: (a) The
development of the child’s personality, talents and mental and physical abilities
to their fullest potential; (b) The development of respect for human rights and
fundamental freedoms, and for the principles enshrined in the Charter of the
United Nations; ... (d) The preparation of the child for responsible life in a free
society, in the spirit of understanding, peace, tolerance, equality of sexes, and
friendship among all peoples, ethnic, national and religious groups and persons of
indigenous origin; (e) The development of respect for the natural environment.

Article 37 States Parties shall ensure that children are not subjected to torture or other cruel,
inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.

and poor physical, intellectual and age children), diarrhoea, cholera,


cognitive development, resulting dehydration and HIV and AIDS are
in a detrimental effect on students’ just some of the physiological risks to
educational performance. Good health children. There are also physical risks
at school age yields long-term health that threaten health and safety, such
benefits, reduces repetition rates and as traffic injuries incurred en route to
increases educational attainment. and from school, lacerations, fractures
and other injuries during play,
Children are exposed to many drowning, physical violence (corporal
physical and physiological threats that punishment, assaults, etc.) and
jeopardize their health and safety in sexual violence.
school besides poor nutrition. Malaria,
waterborne diseases, parasitic Child-friendly schools and learning
infestations (worms are a major spaces mitigate these problems by
cause of undernutrition in school- creating a healthy school environment

4
CHAPTER 5: SCHOOLS AS PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
that provides access to safe water
for drinking, proper hygiene and
sanitation facilities; by implementing
life skills-based health, hygiene and
environmental education; and by
providing health and nutrition services
as an integral part of schooling.
School buildings must be free of
hazards such as lead, asbestos or
indoor air pollution, and the school
compound and classrooms should be
kept clean and free of harmful waste
material. Separate toilet facilities

© UNICEF/NYHQ2007-1886/Estey
should be provided for girls and boys
(giving girls the privacy they require),
along with sufficient water for hand
washing in appropriate facilities. These
are all important aspects of what
child-friendly schools and learning
spaces should offer as part of a safe,
protective environment for learning.

Maintaining a culture of clean, healthy


and safe environments means that
school heads and teachers should be waste in school facilities, and planting
committed to programmes that involve trees to provide shade and soil
children in maintaining sanitary hand- security. (See Chapter 3.)
washing and drinking-water facilities
and toilets. Typically, school heads To support a protective learning
and teachers work together with environment and accomplish a
children to prepare and carry out a maintenance scheme, school heads
plan for monitoring and keeping up and teachers can encourage children
the facilities and helping children to start healthy environment clubs,
stay clean and healthy. In this regard, where they organize maintenance
preventive maintenance should be tasks, set up competitions around
adopted as a way to set standards and these tasks and promote safe water,
reduce costs, which tend to be higher sanitation and ‘healthy schools and
when repairing and replacing parts. healthy homes’ messages.
Prevention involves tasks as simple as
oiling squeaky doors before the hinges Child-friendly schools and learning
fail, patching minor cracks in slabs spaces typically address malnutrition
before they become big faults in the through ‘food for education’ –
wall, fixing leaking taps before they providing in-school meals or snacks
become flood hazards, changing parts and take-home rations for vulnerable
in the water well pump before the children, orphans and girls. These
whole system fails, painting regularly strategies encourage parents to send
to protect the durability of buildings, children to school regularly, and they
scrubbing and cleaning regularly to may also encourage communities to
prevent the build-up of grime and prepare and serve meals and support

5
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
NICARAGUA: WATER AND SANITATION IN CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS

In Nicaragua, where 80 per cent of primary schools lack satisfactory water


supplies and adequate sanitation facilities and where educational quality is poor,
the Healthy and Friendly Schools Initiative is an integrated approach to school
sanitation and hygiene education. The initiative aims to improve the school
environment by addressing health, school hygiene, environmental sanitation
and human rights in a comprehensive way linked to quality learning. It is
based on the idea that schools can help transform families and communities
by promoting positive practices among pupils during their formative years.
Participating schools have new hand-washing facilities and chlorinated water, as
well as appropriate sanitary units separated by both age and gender. There are
smaller seats or toilets for preschool children, urinals for boys and one latrine
adapted for children with disabilities. Life skills education and hygiene promotion
have contributed to improved knowledge and the beginning of behavioural
change. The initiative intends to ensure long-term sustainability by combining
education, promotion of suitable hygienic practices and improvements in school
infrastructure – all with the active participation of the educational community, the
surrounding community and the children.

school garden projects. In addition, Their key elements include:


they promote nutrition education for
• Health policies in school that
students, with instruction on cooking
advocate and facilitate the
methods, menu preparation, use of
teachers’ role in promoting good
local foods and balanced diets. This
health practices and helping to
not only provides children with good
make schools healthy learning
nutrition in the short term, but also
environments;
helps them develop the attitudes,
knowledge and values they need to • Adequate sanitation and
make appropriate dietary decisions access to safe water to reduce
throughout their lives. disease, worm transmission and
waterborne illnesses in the school
Child-friendly schools support school- environment;
based deworming programmes,
• Skills-based health education
usually as an integral part of a
that promotes good hygiene,
more comprehensive school health
avoidance of disease, prevention
programme. The Essential Package,
of worm infection and other
partnered by UNICEF and the World
illnesses;
Food Programme, and the Focusing
Resources on Effective School • Basic health and nutrition services
Health (FRESH) framework, launched that include school meals and
by UNICEF, the United Nations deworming.
Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization, the World Bank and In some countries, child-friendly
World Health Organization in 2000, schools provide a prevocational
are good examples of such health orientation by establishing school
programmes. gardens or laboratories near

6
CHAPTER 5: SCHOOLS AS PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
or around the school so that secure walking paths in remote rural
students can engage in small- areas or protected streets in urban
scale animal husbandry, fish centres when walking to school is
farming, bee-keeping, fruit tree feasible. Parents may volunteer to
cultivation and staple food help children cross busy streets in
production. Such endeavours the vicinity of urban schools. Where
can provide prevocational distance is a problem, children
agricultural knowledge and skills should be provided with safe
related to food production and transportation, such as an organized
environmental protection, as well school bus service or fare-exempt
as offer more immediate nutritional travel on public buses that go past
support for children (World Food the school. In remote locations
Programme & UNICEF, 2005). In where children live long distances
this time of chronic droughts and from school or face risks in their
food shortages, it is important school journey, such as crossing
for children and their families to streams or rivers or risking physical
understand and, where possible, attacks (particularly against girls),
support locally grown food. child-friendly schools can work
with the community to arrange for
students to travel together (safety
5.2.2 Safe and protective in numbers) or be accompanied by
environments responsible adults (escort pooling).

The physical environment of a For child-friendly schools to be safe,


school or learning space, including protective learning environments,
its surrounding neighbourhood, they need to deal with more than
is crucial to children’s safety and the obvious issues of physical
security. To increase school safety, danger and health risks. Attention
fences should be built to protect should also be given to the
children from harmful outside children’s emotional, psychological
influences, such as drug peddling, and physical well-being, protecting
sexual harassment or physical them from verbal and emotional
violence. Constant supervision of abuse and the trauma of sexual
the school and schoolyard is usually harassment, racial discrimination,
necessary. Expansive schoolyards ethnic prejudice or intrusiveness
with many large buildings or by teachers and peers (Attig &
unprotected areas may need Hopkins, 2006). Schools that are
additional staff or other security child-friendly must protect students
measures, such as emergency from the psychological harm that
notification or alarm systems that can result from various kinds of
can alert students and teachers to punishment perpetrated by peers or
an ongoing emergency. by teachers, including verbal abuse,
name-calling and other forms of
The journey to and from school is humiliation. School authorities must
another potential source of danger. also appreciate that children can be
Child-friendly schools typically affected by prejudice and biases that
identify safe ways for children to result in isolation and exclusion by
travel to school and back, such as their peers. In countries prone to

7
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
© UNICEF/2007/Kitaburaza
An older school building in the Rubingo Primary School complex in Rwanda (top). The bottom photo
shows a new CFS building in the same complex.

© UNICEF/2007/Kitaburaza

internecine violence or environmental threats and other types of violence


risks, children may face the threat of found in and around schools and
another debilitating form of trauma learning spaces, such as corporal
– the persistent sense of imminent punishment by teachers, student-on-
emergency. student violence, gang fights, bullying,
sexual attacks, other forms of gender-
Child-friendly schools greatly based violence and school attacks by
reduce or eliminate common physical external groups. (See Box, page 10.)

8
CHAPTER 5: SCHOOLS AS PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
Violence and abuse may occur as a and communities must be alert to
teacher-on-student phenomenon, highly traumatic situations, such
as with corporal punishment, or as as civil conflict, in which children
a student-on-student phenomenon may require special counselling and
or even a student-on-teacher psychosocial care.
phenomenon. In many instances,
the forms of violence overlap. It Girls and boys need to speak freely
is important to understand and about protection concerns that affect
recognize these links. them or others. In child-friendly
schools, teachers and principals
Some forms of violence may be should make a point of listening to
‘hidden’ and need to be exposed. children’s anxieties about violence
Sexual assaults, rape and verbal in their lives. Together, adults and
or physical harassment of girls, for children should set up systems
instance, are often minimized or to generate solutions to violent
dismissed with comments such as environments. A system may be
“boys will be boys.” Other forms as simple as a box in school where
of violence, including corporal children can leave anonymous
punishment, may be locally accepted notes about abuse at home or
by families and society at large, violence at school, or it may be a
making them difficult to confront in more formal complaint mechanism.
child-friendly schools. Unless these The point is that authorities in
forms of violence are challenged, child-friendly schools should be
children’s welfare and their rights will proactive in identifying child abuse
be compromised. and neglect and should be prepared
to act in accordance with national
Child-friendly schools need to work child protection legislation and
with parents and local communities procedures, including mandatory
to prevent violence. There must reporting to the police or other
be clear, transparently enforced legal bodies.
policies and procedures and firm
interventions to protect children The role of the school in regard to
from physical harm and verbal, serious child protection issues is not
physical, emotional and sexual to investigate them but to recognize
abuse. Schools must educate parents situations needing attention and refer
and local communities in order them to the appropriate child service
to eliminate acquiescence to or agencies. Child-friendly schools
tolerance of violence against children. should be prepared to identify,
Child protection and safety can be refer and assess children in need,
extended to homes and communities, including those who have suffered,
reinforcing the accepted codes of are suffering or are at risk of suffering
conduct adopted by schools. Special significant harm. The schools should
attention must be given to children have procedures in place to ensure
who are particularly at risk, such as quick professional responses to
orphans, children with disabilities disclosures or suspicions regarding
and children made vulnerable by harm to a child.
HIV and AIDS. Additionally, schools

9
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
FORMS OF VIOLENCE IN SCHOOLS

Corporal punishment refers to beatings, canings, whippings and other forms of


physical punishment used by teachers and managers. Few countries have banned
corporal punishment outright, and there are still many countries where corporal
punishment is a regular part of schooling.

Both girls and boys are subjected to various forms of sexual violence in and
around schools. The violent acts can be perpetrated by teachers or school
administrators or, in other instances, by students (mostly male) against female
students and sometimes even against teachers. Gender violence also includes
harassment and abuse based on heterosexism and homophobia.

Bullying refers to the repeated negative actions of one or more students against
another. It can include taunting, teasing and other forms of verbal abuse, physical
violence and other harmful actions, and can also be expressed through new
technologies – cyberbullying, for example.

While some forms of gang violence may also be categorized as bullying, the main
differences between the two are the structural features of organized gangs and
their use of weapons. Gangs and gang conflict may be located within a school or
between schools, or they may exist outside schools but have a major impact on
what happens inside schools by way of drug use, drug trafficking, extortion, gang
rape and so on.

School as a ‘target’ refers to the ways that the school itself might attract such
forms of violence as arson, vandalism and destruction of teachers’ property,
and how it features in less common forms of violence, such as spree shootings,
hostage-taking by terrorists and kidnappings.

Source: United Nations, UN Study on Violence against Children, New York, 2006.

5.3 CHILDREN AT SPECIAL RISK

While all children may be exposed Children who face a combination


to threats to their security and well- of these factors are at an even
being in and around school, some higher risk of discrimination and
are at particular risk. The most physical and psychological violence,
vulnerable groups include children exploitation and abuse (United
with special needs, disabilities or Nations, 2006).
health impairments; those affected by
abuse, discrimination, exploitation, Child-friendly schools pay particular
war or natural disaster; orphans and attention to these groups, promoting
children affected by HIV and AIDS; inclusiveness and developing
minority children; those in remote, special measures to ensure that
rural areas or urban slums; and girls. children’s rights to health, safety and

10
CHAPTER 5: SCHOOLS AS PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
protection are fulfilled. Child-friendly Child-friendly school principles
schools and learning spaces rely on and practices provide a unique
the community to help identify these opportunity to identify and respond
children and bring them to school. To to the psychosocial needs of
better address their needs once they children orphaned by AIDS and
are in school, teachers must be trained other children in especially difficult
in specific educational methodologies circumstances. Using data on
and disability assessment tools. students’ family situations, health,
Additionally, the school must provide personal environment and learning
teaching and learning aids, supportive achievements as tracked by the school-
services such as counselling, and based information system, schools can
training in social and psychological tailor support measures to meet the
parenting; must encourage needs of specific students.
community participation in planning,
implementation and monitoring; and Special measures to protect orphans
must sensitize communities, parents and other vulnerable children include:
and children to the rights and needs
of children with disabilities and the • Teacher training in counselling,
benefits of inclusive education. building self-esteem and helping
children deal with death;
Child-friendly schools must also be • Life skills camps for orphans and
sensitive to how gender differences put guardians to foster communication,
children at risk. In general, girls and especially through art therapy;
boys are threatened differently. For
example, research suggests that boys • Collaboration in planning for the
are more likely to suffer from corporal child’s future;
punishment, while girls are more likely • Peer-helping and counselling
to be victims of sexual violence. programmes;

Schools need to focus on a growing • Livelihood skills training


phenomenon, the risk faced by incorporated into the curriculum
children affected by or infected to support orphans’ income-
with HIV. These children, together generating skills;
with the category referred to as • Drug and sexual abuse resistance
‘orphans and vulnerable children’ , training;
are often subjected to stigmatization
and discrimination due to lack of • After-school interest clubs (Life
knowledge about the disease among Skills Development Foundation,
teachers, parents and other children. 2000).
They are often excluded from school
and, if in school, can be subjected These types of psychosocial support
to harsh treatment that may cause measures have proved successful in
psychological and physical trauma. integrating orphans and vulnerable
School authorities need to work closely children into the school community,
with parents and communities to resulting in improved mental health,
protect orphans and other vulnerable reduced behaviour problems and drop-
children in and around school and out rates and higher completion rates
within the community. (Attig & Hopkins, 2006).

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CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
5.4 ASSESSING THREATS TO HEALTH,
SAFETY AND SECURITY

One of the first steps towards creating • How a community and society
a safe, healthy and protective school define risks, violence and threats to
environment is to conduct a systematic vulnerable children;
assessment of the extent to which
• Different forms of violence that are
girls, boys, teachers and staff feel safe
present;
and secure at school and at home.
The school must evaluate current • Ways in which a school needs to
and potential threats to the children’s develop its protective environment,
physical and psychological well-being. such as where school personnel and
communities must watch for child
Assessment questions about abductions or where road accidents
healthy, safe and protective learning are likely to occur.
environments include:
Schools need to develop strategies
1. What are the physical risks to girls that mitigate these risks and reflect the
and boys as they travel to and from demands and concerns of the wider
school and while they are in school? community, so that protection extends
What harm might they encounter in beyond the risks faced within the school
the school structure or from other alone. The assessment helps determine
schoolchildren? how much is being invested and how
much more needs to be invested to
2. What are physiological threats that
make the school a safe, protective
may affect children’s learning?
environment for all children and staff.
Hunger? Communicable illnesses or
Links with families and the community
childhood diseases? Dehydration or
are critical in this phase.
frostbite? HIV and AIDS?
3. What are the psychological risks Table 5.1 illustrates the physical,
faced by girls and boys in school? physiological and psychological risks
Bullying? Sexual violence? children may face, interventions that
Discrimination? Conflict or natural schools can develop and the cost of
disaster? implementing them. Such a table
can systematically assess the risks
4. What are the environmental risks to
associated with the school environment
the health and well-being of children
and their families? Deforested and how that environment may impact
terrain prone to floods? Drought? on a child’s success in school. It can
Lack of fuel for cooking? Air also compare the intervention costs
pollution? Unsafe, polluted drinking and, in an environment of scarce
water? resources (people, time, finances,
etc.), set priorities for comprehensively
5. Do children spend their time in dealing with actual and potential
activities that put them at risk of threats or risks to children. The list is
exploitation or harm? by no means complete. Each school
must thoroughly assess its risks, its
As answers emerge, the school can environment and its school population
determine its ‘risk index’, which to determine and develop appropriate
involves understanding: interventions.
12
CHAPTER 5: SCHOOLS AS PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
TABLE 5.1: ASSESSMENT OF RISKS, INTERVENTIONS AND COSTS IN A
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOL

Risk School intervention Cost

Physical

Traffic injuries or • Teach traffic safety Minimal except for


fatalities en route • Assign older children or adults to accompany younger children fencing, which can
to school or home through traffic be expensive
• Build barriers between recreation and traffic areas

Lacerations or • Ensure that corners of furniture are rounded and well sanded, No direct costs
other injuries especially for younger children
• Ensure that furniture is sturdy and well maintained
• Keep school grounds clean, paying special attention to hazards
such as broken glass, needles, blades (instruct younger children to
request assistance from an adult to remove such items)
• Make first aid available in the school (train teachers in basic
response)
• Prepare a map of environmental risks and an evacuation strategy
to be used in the case of a sudden onset natural disaster

Drowning • Properly cover all wells Minimal (purchase


• Closely supervise or erect barriers to ditches or bodies of water and installation of
deeper than 10 centimetres near schools barriers)
• Teach swimming and water safety with consideration for flood-
related drowning

Violence (beating, • Advance institutional ethos of zero tolerance of violence Minimal (prevention
hitting, weapons • Establish and implement policies against corporal punishment; is cheaper than
injuries, etc.) support alternative forms of discipline treatment)
• Establish and implement rules with consequences regarding pupil-
to-pupil violence
• Engage law enforcement personnel as needed
• Hold dialogues in the school to empower children to protect
themselves
• Provide adult supervision during break periods and intervene as
necessary in children’s arguments

Sexual violence • Develop transparent physical environment (children visible in Minimal


classrooms and around school )
• Establish and enforce policy of zero tolerance of teacher-to-child
sexual violence
• Empower children, especially adolescent girls, to identify and
reduce risks and report incidents
• Evaluate whether distance or remoteness of school facilities
(water, school garden, latrines) puts children at risk

Abduction • Establish appropriate procedures (all adults register upon entering –


schools, etc.)

13
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
Risk School intervention Cost

Physiological

Malaria (acquired • Eliminate standing water in school grounds and surrounding area Minimal
at school or • Educate children on malaria prevention, such as use of
impacting insecticide-treated mosquito nets (collaborate with public health
attendance) officials to increase supply of mosquito nets to children and their
families)
• Teach children and teachers to recognize malaria symptoms and
seek early treatment
• Engage children in community education to reduce standing water,
increase use of insecticide-treated mosquito nets.

Hunger and • Monitor children at risk Free, if organized


undernutrition • Establish school feeding programmes, organize regular checks by through partner
health workers for malnutrition and supported by
the community
• Support school gardens

Common childhood • Collaborate with health sector to ensure complete immunization –


diseases coverage for all children in school

Worms, diarrhoea, • Provide a source of safe drinking water Establishment


cholera (diseases • Provide sex-segregated latrines of water and
spread through sanitation facilities,
• Teach and encourage good hand-washing practices
faecal-oral maintenance costs
transmission) • Provide water for washing near the latrines
• Provide a sanitary location for food preparation and distribution
• Educate children regarding disease prevention

Acute respiratory • Provide access to clean energy for cooking in homes and schools –
illnes (smokeless or solar stoves)

Dehydration • Provide a source of potable water –


• Teach water hygiene
• Educate teachers on ways to identify symptoms early and how to
respond to fainting, seizures, etc.

HIV and AIDS • Develop collaborations to ensure that the special needs of –
children with HIV and AIDS are met
• Provide safe storage area for medications

14
CHAPTER 5: SCHOOLS AS PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
Risk School intervention Cost

Psychological

Trauma of sexual • Ensure that physical injuries are dealt with –


violence • Provide counselling and support
• Protect confidentiality
• Empower children through prevention
• Remove risks (such as the presence of a perpetrator in the school)
• Develop mechanisms for reporting incidents and deal with
complaints effectively to instill confidence in the process
• Enforce zero tolerance rules

Bullying (can also • Provide counselling to deal with children’s damaged self-esteem –
be a physical risk) and feelings of fear and humiliation
• Establish anti-bullying programmes, if appropriate
• Provide adult supervision before and after school and at breaks
• Enforce rules with regard to treatment of peers

Trauma caused • Assess children for effects (such as loss of concentration, change –
by an emergency, in achievement levels, frequent distracting thoughts)
conflict or forced • Reduce risks to children and build their sense of security in their
migration due to environment
climate change
• Develop counselling programmes with professional counsellors
• Train teachers to identify and support children at risk

Prejudice or • Support ethos of inclusion and respect –


exclusion • Encourage dialogue regarding differences and develop
understanding
• Build teachers’ capacity to identify equity issues
• Develop mechanisms for reporting incidents and deal with
complaints effectively to instil confidence in the process

5.4.1 Mapping safe spaces often a difference between what girls,


boys and young people perceive as
Unlike school mapping, which safe space.
determines if there are enough schools
for pupils in a community (see Chapter After the ‘risk index’ is completed, the
8), mapping safe spaces enables most at-risk groups accounted for and
a school community to assess the interventions decided, a child-friendly
violence children may experience in school needs to develop an emergency
and around school. Girls’ and boys’ preparedness plan. Such plans may
participation in violence prevention be more elaborate for schools in
and mapping safe spaces should be earthquake or flood zones, but all
at the core of a child-friendly school’s child-friendly schools need a plan so
protective environment. When boys, that everyone in the school will know
girls and young people map out safe what to do in case of a health threat or
and unsafe environments, there is other emergency.

15
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
SOUTH AFRICA: SAFETY AND RISK assets for children, followed by the family and
FACTOR RESEARCH school. However, school was also seen as
having the most potential danger to safety.
In 2004, UNICEF and the Limpopo All learners in the three districts mentioned
Department of Education (LDoE) contracted specific ways to improve their safety.
the University of Pretoria to conduct research Mentioned most frequently was facilitation
in Limpopo (South Africa) that examined of learning in schools, followed by individual
issues related to safety and threats for emotional aspects, and availability of
learners at the foundational (Grades R through structure and channels for involvement in
3), intermediate (Grades 4 through 7) and the community and schools. Facilitation of
senior (Grades 8 through 12) phases. learning included providing environments
conducive to teaching and learning;
The research was to provide baseline data and engaging and well-trained teachers; schools
potential strategies for longer-term school- that encourage community and family
based and community-based programmes to involvement, offer extramural activities and
develop child-friendly schools and schools life skills programmes, and are characterized
as ‘centres for care and support’ in Limpopo. by an academic climate of high expectations
The study also was to identify environmental as well as mentorship and mutual respect.
(school, family, community) and individual
risk factors that threaten healthy development Overall, the most common theme regarding
of the individual, and the protective factors threats to safety was the exposure to and
perceived to be essential in supporting threat of crime. On a community level, and
and building resilience. The research was reaffirmed by the community forums in
to ultimately promote learners’ healthy the three districts, this sub-theme signals
development. The protective factors could awareness of high crime levels and such
focus on learners while the environmental and acts as murder and kidnapping. In terms of
individual risk factors could simultaneously be the family system, the sub-theme referred to
examined and alleviated. active encouragement of criminal behaviour
and a fear of crime and exposure to weapons.
Three districts in the province – Bohlabela, The lack of future orientation, poor role
Sekhukhune and Vhembe - were selected models, sexual behaviour, and HIV and AIDS
as research sites by the LDoE based on data were identified with the least frequency by the
related to poverty, location and number of children as threats to their safety.
learners. Schools within the districts were
selected to participate. HIV and AIDS and sexual behaviour were
hardly mentioned by the learners, both
Learners were selected through random boys and girls. It was interpreted from
sampling. Their ages ranged from 3 to 21 participant responses that HIV and AIDS
years. In all, 2,391 children participated, 1,200 are still too stigmatized to discuss openly.
girls and 1,191 boys. Community forums, In this regard, participants identified the
composed of various stakeholders involved in family as being a risk factor and related
safety and children’s issues, were conducted sub-themes documented the effects of the
in two phases. pandemic on the family: discrimination and
labelling, related chores (unsafe, too many,
The survey’s overall findings indicated that burdensome), emotional neglect (insufficient
the respondents felt safe at home (87 per care or love, rejection), absentee or
cent), at school (86 per cent) and in the uninterested parents, and a lack of supervision
classroom (85 per cent). Fewer learners and protection.
felt safe on the playground (66 per cent)
or on their way to school (61 per cent). This Community forums also emphasized
generally matched the results from open- individual, school and community factors.
ended questions, which found that the The community forums, in the second
children from Grades R through 12 in all phase, helped identify possible strategies
three districts felt that the community had to create conducive and safe environments
the most to offer with respect to safety and for children/learners.

16
CHAPTER 5: SCHOOLS AS PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
Conclusion and recommendations should be examined in terms of required
resources, financial and human, to determine
The findings suggest that there is value in the if it is practical).
creation of child-friendly schools and schools as
centres of care and support for children. This is Because children relied heavily on positive
especially relevant in the current context, where interpersonal skills and traits as coping and
children indicated that the home and family safety themes, communication skills should be
are not always a place of safety. Rather, the taught through a ‘life orientation’ part of the
community and schools were seen to provide new curriculum. There is a need to fast-track
protection. However, schools have to first deal the training of teachers on ‘life orientation’
with the numerous threats that children feel or, in the interim, allow non-governmental
in order to be effective as protective places. organizations to provide such teaching.
Based on the findings, the following practical
arrangements are suggested: In Sekhukhune and Vhembe, especially at the
senior grades, children feel less safe on the
• Strengthen intersectoral community school premises. There is the need for future
forums that were established as part of this research to determine the factors contributing to
research to further the recommendations these feelings and to devise ways of addressing
and develop safety plans for children and these concerns and making the schools safer for
schools; the learners, both boys and girls
• Fast-track the infrastructure development Failure to mention HIV and AIDS directly is
for schools, especially in those areas that also a matter of concern. Children, even those
affect security, such as school fencing and in the higher grades, did not acknowledge
repair of broken windows; HIV and AIDS as a threat. With current figures
• Organize pickup points where children can indicating that young people – especially
be picked up and taken home at the end girls – are most at risk and the fastest growing
of the day, and organize safe transport or proportion of the population infected with HIV,
walking clubs so that children can walk this must be addressed urgently. Students’
home in groups rather than alone; not directly referring to HIV and AIDS implies
that there is not a welcoming environment for
• Ensure that there is adequate teaching staff those in crisis to feel comfortable discussing
at school at all times, for example, one or problems, such as being infected with HIV or
two teachers to supervise children during having a sick parent at home, with teachers.
breaks and on the playgrounds; One of the purposes of life skills is to raise
awareness about HIV and AIDS and responsible
• Ensure that teachers know who is sexual behaviour for young people; given that
authorized to pick up the child, ensuring ‘life orientation’ is now mandatory and a key
that the learner is only allowed to leave the learning area, it needs to be re-examined to
school premises with a specified adult; ensure that it is meeting its objectives.
• Train guidance counselors and teachers to
The need for integrated HIV-awareness
be able to provide psychosocial support and
campaigns, including dealing with stigma
referrals for children at risk. and discrimination and providing appropriate
messages and improving teachers’ expertise
Because children identified the importance of in discussing issues related to HIV and AIDS
community, various stakeholders (members (for example, without judgements), is clear.
of non-governmental and community-based This means that teachers need to confront their
organizations, community leaders and others) own biases about HIV and AIDS. This can result
should be trained on early identification of from ongoing HIV training and interventions
children and households in distress and where for educators as well as from creating an
to make referrals for such families or children; environment conducive for teachers to seek
assistance if and when they need it themselves.
Extension of an integrated plan for early child
development to the intermediate and senior Source: Construction of Safety and Risk Factors by Learners in
phases should be considered. (Feasibility the Limpopo Province, 2006.

17
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
5.5 REDUCING RISKS AND INCREASING PROTECTION

5.5.1 Legal frameworks environments begin with a review


of existing legislation to make
An important guarantor of a healthy, certain that all forms of physical
safe and protective environment and psychological violence against
is the legislative framework that children in school and at home
guarantees children’s rights to quality are prohibited and that suitable
education and protection. The CRC, mechanisms for recourse and
along with many other international complaint by children and parents
instruments, offers guidance to are in place. The legislation needs to
governments on legislative and guarantee children’s rights to health
policy reform needed to ensure and development.
children’s rights to health, protection
and well-being. Where adequate legal provisions
exist, assessment of how rigorously
Strategies and interventions to they are being implemented is
shore up healthy, safe and protective required. If the assessment shows a

SETTING SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS IN SCHOOLS AND OTHER


EDUCATIONAL SETTINGS

111. Bearing in mind that all children must be able to learn free from violence, that
schools should be safe and child friendly and curricula should be rights based, and
also that schools provide an environment in which attitudes that condone violence
can be changed and non-violent values and behaviour learned, I recommend that
States:

(a) Encourage schools to adopt and implement codes of conduct applicable to


all staff and students that confront all forms of violence, taking into account
gender-based stereotypes and behaviour and other forms of discrimination;
(b) Ensure that school principals and teachers use non-violent teaching and
learning strategies and adopt classroom management and disciplinary
measures that are not based on fear, threats, humiliation or physical force;
(c) Prevent and reduce violence in schools through specific programmes which
address the whole school environment including through encouraging
the building of skills such as non-violent approaches to conflict resolution,
implementing anti-bullying policies and promoting respect for all members of
the school community;
(d) Ensure that curricula, teaching processes and other practices are in full
conformity with the provisions and principles of the Convention on the Rights
of the Child, free from references actively or passively promoting violence and
discrimination in any of its manifestations.

Source: United Nations, UN Study on Violence against Children, New York, 2006.

18
CHAPTER 5: SCHOOLS AS PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
failure of adequate legal provisions, countries, services and social
strong advocacy to incorporate child institutions, including the family,
protection into legislation is necessary. hospitals and health centres, and
water and sanitation infrastructures,
The UN Study on Violence are under siege from poverty, political
against Children offers concrete conflict, natural disasters and the HIV
recommendations in this regard. and AIDS pandemic. Therefore schools
It calls on countries to strengthen are forced to step up when other
national and local commitments institutions cannot.
to end violence, enact legislation
that prohibits all forms of violence, Some governments have introduced
prioritize prevention through policies Learning Plus, an initiative that has
and programmes that address risk expanded school functions to include
factors, promote non-violent values social services delivery to children.
and awareness, build capacity of This entails collaboration among
those who care for children through government ministries, such as health,
such mechanisms as codes of social welfare, water, local government
conduct, ensure child participation, and lands, women’s affairs and justice,
create accessible reporting systems in systematically assessing risks to
and address gender dimensions of children’s health, safety and security
violence. in and around schools. In countries
such as Lesotho, Rwanda, Swaziland
One way to ensure that a and Zambia, Learning Plus is part of
government’s legislation reflects its child-friendly schools because it is
commitment to realizing the rights of understood that providing essential
children as expressed in the CRC is social services for children through
through the Committee on the Rights schools is critical to learning.
of the Child. Each year, this body
reports on the progress of countries in At this juncture, it has become clear
upholding their obligations to protect that effective policies are the backbone
children. of legislation that guarantees
children’s right to quality education.
Although the CRC has been almost
5.5.2 Policy frameworks and universally ratified, the effective
setting standards protection of children against violence,
exploitation, abuse and discrimination
Child-friendly schools are dependent is not yet a reality in many places.
on national, regional and school-level Despite improved legislation, often
policy frameworks and standards policies and government practices do
to institutionalize healthy, safe not change significantly. Countries
and secure measures. Policies and need to strengthen policies and
standards should provide essential institutional frameworks and set
services for children, including school standards for education quality that
health programmes, micronutrient include specific guidance on health,
supplementation, deworming, safety and security (hygiene and
vaccinations, school-feeding sanitation, first aid, safety of school
initiatives, and HIV and AIDS care furniture and equipment, protection
and support. In many developing from violence). In addition, policies

19
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
FOCUSING RESOURCES ON EFFECTIVE SCHOOL HEALTH (FRESH)

A framework developed by four UN agencies (UNESCO, UNICEF, WHO and the


World Bank) identifies four essential health components to be available in all
schools in order to ensure child-friendliness. These are:

1. Health-related policies in schools that help ensure a safe and secure physical
environment and a positive psychosocial environment, and address all types of
school violence, such as the abuse of students, sexual harassment and bullying,
and that help maintain the education system in the face of HIV and AIDS.

2. Provision of safe water and sanitation facilities, as first steps in creating a


healthy school environment that reinforces hygienic skills and behaviours;
providing separate sanitation facilities and privacy for girls is an important
contributing factor in reducing dropout during and before menses.

3. Skills-based health education that focuses on the development of knowledge,


attitudes, values and life skills needed to make appropriate positive decisions,
to establish lifelong healthy practices, and to reduce vulnerability to substance
abuse and HIV/AIDS.

4. School-based health and nutrition services that are simple, safe and familiar,
and address problems that are prevalent and recognized as important in the
community, including the provision of counselling to cope with the AIDS
epidemic.

Source: Assessing Child-Friendly Schools: A guide for programme managers in East Asia and the Pacific,
UNICEF EAPRO, 2006.

need to be in place to guarantee the of a child-friendly school. They must


right to education to children with establish the policies needed to ensure
disabilities. These policies need to that buildings are safe and clean,
be developed with full participation employ a fair ratio of female and male
of all stakeholders – communities, teachers, and enforce codes of teacher
parents and both children and adults conduct. The education system should
with disabilities – and should include also institute school guidelines for
international best practices and local safety and security that are known
values and realities (UNICEF EAPRO, by all stakeholders and enforced
2003). by school management. Standard
practices should also be established
Child-friendly schools do not exist in and used by teachers so that children
a vacuum, but rather in the context of can speak up freely and safely if they
local, district and national education are aware of violence.
systems and other sectors and
ministries such as health and justice. Beyond the education system, state
To support schools, education systems laws and government administrative
need to develop policies and set rules that criminalize abuse of students
standards that support the dimensions and support prosecution of violators

20
CHAPTER 5: SCHOOLS AS PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
© UNICEF/NYHQ2004-0999/Pirozzi
must be utilized.1 Policies should government policy. Life skills education
proactively address suspected abuse, for HIV prevention, for instance, should
sexual harassment, violence and be included in wider education sector
bullying, as well as guarantee that plans and become firmly rooted in the
pregnant schoolgirls and young official curriculum and related teacher
mothers can continue their education. training. This could be done within a
At the national level, media attention support framework that, alongside life
and civil society can help by publicizing skills education, addresses issues of
child protection issues and contributing children affected by HIV and AIDS, care
to a broader understanding of child and support interventions including
protection in society. protection, counselling and treatment,
and solid workplace policies that
In creating healthy, safe and protective ensure that teachers and other staff are
environments, governments need to able to take care of their own lives and
coordinate efforts through a sector- those of the children and young people
wide approach, ensuring integrated in their care.

1
The six elements of UNICEF’s Protective Environments Framework are a governmental commitment
to fulfilling protection rights; legislation and enforcement; attitudes, traditions, customs, behaviour and
practices; open discussion of, and engagement with, child protection issues; community capacity; and
children’s life skills, knowledge and participation. How protectively these elements function and how
they interact differ from one society to another and may vary in relation to different types of abuse.
Programmatic, policy and advocacy approaches need to be tailored accordingly.

21
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
PHILIPPINES: AN UNRULY SCHOOL BLOSSOMS
INTO A CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOL

When Faviolito Alberca became principal of Cebu City Central School (CCC) in
2002, the public school was a place to avoid. Rowdy gang wars rocked dirty,
smelly classrooms that housed more than 6,000 students. Faculty and students
lacked discipline, and tardiness, petty squabbles and poor learning were common.
Parents who had escorted their children to school roamed the corridors freely,
even after classes had begun. Gossip and shouting matches among parents were
common. Principals did not last; there had been three in just two years.

Instead of quitting, Mr. Alberca took immediate steps to rectify the situation.
Guided by the vision of a ‘child-friendly school’, he led the school in developing
an improvement plan that set specific goals, policies, standards and actions. The
plan was regularly monitored to achieve consistent day-to-day performance results
from teachers, parents, pupils and other school personnel.

After a profile of the student body, including information on their families and
home circumstances, showed stark poverty, with more than 80 per cent of
parents impoverished, jobless or engaged in marginal work and unable to take
on school activities, CCC went an extra mile. Believing that impoverished parents
meant malnourished children who perform poorly in school, the school initiated
skills-training courses for parents. Teachers helped some parents find jobs.
Other parents were hired by the school to repair broken windows, paint and fix
plumbing, using their new skills.

News travels fast in densely populated communities. Central’s concern for the
poorest was quickly noted. And the poorest families reciprocated by supporting
the school wholeheartedly. They provided free labour, fixed and cleaned the
surroundings, supported their children, helped teachers and raised resources for
the school. They are also the proudest when declaring that CCC is now comparable
to a quality private school.

Adapted from ‘Grime, Cloth Slippers and Hope’, Mercado, J., Sun Star, Mindanao Bulletin, Gold Star Daily,
Zambaonga Scribe, Visayan Daily Star, Visayas (Philippines), 1 March 2005.

5.6 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

In protective environments, the teachers and students to interact on


school ethos and culture should a daily basis, even in large classes.
enable teachers to organize and School managers and parents are
manage their classrooms in ways trained to support and reinforce this
that encourage children to participate approach from a management and
in the learning and teaching governance perspective. Where there
process. For instance, certain is meaningful child participation and
successful mother-tongue literacy teacher engagement in support of the
programmes used in Africa have learning process, there tends to be
been structured in ways that allow less violence in schools.

22
CHAPTER 5: SCHOOLS AS PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
Children and teachers in Malawi teachers must learn about healthy,
reported that as their teachers safe environments and in turn teach
learned to do continuous assessment key concepts to children. School heads
and regularly involve students in should organize the schools, and
monitoring learning progress, the teachers should organize their classes
teachers felt proud of their teaching to support a clean, healthy, protective
and refrained from using corporal environment for learning. For this
punishment in the classroom to work as efficiently as possible,
(Miske, 2003). each classroom should do a risk
assessment and prepare and maintain
Children’s membership on school a disaggregated register of students,
committees and participation in school teachers and key community partners.
government or parliaments, anti-drug Teachers should note orphans and
and crime prevention campaigns, or other vulnerable children, in particular.
after-school activities including sports A similar register or database should be
and the arts produced alternative compiled and kept at the national level.
forms of discipline and contributed to
a violence-free learning environment. Preservice and in-service training
should be offered to teachers on life
skills, child-centred and participatory
5.6.1 Teachers’ roles and teaching methods, peer education and
responsibilities ways to promote gender-sensitivity
in classrooms. This may involve such
In child-friendly schools, teachers simple strategies as teachers asking
should strive for relevant and child- students to keep track of how many
centred teaching and learning. First, times the teacher calls on girls or

© UNICEF/NYHQ2006-1615/Noorani

23
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
boys during a lesson to ensure often the first persons to whom
equal opportunities for students to children will disclose abuse and
participate. In Kenya, for instance, exploitation. Teachers can help
where the Government initiated report and refer such cases in
a nationwide policy endorsing order to prevent further abuse and
child-friendly schools and free provide necessary health care or
primary education, the child-friendly psychosocial support. Early warning
approach includes teacher training signs of violence and abuse may
in child rights and protection. In include absences, disappearances
South Africa, the Nelson Mandela or dropping out of school.
Foundation supports the child-
friendly school approach and Most teachers show the girls and
focuses on preventing violence boys in their classes the same
and fostering a creative learning protective care they show their own
environment. children or siblings. But there are
cases of teachers harassing girls
Teachers and other school personnel or boys and violating children’s
need to be educated on the many rights. Schools must have a zero
forms of violence and ways to assess tolerance policy for such harassment
violence in and around schools. With or violence by teachers against girls
such training and preparedness, or boys. Policies should be in place
teachers will recognize early signs of and enforced so that teachers who
domestic violence through children’s violate children will be prosecuted
behaviour changes or physical and expelled from teaching, not
injuries. Because of their regular simply transferred to another school
contact with children, teachers are as occurs in some countries.

FEMALE CLASSROOM ASSISTANTS

Most teachers in schools for refugees in Guinea and Sierra Leone are men, as
few women have completed higher teacher education. To address concerns of
gender violence against girls in the schools, the International Rescue Committee
recruited and trained female classroom assistants to work alongside male
teachers in some refugee school classrooms in these countries. An evaluation
of this pilot project found that the presence of the classroom assistants led
to significant decreases in pregnancies and dropouts and increases in girls’
attendance and academic achievement. In addition, girls – and boys, too –
reported that they felt more comfortable in their classrooms. The students also
said they were pleased that the classroom assistants were reaching out beyond
schools and following up in homes.

Source: The International Rescue Committee, Classroom Assistant Professional


Development Training Manual, July 2003.

24
CHAPTER 5: SCHOOLS AS PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
5.6.2 Children’s participation class time compared to an estimated
1,000 hours for private school
Active participation is important for students, and also that the content
children, teachers and the community was “not connected to the reality of
in child-friendly schools. For children, the students” (Portillo,1999). A simple
participation may involve peer learning, calculation reveals that in the best
various other child-to-child initiatives, cases, only an estimated 11 per cent
school clubs (health or sport clubs), of a primary schoolchild’s life involves
student government or children’s school-based learning. This translates
school parliaments. Such activities into children having a significant
can help children shape the teaching- amount of additional hours for other
learning process and encourage them learning and participatory activities.2
to take home and share messages on
good practices related to health, safety,
nutrition and so forth. ETHIOPIA: GIRLS’ EDUCATION
ADVISORY COMMITTEES
How children spend their time in
and out of school is important in Communities in Ethiopia have
determining their safety and protection. established Girls’ Education
Rather than allowing unstructured Advisory Committees (GEACs) to
time to possibly result in negative increase girls’ access to education
or dangerous behaviour, children’s of a high standard. GEACs have
free time in school can be spent on organized girls’ clubs that are safe
places for girls to talk, where they
constructive activities. Children and are encouraged to speak about
teachers can routinely take ‘safety problems of harassment and abuse
walks’ around the school during free and to report those problems to the
time to see what needs to be fixed committees. Other GEAC activities
and cleaned. They can do their part in include disciplinary committees to
maintaining and improving the school hold teachers accountable, ‘police’
environment. to protect girls on their way to and
from school, separate latrines for
girls, promoting the use of female
Worldwide, governments define the teachers, training boys and girls on
standard time for teaching specific how to treat each other respectfully,
primary-level material at “usually counselling girls and enlisting
850–1,000 instructional hours or religious and clan leaders to stop
180–220 days per school year.” In abductions and child marriages.
poor countries, however, teaching
time is often lower because of a “40 As a result, in one primary school,
per cent loss in instructional time and 217 girls were added to the rolls in
2003 and the drop-out rate of girls
reduced learning outcomes” due to
fell from 57 per cent to 19 per cent.
overcrowded conditions and split shifts
(Abadzi, 2007). In Latin America, studies Source: World Report on Violence against
have shown that public school students Children, United Nations, 2006.
received between 550 and 800 hours of

2
This calculation is a rough estimate based on dividing the estimated number of instructional hours
per year by the total number of hours in a year.

25
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
At the most basic level, children role models, such as senior female
need to be free to speak about child teachers and female head teachers.
protection concerns that affect them
or others. Teachers and school During a humanitarian crisis, the
personnel need to listen to girls and social and political context is likely
boys to be aware of the violence to be threatened or destroyed.
they experience. Systems must be Innovative strategies are needed in
set up that take children’s voices into these circumstances to guide and
account and involve girls and boys support adolescents in contributing
in developing remedies to violent to community life and the protection
or potentially violent environments. of younger children. Young people
Children should learn how to (10 to 24 years old) and their
protect themselves and be involved organizations should be considered
in formulating appropriate school key partners during crisis and post-
rules and disciplinary measures for crisis times. In Colombia, the Return
infractions, including alternatives to to Happiness programme invites
corporal punishment. adolescents to provide psychosocial
support to younger children through
For children to be less vulnerable, play therapy. Colombian refugee
girls and boys need to know their communities across the border in
right to be free from abuse and Panama have also implemented
need to be warned of the dangers of the project in child-friendly spaces
trafficking, sexual exploitation and inside the camps. (See Box, page
other threats to their safety. A child 27.)
who knows about these risks will
less likely fall victim to abuse. Participation of children and
adolescents in school and
Beyond the school level, child- community life is the most effective
friendly schools can influence way to develop their potential and
decision-making and be agents of increase their protection, especially
change within society. In a protective during times of conflict and crisis.
environment, teachers and children Young people need the opportunity
are free to discuss issues of child to express themselves and
marriage or child labour and thus contribute their opinions and ideas
contribute to changes in norms and to the social dialogue. This builds
practices regarding violence and self-esteem and helps them find
child abuse. Schools can have an their role in the community. Further,
impact on gender relationships in children and adolescents infuse the
the society by ensuring that schools social agenda with creativity, energy
are safe and that girls have good and resourcefulness.

26
CHAPTER 5: SCHOOLS AS PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
COLOMBIA: RETURN TO HAPPINESS

In the mid-1990s, in the context of the prolonged civil war that was tearing
the country apart and causing massive population displacements, the Return
to Happiness programme was introduced in Colombia to provide urgent
psychological support to children affected by violence. A crucial component
enabled families and communities to take part in the recovery process.
Adolescent volunteers, supervised by teachers, were central to this endeavour.
Young volunteers were trained in ‘play therapy’ and taught how to encourage
the trust and hope of younger children through games, art, puppetry, song and
storytelling. A ‘knapsack of dreams’ was prepared that included handmade
materials, such as rag dolls, puppets, wooden toys, books and songs. Parents,
teachers, church volunteers, health workers and community leaders assisted as
supervisors or trainers. The programme enriched children’s lives and created
safer, more supportive families and communities, even in the midst of war.

© UNICEF/NYHQ2000-0784/DeCesare

27
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
MALI: CHILD PARTICIPATION THROUGH CHILDREN’S GOVERNMENTS

A major challenge for primary schools in Mali is access. In 2004–2005, the gross enrolment
rate was 73 per cent, with a 21 point gap between girls and boys. Completing the school
cycle is also an uphill climb. A poor, rural girl, for instance, has a 17 per cent chance of
completing Grade 6. A third challenge is reinforcing classroom knowledge and life skills,
since 75 per cent of Mali’s teachers are contract employees with minimal training and
whose teaching methods remain traditional and non-engaging.

For children, other issues are important as well: improving school conditions, especially
in areas of hygiene, health and protection; learning about and practising equality between
boys and girls; lowering the absentee and drop-out rates. Anchoring life skills, such as
taking initiative, personal responsibility, helping others, self-esteem and citizenship,
is also important.

Child government helps provide concrete responses to these challenges by enabling


children to take active roles in the life and management of their schools. After a two-month
training course on child rights, child-friendly and girl-friendly schools, children analyse
their school. They choose areas in need of attention, form committees for each identified
problem area and elect ministers, half of whom are girls. The committees are made up of
students from all grades, and each committee develops its own set of activities and puts it
into practice. The child government meets regularly with teaching staff and frequently with
the parent association. A new child government is formed every year.

Child government is a teaching tool. Children’s participation through role playing promotes
change in living conditions and behaviours in school. The student government is a learning
exercise on such interdisciplinary issues as education, health and protection; with teachers’
support, students are the actors and decision makers. Regional teams of school counsellors
train teachers in the schools, who in turn train their students. A child government guide
adapted for children was provided to students and teachers. By October 2005, 1,500 out
of approximately 7,000 schools in Mali had a child government. Today, it has become a
nationally approved strategy of the Ministry of Education.

In May and June 2005, an evaluation of child governments in 45 schools found that there
was gender parity in general, but that tasks were conducted and tested in an unequal
manner. In the child government context, children were easily capable of expressing
themselves. Enabling girls to make their voices heard and take on more responsibility has
had a positive effect on the psychology and behaviour of all children. Students developed
new competencies, in particular relating to health and hygiene (managing drinking water
and washing hands, for example) as well as in educational and school support activities.
These attitudes reinforced student groups and also facilitated communication between
students and teachers.

Several areas were found to be needing improvement. Child government initiatives were
not correctly or sufficiently implemented by teachers within the curriculum to reinforce
students’ learning and life skills. Teachers and school staff together needed to become
more involved in students’ initiatives so that they could provide teaching and technical
support to the students. Training also needed to be redirected to focus on pedagogic
aspects and the role of the teacher.

Despite these shortcomings, child governments have allowed children to become aware
of their rights and learn that these rights have practical implications for themselves, their
schools and their communities.

28
CHAPTER 5: SCHOOLS AS PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
5.6.3 Protective aspects
of the curriculum

The curriculum in a child-friendly


school must be well designed and
well implemented. The children
entering the school should be
confident that they will acquire
basic tools for learning and a range
of knowledge and skills in various
subjects that enables them to know
about, participate in and contribute
to their community and society.
The skills-building curriculum
should include critical information
on nutrition and health, water and
sanitation, environmental education
for sustainable development, climate
change adaptation and ways to deal
with HIV and AIDS. Students should
also participate in peace education

© UNICEF/NYHQ2007-0839/Cranston
within a non-discriminatory school
culture.

A curriculum dedicated to Learning


Plus helps countries tackle major
challenges such as HIV and AIDS.
(See Box below.) Interventions for
prevention, protection, care and
support of children in schools require
various government ministries to

LESOTHO: FOCUS ON HIV AND AIDS, SCALING UP AND


INTERSECTORAL COOPERATION

The development of child-friendly schools in Lesotho is undertaken within a broader


vision of access and completion of quality education for all children. The overall goal is
to break the cycle of deprivation, poverty, discrimination and exclusion. With adult HIV-
prevalence at almost 30 per cent, HIV and AIDS awareness is of particular importance,
especially for children and young adults, who make up the highest proportion of new
infections. Therefore, mainstreaming HIV and AIDS awareness, life skills and protection
issues within schools and learning opportunities is a specific feature of the child-
friendly school framework in Lesotho. Important efforts for scaling up these activities
are under way. The National Curriculum and Development Centre is reviewing and
revising the national curriculum to ensure it is HIV- and AIDS-responsive, gender-
sensitive and life skills-based, and it is collaborating with the Ministry of Education and
Training and the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare to formulate a comprehensive,
holistic school health policy.

29
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
work together to ensure that children ability differences. They learn to ask
have access to essential services. questions about the knowledge passed
on to them by books, the media, adults
Life skills curricula enable children and other children. For example, if
to develop listening and speaking a science or mathematics textbook
skills, communication and negotiation shows mostly pictures of men, children
skills, assertiveness and empathy. will learn to ask routinely, “Where
They learn self-protection, ways to are the women?” They will learn to
recognize perilous situations, cope challenge the false belief that girls
with and solve problems, make and women cannot perform well in
decisions and develop self-awareness mathematics and science or that boys
and self-esteem. cannot do certain handicrafts. Finally,
teachers and students openly explore
When life skills include human issues of discrimination and the denial
rights education, children come of human rights in the context of the
to understand the nature of basic underlying power structures that create
rights as set forth in the CRC and inequality within a society.
to apply human rights standards to
real situations, from interpersonal to In peace education, girls and boys
global levels. Children begin to think learn how to avoid conflict and how
critically, grappling with dilemmas to mediate and resolve conflicts. They
presented when people’s rights come learn to understand and challenge
into conflict, such as in disputes images of others as ‘the enemy’
caused by safe water scarcity or other presented in books, television
environmental problems. Two other and other media. Students begin
life skills components with implications to examine the causes of conflict,
for the curriculum and human rights the relative merits of cooperation
are non-discriminatory education and and competition and the place of
peace education. trust within positive interpersonal
relationships. The peace education
Non-discriminatory education curriculum pays attention to
challenges children’s stereotypes of interpersonal violence, such as child
groups of people based on gender, abuse, bullying and harassment,
race, ethnicity, disability and other which typically involve both direct
characteristics. It aims to prevent and indirect violence including
children from stigmatizing particular psychological violence.
groups and end the pernicious effects
of stigmatization on those ostracized Peace-building and conflict-resolution
groups. For example, if children from skills can be relevant and useful
one ethnic group hear that children when such resources as water, food
from another group are dirty or lazy, and household energy are scarce.
they may believe the rumours without Additionally, peace education provides
questioning. Additionally, marginalized information about telephone hotlines,
groups may internalize the stereotypes. medical care and other services for
victims of abuse, and about the risks of
In non-discriminatory education, exploitation and trafficking.
children confront stereotypes as
they learn to understand, accept and Since the school day is short and
appreciate cultural, class, gender and topics are many, teachers and those

30
CHAPTER 5: SCHOOLS AS PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
who set national curriculum timetables constructing this new curriculum,
must find ways to integrate these the emergency situation is considered.
essential life skills into the curriculum A curriculum that integrates healing
along with health, nutrition, peace- activities, such as dance, storytelling
building and non-discrimination. Time and music, not only affects children’s
must be set aside for specific lessons ability to learn but also their capacity
in these areas. to heal and recover from the post-
traumatic stress of being a victim or
In emergency situations, standard perpetrator of violence. Throughout
curriculum practices may be an emergency, it is important for
disrupted and key teaching and teachers and community workers to
learning materials may be lost. In organize recreational opportunities
conflict or post-conflict situations, for children.
the curriculum may no longer appear
acceptable or relevant for the changing
circumstances. This frequently creates
an opportunity to develop a different
curriculum, better adapted to the
new situation and local needs. In

BATIK PAINTING IN THAILAND: A LIFE RESTORED THROUGH ART

After narrowly escaping death in are sold for 100 to 1,000 baht (US$2.50
the tsunami that struck his home to US$25).
on Thailand’s Phi Phi Island on 26
December 2004, Songklod took solace Naturally talented, Songklod is one of
in batik painting, a healing form of art the centre’s most promising painters.
in which the bright colors he splashes He is pleased that he can earn money to
on the cloth canvases help blot out bad help his family while his father looks for
memories. work. The money also makes it possible
for him to go to school, which his family
“I was depressed after the tsunami could not afford before the tsunami.
about losing my house and seeing my
parents lose their jobs,” says Songklod, “It’s so good to go back to school where
a shy 14-year-old. “Batik painting I have friends and can practice drawing
helps cheer me up, calm me down and and painting during the art class. My
improve my concentration.” art teacher always gives me tips and
new techniques to improve my painting
UNICEF and the Thailand Ministry of skills,” he says.
Education’s Non-Formal Education
Department introduced batik painting When asked about his plans, the usually
to promote psychosocial recovery for reticent Songklod eagerly explains: “I
children at the Nong Kok temporary want to continue doing batik painting.
shelter, home to more than 70 I really enjoy it. And I hope one day
households from the island. to open a batik shop in Krabi.” In the
meantime, he enjoys going to school
The batik centre has slowly grown into a and painting batik – two opportunities
small community business from which that came his way after the tsunami.
children can earn income to help their
families. Paintings made at the centre Source: Rodraksa, Natthinee, Building Back Better,
UNICEF, 2005.

31
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
5.6.4 Partnerships with the and community members participate
community in school activities, after-school
programmes and curricula preparation.
All stakeholders are needed to support
and sustain a protective environment. One challenge in developing a child-
The relationship between the school friendly school is violence prevention.
and the community is reciprocal. For Violence as defined by some families,
instance, child-friendly school students communities and countries is
bring lessons of daily care and health, considered acceptable behaviour in
hygiene and environmental education other areas. For example, corporal
to their families and communities. punishment – beatings, canings,
Families and communities in turn other physical punishment – has been
provide financial and other support banned in some countries, while many
to maintain and repair the school countries still consider it to be an
facilities. Teachers, parents and essential part of school discipline.
community members are actively
involved in the planning and By bringing girls, boys, families,
implementation of educational teachers and community members
monitoring and evaluation via parent- into the discussions, child protection
teacher associations and other groups. issues – such as corporal punishment,
In child-friendly schools, families sexual abuse, early marriage, child

© UNICEF/NYHQ2003-0356/Vitale

32
CHAPTER 5: SCHOOLS AS PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
labour and other forms of exploitation 5.6.5 Monitoring and evaluation
– can be brought to the fore. Schools in protective environments
can influence attitudes and behaviours
and can help break the silence around A healthy, safe, protective environment
sensitive topics. By advocating for for children requires an effective
child rights and protection, school monitoring system that tracks
officials, teachers, parents and children children’s health and health care,
can become catalysts for positive monitors school safety records,
change in the lives of individual registers the incidence and nature
children, in communities and within of child abuse and has informed and
society as a whole. strategic responses. The monitoring
and evaluation system is more
Child-friendly schools work with effective when it is participatory and
families, communities, and medical locally based. Schools can monitor
and legal professionals to support children’s absence or disappearance
children in need of special protection from school and can intervene early if,
and help parents understand and for instance, a child enters the labour
respect children’s rights. At the force. Schools can specifically monitor
community level, health workers, girls’ attendance and drop-out
teachers, police, social workers and rates, which often are influenced
others must be equipped with the skills by child marriage or female genital
and knowledge required to identify and mutilation/cutting.
respond to child protection problems.

PHILIPPINES: MONITORING PUPILS THROUGH STUDENT PROFILES

In Francisco Benitez Elementary School, a public school in a poor, congested


community in the heart of the Tondo district of Manila, teachers are constantly
concerned about students who are absent, at risk of failing, involved in gang wars
or unruly, rebellious and disruptive in behaviour. Student profiling, an innovative
activity that is part of the child-friendly school approach, revealed to teachers that
the students encountering difficulties often came from families facing extreme
poverty and other difficult situations. Moreover, most of the students who were
frequently absent and at risk of failing worked in the evening as vendors and
scavengers. Likewise, they found that a number of the children having problems
in school were victims of sexual abuse and exploitation.

With this knowledge came an understanding and resolve to work with parents,
communities, social workers and lawyers to help children at risk. As a result, child
abuse cases were filed in court; abused children were referred to social workers
for psychosocial counselling; and working students were placed in afternoon
sessions and provided with tutorial classes so they were able to complete the
school year and move on to the next higher grade. Teachers, on the other hand,
became more sensitive and responsive to students manifesting attitudinal and
behavioural problems. One teacher commented, “Now I know that there is no
such thing as a problem child – only a child with a problem.”

For further details, see <www.unicef.org/teachers/forum/0302.htm>.

33
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
In emergency situations, the after classes are up and running,
government, UNICEF and other partners review how programme
agencies monitor educational interventions are progressing and
activities run by governments and identify areas for improvement.
non-governmental organizations as
implementing partners. Monitoring Normal monitoring criteria may
and evaluation may involve working not apply in an emergency. Class
with partners to develop simple sizes can be exceptionally large
ways of collecting and updating and lessons may not be given in
data on children in and out of a traditional classroom setting.
school or identifying teachers and But children learn, and monitoring
other resources who can contribute continues to be important for both
to the re-establishment and education quality and community-
further development of primary building around the educational
and secondary education. Soon process.

5.7 CHILD-FRIENDLY EDUCATION IN EMERGENCIES

Violence is an overwhelming main objective of providing children


psychosocial blow to children and with protection and access to basic
families. The social, psychological, services. Based on the whole-child
moral and emotional losses suffered, approach of the CRC, child-friendly
the unrelenting fear of loss and the spaces integrate all the components
actual death of parents and caregivers that contribute to the protection and
can be as damaging as not having fulfilment of a child’s rights.
sufficient food, water and health
care. One of the most urgent tasks The child-friendly space approach
when conflicts loom is finding ways integrates health services, primary
to protect children. Protection in this education, childcare, nutrition,
sense means not only defending psychosocial development,
children against physical aggression, environmental education and
but also ensuring that their full range structured recreation in a protective
of rights and needs is respected and environment that is both family-
fulfilled. focused and community-based.
(See diagram, page 35.) The centres
The strategy UNICEF and its partners have programmes for preschool
use to ease trauma and bolster children, primary-school-age children,
children’s well-being in unstable youth and parents.
conditions is to establish safe and
protective learning environments. A key to the success of the child-
In an emergency, the child-friendly friendly space approach is that
space approach offers a protective children, their families and their
environment by engaging various communities are all partners in
sectors and charging them with the planning camp and community

34
CHAPTER 5: SCHOOLS AS PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
TURKEY: RESPONSE TO A CATASTROPHE

In response to the massive earthquake that struck the Marmara region of Turkey
in 1999, the child-friendly school/environment initiative was developed as an
integrated package including health and nutrition, hygiene, water and sanitation
services, early childcare and mother support, primary education and recreation
activities, and psychosocial support and youth activities. A set of minimum
standards was established based on average tent camp populations. Education
components included temporary tent facilities, educational kits and materials,
including special needs kits, teacher-support activities and psychosocial training
support. Early childhood activities and youth activities were also included. The
reactivation of the school system emerged as an effective channel for other relief
activities, with the school system used to distribute nutritional supplements,
offer psychosocial support, and help register and locate survivors.

EXAMPLE OF CHILD-FRIENDLY SPACES3

Primary school

Mother support

Play area

Water point

Preschool

Psychosocial Primary
support health care

3
Minimum standards per 1,500 population: primary schooling space, 300 square metres;
preschool space, 150 square metres; primary-health-care space, 110 square metres;
mother support space, 110 square metres; psychosocial support space, 110 square metres.

35
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
activities, so planning itself becomes
a healing activity. Child-friendly
spaces also focus on empowering
families and communities worn down
physically and emotionally by armed
conflicts or natural disasters and
facing increased poverty. Identifying
and training teachers from within
the displaced population motivates
refugee and displaced communities
to be committed to child protection,
especially for children without
family support. Those living without
caregivers are then integrated into

© UNICEF/NYHQ2006-0335/Pirozzi
communities instead of being placed in
institutional care.

Although most children will never have


to live through a natural or human-
made disaster, all schools need to
have emergency preparedness plans.
As schools develop such plans, child-
friendly dimensions must be in the
forefront.

IRAN: BAM EARTHQUAKE

On 26 December 2003, a devastating earthquake killed 30 per cent of Bam district’s


32,443 schoolchildren and 33 per cent of their 3,400 teachers. The earthquake
destroyed 67 of 131 schools, and many of those remaining were damaged beyond
repair. The Ministry of Education, UNICEF and partner organizations responded by
setting up temporary learning spaces and supporting the reopening of schools and
recreational activities. They provided learning and teaching materials, recreational
items, school office equipment and school furniture, mobile libraries, psychosocial
support for teachers, psychoeducation and group counselling for children, teacher
training on how to use new items and librarian training. To support the resumption
of quality education, they introduced the child-friendly school concept and
established community services. Library books for primary and lower secondary
school were reviewed, and a catalogue of culturally appropriate and relevant books
was developed. Special emphasis was given to girls, who are more likely victims of
sexual violence, abuse and economic exploitation. (Education is not perceived as
a priority for girls when urgent basic needs must be met. In fact, forced and early
marriage is sometimes seen as a way of protecting girls, and they often cannot
voice their fear and insecurity or share their hopes and feelings.) As a result of
these interventions, 14,949 primary and lower secondary schoolchildren registered
and resumed school in the 2004 school year.

36
CHAPTER 5: SCHOOLS AS PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 6
Learners, teachers and school managers

6.1 School reform and learning achievement

6.2 Preparing teachers

6.3 School head as leader and mentor

6.4 Organizing classrooms and learning spaces

6.5 Pedagogic materials

6.6 Learning and teaching methods


6.6.1 Lessons learned from multigrade teaching
6.6.2 Classroom discipline and management practices

6.7 Curriculum
CHAPTER 6
LEARNERS, TEACHERS AND SCHOOL MANAGERS

Can China create schools that foster openness, flexibility and innovation?
And what happens to China if it does?

Even as American educators seek to emulate Asian pedagogy – a test-


centered ethos and a rigorous focus on math, science and engineering
– Chinese educators are trying to blend a Western emphasis on critical
thinking, versatility and leadership into their own traditions. To put it
another way, in the … style typical of official Chinese directives (as well
as of educationese the world over), the nation’s schools must strive “to
build citizens’ character in an all-round way, gear their efforts to each
and every student, give full scope to students’ ideological, moral, cultural
and scientific potentials and raise their labor skills and physical and
psychological aptitudes, achieve vibrant student development and run
themselves with distinction.”

Source: Hulbert, Ann, ‘Re-education’, The New York Times Magazine, 1 April 2007.

6.1 SCHOOL REFORM AND LEARNING ACHIEVEMENT

During their early and formative learn and what becomes their
years, children spend half their ultimate destiny. Innate abilities,
waking hours in school. It is therefore socio-economic factors relating to
reasonable to expect that schools home and community background,
and teachers will help forge students’ and information and knowledge in
development and destinies. Countries the popular culture play a key role
invest heavily in schools as the key in children’s lives. Links between
institution for shaping the lives of the schools and communities are critical
young and preparing them for future for optimizing the school’s influence
roles in homes, communities and on the child’s development and
society at large. Much is expected achievements.
of schools, especially in terms of
enabling children to achieve their The school’s main contribution rests
potential through mastery of the on the total learning experience it
learning prescribed in the curriculum. provides for children. A wide range of
planned and unplanned activities is
The school is not the only involved, usually defined as the
determinant of how children develop, formal curriculum and the ‘hidden’
what they learn, how much they curriculum. The specific ways in

1
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
which schools are expected to make applying formulas, memorizing
a contribution will be established facts, correcting mistakes and
by the teaching and learning process managing time. All of these can
that takes place in the classroom count as successful learning, as long
as well as ‘outdoor’ activities as learners master much of what is
organized as part of the curriculum. prescribed in the curriculum.
In fact, the interactive classroom
process has the greatest influence The predominant means of
in determining learning outcomes measuring learning achievement
because education is most of all helps determine teaching and
about engaging young minds. learning styles as well as the
culture of schools and education
Over time, schools and education systems. In some systems, there is
systems develop distinctive teaching a predominance of multiple-choice
and learning styles, which may testing, frequent tests and continuous
be based on learning theories, assessment, while others focus on
philosophies of learning rooted in the major examinations at the end of a
culture or simply practices that have grade or cycle and use test formats
evolved through eclectic teaching and that involve technical problem-
learning methods. The predominant solving, essays and comprehension
pedagogy usually influences exercises. Learning assessment
education from primary school to systems may also emphasize and
university, and determines the kind reward individual efforts or teamwork
of successful learner produced through different categories of
by the education system. In every projects and assignments. Most
system, good schools tend to excel schools and education systems will
in the predominant style of teaching use a combination of these means
and learning, while taking into of testing learning achievement, but
account the requirements of different there will be a predominant testing
subject areas. For instance, teaching mode that learners must master if
mathematics will be different from they are to be successful.
teaching literature; teaching science
will be different from teaching At an early stage of their education,
religious studies. children quickly learn the importance
of the predominant style and the
In general, the predominant style significance of the main testing
of teaching and learning defines modes that are used to determine
what constitutes success. At one learning achievement. Initiation
extreme, successful learners may into this culture can take place, for
be those who excel at formulating instance, when children begin to
arguments, assembling evidence, understand that self-expression
exercising judgement, expressing is discouraged in favour of rote
opinions, exploring creativity, memorization; when answers are
showing tolerance, making innovative known only to the teacher; when
decisions and developing a balanced there is only one right way of doing
approach to life. At the other things; when conformity is rewarded
extreme, successful learners may and creativity is punished; and when
be those who are good at following labels of ‘stupid’ or ‘clever’ are
rules, conforming to conventions, applied to young children.

2
CHAPTER 6: LEARNERS, TEACHERS AND SCHOOL MANAGERS
In a child-friendly school, the style of Teachers need training and support to
teaching and learning will be centred accomplish this. Teachers as reflective
on what is best for the learner. It will practitioners are troubled when only
be geared towards bringing out the half the class gets test questions
best in each learner as he or she strives right after a lesson, so they explore
to master the prescribed knowledge, alternative teaching methods to help
skills and attitudes in the curriculum. the failing half of the class raise their
Child-friendly schools will encourage scores. As such, pedagogy in a child-
the use of different teaching and friendly school will be based on such
learning methods appropriate for the facts as:
children and the subject matter. This
promotes multiple paths to knowledge • Children learn by exploring and
and skills acquisition. expressing opinions just as much
as they do by memorizing facts and
To facilitate multiple learning following set rules;
pathways, teachers will need to be
• Children need to challenge other
reflective practitioners who:
opinions in the process of learning
just as much as they need to take
• Strive to understand why some
certain facts on trust from those
children do not do as well as
who know better;
others;
• Children need the freedom to
• Use different techniques and
use their inner resources to solve
strategies to get children to learn
problems just as much as they
and succeed;
need guidance in making the
• Operate on the basis that children best use of their natural talents
can follow different learning paths as learners.
to achieve success.

© UNICEF/Brisebois

3
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
Such principles will guide the children’s education and well-being
range of teaching and learning by parents, local communities and
styles employed by the teacher as a the nation at large also can inspire
reflective practitioner operating in a students’ motivation to learn. A child-
child-friendly classroom. The broad friendly school in itself attracts and
focus is on the best interest of the motivates children, brightening up
child and how to bring out the best their lives and inspiring them with the
in every child. desire to learn (UNICEF, 1999).

Learning is an individual process A child-friendly classroom or learning


dependent as much on what a child space is many things. It is not only
brings to it as on what a teacher friendly and welcoming for the child,
does to facilitate it. The nature but also conducive to learning, safe
of this process will vary with the for all, gender-responsive and fully
age and developmental stage of inclusive. It provides opportunities
the child, among other factors. for girls and boys alike, regardless
For instance, in the early years of of their background, enabling all to
school young children do not have participate equitably in the learning
the same ‘readiness’ in terms of process. In such schools, as far as
skills, knowledge and ability to learn possible and appropriate, the focus
complex concepts as older children is on allowing learners to experiment
or adults. Children learn differently with ideas and discover answers
at this stage, and research indicates to promote the ‘joy of learning’
that, for the most part, learning occurs that comes from self-discovery. In
through structured play. Learning is much the same way, these schools
also affected by language and culture, encourage and facilitate the ‘joy of
especially if the curriculum is based teaching’ that comes from applying
on a language and culture alien to professional skills and reflective
the learner. Research makes clear that methods to help all children achieve
children learn best in the early years in the learning process.
when taught in their own language;
so schools often must adopt Experiences in different countries
multilingual policies for children show that child-friendly schools
from different ethnic or language provide motivation for teachers, who,
backgrounds. through the schools, are introduced
to appropriate pedagogy for the first
The research literature also shows time. As they operate in stimulating
that children learn better when they classrooms and use new techniques
are motivated and encouraged to to improve learning achievement for
participate in classroom activities. their students, these teachers become
Therefore, class size needs to be infused with a new sense of pride in
manageable for a teacher to give their own professional competence.
adequate attention to motivating And as the schoolchildren display
each child. Motivation can come from a new confidence and an increased
the physical environment in which interest in learning, their teachers
learning takes place, the facilitating are better able to win the respect
efforts of the teacher and the activities and trust of parents and local
and processes among the learners in communities. Such professional
the classroom. The interest shown in rewards and recognition can be just

4
CHAPTER 6: LEARNERS, TEACHERS AND SCHOOL MANAGERS
as important to teachers as issues in order to boost education quality
of salary and conditions of service. throughout the system. The range of
It has also been observed in several problems encountered in refurbishing
countries that teachers who have been an existing school may include
introduced to child-friendly pedagogy unattractive classrooms, inappropriate
often serve as ambassadors for the teaching-learning methods, inadequate
model. They motivate other teachers teaching-learning materials, unsafe
to become more reflective in their school grounds, absence of effective
work and more concerned with the and sustainable teacher support
general welfare and improved learning systems and poor teacher motivation.
achievements of all their students. These factors erode education
quality and contribute to high drop-
The teacher’s role is the key to out rates and low levels of learning
achieving results in child-friendly achievement. School reform to
schools and learning spaces. improve quality therefore requires
Therefore, the required training and effective strategies for the investment
support to prepare teachers for this of resources and support of key
important role must be a priority. stakeholders.
Attention also should be given to
teachers’ rights and responsibilities Education reform based on the
as well as their accountability and child-friendly school model makes it
general conditions of professional possible to:
service. For teachers to play the critical
role expected of them, the classroom • Implement innovative classroom
design and layout should be right for practices that greatly improve
them and should provide and organize learning outcomes;
teaching and learning materials
and activities appropriately. These • Encourage the involvement,
elements contribute significantly to cooperation and participation of
the overall classroom management children, teachers, school heads
necessary for quality teaching and and parents in the reform process;
learning.
• Cultivate incentives for improving
the quality of education based on
Whatever teachers do in a child- favourable working conditions
friendly school, they need to focus on
that serve to motivate teachers,
child participation and consciously
students and the community.
strive for children’s empowerment as
an outcome of the learning process. These working assumptions of the
Combining the right classroom child-friendly school model are
conditions and processes with the conditions for success in the sense that
expertise of trained teachers and they need to be factored into education
a supply of pedagogic materials reform plans as ‘risks’. In other words,
constitutes the critical child-friendly if the assumptions do not hold in
school package. practice, results from investing in
child-friendly schools will be less than
The challenge that countries face expected. The child-friendly reform
is not only to plan for new child- process needs to avoid generating
friendly schools, but also to make false expectations like those that
existing schools more child-friendly have occurred in earlier education

5
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
investments. For instance, it was natural curiosity is encouraged and
assumed previously that if countries strengthened;
simply invested in constructing
• Parents who can afford the costs
schools and providing teachers and
will send their children to school
materials, quality education for all
regularly if they trust the school to
would blossom. But it takes more than
teach and care for them;
supply-side provisions to achieve such
results, and more attention needs to • Children will willingly attend
be given to the demand-side barriers school on a regular basis if they
that keep children out of school, find the teaching-learning process
even when schools and teachers are enjoyable, stimulating, inspiring
available. and attractive;
• Children and their parents will
The key assumptions about success
develop confidence in schools if
in child-friendly schools are fairly
the children are making progress
cautious and based on widely
with learning;
accepted norms about human
behaviour. They include expectations • Communities will generally
about how children and their parents support teachers and identify
are likely to behave, such as: with schools (local ownership) if
children are learning, teachers are
• Based on their innate abilities committed to facilitating learning
and instincts, all children wish and the school is responsive to the
to learn and will do so if their concerns of the local community.

6.2 PREPARING TEACHERS

Teachers are central to school reform. to operate effectively within the


Thus, the success of implementing challenging rights-based, child-
child-friendly models in the context centred and interactive pedagogy that
of reform will depend on the calibre is at the heart of the child-friendly
of teachers within the system. school model.
In many developing countries, a
high percentage of teachers lack Investing in this type of training
the requisite level of education must be a two-pronged approach:
and training needed to rise to focusing on in-service training for
the challenge of school reform. existing teachers, preferably at
Moreover, for many reasons, the the school level; and building new
morale and motivation of teachers capacity through preservice training
in these countries may be low. If for those wishing to join the teaching
school reform is to succeed, it will profession. In addition, strong
be critical to establish well-designed teacher mentoring by school heads
training and mentoring programmes will be essential for success. For
that build competencies, strengthen many countries, this would require
capacity and improve the morale a revitalization and restructuring of
of teachers. This will include high- teacher training. Such restructuring
quality preservice and in-service would not only improve professional
training for teachers enabling them competencies, but also encourage

6
CHAPTER 6: LEARNERS, TEACHERS AND SCHOOL MANAGERS
© UNICEF/NYHQ2005-0153/Grusovin
changes in career structures, combined with increased opportunities
accreditation policy and promotion for teachers to regularly share good
criteria in recognition of competencies practices and deal with professional
gained through in-service training. problems. This approach enables
Both preservice and in-service training teachers to assist, train and support
should be designed to integrate child- each other on a regular basis and
centred pedagogy with content area benefit from the professional and
knowledge and subject specialization. personal support available from formal
training centres, especially vital for
To date, systems reform efforts have teachers in remote locations. Teachers
been limited, making in-service who participate in these mutual
training the main mode for preparing support schemes take ownership
teachers and school heads for child- of the process and understand the
friendly schools. The lessons learned issues and constraints they need to
from this experience indicate that in- address. Eventually they are able to
service training needs to be continuous monitor, evaluate and implement the
and localized to produce results. It measures needed to improve their
also must tap into the resources that own classroom practice. Based on
teachers bring to the training process. experiences in several countries, it is
Teachers have enormous reserves of critical for this reciprocal approach to
knowledge and experience that often be understood, valued and supported
remain untapped in conventional by head teachers and education
training programmes. In-service administrators. The reform process
training should build confidence, requires budgeting of the necessary
skills and new strategies and help funds and an allocation of time for
identify problems that teachers face in these types of exercises.
embracing change. Every child-friendly
school initiative to date has involved For many countries, such an intensive,
developing and implementing in- comprehensive approach to training
service teacher training programmes and support implies major reform
with a variety of delivery models. in teacher education policies and
These initiatives have produced a practice. Current policy and practice
wealth of training guides, modules, often fail to transform classroom
checklists and other support materials. processes. And if changes are not
made in training patterns, school-level
So far, successful in-service training investments may not yield the best
has taken the form of short workshops, results for child-friendly schools. To

7
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
contribute effectively to changes in heads is also important for bolstering
classroom practices, teacher education their capacities for school development
pedagogy should not only stress the and planning, as the child-friendly
theory that underpins child-centred school is likely to be different from
learning, but also be grounded in most other existing schools.
practical methodologies that have
been successfully classroom-tested. In- Reform that seeks to make schools
service training for teachers and school child-friendly system-wide will

IN-SERVICE TRAINING: TEACHER-CENTRED TRAINING FOR


CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS
In Ethiopia and Kenya, a five-day in- and friendly (non-threatening), so
service teacher training programme was that teachers feel confident enough
developed with unique organizational, to share experiences, learn from
methodological and content features. mistakes, express doubts and voice
Additionally, the programme set out shortcomings without fear of ridicule;
to improve quality by varying the
customary training hierarchy with • The training process should involve
questions of ‘who trains?’ and ‘how some behavioural objectives,
will the training be conducted?’ This including self-discipline, role
innovative training was based on the modelling, respecting each others’
following principles: views, punctuality, cooperation,
equitable treatment and gender
sensitivity;
• The training programme must be
stimulating, inspiring, motivating and • The training programme should
exciting for teachers and trainers; use enthusiasm as ‘shock therapy’
to help teachers rapidly replace
• For maximum impact, the training any inertia, cynicism or ‘non-
programme preferably should action syndrome’ that might defeat
be residential, with minimum promising innovations;
distractions;
• Teachers should finish the course
• The training should bring about a feeling confident and satisfied not
change in teachers’ perceptions and only that they have learned a great
orientation in a way that enables deal, but that it is feasible to put what
them to put what they have learned they have learned into practice in
into immediate practice; their classrooms;
• Teachers should be given ‘take-away’ • Trainers should include experienced,
resource packs that they can use in practicing teachers who are familiar
their classrooms; with a variety of teacher training
• Teachers should be given suggested, techniques and are able to articulate
rather than prescriptive, guidelines how these techniques can be made
that can subsequently be adapted to effective in schools;
their classroom and school situations • Trainers should be enthusiastic about
and supported through continuous child-friendly school models and
training at the cluster level; capable of generating excitement
• The training programme should and interest in the teacher trainees,
be activity-based and highly who need to observe and hear
participatory, as well as helpful inspiring trainers to be motivated.

8
CHAPTER 6: LEARNERS, TEACHERS AND SCHOOL MANAGERS
succeed only to the extent that it with teachers in their schools or at
is possible to build a critical mass the school cluster level;
of trained, committed teachers,
education managers and teacher • Enhancing the capacities of head
educators. Universities and teacher teachers as mentors and ‘catalysts
training institutions must take the for change’ at the school and
lead in school reform processes. For community levels;
child-friendly school models to be • Helping teachers develop self-
sustained at the education-system confidence in their professional
level, they have to be an integral competence and become
part of preservice teacher education increasingly autonomous as
programmes, and several countries capable child-friendly school
have started this process. However, practitioners.
the main challenge is not with
preservice training, but in designing Experience to date suggests that
appropriate in-service programmes school-based, on-the-job training
that prepare current teachers for and support are most appropriate
the demands and challenges of the for building teacher competencies
highly innovative, child-friendly and maintaining momentum around
school models. the change process in classrooms
and schools. In providing such
Experiences with these models training, it is essential for teachers
in countries that have begun to and head teachers to be treated
integrate them in preservice teacher as professionals with a stake in
education, such as Ethiopia, Kenya developing their school and their
and Vanuatu, have underscored own practice. Purely technical
that teachers’ behaviour change
must be ‘institutionalized’ at both
the classroom and the school level INDIA: TEACHER EMPOWERMENT
for successful reform. Only when PROJECTS
such changes are routinely part of Experience from India has shown that
everyday practice in the classroom timely involvement of teachers can
and throughout the school will there enhance the process of education
be a positive impact on the education reform. The Teacher Empowerment
Projects in Madhaya Pradesh and Uttar
system in terms of access, quality and Pradesh in the 1990s included high
learning achievement. In short, this teacher participation at early stages.
type of reform requires sustained, As a result, the Primary Teachers’
long-term support to transform Association assumed a leadership
classroom practice. role and helped motivate teachers
to fully support child-friendly school
innovations introduced by the Education
Support measures that have proved Department with UNICEF support. This
to be effective include: type of partnership between teachers’
unions and associations, which goes
beyond issues of salary and conditions
• Building capacity and
of service, has helped to successfully
strengthening the role of field- implement innovations such as child-
level education supervisors as friendly schools.
resource persons who follow up

9
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
training programmes tend to treat countries as Ethiopia and Kenya, the
teachers and head teachers simply as core trainers providing in-service
practitioners who lack the knowledge training include both teachers and
and skills necessary to implement teacher educators. They work closely
the innovations that have been together, demonstrate mutual respect
designed by others. Major changes as professionals and understand the
are required in the mindset of those need to communicate and cooperate
who plan the new type of in-service with each other. (See Box, page 8.)
teacher training programmes. If
these new programmes are to work Teachers’ motivation and
and improve education quality, there commitment are as much a
must be a close relationship and part of the reform process as
understanding between the teachers their knowledge and technical
and teacher educators. In such competencies. Salaries and

ETHIOPIA: VOLUNTARY SERVICE OVERSEAS AND NEWLY QUALIFIED


TEACHERS PROGRAMME

The Voluntary Service Overseas (VSO) programme was introduced throughout


Ethiopia in 2004–2005. A VSO mentor in the school welcomes the new teacher,
orients him or her and works with the newly qualified teacher and other school
staff involved in planning, subject knowledge and other programme activities.
They form a small team to work on simple, practical classroom-based assignments
and share good practices with others in the school community. This is graded
and monitored by the head teacher and the local administrators, and at the end of
the period, the newly qualified teacher is given a certificate of competence. The
programme design allows this managed professional development programme to
extend throughout the school.

“It is very interesting that I have learned so much from this programme for a new
teacher,” said Mulatu Waktole, a teacher in Assosa Primary School for 13 years.

NIGERIA: VSO AND SCIENCE EDUCATION

A VSO science teacher in Nigeria had been running a series of practical regional
workshops for science teachers. By the end of the programme, more than 40
science lessons had been developed, along with descriptions of how to turn
discarded objects into simple science materials and equipment. The volunteer
approached the area’s Regional Education Officer, who was impressed with the
quality of the initiative and ultimately requested UNICEF support. UNICEF agreed
to have the lesson plans published as a book, Junior Science 1. The book was then
distributed to schools throughout the region, where it was welcomed by teachers
and children – some of whom had never had an opportunity to engage in practical
science before. This initiative continues to develop, and Junior Science 4 will be
published soon.

10
CHAPTER 6: LEARNERS, TEACHERS AND SCHOOL MANAGERS
conditions of service are major proposed changes in these plans.
factors in teacher motivation and In order to win teacher support for
commitment, and these need to be implementing child-friendly school
carefully addressed. However, other models, countries need to mount
important factors besides pay and major advocacy campaigns and
conditions affect teachers’ morale consultation processes around the
and motivation. Many of these are reform.
critical for the child-friendly model to
succeed. Another key factor that affects
teachers’ commitment to change
How much are teachers included is the extent to which their
in planning reform as opposed to professionalism is recognized and
simply being asked to implement it? utilized in the process of building
Research suggests that practitioners capacity for reform. Most teachers
will implement innovations if they have knowledge and skills that will
believe in them and are committed help others adapt to change when
to the promised outcomes. Involving they are shared. Usually, a simple
practitioners during the planning appraisal will identify teachers’
process is one of the most effective knowledge and skills and, at the
ways of getting them to believe in same time, pinpoint their areas of
and commit to reform. Without this, weakness. Teachers can agree to
teachers tend to perceive innovations a systematic plan to correct these
such as child-friendly schools as weaknesses and develop practical
just added work, often with little programmes to improve what they
or no additional compensation or do well in order to support change
reduction in their existing workload. in the classroom. These simple
On the other hand, when teachers programmes can address many of the
feel that they have taken part in day-to-day difficulties that teachers
planning a reform and that their encounter in their work, while
views have been taken into account, creating a sense of professional pride
they will have a stake in its successful in the collaborative efforts used to
implementation. support child-friendly achievements
in the classroom. There are many
External support to education under talented practicing teachers who can
the Monterrey Consensus requires be role models for other teachers
credible plans arrived at through and, if they are good communicators,
a participatory process. In reality, also effective trainers. Although this
most plans are purely technical in-service approach may appear
exercises involving little or no intensive and burdensome for
participation by key stakeholders. teachers, it reaps significant gains.
Analysis of education sector plans (See Boxes below.)
developed in many countries as
part of the sector-wide approach One of the most effective ways
process shows negligible teacher of promoting intensive, localized
involvement. The exceptions tend to and continuous teacher training
be in matters of salary and conditions is through school clusters, small
of service, rather than in the technical networks of allied schools that
and professional aspects of the encourage professional development

11
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
among teachers and allow for sharing
resources, facilities and experiences. GUYANA: TEACHER LEARNING
Typically, four to six schools in the CIRCLES
same area form a cluster, enabling
teachers to arrange in-service training In Guyana, teacher absenteeism
programmes. In many developing is high, classes are large, and
countries, most teachers live and volunteers are essential. The
work in isolated locations and require country’s strategy of ‘learning circles’
regular, timely support to improve (or ‘school clusters’, as they are
their classroom and school practices. called in Ethiopia and Kenya) is a
simple method of in-service training
Establishing a support system such as
whereby teachers in a school or
school clusters or a resource centre cluster of schools periodically discuss
that serves several schools enables emerging issues and processes
teachers to build on what they have related to children’s learning. They
learned in more formal training come together to share information,
programmes. Without this ongoing experiences and successes in their
support, the initial enthusiasm for quest to become efficient, effective
change can drop rapidly. and confident teachers, and to
develop common goals and vision.
The main objective of school
clusters is to improve the quality
of the learning-teaching process in providing opportunities for teachers
the classroom. This involves the to participate in continuous in-service
cooperation, active involvement and training without travelling long
full participation of all facilitators distances and facilitating the use of
and teachers in the cluster so that needs-based, demand-driven teacher
teachers receive the ongoing support
training based on the ‘teacher teach
needed to upgrade their pedagogic
teacher’ school-based in-service
skills and professional competencies.
training model. Clusters also improve
Clusters also can help increase the
school management practices through
enrolment, attendance and learning
school collaborations.
achievements of student in the
cluster schools and mobilize local
community participation in planning In Ethiopia and Kenya, school clusters
and managing primary education. were shown to be sustainable by
By establishing and strengthening modifying the roles of education
linkages among district education department supervisors and teacher
offices, divisional education offices, training institutes and colleges. The
teacher training colleges and primary education departments provided
and secondary schools, they can encouragement and support, while
also improve the quality of learning- teacher training institutes and colleges
teaching practices. School clusters gave ongoing technical guidance
in Kenya go further by assuming a through cluster-learning resource
holistic approach that integrates early centres, using schools’ feedback on
childhood education with formal the implementation
primary and non-formal education. of this innovative approach. Further,
in Ethiopia, Kenya and many
In practice, the most important Asian countries, periodic training
advantages of school clusters include sessions organized at cluster-

12
CHAPTER 6: LEARNERS, TEACHERS AND SCHOOL MANAGERS
learning resource centres led styles to both trained and untrained,
to progressive improvement inexperienced teachers. With
of overall classroom practice. minimal variation, this interactive
teacher training can be extended to
In western Ethiopia, UNICEF community groups and to volunteers
and Voluntary Service Overseas in emergency situations.
developed school clusters that
delivered training programmes and School clusters or learning resource
workshops simultaneously to school centres work well if schools are
cluster coordinators, head teachers located close enough to each
and local administrators. All involved other or to the resource centre.
received clear guidance on how the Realistically, teachers have many
development of each stage would other responsibilities outside the
progress and at the same time were school and cannot be expected to
able to understand and develop their travel hours or even days to the next
different but complementary roles school. In those situations, school-
and functions within the system. based training and development
While attitude change can be slow, may be the only realistic option,
continuous interactive on-the-job unless there are investments in
education, especially at the school or modern information-communication
cluster level, can be an inexpensive, technologies so teachers can have
culturally appropriate and effective regular exchanges with their peers
way of introducing new teaching through the Internet.

MEXICO: CHILD PARTICIPATION IN THE ESCUELA AMIGA PROJECT


The Escuela Amiga project in Mexico • Child rights are taught at every
promotes quality education for class level;
indigenous girls and boys through
child-friendly learning environments. • There is concrete evidence that
Children’s participation is emphasized unequal classroom participation
as part of citizenship and democracy between girls and boys is
education, based on the principles diminished;
of the Convention on the Rights of • School ‘societies’ with established
the Child (CRC). after-school activities exist, with
equitable participation of girls and
The project developed a guide for boys;
teachers and education managers that
includes checklists on constructing a • Children’s opinions are heard and
school work plan and monitoring and taken into account;
evaluating progress towards child- • A positive climate for the resolution
friendliness. of conflicts has been created.

Project indicators for child participation Source: United Nations Children’s Fund,
include: Proyecto Escuela Amiga: Guía para maestros y
autoridades escolares, UNICEF, Mexico, 2002.

• School has informational material


on the CRC;

13
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
6.3 SCHOOL HEAD AS LEADER AND MENTOR

School heads play an important role teachers – who are the main thrust
in raising their schools’ teaching and behind classroom change in child-
learning standards to ensure high friendly schools.
achievement for all pupils. Yet in
developing countries, most school The school head must have
heads have heavy workloads linked to adequate qualifications, training and
increasingly complex, varied tasks for experience to cope with challenges
which they are responsible but poorly and win the respect and support
trained to handle. These school heads of teachers, pupils and the local
often are drowning in bureaucratic community. The school head needs to
procedures and directives from use these credentials to exercise
national and district education authority in a positive manner, not
authorities. Often there is a lack simply rule by bureaucratic force.
of clarity regarding which policies While ultimate responsibility for
and tasks are mandatory and crucial decisions rests with school
which are optional. heads, they must consult with
and involve teachers, pupils and
Child-friendly innovations provide the local community in decision-
an opportunity to tackle school making. Similarly, they must
leadership challenges. If education manage school resources
ministries support school heads transparently, in order to inspire
by overhauling outdated school confidence and persuade teachers,
regulations and providing better pupils and local communities to
guidance on whether policies are use limited resources judiciously.
compulsory or advisory, school
heads are in a better position to limit The school head’s management style
their involvement with bureaucracy helps determine teachers’ motivation
and focus instead on facilitating and commitment to child-friendly
change in classroom practice, school standards. Securing appropriate
management and links with the salary levels and conditions of
community. Further, school heads service, for instance, allows teachers
need to be empowered, supported to feel that their welfare matters in
and trained to serve as managers and the school. Additionally, the head
mentors for school reform. should provide training opportunities
for all teachers and help organize
In child-friendly schools, the heads ongoing training and support at the
are custodians of change and school or cluster level. Most of all, the
managers of innovation. They lead school head should be a mentor to
the school planning process, secure teachers, leading by example in the
necessary resources, facilitate use of child-friendly pedagogy, being
essential training for teachers and accessible as a confidant
build constructive links with the and adviser to all teachers and
local community. In managing the helping to solve problems that
process of change, the school arise in classrooms or in the
head must lead, guide and inspire local community.

14
CHAPTER 6: LEARNERS, TEACHERS AND SCHOOL MANAGERS
In addition to these aspects of that support where appropriate and
school management, the school show sensitivity to the communities’
head serves as the school’s main aspirations and challenges. In
public relations officer. The image some of the most disadvantaged
of the school, its traditions and communities, child-friendly schools
ethos, must be carefully cultivated take on even greater roles in the lives
in line with child-friendly standards. of children and their communities.
The school head needs to maintain (See Box, page 15.)
rituals and activities that help project
the correct image. These could be School reform that seeks to raise
school celebrations, sporting events, quality through child-friendly
cultural performances or charitable principles requires national
events, or establishing school clubs standards that will guide schools and
that support the local community. school heads as they implement the
In the same way, the school head change process. Each country will
needs to nurture links with the local develop its own standards in this
community. A child-friendly school regard, but there are some broad
will not only seek to win community guidelines for school heads. (See
support, but will also reciprocate Box, page 15.)

LEARNING PLUS: CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS PROVIDE MORE


THAN LEARNING

My school is in a poor region of the keeps a notebook to record all the


country. The poverty is made worse orphans in the school and all cases of
by the growing number of adults our schoolchildren’s being victims of
dying from AIDS. In my school, I have sexual harassment, rape and abuse
many children who are orphans. in and around the schools. She and
These children either live with their other senior teachers work with the
grandmothers, other relatives or Department of Social Welfare to ensure
by themselves. They live in poverty that orphans have birth registration
and come to school hungry and forms. For those who do not, the
psychologically traumatized. That Department comes to the school to
is why the school is collaborating register them. The community works
with the Ministry of Education, other with us to raise funds and provide
government ministries, the university children with school feeding. Some
and the community to address these mothers run a café once a week, and
challenges. community members come to the
school to buy lunch. We also work
The Ministry of Education officials with the Ministry of Health to deworm
and the university are developing children and work with the Ministry of
my capacities and those of the senior Water Affairs to ensure that the school
staff to provide psychosocial support has clean water.
for the most vulnerable children.
As a result, the deputy school head Extracts from interview with a school head.

15
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
LEADERSHIP GUIDELINES FOR CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS

School leadership should focus on the Wider skill sets should be developed,
rights of children, the best interest of such as expertise in finance, human
teachers and the expectations of parents resources, children’s rights and
and the community. programme management.

The key objective of school leadership is School heads need to adopt a democratic
to raise the learning achievement level of style of authority to win the support and
each child and the collective achievement commitment of teachers, pupils and the
of the student body. local community.

The head should be a qualified teacher, School heads must lead by example, as
a professional with relevant knowledge, problem solvers, trusted confidants to
skills, vision and versatility to inspire, teachers and the main public relations
lead and adapt to change. officer who projects the school’s image.

Leadership functions can be distributed School heads need to be able to identify


among senior staff to engender a sense areas of practice requiring improvement
of participation and motivate staff to and those where positive trends can be
commit to the process of change. capitalized on.

6.4 ORGANIZING CLASSROOMS AND LEARNING SPACES

School heads and teachers need to teacher with the help of other teachers
create a favourable environment in and the pupils. Classrooms can be
order to make schools more child- made stimulating in a variety of
friendly. This environment begins with ways depending on the context.
a well-designed and well-constructed It is possible to have stimulating
school that is safe for children and classrooms even where resources
teachers, with secure classrooms, are limited or the education system
functional spaces and open areas. is impoverished. However, this
Just as important, however, are child- requires teachers’ commitment and
friendly equipment and supplies that enthusiasm and strong support
promote learning. The goal is to create from the school head and the local
stimulating classrooms where children community.
are inspired to learn and teachers
have a range of skills and tools to In many developing countries, the
successfully engage them in the challenge of making classrooms
learning process. These classrooms stimulating is compounded by the
often have learning corners, and problem of overcrowded space,
teachers typically produce and use a especially as policies to boost
wide range of high-quality, low-cost enrolment begin to gain success.
teaching aids. Kenya, Malawi, Uganda and
the United Republic of Tanzania
In many countries, a stimulating experienced huge increases in
classroom is prepared by a trained enrolment when school fees were
16
CHAPTER 6: LEARNERS, TEACHERS AND SCHOOL MANAGERS
© UNICEF/Mangalagiri/China
MAGDA’S FIRST DAY IN A STIMULATING CLASSROOM
AT A CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOL

What will Magda see when she gets to Magda is a little nervous, this being
her school? Before she and Leila, her her first day in school and first time in
‘big sister’, come around the last bend, a classroom. She is relieved when the
Magda hears children shouting and teacher, Mrs. Haba, smiles at her, says
laughing as they kick a ball around the her name and introduces her to the
swept area in front of the school. Leila class. The whole class claps their hands
takes Magda into a classroom where and Mpho, the girl standing next to
many first graders are sitting on floor Magda, offers her a space next to her on
mats. While fairly crowded, they are the mat to sit. When Leila comes to get
sitting comfortably and writing in their Magda at the end of the school day, she
exercise books. Some are looking up at finds her with a group of classmates,
the colourful posters, charts, alphabets, busy drawing on their little chalkboards
numerals and story outlines on the and having a lot of fun.
walls. Magda is fascinated that some
children her age are drawing pictures When she returns home, Magda
on the little chalkboards all around the tells her mother about her exciting
classroom. The whole classroom is first day in school. Magda is delighted
vibrant with wall blackboards, pocket and says to her mother, “I love my
boards, learning corners and a host of school. I would like to go to school
teaching aids. every day.”

abolished and education was declared So much is possible with simple


free; about 1.3 million additional resources and a great deal of
children enrolled in Kenya in 2003, imagination. In Ethiopia, India
stretching the already limited and Kenya, for instance, ordinary
infrastructure and resources. Even classrooms have blossomed into
in these conditions, teachers can stimulating classrooms through the
use innovative ways to maximize use of pocket boards with word cards,
classroom or school space – for picture cards and numerical cards;
instance, by using walls and floors wall boards painted with indigenous
creatively to make teaching-learning ink; alphabets, numerals and mat
processes in the early grades signs; cut-outs and story outlines
interesting and exciting. on walls; and low-cost or no-cost
17
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
teaching aids in learning corners. shortages of furniture or classroom
Optimal use of locally available space. Pupils and their parents can
resources is encouraged as a way to work with teachers and school heads
make classrooms stimulating. The to transform drab classrooms into
basic cost of converting an average stimulating environments.
Kenyan Standard One classroom into a
stimulating classroom is only US$25, a Child-friendly schools in Ethiopia
modest amount that most schools and and Kenya adopted the progressive
communities can afford. realization principle to change existing
schools. Floors were made smooth
Child-friendly schools involve the and clean with layers of plaster and
principle of progressive realization. For floor paint, and because customized
example, purpose-designed desks and desks and chairs were not affordable,
chairs and other customized furniture children were given clean, brightly
and equipment should be part of the coloured floor mats that they could
stimulating classroom. However, if sit on after removing their shoes. This
this is not feasible, the environment not only provided a pleasant and clean
can still be true to child-friendly classroom environment, but also gave
principles, philosophy and standards. the children, teachers and parents
In many developing countries, children an understanding of the importance
in primary schools have to sit on of hygiene and cleanliness, even
dirty floors or under trees due to in an environment with little or no

IRAN: BUILDING BACK BETTER IN BAM

In December 2003, an earthquake sports areas, and involving children


levelled 67 schools in the city of Bam, and the community in school design
and most of those remaining were and construction. Interventions to
damaged beyond repair. A month improve learning quality included
later, schools were officially reopened advocacy for girl-friendly schools as
in an effort to return to normalcy for a package at the policy and school
children. First, classes were held in the level; teacher support including
open air, then in tents and containers. psychosocial services, extra-curricular
‘Mobile’ education and recreation were courses (psychosocial education, life
provided, a tracking system for out- skills, hygiene education); educational
of-school children was established, and recreational materials review;
tools for data collection, management participatory, child-centred and
and analysis were created, and gender-sensitive teaching methods;
learning spaces were linked to early children’s participation in schools
childhood development centres and (clubs, school governance); enhanced
non-formal education and recreation community involvement in planning,
centres. Advocacy and technical management, and monitoring and
support were generated for a national evaluating educational activities (school
school design review with the goal of management); implementation of catch-
promoting healthy and safe girl-friendly up classes; and school environments
environments incorporating water and and learning materials to meet the
sanitation facilities, playgrounds and needs of disabled children.

18
CHAPTER 6: LEARNERS, TEACHERS AND SCHOOL MANAGERS
resources for customized furniture. Whatever furniture, equipment
Sitting on the floor enables young and teaching aids are available,
children, especially those in the promoting learning depends on how
early grades, to feel at home and the teacher organizes and manages
engage comfortably in such activities the teaching-learning process. A
as playing games, cutting, pasting, child-friendly classroom is a learning
drawing and creating art. community, and teachers are the
primary organizers of the atmosphere.
The principle of progressive realization Much will depend on how teachers
can be an essential innovation of interpret child-centred pedagogy
school reform when re-establishing in their classrooms. Learning is not
schools and education systems after just about individual comprehension
a disaster or crisis. In the aftermath and skills acquisition; it is also about
of the earthquake in Bam (Iran), constructing knowledge with others.
there was an opportunity to ‘build Group activities and the sense of a
back better’ with improved schools learning community are important for
and learning spaces based on child- child-friendly schools. A child-friendly
friendly standards. The recovery and classroom includes individualized,
reconstruction process involved the gender-sensitive instruction together
progressive introduction of child- with active, cooperative, democratic
friendly features and standards over group learning activities that are
time, resulting in a successful reform respectful of the rights of each child.
process. The reconstruction allowed
interventions to be initiated for When this approach works, it provides
children both in and out of school and structured content and makes use of
also demonstrated the importance of quality materials and resources. It
learning materials for classroom and enhances a teacher’s capacity, morale,
learning space. commitment and professional status.

ETHIOPIA: CHILDREN’S PARTICIPATION

Our Classroom Golden Rules:


We want our classroom to be clean and tidy.
We want everybody to look after our books, cards and other materials.
We want everybody to talk quietly, including our teachers.
We want everybody to try to do their best work.
We want everybody to be kind and friendly to each other.
We want everybody to help each other and share.
We want everybody to keep their hands to themselves.
We want everybody to be safe in the school and playground.
Every so often children need to sit and discuss these again.

Source: Gambella Primary School, Ethiopia.

19
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
It promotes quality learning outcomes schools encourage children’s active
not only by helping children learn participation in numerous activities
what is prescribed in the curriculum, related to quality education, such as
but also by defining what they having children set their own code
need to learn in order to become of conduct for the classroom and the
independent learners (learning how school. (See Box Ethiopia: Children’s
to learn). In this regard, child-friendly participation.)

6.5 PEDAGOGIC MATERIALS

The success of child-friendly schools


depends on the quality of pedagogic
materials. Many primary schools in LOW-COST LEARNING
developing countries suffer from acute MATERIALS
shortages of teaching and learning
materials. Progress in this area is Making teaching-learning
mainly interpreted as improving the materials from low-cost materials
was not new to many teachers,
ratio of textbooks to pupils, as research
who apparently learned this in
has linked textbook availability to their teacher training institutes.
gains in learning achievement. The However, they never had
child-friendly school model, however, considered it useful practice in
is not dependent on textbooks the real classroom. They did not
alone, especially in the early years realize the potential applications
of schooling. The ability of teachers until they were introduced to the
to create appropriate teaching- requirements of child-friendly
school models.
learning aids, often from low-cost,
locally available materials, bolsters Source: Child and Learning-Friendly
success. The approach also assumes Environment in Primary Schools:
that teachers will involve children in A documentation of the process,
UNICEF Ethiopia, 2002.
helping to produce learning materials,
and that students’ schoolwork will be
posted on school walls for instructional
purposes and to instil a sense of pride.
who grasp concepts faster and can
In Ethiopia, India and Kenya, teachers be encouraged to assist their slower
consider pocket boards and wall peers. Using small blackboards allows
blackboards to be innovative, low- learners to make mistakes and correct
cost and useful tools. The blackboards them without having a permanent
mounted around the room and used record of failure, unlike errors made
by children help teachers monitor in their exercise books. Children can
learners’ progress and identify therefore go through a process of
students who may require personalized confidence-building while learning that
attention and assistance. These boards failure is not permanent but simply
also help teachers recognize pupils part and parcel of the learning process.

20
CHAPTER 6: LEARNERS, TEACHERS AND SCHOOL MANAGERS
© UNICEF/NYHQ2007-0970/Asselin
“Many of us who were trained years “At first the preparation of teaching
ago find it hard to imagine how the aids looked very tough. But once
chalkboard concept can be effectively they have been developed, teaching
modified and used by pupils as a became very easy and enjoyable.”
learning aid. I am referring to the new – Leah Asego,
methodology, where every child has Teacher at Ayani Primary School,
a wall board to work on. We would Nairobi, Kenya
find it hard to believe that one can
spend less than 100 Kenya shillings
(US$1.25) to paint the inside of an
learner interaction in class. The pocket
entire classroom and thus create
enough writing spaces (wall boards) board can be used to teach some 200
for as may as 50 Class One pupils and concepts of primary-level mathematics,
their teacher.” science and language, and it is an
effective testing tool. It can be made
– Professor Karega Mutahi, Permanent from paper, cardboard, sacks, mats or
Secretary, Ministry of Education, Science, any large sheet of strong material.
and Technology, Kenya
Every teacher needs adequate
amounts of good quality teaching
The pocket board is made of an aids, in addition to textbooks, as a
inexpensive cotton fabric 3 metres precondition for promoting quality
long and 1.5 metres wide. It has about education in child-friendly schools.
235 pockets measuring 12 centimetres These teaching aids should be relevant
by 14 centimetres. The board can be to the syllabus and properly used.
used to teach various concepts in Teachers can produce high-quality
all subject areas by using picture or teaching aids, but they may need time
word flash cards. The pocket board and space to prepare them. Teachers
is convenient because it is portable, must be willing to put in the additional
easy to make and promotes teacher- time to make the teaching aids and

21
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
must be committed to using locally appropriateness, on whether teachers
available materials. can implement such a curriculum and
its feasibility in terms of available
In Ethiopia, Kenya and many East and resources. Teachers seeking to utilize
South Asian countries, teachers use child-friendly principles need to
polystyrene packing material, packing interpret and adapt the curriculum to
boxes, tin cans, bottle tops, pebbles, reflect these principles.
flowers, leaves and inexpensive, easily
obtained materials to make pocket The curriculum may inadvertently
boards, flash cards, big books, charts project prejudice and discrimination
and models illustrating textbook towards girls, children affected by
lessons. By calling on their ingenuity, HIV and AIDS or children with diverse
teachers’ latent talents are revealed and backgrounds and abilities. Existing
they develop new confidence and pride textbook material may portray children
in their professional competencies. living on the streets as pickpockets,
Moreover, production of innovative, or working children may be depicted
low-cost teaching aids from locally as uneducated even though they
available resources requires wider, may have strengths such as excellent
more regular consultation among survival skills. Likewise, children with
teachers within the school and clusters. disabilities may be considered ‘slow’
This builds team spirit and forges even though many have impeccable
closer working relationships in support social skills. In a child-friendly school,
of child-friendly school models. these prejudices must be challenged
through supplementary pedagogic
As we move up the education system, materials purchased or developed by
the need for more formal teaching- teachers and other experts engaged in
learning aids becomes more important. promoting child-friendly models.
To ensure that children receive quality
education at higher levels of the Inclusiveness is a major child-friendly
primary school and into secondary school principle and must be reflected
education, basic instructional materials in the nature and quality of learning-
and supplies need to be available for teaching materials. The school must
all children and teachers. Too often, embrace diversity and nurture children
there is a lack of basic teaching aids with different backgrounds and
and learning materials, yet without abilities. The pedagogic materials
them, teachers are hard-pressed need to be relevant to all children’s
to transform their classrooms into learning needs and abilities; they must
stimulating environments or to be culturally appropriate and value
maximize their students’ participation social diversity. Only then will they
in the learning process. Education benefit all children.
systems need to ensure that schools,
teachers and children have access Pedagogic materials are only part
to these materials in a reliable and of what is required for child-friendly
sustained manner. schools to work. Another necessary
component is participatory learning-
The nature and cost of materials teaching methods, which give teachers
depend on curriculum requirements various techniques to help different
– not only on prescribed curriculum learners and allow them to explore
content, but also on the curriculum’s alternative forms of discipline.

22
CHAPTER 6: LEARNERS, TEACHERS AND SCHOOL MANAGERS
6.6 LEARNING AND TEACHING METHODS

In many countries, classrooms are and one who listens to students.


dominated by teachers engaged in Teachers encourage learners to take
‘rote learning’ education methods responsibility for their own learning
and ‘teacher-centred’ approaches, so the motivation to learn comes from
which are antithetical to child-friendly within rather than being imposed
principles. Part of the challenge of from outside.
training teachers is to win them
over to child-centred approaches Teachers are expected to work
characterized by inquiry, discovery, jointly with learners to create a
mastery and the application of such scholarly environment beneficial
concepts as students’ acquisition of to both. Activity-based learning
knowledge. Reform should move makes classroom control easier and
schools away from strongly ‘didactic’ improves discipline. Teachers can be
teaching methods to methods that are trained to prepare learner-friendly
more interactive and ‘learner-friendly’. lessons with thematic approaches for
more holistic learning. Teachers who
Child-centered, interactive utilize learner-friendly approaches
methodologies make learning increasingly report a new sense of
enjoyable and exciting to students job satisfaction and talk about the
and improve their retention, ‘joy of teaching’. These approaches
participation and performance. have also boosted teacher attendance
These approaches create open and punctuality, encouraged
learning environments characterized greater attentiveness, interest and
by group cooperation and positive responsiveness, and inspired greater
competition among learners. This participation of children, especially
new methodology changes the role girls, in learning activities. This in turn
of the teacher from the ‘fountain of has increased children’s motivation,
all knowledge’ and a feared authority resulting in behaviour change and the
figure to a ‘facilitator of learning’ ‘joy of learning’.

© UNICEF/NYHQ2008-0138/Pirozzi

23
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
School reforms based on child- 6.6.1 Lessons learned from
friendly principles still have room for multigrade teaching
improvement, although there is little
doubt that classroom interaction by all Multigrade teaching means teaching
children, especially girls, has greatly children of different ages, grades and
improved. Children are acknowledged abilities in the same group. It is the
by name and given personal value most appropriate way of reaching
in this interactive process. In some students from grades one to four
schools, children wear name tags and when remoteness and low population
girls are classroom monitors. Where undermine the viability of normal
schools have adopted such innovations school practices.
and their benefits have been noted,
communities have felt more involved Multigrade schools can be found in
in their children’s education. In some hard-to-reach locations in Sri Lanka,
areas in Ethiopia, parents came to and they are common in parts of
observe and saw their children’s names Malaysia, serving people who are
written on the blackboards, and this disadvantaged, such as the Malay
improved teaching-learning processes. and Chinese schools in small villages
With increased practical support for and settlements. The same is true
the schools, the communities built in Mongolia. In countries such as
cluster resource centres to ensure a Colombia and Zambia, multigrade
sustainable teacher support system. teaching is recognized by governments
Parents also became active in school as an effective initiative for teacher
management, with more women educators and teacher trainees at the
involved in school activities. national level. (See Box below.)

If child-friendly schools are to succeed


as part of general school reform, they
must embrace other innovations that MONGOLIA:
are critical for success. One of these MULTIGRADE TEACHING
is multigrade teaching to make small
schools (especially in rural, remote In hard-to-reach areas in remote
areas) viable for extending quality rural communities, children attend
education to all children. Research has boarding schools. However, parents
shown that full participation in small are reluctant to send young children
rural or isolated communities occurs away from home, so they enrol
when schools are located close to the them in multigrade schools. The
teachers who run these schools
community in both geographical and
are trained in methodologies and
cultural terms. In practice, however, class organization developed to
the population of children may be work with children of different ages
too small to sustain the number of and different abilities in one class.
teachers required to serve each grade After Grade 4, some children enrol
over the full primary cycle. If schools in formal primary school in district
cannot afford a teacher for each boarding schools, while others
grade, they need multigrade teaching join non-formal education in the
community to later be allowed to
in which one teacher can facilitate return to formal school or obtain
learning for children at different grade certification of primary education.
levels within the same classroom or
school space.

24
CHAPTER 6: LEARNERS, TEACHERS AND SCHOOL MANAGERS
Lessons have been learned from places for children to learn. In child-
experiences with multigrade schools friendly schools, teachers need to
in Lesotho, Mexico, Peru, Sri Lanka, have the skills to apply alternative
Western Samoa and Zambia. First, forms of discipline instead of falling
multigrade teaching is more common back on corporal punishment
than previously realized. Schools and other forms of physical and
with more primary grades than verbal abuse. Teachers should be
teachers must organize learning made aware of the emotional and
along multigrade lines some of psychological damage these practices
the time. Too few ministries of can do to children. For example,
education, curriculum developers threats or promises of rewards to
and teacher education institutions girls in exchange for sexual favours
factor this reality into their plans and are intolerable. Teachers also need
programming. Textbooks on curricula to understand why violent forms
and teaching methods, teacher guides of discipline such as corporal
and education pedagogy in colleges punishment are harmful to children.
and universities do not incorporate (See Chapter 5.)
enough of the knowledge, skills and
values required for teachers to apply Teachers require training in
multigrade teaching methodologies constructive discipline practices to
successfully (Little, 1995). promote orderly and fair conditions
for learning in classrooms and
There are several elements in the learning spaces. School managers,
multigrade strategy that are also teachers and other school personnel
found in child-friendly school models. also need training and support
These include teacher training in human rights education that
in the design, reproduction and fully recognizes the importance
distribution of large numbers of of tolerance and peaceful conflict
pedagogic materials (teacher-made resolution and the significance of
and self-study materials), peer and child participation. Ensuring that
small group learning, procedures for teachers’ rights are respected is the
evaluating learning improvement and first step towards ensuring respect for
achievement, and forms of internal children’s rights. This mutual respect
school and classroom organization requires teachers to reach out to
establishing routines centred on children in an affable manner while
students rather than teachers. maintaining dignity and respect as
authority figures in the classroom.

6.6.2 Classroom discipline and Child-friendly schools encourage a


management practices pedagogic approach that emphasizes
the acquisition of knowledge,
Like any other model of quality development of abilities and
education, child-friendly schools understanding of concepts in a
include systems for discipline and holistic manner. The approach offers
order. These schools encourage rules teachers latitude to plan interactive
and regulations, but also emphasize sessions in varied settings and to
that they must be in the best interest continuously assess the quality
of children and applied in a fair, and effects of their interventions in
transparent manner. Classrooms the classroom. In a child-friendly
and learning spaces should be safe classroom or learning space, the

25
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
teacher is the mentor, the facilitator maintained. Classroom management
of learning and the coordinator of that enhances learning is child-centred
all learning activities. Creativity, and promotes active learning. The
openness, flexibility, tolerance, teacher’s role must be to observe,
good leadership and organizational discuss, probe, extend ideas and
skills become the avenues through engage children in meaningful,
which effective learning-teaching is positive learning experiences.

6.7 CURRICULUM

Many developing countries have a stretching to challenge students


national curriculum that serves as and meet their diverse needs;
the blueprint for consistent learning
• Sets standards that measure
and teaching standards in schools
children’s progress in each
throughout the system. There is
subject to help teachers monitor
usually some flexibility for schools
achievement and plan to help
to implement the national curriculum
students do even better.
to fit with their particular strengths
and challenges and for schools to
introduce other activities that extend The national curriculum shown below
the learning experience for the pupils. defines a child’s progress in broad
key stages. Schools and learning
spaces are usually given some
Generally, the national curriculum:
leeway to organize teaching within
this framework in a manner that best
• Delineates the most important
suits the reality of the children in their
knowledge, skills, attitudes and
care. The schools create their own
values that every child has a right
plans, term by term and year by year.
to learn;
At the end of key stages 1, 2, 3 and 4,
• Provides a flexible government a child may take a national test. At the
framework to teachers to ensure end of key stage 4, the national final
that all schoolchildren learn in a examinations determine eligibility for
balanced, manageable way, while the next stage of education.

KEY STAGES AND NATIONAL CURRICULUM LEVELS

AGE STAGE YEARS TESTS


4–5 Foundation (Early Childhood Education)

6–9 Key stage 1 (Lower Primary School) 1– 4 Year 4 national tests

10–13 Key stage 2 (Upper Primary) 5–7 Year 7 national tests

14–16 Key stage 3 (Junior Secondary School) 8–10 Years 9 or 10 national tests

17–18 Key stage 4 (Senior Secondary School) 11–12 Year 12 national tests

26
CHAPTER 6: LEARNERS, TEACHERS AND SCHOOL MANAGERS
At the classroom level, it is the programme in Uganda. (See Box
teachers’ responsibility, with support below.)
from the school head, government
authorities and parents, to ensure The BTL approach is also used in
that children learn at or above the Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi and the
educational standards for all primary Limpopo Province in South Africa
schoolchildren in literacy, numeracy and has yielded good results. The
and life skills. There is flexibility in how United Kingdom Department for
this may be achieved. Most successful International Development (DIFD)
literacy teaching is interactive, with is funding BTL in both Lesotho and
children encouraged and expected Malawi. In Botswana, BTL is funded
to contribute. Several developing by the Government and has been
countries are implementing effective expanded nationwide. The major
methods for teaching literacy in the drawback of the approach is that it
mother tongue. A case in point is ends at the lower primary school level.
the Breakthrough to Literacy (BTL) When the children reach the upper

UGANDA: BREAKTHROUGH TO LITERACY

In May 2001, Uganda’s Ministry of education landscape in Uganda, such


Education and Sports and its partners, as establishing child-friendly learning in
UNICEF, the Institute of Teacher all lower primary schools and learning
Education, Kyambogo, and the National centres, and ensuring that learners
Curriculum Development Centre, demonstrate proficiency in at least three
began a pilot project to teach local selected life skills by the end of P3.
languages, using the Breakthrough to
Literacy (BTL) methodology. Originally The BTL methodology has been a
developed to teach functional literacy resounding success, in terms both of
skills to learners in their first language, increasing reading proficiency in the
BLT brings the language used in the pilot schools and promoting several
home into the classroom. The approach aspects of child-friendly learning
helps children recognize words they are environments. The mean score for
accustomed to hearing and speaking all BTL learners, including those who
when they see them translated into a failed to attain the required reading
written code; it then helps them read proficiency, was 50.7 per cent compared
and write the language themselves. to 26.0 per cent for the non-BTL group.
Compared to their grade cohort, the
The learning environment in a BTL BTL learners have outperformed the
classroom is organized into social non-BTL Primary 2 (P2s) by more than
and ability groups, which perform 40 percentage points (50.7 per cent BTL
interactive tasks in a relaxed and compared to 10.2 per cent non-BTL).
stimulating atmosphere. BTL Uganda The non-BTL learners are most deficient
aims to develop functional literacy in reading comprehension, the most
skills in young learners, so that 85 per important skill for future learning. The
cent of both girls and boys are able to BTL methodology was found to work
read and write in local languages by equally well with boys and girls (mean
the end of Primary 3 (P3). It promotes of 50.9 per cent and 50.6 per cent,
other important features of the respectively) (Letshabo, 2002).

27
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
primary level, they are confronted for and educational experiences.
the first time by the harsh realities of Curriculum content in the areas of
didactic and teacher-centred learning- numeracy, literacy and life skills
teaching methods. The governments in education must be gender-sensitive
these six countries need to organize a and participatory. (See Box, this page.)
subregional seminar on BTL to discuss
the challenges, especially those The increased attention that
concerning costs and the scaling up of child-friendly schools give to the
the initiative, lessons learned and good development of curricular activities,
practices. such as lesson planning and
preparation, and use of teaching
Child-centred curriculum planning aids and classroom management,
and development combined with has contributed to an increasing
interactive and participatory teaching- confidence, motivation and ownership
learning approaches increase of the teaching process.
opportunities for children to work
together and share their knowledge Child-friendly schools and learning
spaces encourage the development
and application of principles of
curriculum and pedagogy that promote
SOUTH AFRICA: ONE TEACHER’S
peace, human rights and non-violence.
EXPERIENCE
Curriculum content should include
children’s rights, human rights and
I teach Grade 1 in a rural school in South
Africa. I have a class of 40 six- and seven- peace education within the framework
year-olds – 25 girls and 15 boys. In the life of communication strategies that are
skills education class today, I was teaching developed by and for young people.
them about personal hygiene and reading Teachers should be given relevant
a story about the hospital. The short story preservice and in-service education
had lovely pictures, but several worrying in ways that are participatory and
gender stereotypes. The pictures of doctors democratic.
were men and those of teachers were men.
The people queuing to see the doctor were
women; and all parents holding babies The transition to constructive and
were women. positive pedagogic methods may
be extremely difficult for teachers
After reading them the story, I organized who themselves were taught with
the children to perform a simple, short role authoritarian and didactic approaches.
play, showing parents with a sick child in Ways must be found to overcome
the doctor’s room and the doctor with a those autocratic barriers to more
nurse examining the child and giving an
progressive, democratic pedagogic
injection. One group of pupils were directed
to select a boy as a nurse and a girl as a practices, which may also play a role
doctor and the other group selected a girl in reducing and ultimately eliminating
as a nurse and a boy as a doctor. The pupils school violence. Student and
had great fun doing the role play. At first, community participation is also vital to
the girls were too shy to play doctors and child-friendly curriculum development.
the boys were reluctant to play nurses. But The preparation of class activities
with encouragement, they did. I often use can demand more time than ‘chalk
role play to break stereotypes and stigma –
and talk’ methods, but the benefits
and it works.
outweigh the workload.

28
CHAPTER 6: LEARNERS, TEACHERS AND SCHOOL MANAGERS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 7
Costs and benefits

7.1 ‘Costing’ the elements


7.1.1 Policy simulation and costing

7.2 Estimating resource requirements


7.2.1 Programme design and policy
7.2.2 Use of simulation models for costing
7.2.3 Other issues in costing
CHAPTER 7
COSTS AND BENEFITS

What are the costs associated with child-friendly schools, and how
do they differ from costs typically linked to schools in a given country
context? What are the benefits and added value offered by child-friendly
schools, and how do they compare with the levels of investment required
to generate such benefits? These critical questions can help a country
determine if it will use a child-friendly school model to improve the
quality of education in its school system.

7.1 ‘COSTING’ THE ELEMENTS

Costs and benefits of implementing and services. (See Chapter 3.) Other
a child-friendly school policy are characteristics can be grouped under
often the deal makers or breakers. community characteristics, both
Estimating costs will be based on what school as a community and school as
key elements are required to make part of the community it serves. (See
schools child-friendly in a particular Chapter 4.)
country. This depends on how broadly
the government intends to implement Grouping desired characteristics makes
child-friendly schools and how it possible for planners to ask additional
comprehensive a model it decides questions rather than be restricted to
to adopt. the characteristics generated from basic
CFS principles. These include such
Starting from the child rights principles questions as: Are all aspects of safety,
that underpin CFS models, the desired security and the well-being of learners
characteristics for child-friendly covered? Are some characteristics
schools in a country can be determined under curriculum content feasible for
through a consultative process or by a system with a centrally determined
a representative team of stakeholders curriculum?
mandated to execute this task. The
list of characteristics can be grouped After identifying, generating and
into categories, which will make the grouping desired child-friendly school
planning process more manageable. characteristics, the next step is to set
Some of the desired characteristics can standards – both national and local –
be grouped, for example, under safety, for these characteristics. This is where
security and well-being. (See Chapter quantifying child-friendly school
5.) Other characteristics can be placed elements begins to take shape. For
within the area of curriculum content instance, a desired characteristic may
and pedagogic style (see Chapter be spacious classrooms where children
6), or location, design, infrastructure can move around, work in small groups
1
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
or display their work, rather than In general, there are three basic
cramped classrooms where children requirements for estimating the cost of
sit in fixed rows, facing the blackboard making schools child-friendly:
and listening to the teacher. Setting
standards then requires specifying • Data on the current state of the
the minimum floor space (square feet main variables;
per child) required for a child-friendly
classroom. • Monetary values that can be
readily assigned to these variables;
In the same way, ‘playtime’ standards • Projections of data and monetary
could be set according to guidelines values for future child-friendly
on how much school time (hours or school scenarios.
periods per week) should be devoted
to recreational activities. Similarly,
Typically, data on the condition of
standards can be set for staffing by
the main variables can be obtained
determining the basic courses (in-
through school surveys, situation
service and pre-service) required for
analyses, research studies, desk
teachers to become ‘child-friendly-
reviews of well maintained records
school trained’ or by recommending
in ministries of education and other
a ratio of pupils to each ‘child-
sources. For efficiency, data should
friendly-school-trained’ teacher. In
be grouped by appropriate categories
all cases, setting standards is not
meant to establish a rigid blueprint for the main variables. In looking
for implementation but to provide a at child-friendly school design and
quantifiable basis for estimating the infrastructure, for instance, once the
costs of making schools child-friendly physical state of existing schools has
in a given education system. been catalogued, the child-friendly
school standards set for this variable
Once child-friendly school standards can be used to gauge the design and
have been set, the next step is to infrastructure of existing schools.
use these as the main variables Analysis is more efficient when these
in determining the cost of making schools are grouped based on whether
schools child-friendly over a given they require major reconstruction
period of time. Planning for child- and full-scale refurbishment, require
friendly schools in this way may focus modest reconstruction and partial
on all schools in general or in some refurbishment, or require minor
order of priority, perhaps focusing refurbishment and upgrading. The
on the most dysfunctional schools number and percentage of schools
first. It may also concentrate on only requiring these different treatments,
particular categories of schools as a together with the estimated unit cost
matter of policy, such as rural schools for each treatment category, provide
or schools in minority communities. a useful estimate of the total cost for
Whatever the policy or focus, these making all schools child-friendly in
desired characteristics and standards terms of design and infrastructure.
provide the basis for estimating costs.
The plan could be about specific Likewise, data on the teaching force
milestones, such as a goal that 20 per can be used to determine the number
cent of schools become child-friendly and percentage of teachers who
annually, or about a long-term goal, require major training in child-friendly
e.g., all schools will be child-friendly school methodologies, require training
in five years. in some aspects only or just require

2
CHAPTER 7: COSTS AND BENEFITS
a brief refresher course. This data,
together with the estimates of what it
costs to provide a teacher with training
(unit cost) in each of these categories,
can then be used to provide a picture
of the total costs of having all existing
teachers qualified by becoming certified

© OBEC/2008/Thailand
or recognized as child-friendly-school
trained.

Monetary values can be readily


assigned to variables when there are
standard ways of determining unit costs
for use in total cost estimates. In some
cases, this is fairly routine because vary with the number of pupils (unit
unit costs can easily be obtained from cost per pupil), or does cost vary with
existing practices in education. This size and type of school (cost per school
is the case with school construction or different categories of schools)?
and refurbishment. It is relatively easy
to estimate the unit cost for a child- The issue is further complicated by
friendly classroom (per square foot) by the fact that part of the cost associated
using available cost data on materials with this kind of link may also be
and type of contract, e.g., community embedded in other areas, such as
labour or a commercial contractor, and design, infrastructure and services.
adjusting these figures for child-friendly This would be the case if schools are
school features and modifications. In deliberately constructed to provide
the same way, the cost of training each space for community activities and
teacher (unit cost) through various supplementary services, such as use
types of courses can be estimated of the school’s classrooms for adult
from records or simple calculations. literacy classes, access to the sports
These unit costs can then be adjusted field for community events, use of
if necessary to take into account child- the school borehole for water supply
friendly school requirements in the to the community or involvement of
training course. parents in preparing school meals for
the children. Despite the complications
The main problem with costing child- and difficulties involved in assigning
friendly school elements arises in monetary values to these elements,
cases where it is not straightforward it is important that they are given full
to assign monetary values to the consideration during planning, and
variable(s) in question. This is the case that unit costs are estimated through
with some characteristics relating to proxies when necessary. Often it
school-community links. It is not clear is the less tangible elements, such
how to assign monetary values to as links between schools and their
these links; thus, the use of proxies communities, that determine the extent
may be necessary. What does it cost, to which schools can be considered
for example, to set up and maintain child-friendly.
a vibrant parent-teacher association,
including training school committee Once the necessary data sets and unit
members and sensitizing teachers costs have been developed, some
to the school’s accountability to the projections that reflect a future child-
community it serves? Does this cost friendly school scenario should be

3
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
formulated. This is important because Simulation models can show how
child-friendly schools cannot be learners, schools and the education
implemented instantaneously, and process would change as child-friendly
data and unit costs are subject to school elements are implemented. For
change over time, as are changes in instance, while there may be additional
enrolment, staffing and currency value. costs involved in changing the system,
Expanding enrolment will increase there also are likely to be gains in
the cost of those elements that are efficiency, school governance and
dependent on the number of pupils, just community benefits. Strengthening
as additional schools to accommodate those factors will most likely improve
this expansion will increase the costs overall quality and outcomes of
of elements that are dependent on the education.
number of schools. Existing teachers
and school managers will retire or Apart from advocacy with the various
leave the profession and need to be stakeholders whose support is vital
replaced by new teachers, just as the for establishing and implementing a
cost of providing training for these child-friendly school policy, simulations
teachers and learning materials in can be used to assess the feasibility
schools will also change over time. As of the policy itself in terms of overall
thoroughly and accurately as possible, resource implications (finance, human
all probabilities must be factored into resources, etc.). Through this type of
cost projections for making all schools exercise, it is possible to make critical
child-friendly over a given time period. decisions on the scale and scope of
child-friendly school implementation
that will be affordable and sustainable
7.1.1 Policy simulation for a country. Officials can review the
and costing quality parameters, for example, and
adjust them in line with the principle of
Simulation models are conventional progressive realization. (See Chapter
ways of using data on the existing 6.) A country can then accomplish what
system, along with unit costs, to make is affordable now while aiming for
projections and calculate total costs. higher quality standards in the future.
These models can be used for different A simulation exercise can identify and
purposes and can readily be adapted apply ways of reducing costs without
to cost estimates for implementing a compromising basic child-friendly
child-friendly school policy. Simulation school principles. This is helpful in
is used to understand the behaviour both policymaking and design of
of the education system when certain implementation strategies for making
key variables and conditions change in schools child-friendly.
value. In this sense, simulation models
can be used for advocacy by showing The Education Policy and Strategy
how the education system would Simulation Model (EPSSim) is a
behave if certain policy changes are UNESCO-designed tool with a UNICEF-
implemented versus if such changes are supported module for costing child-
not implemented. This is essential for friendly schools. It is generic and can
evaluating such major policy changes be adapted to country-specific national
as ‘making all schools child-friendly’. education systems. It captures the full
They may also be critical in negotiations needs of the education sector, covers all
with interest groups – for instance, with subsectors from pre-primary through
teachers’ unions eager to understand higher education, including non-formal
the impact of policy on teachers. schooling, and includes costing of

4
CHAPTER 7: COSTS AND BENEFITS
critical demand-side interventions, such 7.1 below.) Formulas are already in
as HIV and AIDS impact and response, place, so the user only has to fill in
and teacher training. EPSSim has clear the yellow cells and the model makes
categories of inputs, coverage and calculations automatically.
interventions, is gender-disaggregated
and separates public and private Depending on the country, further
coverage. adaptation of these formulas may
be necessary. Once the country’s
The model estimates year-to-year needs budgetary framework data are entered,
in terms of teachers and staff, learning the model calculates the resource gaps.
materials, classrooms, facilities and It also generates concurrent scenarios
training required to achieve national to compare results and guide policy
goals and policies; it projects the cost dialogue and decision-making that can
implications (divided between recurrent strike a sustainable balance between
and capital costs); and it estimates the projected resource requirements
resource availability of the education (teachers, materials, classrooms) and
sector and financial gaps while feasibility and affordability. Policy
accounting for domestic revenue and options can be changed to immediately
household and donor contributions. see the potential impact of both
quality and costs in order to assess
In this ‘demographic’ model, policy decisions and make necessary
educational needs are the decision adjustments.
variables. The three stages are: (a)
collection and input of baseline data, The tool can be used at all stages of
(b) setting policy goals, targets and strategic planning, from sector analysis
options, and (c) projection of results. to policy formulation, action planning
The model uses an Excel spreadsheet and monitoring. It allows for informed,
with separate parallel columns for input evidence-based policy dialogue and
of baseline data and targets for each negotiations with ministries of finance,
category. Projections are displayed on donors, partners, civil society, teachers’
the remainder of columns. (See Table unions and so forth.

TABLE 7.1

5
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
7.2 ESTIMATING RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS

7.2.1 Programme design • Infrastructure and design (facilities,


and policy equipment, resources).

In addition to serving as a costing Under each category, countries can


tool, EPSSim can play a role in policy select from various items that make
formulation and programme design. schools more child-friendly to determine
As countries endeavour to make their the resource requirements and gaps.
schools child-friendly, EPSSim will help This exercise can help ministries of
them narrow the gap between policy education determine such requirements
decisions and likely results; revise their as the number of schools to include
education plans and policies and make health care, school feeding, counselling,
necessary adjustments; design long- safe water, trained staff for emergency
term strategies and accurately cost their preparedness, protective school spaces,
sector plans to estimate funding gaps; gender-sensitive curricula, flexible
and weigh policy options and allocate furniture, new latrines and playgrounds
resources in response to child-friendly in annual incremental needs.
school requirements.

The EPSSim model includes a section 7.2.2 Use of simulation models


on child-friendly schools. This section for costing
is linked to the rest of the model, so
targets are drawn from the system Once the difficult-to-quantify resources
as a whole. The model contains a such as safe environments have been
list of quantifiable options for child- estimated on the basis of proxies, other
friendly school features that can enable elements such as skilled staff, materials
countries to identify the resource and infrastructure are more readily
needs of schools, as well as the actions calculated, and the total requirements
necessary to create enabling and can then be fully ‘costed’. In each case,
protective environments. The tool under the targeted number of schools
can serve as an expanding checklist or students to be covered, unit costs
or guideline of key features based on are applied as a means of estimating
national child-friendly school standards the resource requirements and funding
and can generate the estimated gaps over a specified number of years.
costs involved in implementing such
standards. Using infrastructure, for instance, the
status of existing schools is entered
In general, child-friendly school first (expressed as the percentage of
interventions in the model are divided schools that need to be refurbished),
into the following categories: then targets are set in terms of the
percentage of these schools to be
• Safety, security and well-being of converted to child-friendly school
learners and teachers; standards during the programme
period. The projected needs based
• Schools as a community and
on the percentage of facilities to be
schools in the community;
reconstructed, along with the input
• Child-friendly curriculum (content, of unit costs, determine the resource
teaching, learning methods); requirements and gaps.

6
CHAPTER 7: COSTS AND BENEFITS
TABLE 7.2A: RESOURCE PROJECTION

Child-friendly content, teaching and learning methods (gender-responsive and age-appropriate)


Students Unit costs

Students having access to gender-sensitive and relevant textbooks $3.00 <= per pupil unit cost
Students having access to hygiene, HIV pevention, preventive health life $7.00 <= per pupil unit cost
skills programmes $7.00 <= per pupil unit cost
Students having access to curriculum on life skills for peacebuilding,
environmental protection, etc. $3.00 <= per pupil unit cost
Students having access to curriculum on emergency prevention, $40.00 <= per pupil unit cost
preparedness and response
Teacher students with additional teacher training for child-centred
pedagogy
Staff

Teachers receiving in-service training on child-centred pedagogy $50.00 <= per teacher unit cost
Teachers using instructional/teaching materials on child-centred pedagogy $10.00 <= per teacher unit cost

TABLE 7.2B: SERVICES PROJECTION

CFS START POLICY OBJECTIVES PROJECTION RESULTS


YEAR

2007/ Target/ Number Annual 2007/ 2008/ 2009/ 2010/


2008 options of years increment 2008 2009 2010 2011
Safety, security and well-being
Students

% having access to health 10% 30% 10 2.0% 10% 12% 14% 16%
checks (vaccination,
deworming, monitoring
adherence to medication, etc.)
% receiving health kits 10% 40% 10 3.0% 10% 13% 16% 19%

% receiving proper nutrition 5% 60% 10 5.5% 5% 11% 16% 22%


(including school meals)
% having access to 5% 60% 10 5.5% 5% 11% 16% 22%
counselling (violence,
disabilities, HIV and AIDS,
orphanhood, etc.)
% receiving training in 0% 60% 10 6.0% 0% 6% 12% 18%
emergency preparedness and
prevention
% having access to safe 2% 25% 10 2.3% 2% 4% 7% 9%
transportation

7
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
Costing related to safety, security and and anniversaries involving the
the school population’s well-being can community of past students.
be done in a similar manner. Under this
category, the resource requirements Once a complex element like
related to the safety, security and well- institutional ethos is broken down into
being of students, teachers and other components, it becomes possible to
school staff can be projected. Safety and quantify and cost the mainstreaming
security elements would include access requirements for this aspect of child-
to health care, nutrition, emergency friendly schools. Some of these costs
preparedness, non-violence in schools will be provided for in the education
and safe transportation. Tables 7.2A budget, while others will be met by
and 7.2B provide an overview of some local communities, associations of past
items that can be projected in relation to students or other outside organizations.
students. Once the number of students
in the system is determined, unit costs By using a suite of simulation models,
are entered to calculate overall costs for it should be possible to interpret
this category. Countries may decide to such complex child-friendly school
include a certain number of these items elements and then review their cost
in their policies or add others to adapt it implications. Setting standards in this
to their context and needs. way enables planners to specify what
every school ultimately requires, linked
to an appropriate target ratio, such as
7.2.3 Other issues in costing per pupil, classroom or school. The
goal is to guide policymaking and
There are special considerations for then help translate policy into practice
estimating additional costs and benefits through projections based on feasible
related to mainstreaming child-friendly child-friendly scenarios that can be
schools in the education system. Some implemented over an agreed-upon
child-friendly school elements may not period of time. A country may decide
be readily quantifiable for cost purposes to make all of its schools child-friendly
yet need to be part of mainstreaming. over a plan period, with clear standards
as to how comprehensively the child-
Institutional ethos is one such complex friendly school principles are applied.
element, as it involves maintaining, It may decide to make some categories
strengthening or changing the rituals, of schools (e.g., in poor rural areas)
routines, norms, values and activities child-friendly during the plan period,
that shape the everyday character of while expecting schools in affluent
the school as an institution and learning communities to take on the process
community. How this is done varies from of becoming child-friendly through
school to school. But for mainstreaming their own efforts. Whatever the policy
purposes, it may be best to amalgamate decision, successful implementation
ethos by school type, such as religious, would depend on national capacity as
private, community or government. It well as the level of resources required
then becomes a matter of estimating in relation to available budgets and
costs for key components. These may external financial assistance. In all,
include extra-curricular activities, space quantifying, costing and projecting
and facilities for daily assembly, facilities key variables for making schools child-
and equipment for major sporting friendly will be critical. Education
events, grants to cover annual festivities planners will therefore be central in all
and school anniversaries, joint activities efforts to develop and implement child-
with the local community, or events friendly school policies.

8
CHAPTER 7: COSTS AND BENEFITS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 8
Monitoring and evaluating

8.1 Why monitor and evaluate?

8.2 What needs to be monitored and evaluated?


8.2.1 Assessing effectiveness, efficiency and equity
8.2.2 Outcome-level evaluation and indicators

8.3 A focus on dynamic monitoring and evaluation


8.3.1 Monitoring and evaluation to support organizational learning
8.3.2 Schools as self-improving organizations
8.3.3 Teachers as reflective practitioners

8.4 The learner as the focus of monitoring and evaluation


8.4.1 Creating a learning management system: Case study from Thailand

8.5 Monitoring and evaluation to support CFS mainstreaming

8.6 Monitoring and evaluation to support investment

8.7 An overview of experience with CFS monitoring and evaluation


8.7.1 Child-friendly schools and learning spaces evaluation examples

8.8 Who should monitor and evaluate, and what are their potential roles?

8.9 Other issues on monitoring and evaluation of CFS models


8.9.1 How should monitoring and evaluation be built into overall project design?
8.9.2 When should monitoring and evaluation occur?
8.9.3 Why are baselines important, and what should they measure?
8.9.4 Empowering communities and other stakeholders
8.9.5 Gauging the impact on the education system as a whole

8.10 The way forward


CHAPTER 8
MONITORING AND EVALUATING

As with any major innovation, UNICEF’s experiences with child-friendly


schools and learning spaces raise questions about monitoring and
evaluating performance. Why do child-friendly schools/learning spaces
need to be monitored and evaluated? How should they be monitored
and evaluated? What exactly needs to be monitored and evaluated? Who
should be involved in the process, and what are their respective roles?
Who needs to know what and for what purpose?

8.1 WHY MONITOR AND EVALUATE?

The objectives of monitoring and of a model. For a child-friendly


evaluation vary, depending on the type school (CFS) programme, monitoring
of programme or project. Generally, the is usually undertaken by project
purpose is to assess the effectiveness managers within education ministries
and efficiency of the programme and implementing partners who collect
and its efficacy in relationship to the school, community and student-related
original expectations. Monitoring and data. The purposes of monitoring
evaluation also depend on who is the include:
end user and what are the expectations
of the endeavour. An end user may • Recording and reporting
simply be interested in knowing if the child-friendly school and learning
programme delivers on its objectives. space activities, inputs, processes
In some cases, they may also wish and outputs;
to assess the cost of achieving these
• Tracking progress on CFS
objectives and whether the resources
interventions to inform ongoing
invested could have been put to better
activity;
use. Other times, they are interested
in measuring the programme’s impact • Providing evidence of progress for
beyond simply achieving a set of advocacy and mobilization.
prescribed objectives.
A key feature of child-friendly
Although monitoring and evaluation schools is the active and meaningful
are usually linked, it is important to participation of students and
distinguish their purposes. Monitoring community members, along with
is a more immediate and continuous teachers, school administrators,
process meant to keep things on track supervisors, inspectors and
and ensure that the right inputs are education system officials, in the
included for successful implementation monitoring process.

1
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
Based on this outline of monitoring • Provide information to
and evaluation, it can be argued development partners and
that a comprehensive approach to education ministries about
monitoring and evaluating child- impact, outcomes and progress
friendly schools and learning in relationship to child-friendly
spaces should be able to assess school and learning space
their effectiveness and efficiency objectives to help them make
at different levels – from the global informed decisions about the
(multi-country) to the national and programmes;
subnational levels to the school,
• Measure the impact of CFS
classroom and individual learner.
programmes on national
With carefully designed multiple
education systems;
objectives for different levels, a
comprehensive monitoring and • Signal ways to improve efficiency
evaluation should be able to: for better management and help
ensure that money, time, staff
• Provide evidence for advocacy, and equipment invested in CFS
national policy dialogue, activities are appropriate and
standard-setting, accountability optimal in terms of achieving
within the public domain, outputs and outcomes;
scaling up, mainstreaming and
• Inspire, empower, enable
replication;
and mobilize schools, their
• Provide evidence to major communities and other
investors in education stakeholders to create a common
(governments, development vision and to actively participate
partners) that the CFS model is in an ongoing process of child-
an effective, efficient, equitable friendly school improvement;
way to ensure quality basic
• Track and assess individual
education for all children, under
children (‘putting a face’ on
all circumstances, in a manner
each child) in terms of inclusion,
that is relevant, affordable and
health, development, protection,
sustainable;
learning barriers, learning
• Help establish national standards, achievement and special needs.
criteria and indicators for rights-
based education;
• Provide information for evidence-
based decision-making that
is predicated on agreed-upon
© UNICEF/NYHQ2006-0736/Noorani

national standards;
• Glean information on the costs
and benefits of the CFS model as
well as the trade-offs to promote
sound investment in the best
interest of the child in terms of
education, development and the
well-being of the ‘whole’ child;

2
CHAPTER 8: MONITORING AND EVALUATING
8.2 WHAT NEEDS TO BE MONITORED AND EVALUATED?

In general, the child-friendly school


and learning space model should be KEY QUESTION
monitored and evaluated to provide
ministries of education the necessary If the challenge of the Millennium Development
evidence to assess its effectiveness Goals and Education for All is to provide
and efficiency in helping achieve affordable, sustainable quality basic education
the Millennium Development Goals for all children under all circumstances, do
(MDGs) and Education for All (EFA) child-friendly schools and learning spaces offer
targets. The success of child-friendly the most appropriate response?
schools would therefore be measured
by their ability to support the stated
objectives of these internationally
endorsed educational goals. (See Box: MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS
Millennium Development Goals and AND EDUCATION FOR ALL
Education for All.)
The MDGs include the educational goal to
8.2.1 Assessing effectiveness, achieve universal primary education (the target
efficiency and equity for 2015 is to ensure that all boys and girls
complete primary school); and goals on poverty
Specific targets and indicators that and hunger, gender equality, child mortality,
measure the effectiveness, efficiency maternal health, HIV and AIDS, malaria and
and equity of the CFS model are other diseases, environmental sustainability
crucial. This assessment needs to and partnerships for development. These can
all be influenced by education.
generate evidence that will allow
stakeholders to measure whether
The EFA targets include: ensure that by 2015 all
the model provides affordable and
children, particularly girls, children in difficult
sustainable quality basic education. circumstances and those belonging to ethnic
The evidence obtained from minorities, have access to, and complete, free
measuring CFS model indicators is and compulsory primary education of good
used to complement information quality (goal 2); ensure that the learning needs
derived from monitoring progress of all young people and adults are met through
towards the standard educational equitable access to appropriate learning and
MDGs and EFA targets and indicators. life skills programmes (goal 3); eliminate
Analysis of this evidence can explain gender disparities in primary and secondary
why and how a child-friendly school education by 2005, and achieve gender equality
in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring
and learning space package helps
girls’ full and equal access to and achievement
achieve MDG and EFA objectives, as in basic education of good quality (goal 5);
well as how it influences the whole improve all aspects of the quality of education
education system from the child to the and ensure excellence of all so that recognized
classroom to the school and beyond. and measurable learning outcomes are
achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy
8.2.2 Outcome-level evaluation and essential life skills (goal 6).
and indicators
EFA has established 18 indicators to measure
attainment of these goals.
Outcome evaluation measures
whether and to what extent objectives

3
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
have been achieved, what concrete • Cost-effectiveness determines
changes have resulted from CFS the cost required for a package
inputs and processes, and whether designed to produce a set of
interventions have been able to agreed-upon outcomes in one
influence the knowledge, attitudes and school. This information is
behaviour of students, school staff, especially valuable in designing
community members and education ‘follow-on’ initiatives to take child-
system officials. Outcome indicators friendly schools and learning
may include information on changes spaces to scale.
in enrolment, repetition and drop-out • Equity refers to non-discriminatory
rates for boys and girls. Under the access and outcomes for children
CFS framework, assessment tools regardless of their sex, ethnic
on outcome indicators must cover group, caste, religion, socio-
additional aspects including child- economic status, geographical
friendly criteria and the enabling location or risk group. Outcome
environment (the optimal conditions evaluation looks at such disparities
for children’s learning, cognitive, social as enrolment, absenteeism and
and psychological development). drop-out rates from the programme
to the school level. Information
• Effectiveness is determined by on disparities is fed into decision-
comparing the actual results against making processes at the
the targets. Outcome evaluations programme and policy level. It also
of child-friendly schools could use informs the school self-assessment
standard MDG/EFA indicators to process for identifying causes
show that the model delivers on and formulating actions to be
what it promises: quality basic incorporated into plans to improve
education for all children. the school’s child-friendliness.

EXAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR OUTCOME EVALUATION OF CHILD-FRIENDLY


SCHOOLS AND LEARNING SPACES

What do administrators, teachers, students and parents think of the policies to


improve the school’s physical environment?
Is there an improved sense of community within the school as a result of
CFS measures?
Has the health status of the students, school staff and community improved?
Has life skills-based health education fostered the knowledge, attitudes, beliefs
and skills needed to adopt healthy behaviours or create conducive conditions
for health?
Does the school have an adequate number of separate toilets for boys and girls
that are regularly used, well cleaned and have access to water?

4
CHAPTER 8: MONITORING AND EVALUATING
8.3 A FOCUS ON DYNAMIC MONITORING AND EVALUATION

Child-friendly school models are rationale and most critical reason


the means to support a dynamic, for engaging in monitoring and
constantly evolving improvement in evaluation is to enable implementing
overall education quality. Therefore, it organizations to gauge progress and
would be inadequate and inappropriate determine whether the innovation is
to simply apply a set of standard working as expected. This is significant
monitoring and evaluation techniques because innovations are often judged
to assess the model. Monitoring and to have failed when in fact they simply
evaluation should also be a means of have not been properly implemented
driving forward the dynamic process of or given a chance to work.
change while keeping track of progress
in effectiveness, efficiency and impact. Schools as implementing organizations
need to know if they are putting in
Schools as institutions should be place all the elements necessary to
engaged with the monitoring and become child-friendly. In this way,
evaluation process, not only to provide they can also lay the foundation for
answers to authorities but also to assessing at various stages whether
improve their own practice. Teachers, the expected results are being
pupils and school administrators achieved. Thus, schools are identified
should be fully engaged in the process, as learning organizations that improve
not simply involved in filling out on their practice through monitoring
questionnaires or being interviewed. and evaluation as implementation
Monitoring and evaluation should take takes place. This helps keep
full account of their roles as principal innovations on track and allows for
actors who need to learn from their corrective measures to be taken in a
own practices in order to reflect and timely manner. Also, when schools
make changes that improve those operate in this way they become
practices. This approach yields vast self-renewing organizations that can
benefits for the CFS model, those constantly improve the quality of their
implementing it, those who are the practice if given the right tools and
main beneficiaries and those who are resources.
investing resources to mainstream
the model. These aspects need to An early assessment at the school
be explored and highlighted so that level is central to guiding this type of
countries do not just adopt standard monitoring and evaluation – required
monitoring and evaluation techniques for self-improvement – as well as a
as a means of making decisions and more rigorous evaluation at prescribed
investing in the model. stages (midterm, end) of the project/
programme cycle. This assessment
8.3.1 Monitoring and evaluation takes stock of the initial situation in the
to support organizational school. Progress then can be gauged
going forward, and at some point
learning
in the future, outputs and outcomes
In the context of child-friendly schools, of the CFS model can be properly
it can be argued that the fundamental evaluated.

5
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
Monitoring progress during the to monitor and evaluate self-learning
implementation process (formative need to be flexible and responsive
evaluation) requires answering such to the school culture as well as local
questions as: How fully do key actors community conditions. These factors
understand the main elements of child- determine how much time and other
friendly schools? How extensively are resources, as well as the necessary
learners, teachers and school heads authority, will be available to support
included in the process of change? Are self-learning through monitoring and
the necessary technical guidance and evaluation. Schools have a vested
full range of resources available for interest in monitoring and formative
implementing the CFS model? How evaluations to determine if they are
fully does the community support the moving along the right path and
change process? What are the barriers whether CFS as an innovation is
to CFS implementation, and how can being given a reasonable chance for
they be addressed? successful implementation.

All these questions need to be


assessed in the formative evaluation 8.3.2 Schools as self-improving
through appropriate indicators organizations
and other documented evidence to
establish a baseline or starting point Successful child-friendly schools are
against which the school can measure by definition self-improving because
progress over time. This assessment quality improvements cannot be
process then becomes the means imposed from the outside. Despite
by which all members of the school the critical importance of this type
community – inside and outside the of monitoring and evaluation for
school walls – can progressively organizational learning and self-
determine how closely schools are renewal, the reality is that schools
realizing their vision of what child- often do not have the means or
friendliness means and refine that inclination to engage in monitoring
vision as they proceed. and evaluation. School personnel
are more accustomed to a process in
Evaluating progress towards child- which they complete questionnaires
friendliness as a form of organizational and answer questions for those
learning means that all school who do monitoring and evaluation
dimensions and actions must be open ‘professionally’ (researchers and
to review by school heads, teachers, evaluators).
pupils, parents and community
leaders. Every aspect needs to be Monitoring and evaluation tends to
considered and reviewed through be done on schools rather than by
the lens of child-friendliness and schools or with schools. They are not
the Convention on the Rights of the seen as research organizations, and
Child, which underpins the CFS model teachers are not regarded as trained
(Bernard, 1999). researchers. The prevailing view is
that schools and teachers should
Each school, however, has its own not be involved with monitoring
institutional ethos or school culture and evaluation beyond filling out
that will determine its organizational questionnaires, answering interview
learning style. The processes, questions and opening up their
methods, tools and indicators used practice to observation.

6
CHAPTER 8: MONITORING AND EVALUATING
On this basis, schools must rely on as strengths, weaknesses and areas
directives, advice and suggestions of improvement are identified. The
from others on how to improve their school’s CFS development plan
practice. This approach does not should be informed by school-level
provide the necessary motivation, evaluations to ensure that a culture of
incentive or means for schools to take continuous improvement is generated
responsibility and be accountable for and sustained. To achieve this, a
improving education quality. It is also climate of trust and transparency
inimical to progress for CFS models, needs to be established in which key
which by definition involve an ongoing stakeholders buy into the concept of
process of change and improvement evidence-based planning. This is a
along a quality pathway. challenge in countries where there
is a perceived benefit to distorting
For CFS models to be successfully data, not least because education
implemented on a sustainable basis, funding is often on a per capita basis
schools must have the means as well and districts and schools may receive
as the incentives to monitor their own additional resources if they inflate
progress and learn from the process enrolment figures.
in order to take the action necessary
to keep implementation on track. Another type of programme from
For this to happen, child-friendly which child-friendly schools could
schools need to borrow from the learn is the ‘school accountability’
experience and lessons of a range of programme. These involve schools
school-based programmes related to assessing their own progress in
monitoring, evaluation and research delivering results that meet the
for organizational improvement. expectations of different stakeholders
to whom they are accountable.
Programmes and projects that Stakeholders include education
promote schools as self-improving ministries, parents, communities,
organizations have been widely pupils, religious bodies, employers and
documented. Many countries have teachers’ unions. Schools that adopt
tried various versions of ‘school this approach operate proactively,
improvement programmes’ that engaging with diverse stakeholders
involve schools in designing and negotiating the expectations that
development plans in consultation schools should strive to meet and how
with their communities, alumni they can be made more accountable.
groups or the ministry of education.
Institutional development goals are School accountability is a progressive
negotiated, resources are secured, and and demanding approach to school
the school generally monitors progress improvement and is only viable if
of implementation and evaluates the the school head and teachers are
outcomes at specified stages in the sufficiently skilled, motivated and
implementation process. empowered through their relationship
with stakeholders. Ministries of
Where school improvement education need to trust, support and
programmes are linked to the CFS encourage schools that adopt this
model, monitoring and evaluation approach rather than simply impose
within the school should lead an inspectorate regime that dictates
to progress at the individual, standards and demands conformity.
organizational and community levels Such schools also need support and

7
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
technical links with universities and children so disinterested in what
teacher education institutions from is going on? And how can I make
which they can receive guidance things better? Teachers who are
and training to design and implement reflective practitioners understand
a credible school accountability that their role is not to act as a fount
approach to institutional of knowledge, dispensing information
development. and skills that pupils simply have to
absorb successfully.
8.3.3 Teachers as reflective Reflective practitioners are teachers
practitioners who recognize that at the heart of
good practice is the role of being a
Teachers play a pivotal role in the good facilitator of learning. This is
process of promoting change within about engaging minds and initiating
their own classrooms as well as learners into a world of knowledge,
in schools and education systems skills, attitudes and values about
generally. The success of child- which they are intrinsically curious
friendly schools will depend to a and that is part of their heritage as
large extent on the teachers involved. human beings. Teachers all over
Qualifications and experience are very the world successfully perform this
important in this regard, but more miracle daily in their classrooms,
significantly, the pedagogic style using a combination of knowledge
practised by teachers will need to be of subject, pedagogic skills and an
child-centred to address classroom abiding passion for bringing out
learning and school-based practices the best in each learner entrusted to
that put the best interest of children their care.
at the centre of all decision-making
processes. Much of what is required One of the ways in which the role of
to encourage teachers who can the teacher as a reflective practitioner
successfully implement CFS models has been strengthened during
can be achieved through education recent years is by engaging teachers
and training. But critical elements in ‘action research’. This can be
of this teacher profile can best be distinguished from the more esoteric
acquired through a mentoring process and rigorous research processes that
and a self-renewing practice that deal with issues of correlation and
learns from reflection and correction. causality, while developing evidence
This is where genuine involvement for certainty in the field of knowledge
of teachers in the monitoring and building and theory construction.
evaluation process can be beneficial Action research is concerned with a
for child-friendly schools. heuristic understanding of practice
and with building knowledge as a
When a teacher operates as a basis for changing practice and taking
reflective practitioner she or he takes action in real-world situations.
stock regularly and routinely of the
classroom process and its outcomes: In Africa and Asia, versions of
What went right, what went wrong? Collaborative Action Research in
Why do some of the learners still Education (CARE) have been used
not grasp the lesson, why are some successfully to engage teachers

8
CHAPTER 8: MONITORING AND EVALUATING
and school managers as genuine more routinely through available
partners in monitoring, evaluation training programmes, engage more
and research exercises. In this regard, often with their peers on issues of
great value has been attached to good practice and develop a self-
the unique experience and insight interrogating approach to facilitating
teachers bring to such exercises. Most learning in their school. Promoting
teachers experience a professional this approach to monitoring and
transformation through their evaluation provides evidence for
involvement with action research and making decisions about CFS models,
go on to become more reflective in and it yields benefits in terms
their own classroom practices. They of professional development for
tend to seek professional knowledge teachers and school heads.

8.4 THE LEARNER AS THE FOCUS OF


MONITORING AND EVALUATION

An essential monitoring feature of These systems differ from traditional,


CFS programmes is a school-based standardized information systems.
management information system that The traditional educational
ideally tracks individual children from management information systems,
pre-enrolment through completion or EMIS, use data sets identified
and transition to the next level of and analysed by central-level
education. In East and Central Asia, decision makers for planning and
for instance, more than 10 countries policymaking to maintain education
now use computerized, Microsoft system quality. CFS child-tracking
Excel systems based on a prototype systems use data sets identified and
analysed by schools and communities
developed in Thailand. These
based on local conditions and used
systems – which can also be used
for local-level action to improve child
on calculators – maintain individual
learning. These are known as learning
student learning profiles and early management information systems,
warning information on child learning or LMIS.
that identify individual strengths,
weaknesses, talents, abilities and LMIS generate computerized or
learning difficulties. Students’ non-computerized ‘files’ containing
learning is tracked, and special needs, information compiled throughout a
issues of protection, or causes of child’s school career on:
faltering are identified. Based on this
information, appropriate proactive • Academic performance (grades,
school, family or community attendance);
interventions are developed to
mitigate learning obstacles. The • Physical conditions (health,
expectation is that children will nutrition);
learn and, if they do not, that • Family background and local
their problems will be quickly and factors that may affect child
accurately identified and acted upon. learning.

9
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
8.4.1 Creating a learning parental mortality, education levels
management system: Case and migration status; primary and
study from Thailand secondary parental occupations and
monthly income; land ownership;
family disruption issues (widowhood,
The development of an LMIS
divorce with no remarriage,
can be streamlined by setting up
separation); number of preschool
clearly defined steps. Thailand’s
children in the family; number of
learning management system is
primary and secondary students and
a solid example of what goes into
what school(s) they attend; number
the process (Institute of Nutrition,
of uneducated family members; main
Mahidol University, Thailand, n.d.).
child caregiver; other members of
the household and total household
Step 1 – Educational assessment size; and participation in village
development committees. These
• Teachers and children collect indicators are closely related to child
student educational scores from protection issues.
every term the student has been
enrolled, using data from existing Step 3 – Analysis
records.
• These scores are recorded Using the three profiles – educational;
as a class educational profile absenteeism, health and nutrition;
(spreadsheet) with numerical and family background – teachers
scores converted into letter identify children who have failed and
grades (A, B, C, D) on a curve for determine what could be causing this
easier reading. failure. The most common reasons
for student failure are:
• Teachers then identify children
who fail temporarily, sporadically • Low parental education;
or chronically.
• Parental occupation (no
Step 2 – Individual and family secondary occupation);
assessment • High level of land ownership;

Along with the educational profile, • Low average monthly income;


teachers and students create two • Parental migration, especially
more spreadsheets: an absenteeism, fathers;
health and nutrition profile and
a family background profile. The • Poor nutritional status;
family background profile contains • Poor health;
information collected through a two-
page survey, with all results encoded • High absenteeism.
to ensure confidentiality.
Step 4 – Action
Schools may develop their own
family indicators based on local Depending on the child learning
circumstances. Some indicators on factors, teachers work with family
the family background profile include: and community members to initiate

10
CHAPTER 8: MONITORING AND EVALUATING
family and community development associated factors such as failure rates
activities, school improvement and nutritional status. It also should
programmes or a combination of the set new goals, identify appropriate
two in order to improve the children’s interventions, and determine roles and
learning environment. These activities responsibilities for the school, parents,
may include: community and other stakeholders.

• Establishing regular parent-teacher In monitoring individual students,


meetings to discuss student the school management information
progress and guide school activity system (SMIS) tracks changes in child
planning; learning and associated factors over
time. This includes monitoring within
• Increasing children’s access to and the term through use of a portfolio
retention in primary and secondary (authentic assessment) as well as term-
schools through such mechanisms by-term and year-by-year throughout
as scholarships or improved home- the child’s educational career.
school transportation;
• Upgrading teachers’ skills in In evaluating the school and education
conducting action research within system, an accountable reporting
classrooms; scheme is created and implemented.
Through case studies and other
• Implementing peer-to-peer and documentation, schools record not
participatory learning programmes; only their quantitative achievements
• Promoting life skills development; but also how these results were
accomplished.
• Establishing day care and
vocational training centres;
• Improving school lunch quality;
• Improving water supply and
sanitation facilities;
• Providing access to energy
and enhancing the physical
environment through such
initiatives as tree planting,
school gardens and solid waste
management;
© UNICEF/NYHQ2006-2511/Pirozzi

• Addressing the conditions of


orphans and children with special
needs.

Step 5 – Monitoring and evaluation

The process should establish


school- and system-wide cut-off
points of inadequate child learning and

11
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
PHILIPPINES: PUTTING A FACE TO of their children enrolled in school. To
EACH NAME validate some questionable entries, we
conducted interviews with students, other
family members and community leaders.
One strategy that helps schools seek
While the data gathering for family
out and assist hard-to-reach, at-risk and
background information was ongoing,
faltering children is the Student Tracking
our school nurse was also doing health
System. The system is being piloted
and nutrition monitoring for all students
in 2,000 of the more than 3,500 child-
– after which, all teachers were asked to
friendly schools in the Philippines. Below
construct the learning profiles of each
are excerpts from an interview with
student, dating as far back as their first
Mrs. Erlinda J. Valdez, the principal of
year in the school.
F. Benitez Elementary School, one of the
pilot schools (UNICEF, 2002 – Teachers
Talking). The teachers in charge summarized all
the data and, together with the grade
chairman, jointly identified learning
1. What is the Student Tracking System?
falterers. Falterers were classified into
three categories: chronic – those who
The Student Tracking System is a system consistently failed; sporadic – those who
of organizing important data about alternately pass and fail; and temporary –
learners – their academic performance, those who failed once but had no history
physical and mental cognition and their of failure. Records of falterers (who were
social background. It puts together a lovingly called ‘stars’, short for ‘students
comprehensive view of the ‘whole’ child at risk’) were analysed. Conclusions of
that allows teachers and administrators the analysis became the basis for the
to understand the total environment in interventions rendered to the children.
which children are learning. In summary, The school is now completing a research
it puts a face and memory to each name. study entitled ‘Faltering at F. Benitez
The system is also an early warning that Elementary School: Causes, effects and
will identify children who need special possible solutions’, which we hope will
attention, are at risk of being abused, or guide our future interventions.
are at risk of faltering and leaving school.
It is a system that determines the pattern
3. What benefits do you get from
and frequency of poor learning and
implementing the Student Tracking
identifies children who need immediate
System?
assistance.
Our experience with the system is
2. When and how did you start
still very new, but we are seeing
implementing the system?
positive behavioural changes among
our teachers. Teachers, by their own
It all started in May 2001, when I and testimonies and as observed by their
two of my colleagues from this school peers and students, have become more
were trained on the system. The patient and understanding of students
training equipped us with the skills and who falter, miss or misbehave in class.
knowledge to create, use and apply In the past, they considered falterers and
the system in our school, using the absentees as problem students; now they
computer-based model. see them as students with problems.
They have also come to know more of
When we came back from the training, their students – their family background
we oriented all teachers on the system, and their special circumstances. This,
advocated to parents and asked for their we believe, is a major step in genuinely
support, particularly in completing the helping students at risk.
family background questionnaire for each

12
CHAPTER 8: MONITORING AND EVALUATING
We also have noticed closer teacher- recognition of their contribution, we
student relationships now. Some were able to generate support from
students with special problems confide them.
in their teachers and run to the school
for refuge and consolation when their b. Getting correct information from
own families fail to give them the parents – There were many
attention and care they need. Finally, questions in the family background
the system has helped us define our profile that were ‘sensitive spots’ for
school’s research agenda for the next parents, for example, educational
years. Since our school’s goal is to attainment and family income.
provide quality elementary education To get correct information from
to our students, it is incumbent upon parents, we had to befriend them
us to find ways to make this into reality, first, assist them in completing
to find causes of and address high the questionnaires and validate
levels of absenteeism, dropouts and the information gathered by
underachievement. And the system is interviewing their children.
showing us how – it has given us a tool c. Overlapping of reports – The school
to find out the whys of the problems so system requires many reports
we can address the ‘hows’. from the schools and, more often
than not, schools are burdened
4. How did you motivate overworked in preparing these reports. We
teachers to support the system? are, therefore, exploring ways to
integrate all these databases and
When we first introduced the system to reports so that less time and effort
our teachers, they had mixed reactions. is spent in preparing all of them.
Some were supportive, but many were
indifferent, sceptical and unimpressed. 6. What are the lessons learned and the
So we advocated to them, emphasizing future direction?
the potential benefits of the system to
them and to their students. We also • A better understanding of the
ensured that their support of the system students’ family background
translated into additional points in their has much to do with improving
performance evaluation. Furthermore, academic achievement.
we made it a school undertaking to
conduct the research study ‘Faltering at • Knowing the child fully helps in
F. Benitez Elementary School: Causes, educating him or her well.
effects and possible solutions’, which
• The key to teachers’ support is
generated funds for the school.
proper acknowledgement and
recognition of their efforts.
5. What were the challenges you faced
in implementing the Student Tracking
In the next months, we intend to
System?
continue to use and strengthen the
system and complete our study on
The challenges we faced in starting the student faltering. We also plan to
system can be categorized into three: conduct workshops, where all teachers
will jointly identify systematic ways
a. Generating support from teachers – of addressing factors of faltering,
At first, this was hard, as a number absenteeism and dropouts. In the
of teachers were disinterested and meantime, we will also help advocate
unconcerned. But through a creative for the expansion of this initiative to
combination of persuasion and all schools in the Division of Manila.

Source: <www.unicef.org/teachers/forum/0302.htm>.

13
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
8.5 MONITORING AND EVALUATION TO
SUPPORT CFS MAINSTREAMING

At the macro level, those who facilitate used in evaluation, the existing
and advocate for child-friendly schools education system statistics are a good
must generate evidence that supports source of data for core indicators such
further investments in scaling up and as EFA gauges. In evaluating CFS
mainstreaming the CFS model into models, however, it is critical that
education systems. Such evidence child-friendly school principles and
helps persuade governments and other issues are fully incorporated into the
partners to support the necessary design of the evaluation. Credible
investment and be committed to monitoring and evaluation involve
using the CFS model as a means of in-depth probing at the school,
improving the quality of education. community and local government
The type of evidence required comes levels to tease out the variables that
mainly from monitoring and evaluation influence changes attributable to the
exercises. In this regard, two points implementation of the CFS model. In
must be emphasized: Adherence to addition to quantitative data from the
technical evaluation standards is critical education system and other sources,
to ensure the credibility of presented there should be extensive use of
evidence. And the evaluation must be an assortment of qualitative data
done by specialists who are largely and factors – including process and
at ‘arm’s length’ from the groups causal factors – which will need to be
involved in designing, implementing identified and explored as part of the
and advocating for the CFS models. evaluation.
These measures enhance the value of
the evidence in terms of objectivity and Process evaluation assesses the
adherence to technical standards. extent to which planned outputs
were produced on schedule, the
The accepted criteria of reliability, efficiency of resource management
validity and generalizability are in achieving these planned outputs
essential in the design of monitoring and how well the interventions have
and evaluation tools and studies. The been implemented by schools. It also
cost of such evaluations and studies identifies key factors that hinder or
competes with the demand for teaching promote implementation. Process
and learning resources; therefore evaluation of child-friendly schools
it is important to use existing data often includes indicators that assess
gathering and planning processes children’s, communities’ and teachers’
as much as possible. This reduces participation in decision-making.
costs and encourages monitoring and Indicators that focus on processes can
evaluation as part of the process of examine whether student clubs or
mainstreaming CFS models. student councils have been formed or
whether parent-teacher associations
A wide range of data sources is used meet regularly and what role they play
to monitor and evaluate child-friendly in school development plans. Process
schools and spaces in support of indicators also can assess classroom
scaling up and mainstreaming. For practices, methodologies and use of
standard survey techniques typically child-centred learning activities.

14
CHAPTER 8: MONITORING AND EVALUATING
EXAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR OUTCOME EVALUATIONS
Does the school have policies to improve and maintain a healthy physical
environment? Are policies implemented and enforced?
Do policies address all aspects of the physical environment (air, water, sanitation,
waste, location, hazardous chemicals, transport, food, disease vectors)?
Are goals and objectives well defined, and do they establish criteria to measure
and evaluate intervention activities and outcomes?
Are students, teachers, school health personnel, food service personnel, parents
and community members involved in planning interventions?
Is locally relevant health education integrated into the curriculum and extra-
curricular activities?
Is in-service training provided for the educators who are responsible for
implementing life skills-based environmental health education?
Do teachers feel comfortable implementing the curriculum?
Do school health services periodically screen for environmental health problems?

In general, there needs to be a UNICEF EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC REGIONAL


judicious balance of quantitative and INDICATORS: TOILET FACILITIES
qualitative data. Depending on the
Separate facilities used by each sex
information sought, a variety of tools 5
and regularly kept clean
can be used – including individual
interviews, focus group discussions, Separate facilities used by each sex
4
questionnaires, classroom observation but not kept clean
and document analysis. Checklists Same facilities used by both sexes
often provide answers to the ‘what’, 3
and regularly kept clean
‘how many’ or ‘how often’ questions,
whereas the key ‘why’ questions that Same facilities used by both sexes
2
and not kept clean
explain causality may require more
open-ended approaches. ‘Yes or no’ 1 No toilet facilities
questions are of limited use because
they do not measure progress. Likert
scales are more useful. (See Box: Qualitative data strengthen and
UNICEF East Asia and Pacific regional enrich the overall quality of evidence
indicators, right.) provided by the evaluation exercise.
This gives greater insight for making
The above scale allows for the decisions on mainstreaming and helps
measurement of progress over time address the more nuanced constraints
and encourages school authorities that may affect mainstreaming of
to keep toilets clean and provide a child-friendly schools. Although readily
sufficient number of toilets for girls. available quantitative data from official
An additional question is required, statistics are attractive sources for
however, to establish the actual any CFS evaluation, it should be kept
number of toilets provided by sex in mind that there are risks in some
and the student-toilet ratio. contexts concerning the reliability of

15
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
official statistics. Besides, numbers to school and to disaggregate data
do not often tell the whole story for according to such criteria as ethnicity,
complex models such as CFS. class and gender. Child-to-child
censuses recently supported by
Any credible CFS evaluation should UNICEF in such countries as Kenya
also make use of case studies of and Uganda are good examples of
good practices, especially if they can utilizing community demographics
be replicated at the classroom and and situations to better understand
school levels in a variety of contexts. school issues. Data from other
Similarly, case studies about child- sectors, including health records from
friendly schools’ positive effect on local public health centres, can also
individual children can be powerful be used to gauge the impact of the
and descriptive evidence to enrich an schools on key MDG health indicators.
evaluation. In general, case studies
are good at anchoring evaluations Longitudinal data would typically
through illustrative slices of reality. be required to measure change
This may be just as important as the over time and assess the impact
most sophisticated statistical analysis of implementing CFS models.
when it comes to convincing decision Alternately, comparative data can be
makers about the benefits of the CFS used for this purpose by selecting
model. a sample of child-friendly schools
and a control group of schools from
In measuring the impact of child- similar socio-economic, ethnic and
friendly schools, qualitative data such geographical settings in order to
as pupil and parental attitudes should measure the impact of CFS models.
preferably be quantified through use This was done in Nigeria’s 2004
of standard instruments such as the CFS-baseline study, which revealed
Likert scale for measuring attitudinal that child-friendly schools were
and affective changes. Studies also more popular than regular schools
need to go beyond the school level to when compared to those in the
assess why children are not coming control sample.

8.6 MONITORING AND EVALUATION TO SUPPORT INVESTMENT

Monitoring the financial outlay for and Uganda through the Books in
child-friendly schools is critical for the Hands of Children campaign. In
accountability, transparency and Uganda, school budgets are posted on
equity. Audit chains can be developed the walls to ensure accountability to
to track inputs throughout the system. communities. This type of monitoring
For example, an audit chain could helps ensure that resources invested in
follow textbook purchases to the CFS are in fact being used as intended.
hands of students. As it tracks the
textbooks’ journey, it could assess Innovations often fail not because
whether the textbooks have reached investments are inadequate but
girls or marginalized children and how because the resources are not used in
effectively teachers use the texts. Such the intended manner to achieve the
‘end-user’ auditing occurs in Kenya desired outcomes. Measuring the cost

16
CHAPTER 8: MONITORING AND EVALUATING
of CFS is also crucial for demonstrating that UNICEF recently launched will
the financial feasibility of scaling up be an important tool for ‘costing’ the
child-friendly schooling as a rights- minimum learning package for child-
based approach to quality education friendly schooling.
for all. The Essential Learning Package

8.7 AN OVERVIEW OF EXPERIENCE WITH


CFS MONITORING AND EVALUATION

Tracking the outcomes of child-friendly In general, however, few projects are


schools and learning spaces and their being managed in a way that allows
progressive movement towards the them to report on their progress in
child-friendly ‘ideal’ is an ongoing creating schools that embody the CFS
challenge. Country case reviews of CFS conceptual framework and in realizing
initiatives have produced relatively the benefits that accrue from such
few examples where output and programmes. This situation has arisen
outcome results have been reported across all regions for much the same
or evaluated. It is far more common to interrelated reasons:
see reports primarily showing activities
completed and inputs provided. • Projects have tended to implement
child-friendly schools progressively
Monitoring and evaluation of CFS (in some cases, almost on an ad hoc
models have tended to yield patchy basis) in terms of dimensions that
evidence to support them. There most readily fit with or build upon
are many examples of useful and existing programmes and local
interesting evidence that show promise priorities. It appears that none of the
in terms of advocacy. But for the most projects began on a comprehensive
part, CFS projects have not tailored child-friendly, school-oriented basis.
their design, baselines or monitoring Although it makes programmatic
systems and indicators in terms of the sense to build on the ‘readiness’
generic CFS framework and its core of existing partnerships, funding
principles as a dynamic ‘package’. resources, expertise and a proven
track record, this approach has
Since the CFS model has shifted from a made tracking progress of the child-
rigid blueprint of set characteristics or friendly school as a whole concept
key dimensions, aspects of the ‘ideal’ difficult.
can now be identified and detailed
• Few projects developed school-
through a common format with a
tailored baseline measures with
degree of built-in flexibility. Inputs,
respect to the status of all CFS
activities and results can be labelled
dimensions, either separately,
as belonging to one or another of the
as a whole, or in terms of how
core principles of the CFS framework.
these dimensions related to
They can then be reported in a way that
local education systems, partner
would help compile results. This would
communities, schools and families.
provide a clearer picture of the status of
implementation at the country, regional • Projects have reported activities
and global levels. and results according to the specific

17
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
strategies and elements of their Consequently, a baseline study
own CFS programmes rather than of classroom interaction patterns,
the ‘ideal package’. In some cases, community participation, school
the resulting pictures are detailed inspection and supervision, attitudes
descriptions of the separate child- towards education – especially girls’
friendly school strands. They are education – and school planning
less informative as snapshots of and management was designed
whether or how these strands and implemented. The baseline
weave together to become more study assessed the impact of past
than the sum of their parts – interventions and provided a starting
something anticipated by the idea point for future impact studies.
of the child-friendly school as an
integrated conceptual and action The baseline assessment utilized
framework. a range of studies employing both
qualitative and quantitative methods.
While child-friendly school and Selection was by random stratified
learning space projects are evolving sample, ensuring that the schools’
and likely improving in terms of communities had similar profiles for
reach and effectiveness, the nature such factors as urban-rural mix.
and impact of this evolution are
not fully evident due to a lack of The evaluation assessed the impact of
good monitoring and evaluation. the CFS initiative in terms of:
Furthermore, the dearth of evidence
from cost-benefit analysis is a • Outcomes – enrolment, primary
significant constraint to the successful one intake, gender gap, drop-
advocacy and fund-raising that are out rates, repetition, completion,
needed to take child-friendly schools learning outcomes and enrolment
and learning spaces to scale. in early childhood centres;
• Processes and relationships – the
8.7.1 Child-friendly schools quality of interaction between
and learning spaces evaluation pupils and pupils, pupils and
teachers, teachers and supervisors
examples
and inspectors, and the school and
the community as well as attitudes
The child-friendly school initiative
and interaction patterns;
in Nigeria: The ‘Federal Government
of Nigeria-UNICEF Mid-Term Review’ • Classroom interaction – discourse
(2004) noted that 286 primary schools analysis and timeline analysis to
nationwide had been accorded child- measure the quality of interaction
friendly status. Various field reports in a subsample of the school,
also detailed the effects of CFS on using video and direct data
enrolment and retention. UNICEF observation as a data-gathering
Nigeria, however, required more data process.
on processes and pupils’ achievement
in child-friendly schools, the overall Viet Nam’s Child-Friendly Learning
impact of these schools, and a clearer Environment project: A major
overview of inputs and activities in emphasis is placed on development
support of child-friendly schools. and application of the Community-

18
CHAPTER 8: MONITORING AND EVALUATING
based Monitoring and Programme collection of data -> analysis -> school
Assessment System (COMPAS). action planning -> child-friendly
Addressing three priority areas of the learning environment implementation
project – monitoring and evaluation, -> further ‘assessment of progress’
school-based management and data collection. The analysis is used
school-community partnership – both formatively at the local level for
COMPAS is a project-wide data school improvement and as input for
collection system aimed at creating the central database of Viet Nam’s
a centralized database. It is expected Ministry of Education and Training for
to be used on a regular basis to guide planning and resource allocation.
project implementation in Viet Nam.
The Philippines’ Child-Friendly
COMPAS is being developed and School System project: In 2003,
promoted as a mechanism and a the Asian Institute of Journalism
forum that: and Communication, the Philippines’
Department of Education and UNICEF
• Introduces and advocates child undertook case studies to document
rights and child-friendly schools; best practices in CFS implementation.
Using observation and interviews
• Enables school self-assessment written as relatively unanalysed
and planning; vignettes, the case studies provide a
• Provides data that will different and interesting perspective
complement provincial, district on the project outcomes – a ‘window’
and local planning; on what users and beneficiaries
believe child-friendly concepts and
• Tracks children, particularly girls practices have produced (Lopez, 2003).
and poor children;
• Creates enabling conditions to The case studies are grouped in the
further development of the child- following areas:
friendly learning environment;
• Making it work – CFS system
• Converges with key interventions implementation;
and generates stronger
community participation; • Liking school and staying –
students;
• Assists principals in managing
the school in more effective, • From teacher with love – teachers;
participatory ways.
• Leading by example –
administrators;
COMPAS includes baseline surveys
that are conducted in 200 schools • Building together – community;
twice annually, at the beginning
• For the children’s sake – student
and end of each academic year. It
tracking.
supports training for local officials in
survey techniques and use of data in
decision-making and management.
COMPAS is intended to work as a
forward-moving cycle: advocacy
and data collection training -> field

19
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
8.8 WHO SHOULD MONITOR AND EVALUATE,
AND WHAT ARE THEIR POTENTIAL ROLES?

To achieve consensus on a effectively places greater emphasis


rights-based approach to quality on monitoring and evaluating at the
education, the CFS concept needs school and local government levels,
to be mainstreamed in government with the central government playing
monitoring and evaluation. This more of a role in quality control and
requires all stakeholders to agree overall coordination.
upon the criteria for assessing the
child-friendliness of the learning A coherent monitoring system should
environment. The stakeholders link these various administrative levels
include pupils, parents and caregivers, and involve all stakeholders to some
communities, school heads and extent. Some of the stakeholders
teachers, religious and traditional are more likely to be involved
leaders, government officials at all in the self-assessment process,
levels, development partners and civil including local non-governmental
society organizations. Each group has and community-based organizations,
a role in the monitoring and evaluation religious organizations, traditional
process. leaders, communities and parents,
local supervisors and inspectors,
Education governance structures head teachers, teachers, instructors,
vary from country to country and caregivers and pupils. External and
depend on the number of tiers in each self-assessment criteria should be
government system. Tiers may include linked, but local priorities need to be
national, district and local government, reflected in self-assessment exercises
the community and the school and externally driven surveys.
itself. Federal systems may have an
additional tier, and some countries Table 8.1 suggests potential roles
have provincial levels above districts. for those who may be involved in
Involving too many tiers may slow the monitoring and evaluation of
down or confuse the monitoring and education, according to CFS criteria
evaluation process. Decentralization and approaches. © UNICEF/NYHQ2005-0128/Mohan

20
CHAPTER 8: MONITORING AND EVALUATING
TABLE 8.1
STAKEHOLDER ROLE PURPOSE REMARKS
The ministry of MOE should be central Ensure linkage between Capacity development
education (MOE) to the whole process M&E of child-friendly may be required.
and its directorates, of monitoring and schools (CFS) and State, district and local
including planning, evaluation (M&E). mainstream data on government authority
examination boards, schools, early childhood (LGA) levels are
inspectorate and key development and non- involved. Focus:
parastatals. formal education centres. Policy and data analysis
for sector.

Other ministries, Advisory, through Ensure that health, water, Other ministries
such as water supply, intersectoral sanitation, energy and could assist in overall
environment, health, committees. gender are given due design and oversight
women’s affairs, social prominence, and provide of the M&E process at
welfare and finance. a minimum package different levels in the
for reducing risk and system and in the actual
adapting to climate M&E process at LGA
change. level.

Academic institutions, Technical support to Ensure quality and Mainstream systems,


teacher training ensure quality M&E linkage between M&E such as local
institutions and and research. and training of teachers universities and teacher
consultancy agencies. and government officials. training colleges, should
be involved as much as
possible.

Major international Could be represented Ensure consensus around UNICEF may or may
development partners in an overall steering overall M&E design and not take lead. Linked
in education. committee or in approach, especially for to overall education
agreement on key selected key indicators. management information
indicators and system (EMIS) and
reporting systems. quality assurance. Field-
based development
partners may be directly
involved at different
levels.

International non- Could be represented Ensure consensus Involved at all levels,


governmental in an overall steering around key criteria and including international
organizations (NGOs), committee or in indicators. NGOs and large national
large national NGOs agreement on key NGOs, ensuring linkage
with field networks, indicators and with field-based NGOs
local NGOs and reporting systems. and community-based
community-based organizations and
organizations, and the supporting advocacy.
private sector.

Local government Monitoring schools Ensure that effective Some LGAs have
officials. according to agreed- information is gathered inspectorate or
upon CFS principles, and analysed at this level. supervisor systems as
including efficient well as EMIS.
utilization of funding.

21
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
Religious Consultative or Ensure that children Involving such bodies
organizations. monitoring and understand and embrace is critical in countries
advocacy – they common ethics and where their support is
need to share CFS values and demonstrate required in achieving
principles, which also mutual respect for Education for All (EFA),
need to reflect their fellow students and their for example, Muslim
beliefs. community in line with clerics in Pakistan and
local norms and customs. Northern Nigeria.

Traditional leaders. Consultative or Ensure cultural fit Traditional leaders


monitoring and between school, may have as great
advocacy– they community and local an influence in some
need to share CFS environment. systems as the
principles, which also government and can be
need to reflect their key agents in achieving
beliefs. EFA.

Communities and Active participants Ensure transparency, Through involvement in


parents. in school M&E at the accountability, ownership village or community and
community and school and sustainability. school committees. May
levels. include parent-teacher
associations (PTAs) and
Mothers’ Clubs.

Head teachers, Keeping class Ensure effective Effective EMIS depends


teachers, non-formal and school/centre information-gathering on adequate information
education instructors, records on education, and use at school level. gathering at the school/
caregivers. health, age and other centre level, as does
indicators. successful school
planning.

Pupils. Consultation and Ensure that CFS criteria Pupils can be involved
monitoring, including are generated by pupils. in school committees or
mapping out-of-school parallel structures and in
children and input into clubs where M&E is part
M&E criteria. of the function.

8.9 OTHER ISSUES ON MONITORING AND


EVALUATION OF CFS MODELS

In general, monitoring and evaluation onset, rather than tagged elements


encompass a wide range of issues; on as an afterthought. If CFS is being
CFS models spur even more. The mainstreamed, then monitoring and
emphasis of monitoring and evaluation evaluation should be fully integrated
exercises is not only to provide into existing education system
evidence for decision makers but processes, rather than being treated as
also to help schools and reflective a separate or one-off exercise divorced
practitioners improve, and to benefit from the rest of the system. Timing is
learners. Additionally, monitoring also important. Monitoring should start
and evaluation must be integral parts early and be included strategically and
of any CFS programme from the thoughtfully throughout the stages

22
CHAPTER 8: MONITORING AND EVALUATING
of the programme cycle. The review immediately. Teacher training, for
of these and other key issues is an example, will take a while before it
essential part of capacity-building for influences teacher behaviour, and that
child-friendly schools. in turn means learning outcomes will
not be affected immediately. A period
of at least two years between baseline
8.9.1 How should monitoring and impact studies is normally
and evaluation be built into advisable. The principal baseline can
overall project design? be complemented, however, by rapid
appraisal baselines at the individual
Monitoring and evaluation procedures school level, thereby ensuring that
should be clearly delineated in the each school has its own baseline
overall project design, the Education to assist in drawing up the school
Sector Plan (if the child-friendly school development plan.
is integrated within the plan) and at
the various levels being monitored Monitoring occurs at various levels,
or evaluated – school, community, from the global (using EFA targets)
and local and national governments. to the state and other government
A logical framework approach, or levels, the community, school,
an adaptation, that clearly links classroom and individual child. The
objectives, key indicators and means quality of the school’s record-keeping
of verification (the how) and identifies should be considered an essential
each partner’s role should be used. element of the child-friendly learning
This avoids duplication and ensures environment. Effective, inclusive
that child-friendly schools fit within school management committees
the overall government policy and are indispensable to ensure the
planning structures. community’s involvement in planning
and monitoring school activities.
8.9.2 When should monitoring
and evaluation occur? 8.9.3 Why are baselines
important, and what should they
Monitoring should be ongoing and measure?
involve all stakeholders. Evaluations
should be carried out according One of the problems in ‘selling’ the
to agreed-upon cycles, both in concept of child-friendly schools
mainstream government systems such to development partners and
as annual censuses or biannual panel governments has been the absence
inspection visits and in agreed project of baseline and impact data that
memoranda of understanding when demonstrate the effectiveness of
child-friendly schools are supported activities and inputs on learning
through specific projects. processes and outcomes. Baseline
data can be provided by governments
Impact evaluations that assess through such tools as EMIS, national
changes attributable to child-friendly surveys (including education
schools should allow reasonable sector analyses), inspection reports
time between implementation and documents such as budgets
and assessment. Interventions and expenditure accounts at all
and processes may not take effect governmental levels. This data

23
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
capacity to participate in the process
is essential. To achieve this, training
In Kenya, schools receive
can be linked to broader skills
a cheque directly from the
development through participative
Government for textbooks, and
appraisal approaches. Using well-
school textbook management
tried methods such as Reflect,
committees manage and
which combines needs analysis with
monitor procurement and
literacy development, can bolster the
utilization.
community’s capacity to monitor and
evaluate. Communities then become
partners in gathering, analysis and
should be complemented by more use of data as they inform school
specific data on key CFS indicators development plans.
related to processes, relationships
and outcomes. A critical outcome
that must be measured is the
Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa
impact of the school on students’
and Uganda have incorporated
competencies and skills, including
standard Monitoring Learning
literacy, numeracy and life skills.
Achievement tools into their
Mainstream instruments can be used,
baselines.
such as those included in Monitoring
Learning Achievement surveys.

An important element in child- Evaluation and monitoring must


friendly schools is pupil participation be presented to communities in a
in classrooms (measured through comprehensible manner if they are
classroom interaction analysis) and in to participate meaningfully in the
decision-making. The impact of child- process. Capacity development is
friendly schools on the attitudes and also critical for teachers, school heads
behaviours of pupils, their families and government officials. In the case
and communities in regard to such of teachers and other professionals,
issues as health, sanitation and training in action research is essential
gender also needs to be measured. if they are to develop as reflective
This involves studies within the practitioners attuned to the needs
school and community that measure of their students. Similarly, children
child-friendly schools’ influence on may keep introspective diaries and
ensuring that messages pass from receive training in basic research
child to child and from child to family methods. The Girls Education
and community. Movement in Uganda, for example,
provided training for young children
in basic research skills. Excellent
8.9.4 Empowering examples of community involvement
communities and other in monitoring and evaluation are
stakeholders found in Malawi, Uganda and the
United Republic of Tanzania, where
In child-friendly schools, community- community participation was integral
based monitoring and evaluation in data gathering on early childhood
is an integral part of the process. issues and tracking orphans within
Therefore, building the community’s the community.

24
CHAPTER 8: MONITORING AND EVALUATING
8.9.5 Gauging the impact on the of the school on education in the local
education system as a whole government authority can also be
gauged. Additionally, progress towards
The impact of replicating and sustainability needs to be monitored.
mainstreaming CFS initiatives on UNICEF should have ‘phase-out’ strategies
government systems should be measured. for all schools it supports where child-
Data can be used to help governments friendly learning environments will be
recognize the merits of child-friendly sustained in the medium and long term
school integration into mainstream after external support has ended.
policymaking and planning.
The data gathered on schools should be
If child-friendly school status is awarded included in an overall database such as
on the basis of a school attaining certain DevInfo, which encompasses a wide range
child-friendly benchmarks, motivation of development indicators. In this way,
for improvement will be enhanced. connections can be made between the
On a more local level, the influence of information generated by the education
child-friendly schools on nearby schools sector and data from other sectors. This
should also be measured when the is crucial for measuring progress towards
cluster model is employed. The impact related MDGs.

8.10 THE WAY FORWARD

Effective monitoring and evaluation made accessible through solid database


are necessary to improve schools and management. Too often data are
make them more child-friendly. There gathered but not effectively disseminated
needs to be tangible evidence that or utilized. The focus needs to include
schools will provide all children with progress monitoring and process
quality education and that students will assessment as schools evolve over time
acquire relevant skills and competences from using CFS principles to identifying
that enable them to exercise their full dynamic strategies that routinely lead to
rights in society. Involving all major child-friendly school improvements.
partners at the national and district
levels helps build consensus. School and In the final analysis, however, two key
community involvement in the process questions will be posed to child-friendly
increases transparency, accountability schools regarding their contribution to
and community ownership of the school. quality, rights-based education for all:
Additionally, evaluations need to reach How effective are child-friendly schools?
beyond the school to map obstacles to And what will they cost? These are the
enrolment and attendance such as the challenges to those responsible for the
effects of poverty, discrimination or HIV monitoring and evaluation of child-
and AIDS. friendly schools.

The monitoring and evaluation process


needs to be rigorous and be trusted
to generate reliable data that can be

25
CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 9
Mainstreaming child-friendly concepts

9.1 Understanding mainstreaming


9.1.1 Scaling up
9.1.2 Mainstreaming

9.2 Simulation modelling and mainstreaming


CHAPTER 9
MAINSTREAMING CHILD-FRIENDLY CONCEPTS

9.1 UNDERSTANDING MAINSTREAMING

Once the child-friendly school model is relatively simple matter of building or


successfully implemented in a number renovating schools, training teachers
of schools in a country, the next step is and supplying learning materials on
to work with the government to make a scale that covers the whole country.
all schools child-friendly over an agreed The rationale behind this approach is
time frame. There are two related ways that the education system has already
to do this: (a) scaling up child-friendly established child-friendly schools in a
school implementation throughout the way that makes large-scale replication
country, and (b) mainstreaming child- feasible and straightforward.
friendly schools within the education
system. Although these two processes Although the broader, short-term
are strongly interrelated, there are approach is definitive and efficient, the
significant differences. limited flexibility it offers can result in
costly errors if the replicated features do
not work well for some schools or are
9.1.1 Scaling up not in line with conditions in a particular
district. An alternative way to scale up
Scaling up involves a systematic, often child-friendly schools is through the
rapid replication of the CFS model so ‘roll-out’ process: The CFS model is
that within a given period all schools gradually replicated from one location to
can be identified as child-friendly. This a manageable set of other locations and
can be done through the ‘big bang’ then to a further set of locations until the
approach, which uses major investments whole country is covered.
over a short time span to make all
schools child-friendly. For instance, The roll-out approach is most
a large-scale project for training all appropriate where there is limited
teachers and school managers in child- financing in the short term and some
friendly school methods, coupled degree of uncertainty about what works
with extensive school construction, best. This is especially true when the
renovation and supply of pedagogic model to be replicated is based on key
materials, can be used to create the principles or on a set of hypotheses that
necessary CFS features in facilities may lead to varying characteristics and
across the country. features in a specific context. Successful
implementation in a set of schools
This ‘big bang’ scaling-up approach in one district, for example, can be
works best where sufficient financial followed by efforts to replicate them in
resources are available and the model a number of schools in another district.
to be replicated has a high degree of The idea is to learn from the experience
certainty, with a finite set of well defined of the first district, using what has
characteristics that vary little from case worked and avoiding what may have
to case. In this scenario, it becomes a gone wrong, while also putting in place
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CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
new variations of CFS features in line all schools. It also allows for national
with particularities of the new district. standards to be set in key areas to guide
practice and help determine the budget
This heuristic approach to scaling up required for implementation across the
may appear to be slower and less education system within a given time
efficient, but it allows for applying frame.
lessons learned and making changes
to improve the model as it is rolled out The advantage offered by
to more schools. It also avoids costly mainstreaming is that it promotes
errors, which is especially important sustainability. The model becomes an
when available resources are limited. integral part of the education system
rather than a project that needs to be
fully integrated into the system later as
9.1.2 Mainstreaming it takes hold in schools and districts.

Another approach to making all UNICEF recommends that partner


schools in a country child-friendly is countries choose either the
to mainstream the CFS model. This mainstreaming approach or scaling
is not just about scaling up, but it is up through a ‘big bang’ or a ‘roll-out’
related. Mainstreaming infuses key strategy based on a number of factors:
elements of the model into all aspects
of the education system, including the • The extent to which key child-
processes and parameters that shape friendly school elements or full
the system. This means that planning, CFS models have already taken
implementation, financing, staffing, root across the country’s education
management, supervision, monitoring system;
and evaluation of education in the
country will intrinsically embrace the • How adaptable the education
CFS model. system is to innovation in general;
• The availability of adequate
Mainstreaming therefore involves
and predictable resources that
a ‘systems approach’ rather than a
schools can use in flexible
‘project approach’, which is typically
ways to implement change and
used for scaling up. The systems
improvement;
approach is usually done through
simulation modelling that allows for • What best fits the requirements
building a range of scenarios with CFS to make innovative models like
variables to show how the education child-friendly schools take root
system would operate and what it and become a sustainable part of
would cost to have CFS features in education throughout the country.

9.2 SIMULATION MODELLING AND MAINSTREAMING

What is most significant about through the use of simulation models.


mainstreaming as distinct from scaling There are various simulation models
up is that it infuses key CFS elements available for planning, and, in general,
into the process of planning and they are used to better understand
investing in an education system as how a system behaves as variables are
a whole. Again, this is usually done changed. They can be used to ‘try out’
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CHAPTER 9: MAINSTREAMING CHILD-FRIENDLY CONCEPTS
trade-offs between critical factors to help friendly schools in education systems,
prescribe appropriate national standards UNICEF appreciates a country’s need to
and decide on optimum balances utilize many other models in planning
between cost and quality of education for education development. These could
for all learners. be models recommended by a key donor
or models that planners in the country
Simulation models are especially are already familiar with. In these
useful for understanding the impact circumstances, it is important to ensure
of policy decisions on performance, that mainstreaming of child-friendly
cost and outcomes of the system. To schools does not impose demands
support governments and partners in by requiring major changes in the
mainstreaming child-friendly schools, simulation model already in use. One
policy simulation models and costing way to avoid this is to provide countries
tools can be used to assess the resource with a common suite of models they
implications of various policy options in can use as standard tools for different
the face of budget constraints. They can purposes in planning for education
also project alternative and feasible CFS development.
development scenarios that will help
determine the best options for a given In an effort to provide countries with
country. appropriate models, United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP),
UNICEF promotes the use of the United Nations Educational, Scientific
EPSSim model. (See Chapter 7.) The and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),
EPSSim tool can utilize a checklist or UNICEF and the World Bank have
guidelines generated by countries as convened a working group of experts in
part of the process of setting national education modelling to review current
CFS standards and strategies. China, for models and use their key elements to
example, has developed such a checklist design a collection of interconnected
around four categories of CFS principles models for country use. Through this
and is using this to set national eclectic approach, it is anticipated that
standards for child-friendly schools. (See partners can better engage countries
Box, page 4.) to explore policy options, formulate
scenarios and project implications for
Through the use of simulation costs and results of various policies and
modelling, it is possible to show the strategies, including mainstreaming
impact of decisions at the consultation child-friendly schools.
stage, when key stakeholders use
CFS principles to generate desirable The path to child-friendly schools
characteristics for child-friendly schools. may vary, but the goal is the same: to
This can promote a healthy dialogue and ensure that all children have access
generate a balanced approach between to quality education and are nurtured
the ideals of CFS and the practicalities of in a child-friendly environment where
what can be afforded over a given time they can develop their full potential.
frame. Once broad standards have been This is central to the education-
set for elements in the four categories, related MDGs and the EFA goals. It
simulation modelling can be used to is therefore important to advocate
explore specifics to be implemented in for mainstreaming or scaling-up of
order to make all schools child-friendly. the child-friendly school model as
a ‘one-stop’ shop for designing and
Although the EPSSim model is more implementing quality education for all.
than adequate for mainstreaming child-
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CHILD-FRIENDLY SCHOOLS MANUAL
CHINA DEVELOPS NATIONAL CFS technical support from UNICEF, resulted in
STANDARDS the completion of standards in 2008. They
will be tested in at least six provinces in 2008
“All-rounded development of all children” and will be promoted in more provinces and
and the flourishing of creative human schools beginning in 2009.
potential
The vision, purpose and scope of the Chinese
National Standards for child-friendly schools
Successful piloting of the child-friendly school are contained in the opening paragraph of the
model in 1,000 schools in China informed final document:
the Government’s decision to use the CFS
approach as its model for improving the “The ultimate aim of CFS in China is the
quality of primary and secondary education in all-rounded development of all children
implementing its new governance measures. and the full flowering of creative human
potentials of each pupil. Children at Chinese
Supported by UNICEF, the Ministry of CFS will learn to learn, with motivation and
Education set out to develop national capability of learning well; they will learn to
standards on school quality and learners’ do, developing problem-solving, knowledge-
achievements in late 2006. The standards’ application and life/social skills; they will
framework integrated the Convention on the learn to be, developing human competencies,
Rights of the Child, the country’s development respecting teachers, parents, peers and
goal in basic education defined in its ‘law others, and building moral characters and
of nine-year compulsory education’ and the psychological as well as physical health;
priorities of four departments of the Ministry and they will learn to live together, pursuing
of Education. With technical support from cooperative learning, ready for helping
the China National Institute for Educational others, and working with others in team spirit.
Research and Beijing Normal University, the In sum, Chinese CFS pupils shall be enabled
Ministry of Education led 16 technical groups to develop in an all rounded way, in ethical,
through the preparations. The collaborative intellectual, physical, aesthetical and life-skills
effort by a multitude of stakeholders, with dimensions.”

A FRAMEWORK OF NATIONAL CFS STANDARDS

Child-friendly school vision

Dimension I Dimension II Dimension III Dimension IV


Inclusiveness Effective teaching Safe, healthy and Participation and
and equality and learning productive harmonization

1. Safeguard 1. Encourage 1. Create 1. Create means for


children’s equal teachers to a safe, friendly child participation
rights demonstrate love environment
of work
2. Create school
2. Show respect 2. Develop a 2. Develop management
for differences curriculum skills-based system and culture
and diversity infused with life safety education for teacher/student
skills education participation

3. Create gender 3. Implement 3. Adopt healthy 3. Develop harmoni-


equality in student-centred growth standards ous partnerships
teaching and teaching between family,
learning community and
environments school

4. Develop an open, 4. Organize quality 4. Improve school


sustainable teacher physical education leadership
support system

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CHAPTER 9: MAINSTREAMING CHILD-FRIENDLY CONCEPTS

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