-A-

acculturation

the process by which a culture is transformed due to the massive adoption of cultural
traits from another society--it is what happens to a culture when alien traitsdiffuse in on
a large scale and substantially replace traditional cultural patterns. See transculturation.

acephalous society

a society in which political power is diffused to the degree that there are no
institutionalized political leadership roles such as chiefs and kings. Bands and
tribes are acephalous. Most foragers and simple horticulturalists have highly
egalitarian, acephalous societies. The word "acephalous" is Greek for
"without a head."

achieved status

a status that is acquired by doing something. For instance, someone acquires

a criminal status by committing a crime. Likewise, the status of mother is
attained by having a baby. See ascribed status.
actual behavior
what people really do in their lives rather than what they think they are doing
or what they believe they should be doing. In most societies there is a
discrepancy between these three kinds of behavior. It is important for
anthropologists to distinguish between actual, believed, and ideal behavior
when they learn about another society and its culture.
adaptive mechanism
a behavior, strategy, or technique for obtaining food and surviving in a
particular environment. Successful adaptive mechanisms provide a selective
advantage in the competition for survival with other life forms. For humans,
the most important adaptive mechanism is culture.

affinity

a kinship link created by marriage, such as the bond between a man and his
wife and her family (in-laws). People who have an affinity relationship with
each other are "affines" . See consanguinity.

affirmative action

1
a program or policy intended to correct the effects of past discrimination in
employment, education, housing, etc. Usually affirmative action in the United
States includes out-reach programs, hiring goals, set-asides, and/or extra
opportunities for members of underrepresented minorities.

age grades

age-based categories of people recognized by a culture. In North America,

for example, we generally label people as children, teenagers, adults, middle
aged, and elderly or senior citizens. See age sets.

age sets

age grades that are clearly recognized in a culture as distinct identifiable

groups of people. They consist of people of similar age and usually of the
same gender who share a common identity and maintain close ties throughout
their lives. They also pass through age-related statuses together as a group.
The transition between these statuses is usually marked by a rite of passage.

agnatic descent

see patrilineal descent.

ambilineal descent

a form of cognatic descent in which

individuals can select to trace descent
either matrilineally or patrilineally. The
decision may be made each
generation based on the relative wealth
and/or importance of the father's and the
mother's family lines.
ambilocal residence
the residence pattern in which a newly married couple has the choice of living
with or near the groom's or the bride's family.

ancestor focused kindred

a kindred in which the person to whom all members trace their kinship ties is
dead. An example would be the descendants of a well known pioneer family.
It is rare for a kindred to continue functioning as an effective kin group after

2
the death of the individual who was its focus. This usually occurs only when
the ancestor was historically important.

ancestral spirits

souls or ghosts of ancestors. A belief in ancestral spirits is consistent with the

widespread belief that humans have at least two parts--a physical body and some kind
of non-physical spirit. The spirit portion is generally believed to be freed from the body
by death and continues to exist. Ancestral spirits are often seen as retaining an active
interest and even membership in their family and society.
androgynous
the characteristic of having a blend of both masculine and feminine
personality characteristics but not strongly either one.

animatism

a belief in a supernatural power not part of supernatural beings. For those who hold this
belief, the power is usually impersonal, unseen, and potentially everywhere. It is neither
good nor evil, but it can be powerful and dangerous if misused.

animism

a belief that natural objects are animated by spirits. This belief can take diverse forms.
Things in nature may all have within them different spirits--each rock, tree, and cloud
may have its own unique spirit. In contrast, all things in nature may be thought of as
having the same spirit. In both forms of animism, the spirits are thought of as having
identifiable personalities and other characteristics such as gender.

anomie

a feeling of alienation and isolation from all other people, including family and friends.
anthropology

the broad scientific study of human culture and biology. Anthropologists are interested
in what it is to be human in all of our many different societies around the world today
and in the past. In North American universities, the study of anthropology is usually
divided into four main sub-disciplines: cultural anthropology,physical
anthropology, archaeology, and linguistics.

anticipatory sororate
a cultural pattern in which some sexual permissiveness is allowed between a
man and his wife's sister in anticipation of a future marriage between them.
This is usually associated with sororal polygyny.

3
anti-miscegenation laws

laws prohibiting sexual intercourse and marriage between people of different

"races".

applied anthropology

the branch of anthropology oriented towards using anthropological knowledge for

practical purposes. The work of most applied anthropologists has the goal of helping
small indigenous societies adjust to the massive acculturation pressures that they are
now experiencing without their suffering culture death andgenocide.

aquatic foraging

a specialized subsistence pattern that concentrates on fish and/or marine mammal

hunting. Aquatic foraging is usually a far more reliable and productive strategy for
obtaining food than the diversified hunting and gathering of most foragers who live away
from the coasts and major rivers. The most well known aquatic foragers lived on the
Northwest Coast of North America from the Klamath River of California to the Aleutian
Islands of Alaska. These societies specialized in salmon fishing along the rivers and
hunting seals and whales off the coast. The word "aquatic" is derived from the Latin
word aqua, meaning water.
archaeology

the systematic study of the material remains of human behavior in the past.
Archaeologists reconstruct the prehistory and early history of societies and their cultures
through an examination and interpretation of such things as house foundations, broken
tools, and food refuse.

arranged marriage

a marriage partner selection process in which the future bride and groom
usually do not participate actively in the decision. Marriages are commonly
arranged by parents or their agents when the marriages are seen as
principally uniting two families rather than just husband and wife. There is also
often the rationalization that teenagers and young adults are too
inexperienced to make a wise mate selection. The tradition of arranged
marriages has been dramatically undermined whenever romantic love
becomes a popular notion in a society.

ascribed status

4
a status that is the result of being born into a particular family or being born
male or female. Being a prince by birth or being the first of four children in a
family are ascribed statuses. See achieved status.

assimilation

the absorption of an individual or minority group of people into another society or group.
This is achieved by learning and adopting the cultural traditions of the society to which
assimilation occurs. It is also often hastened by intermarriage and de-emphasizing
cultural and or biological differences.
avunculocal residence
the residence pattern in which a newly married couple moves in with or near
the groom's maternal uncle's house. This is strongly associated
with matrilineal descent and occurs when men obtain statuses, jobs, or
prerogatives from their nearest elder matrilineal male relative.
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-B-
balanced reciprocity

an economic exchange in which there is an explicit expectation of immediate

return. Simple barter or supermarket purchases involve this understanding.
Seereciprocity.

band
the level of political integration in which a society consists only of an
association of families living together. Bands are loosely allied by
marriage, descent, friendship, and common interest. The primary integrating
mechanism is kinship ties. There is no economic class differentiation. All
adults of the same gender are more or less equal as far as community
decision making is concerned. However, some individuals in a band may
stand out for their skills and knowledge. These often are the people who have
the best memories, are the best hunters, most successful curers, most gifted
speakers, etc. Such people become informal leaders. Most often they are
given authority by community consensus arrived at through casual discussion
without the need for a formal vote. Leaders generally have temporary political
power at best, and they do not have any significant authority relative to other
adults within their band. Subsequently, bands are essentially acephalous
5
societies. The total number of people within these societies rarely exceeds a
few dozen. Bands are found among foragingsocieties.

barter

trading goods and services directly for other goods and services without the
use of money as a medium of exchange. See dumb barter.
believed behavior
what people honestly believe that they are doing in their lives rather than what
they think they should be doing or what they actually are doing. In most
societies there is a discrepancy between these three kinds of behavior. It is
important for anthropologists to distinguish between actual, believed, and
ideal behavior when they learn about another society and its culture.

berdache

see two-spirited.

bewitching

using magical acts and/or the assistance of supernatural beings to cause something to
occur. Bewitching is an integral part of witchcraft.
bilateral descent
the cognatic pattern of descent in which every biological ancestor and
descendant is a socially recognized relative. Everyone is a member of both
his or her father's and mother's families. This is not the same as bilineal
descent.

bilineal descent
the cognatic pattern of descent in which an individual is both a member of his
mother's matrilineage and his father's patrilineage. Also known as "double
descent." This is not the same as bilateral descent.

6
bisexual

an individual who is sexually and/or emotionally attracted by members of the

same and the opposite gender. See heterosexual and homosexual.

Black English

the social dialect spoken by many African Americans. It also known as

Ebonics .
biological anthropology
see physical anthropology.

body language

see kinesics.
boundary maintenance (in reference to ethnic groups)
reinforcing an ethnic group's unity and distinctness by emphasizing the traits
that set its members apart from others, rather than what they share in
common with them.

bound morpheme

a morpheme that has meaning but can not stand alone. The prefix dis in the
English word dislike is an example.

bride price

things of high value given by a groom to his bride's father. It is a way of

showing respect for the bride and her parents. At the same time, it is a
compensation for the bride's family for the loss of her economic services. It is
also a way of validating the groom's right to future offspring. Bride price is
most common among polygynous, small-scale, patrilineal societies--especially

7
in sub-Saharan Africa and among Native Americans. Bride price is also
referred to as "bride wealth"and "progeny price." See dowry.

bride service

work or services done by a groom for his wife's family instead of paying
a bride price. Bride service is usually for a set period of time, often years. It is
a common practice in societies that have little material wealth and strong rules
requiring sharing that prevent the accumulation of wealth.
bureaucracy
an administrative system that divides governing tasks into specific categories
carried out by different individuals and/or departments. Members of a
bureaucracy are referred to as bureaucrats.
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-C-
caste

an individual's rigidly ascribed, or inherited, status within society. The most

extensive caste system is in India where it is associated strongly with the
Hindu religion. There are 4 major Indian castes originally based on vocation:
the Brahmans (or Hindu priests), warriors, farmers, and shop keepers. The
castes are all ranked relative to each other with the Brahmans being at the
top. In addition, there are people in India who are outside of the caste
system. These outcasts are at the bottom of society. One's caste is
extremely important in India. People are careful to marry within their own
caste and to avoid physical contact with members of lower castes because of
the danger of pollution.

cereals

the edible seeds of grasses. The economically most important cereals include
wheat, rice, and corn (maize), oats, rye, millet, and sorghum. These grains
provide the bulk of the calories consumed by people in the world today.

chiefdom

the level of political integration in which a society has a more or less

permanent political leader (i.e., a chief) but no bureaucracy of professional

8
administrators. The chief provides direction and authority for the society as a
whole. Sometimes there is an advisory council as well. In a few of the more
complex chiefdoms in Africa and Hawaii, there have been paramount chiefs
and lesser chiefs who perform some administrative functions. Chiefs and their
families generally have a higher standard of living than ordinary people within
their society. What makes this possible is that chiefs usually perform a
society wide economic redistribution function that is cloaked in the guise of
ritual gift giving. This essentially siphons off surplus agricultural products from
farmers and then redistributes them throughout the society. In the process, a
small amount is held back in order to support the chief's somewhat more
lavish lifestyle. The ritualized redistribution of surplus food and other
commodities in chiefdoms is, in a sense, the rudimentary beginnings of a
taxation system. It is tolerated by people because of the economic
advantages that it can provide in addition to social stability. The larger
territorial size of chiefdoms often encompasses diverse environmental zones
with somewhat different products. The redistribution of agricultural surpluses
can serve as a method of providing greater food variety for the populace as a
whole. Chiefdoms commonly have a population of tens of thousands of
farmers. The large population size generally means that the people have less
in common than do those in the smaller societies of bands and tribes.
Disputes inevitably arise that cannot be settled by informal means based on
kinship and friendship. A chief usually functions as an arbitrator and judge in
these cases.

circumcision

removing all or part of the foreskin of the penis. This surgery is usually done
with a knife as part of a rite of passage marking the transition from childhood
to adulthood for boys. See subincision.

clan

a group of people who claim unilineal descent from the same ancestor but who cannot
specify all of the actual links. The ancestor is genealogically so remote that he or she is
often thought of as a mythical being, animal, or plant. Clans usually consist of a number
of related unilineages. See totem.

class

a group of people thought of as a unit because they are similar in terms of

social and/or economic factors. In America, for instance, a class distinction
iscommonly made between "white collar" well paid office workers and lower

9
paid "blue collar" factory workers and manual laborers. In state level societies
of the past, the most important class distinction was between the ruling elite
and the commoners. Bands, tribes, and early chiefdoms did not have classes,
though individuals were often ranked relative to each other.
clitoridectomy
cutting off all or part of the clitoris and sometime all or part of the labia. This
surgery is usually done as part of a rite of passage marking the transition from
childhood to adulthood for girls. In Western Nations, clitoridectomy is
often referred to as "genital mutilation." See infibulation.
cognatic descent
tracing kinship through both the mother's and the father's ancestors to some
degree. Cognatic descent occurs in four forms: ambilineal, bilineal, parallel,
andbilateral descent.
collateral relative
uncles, aunts, cousins, nephews, nieces and other consanguinal
kinsmen beyond ego's main line of descent.

colonial powers

a term referring mostly to the Western European nations that carved out
colonies in Africa, Asia, Central and South America, and the Pacific during the
18th through the early 20th centuries. The U.S., Russia, and Japan also
acquired colonial empires in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

commerce

large-scale buying and selling of goods and services within and between
societies that usually have market economies.

common law

a law that has evolved over time and is part of the cultural tradition rather than
being created by enactment in legislatures or by rulers. In large-scale
societies, many laws derive from old common laws but are now formalized by
being written down in penal codes. Virtually all laws in small-scale
societies are unwritten common laws.
consanguinity
a socially recognized biological descent link, such as between a woman and
her father, aunt, or daughter. Individuals who have a consanguinity
relationship are "consanguines" to each other. Consanguinity literally

10
means "with the blood", reflecting the old incorrect assumption that biological
inheritance is passed on through blood rather than DNA. See affinity.
contagious magic
magic that is based on the principle that things or persons once in contact can afterward
influence each other. In other words, there is a permanent relationship between an
individual and any part of his or her body. As a consequence, believers must take
special precautions with their hair, fingernails, teeth, clothes, and feces. If anyone
obtained these objects, magic could be performed on them which would cause the
person they came from to be affected.
core values
the fundamental values that provide the basis for social behavior in society.
They are what people believe is desirable or offensive, appropriate or
inappropriate, and correct or incorrect.

creole

a pidgin language that has become the mother tongue of a population. In

Haiti, for example, a French-African pidgin became the creole language that is
spoken in that nation today by the majority of the population as their principle
or only language.

crime

a deviation from the social norm that is of such magnitude as to go beyond

what would be considered bad manners or odd behavior. Societies respond
to such exceptionally deviant actions by creating laws to curb and sometimes
punish them. There is no universal agreement between the societies of the
world about what constitutes criminal behavior or how it should be dealt with.
Sufficient ethnographic data have been collected over the last century to show
that societies with different kinds of economies have radically different sorts of
laws and legal concerns. See tort.
cross cousin
one's father's sister's children or mother's brother's children. The gender of
the children is not relevant in making this distinction. See parallel cousin.

cross dressing

11
see transvestite.
Crow naming system
a matrilineally based kin naming system in which siblings and parallel
cousins of the same gender are given the same term of reference (5 = male
and 6 = female) as are mother and mother's sister (2). Other people in ego's
father's matrilineage are lumped across generations (1 = male and 3 =
female), reflecting the comparative unimportance of the father's side of the
family in societies using the Crow system.

cult
a devoted religious group, often living together in a community with a
charismatic prophet leader. Cults are generally considered to be potentially dangerous,
unorthodox, extremist groups by the dominant religious organizations in a society.
cultural anthropology

the study of contemporary and recent historical cultures all over the world. The focus is
on social organization, culture change, economic and political systems, and religion.
Cultural anthropology is also referred to as social or sociocultural anthropology.

cultural relativity
suspending one's ethnocentric judgments in order to understand and
appreciate another culture. Anthropologists try to learn about and interpret
the various aspects of the culture they are studying in reference to that culture
rather than to their own. This provides a better understanding of how such
practices as polygamy and cannibalism can function and even support other
cultural traditions.
cultural universals
cultural traits that are shared by all of humanity collectively. Examples of such
general traits are communicating with a verbal language, using age and
gender to classify people, and raising children in some sort of family setting.
No matter where people live in the world, they share these universal cultural
traits. However, different cultures have developed their own specific ways of
carrying out or expressing these general traits.
culture
the full range of learned behavior patterns that are acquired by people as
members of a society. A culture is a complex, largely interconnected whole

12
that consists of the knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs, skills, and
habits learned from parents and others in a society. Culture is the
primary adaptive mechanism for humans.

culture bound syndrome

a disease that has a very limited distribution around the world due to the
unique sets of environmental circumstances and cultural practices that cause
it to occur. koro, kuru, and Widigo psychosis are examples.

culture death

the complete disappearance of a culture as a result of the total acculturation or the

death of all of the people who shared it.

culture loss

the loss of cultural traits. As cultures change and acquire new traits, old no longer
useful or popular ones inevitably disappear. An example of culture loss is the
disappearance over time of certain words and phrases in a language. In some cases,
the words continue to be used but acquire new, very different meanings. Culture loss is
accelerated during periods of acculturation and transculturation.

culture shock

feelings of confusion, distress, and sometimes depression that can result from
the psychological stress caused by the strain of rapidly adjusting to an alien culture.
This is a common phenomenon for travelers who are totally immersed in the language
and customs of another society, day and night, without a break. It is largely due to
being forced to constantly experience new, unfamiliar cultural practices and
traditions. Transculturating people also are likely to experience culture shock. Until
the new culture becomes familiar and comfortable, it is common to have
difficulty in communicating and to make frustrating mistakes. This is usually
compounded by feelings of homesickness. These feelings can be emotionally
debilitating. However, culture shock eventually passes for most people.

curandero

a Latin American folk curer. Cuanderos believe that they have received a
divine calling to their profession, and they may have direct contact with the
spirit world. They usually apprentice for years under an older curandero. In
Mexico and Central America, there are curandero generalists and
specialists. Yerberos are knowledgeable about herbs. Parteras are

13
midwifes. Sabadoros are specialists in massaging
patients. Curanderos may also specialize in particular kinds of illness--
e.g., curandero de aire , etc. A female curandero is a curandera .

cyclical round of migrations

seasonal migrations of foragers or pastoralists between different environments in their

territories. This often involves migrations that take people from spring to summer
camps and then to fall and finally winter ones. This cycle of migrations that is repeated
yearly is determined by the resources that can be exploited at particular times of the
year in different areas. Carrying out such a round of migrations increases the amount of
food that can be obtained by a society. As a result a somewhat larger population can
be supported.
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-D-
descent

socially recognized links between ancestors and descendants, such as the

bond between children and their parents.

descriptive kin naming system

see Sudanese naming system.

developed nation (or society)

a nation or society that is relatively wealthy and usually industrialized. Most of the
people in developed nations have adequate access to food, electricity, fossil fuels,
education, and medicine with the consequence that their lives are materially more
comfortable and their life spans are significantly longer than those inunderdeveloped
nations. The United States, Canada, most of Europe, Japan, Korea, Taiwan,
Singapore, Australia, and New Zealand are developed nations.

dialect

a variant of a language. If it is associated with a geographically isolated

speech community, it is referred to as a regional dialect. However, if it is
spoken by a speech community that is merely socially isolated, it is called a
social dialect.

14
diffusion
the movement of cultural traits and ideas from one society or ethnic group to
another. While the form of a trait may be transmitted to another society, the
original meaning may not. For instance, McDonald's hamburgers are thought
of as a cheap, quick meal in North America, but they are generally
considered to be a special occasion food in China.

diglossia

the phenomenon in which different dialects of a language or different

languages are spoken by a person in different social situations. Diglossic
people may quickly switch back and forth between dialects or languages,
depending on the person they are talking to at the time. This is the case with
the educated elite of Haiti. They usually speak standard French among
themselves but use the Haitian French creole language on the street dealing
with poor uneducated Haitians. Diglossia is also referred to as "code
switching."

discrimination

the act of distinguishing differences between people and showing favoritism or

prejudicial rejection of them. See prejudice and stereotype.
disease vector
an intermediate host and/or disease transmitting organism for a contagious
disease. Mosquitoes, fleas, lice, ticks, flies, and even snails are common
disease vectors.

distribution and exchange (systems of)

the practices that are involved in getting the goods and services produced by
a society to its people. See systems of production.

diversified foraging

a hunting and gathering subsistence pattern in which there is not a concentration of

efforts in harvesting a small number of species. Rather, virtually all potential food
sources in the environment are exploited. Most pedestrian foragers take a diversified
approach. In contrast, aquatic and equestrian foragers are specialized. A diversified
subsistence pattern has the advantage of relative economic security if there are
fluctuations in the weather, water supply, or periodic die-offs of the food sources. The
disadvantage is that the total amount of food calories acquired is often less and the
amount of time required to secure them is greater compared to specialized foraging.

15
divination

a magical procedure by which the cause of a particular event or the future is

determined.

division of labor

referring to the jobs that are normally assigned to people based on such things as
gender and age. In most foraging societies, large animal hunting is an occupation of
adult males, while domestic tasks, child rearing, and plant food collecting are mostly
adult female jobs. In the Western industrialized nations today, the division of labor is
based mostly on age, knowledge, skills, and preference. Gender is often rejected as a
criteria for job assignment in these contemporary societies.

double descent

see bilineal descent.

dowry

money, property, or other things of high value given by a bride's family to the
groom, ostensibly to establish a new household. It is her share of the family
inheritance. A dowry is, in a sense, the reverse of a bride price.

drop of blood criterion (for race classification)

see hypodescent.

dumb barter

barter without direct contact between the traders. Individuals from one group
leave trade goods at a neutral location on the edge of their territory and then
leave. Sometime later, members of the other community pick up the goods
and leave something in exchange. The first group then returns and either
picks up the things that were left by the strangers or leaves them until
additions or substitutions are made that are acceptable. In the past, dumb-
barter of this sort occurred in parts of West Africa, Northern Scandinavia,
India, Sri Lanka, Sumatra, Timor, New Guinea, and the Amazon Basin of
South America. Dumb barter is also known as "silent trade" and "depot
trade."
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16
-E-
Ebonics

see Black English.

egalitarian

referring to societies in which all people are equal in terms of economic and political
rights. Foraging bands are the most egalitarian societies. However, even in these
societies, there are differences based on age and sometimes gender.
ego (in reference to diagramming kinship)
in a kinship diagram, the individual to whom all relationships are referred.

emic categories

referring to the categorization of things according to the way in which

members of a society classify their own world. In other words, this is the way
their culture and language divide up reality. Such emic categories generally
differ from culture to culture and provide valuable insights into the perceptions
and world view of other peoples. Discovering, recording, and analyzing emic
categories is the task of ethnoscience. See etic categories.

eminent domain

the right of a government to take legal possession of private property for

public use. In most Western countries, the property owner is financially
compensated for the loss based on what is considered to be fair market
value. An example of eminent domain is a government taking someone's
house and land in order to build a road through the property.

enculturation

the process of being socialized to a particular culture. This includes learning

the language, customs, biases, and values of the culture. Through
enculturation an individual learns the statuses, roles, rules, and values of his
or her own culture. The most intensive period of enculturation is usually
during early childhood, but the process continues throughout life.

endemic

17
a disease that is always present in a community, usually at a low, more or less
constant frequency. Malaria, arthritis, and high blood pressure are examples.
See hyperendemic.

endogamy

a marriage partner selection rule requiring that marriage be to someone within

a defined social group such as an extended family, religious community,
economic class, ethnic or age group. Selection is always further restricted
by exogamy rules.
epidemic

the occurrence of a disease in a population in

which it appears, rapidly spreads between
people, reaches a high frequency, and then
subsides. Contagious diseases such as
influenza, measles, and AIDS follow this pattern.
Epidemics usually appear seasonally as a
result of changing human interaction
patterns and changes in the environment. See pandemic.

epidemiology

the field of medical research that studies the causes of diseases and how to
cure or control them. Epidemiologists also track the frequency and
geographic distribution of diseases over time. In addition, they study the
causal relationships between diseases.

equestrian foraging

a specialized subsistence pattern in which horses are used extensively in hunting large
game animals. Equestrian foragers evolved in only two areas of the world--the Great
Plains of North America and the sparse grasslands of Southern Argentina. In both
cases, pedestrian foragers acquired horses from Spanish settlers in the early 17th
century. Over several generations, horse breeding and riding skills were honed. This
resulted in a revolutionary change in these Native American societies. The horse
became the principle mode of transportation and dramatically increased hunting
success in the pursuit of large animals. These societies became larger, more mobile,
and were now able to travel over larger areas throughout the year. Horses allowed
them to effectively follow the seasonal migrations of large herbivores over hundreds of
miles. In North American the prey of choice was the bison and in South America it was
the guanaco. ("Equestrian" is derived from the Latin word equus meaning horse.)

18
Eskimo naming system
a bilateral descent based kin naming system in which members of the nuclear
family are given terms of reference based only on their gender and
generation. Aunts (3) and uncles (4) are distinguished from parents (1 =
father and 2 = mother) and separated by gender. The spouses of aunts and
uncles may also be given these kin terms. All cousins are lumped together
with one kin term (7) without regard to gender. No kin name distinction is
made between uncles, aunts, and cousins with regards to side of the family.

ethnic group

a category or group of people considered to be significantly different from

others in terms of cultural (dialect, religion, traditions, etc.) and sometimes
physical characteristics (skin color, body shape, etc.). Commonly recognized
American ethnic groups include American Indians, Jews, Latinos, Chinese,
African Americans ("blacks"), European Americans ("whites"), etc.

ethnicity

ethnic group identity.

ethnic symbol

selected traits used as symbolic badges of identity to emphasize distinctness

from other ethnic groups. Dialect, religion, and style of dress are common
ethnic symbols. Biological characteristics, such as skin color and body shape,
may be used as ethnic symbols as well.
ethnocentrism
the deep felt belief or feeling that your culture is superior to all others. Being
fond of your own way of life and condescending or even hostile toward other
cultures is normal for all people. Alien culture traits are often viewed as being
not just different but less sensible and even "unnatural." This results in the
interpretation of other people in terms of one's own cultural values and
traditions. An example is people from monogamous societies condemning
polygamy as being "unnatural" and immoral. Ethnocentrism is universal and
normal but not necessarily morally defensible or desirable because it prevents

19
understanding other cultures. It also interferes with meaningful intercultural
communication. See cultural relativity.

ethnocide

the act or attempt to systematically destroy another people's ethnicity or culture.

Usually the term ethnocide is applied to intentional acts resulting in culture death. The
legalized "kidnapping" of Native American children so that they could be educated as
Europeanized Canadians and Americans during the late 19th and early 20th centuries is
an example of ethnocide. See genocide.
ethnography
anthropological research in which one learns about the culture of another
society through fieldwork and first hand observation in that society.
Ethnography is also the term used to refer to books or monographs describing
what was learned about the culture of a society.
ethnology
an anthropological study that systematically compares similar cultures. An
example of an ethnological study would be a comparison of what cultures are
like in societies that have economies based on hunting and gathering rather
than agriculture. The data for this sort of ethnology would come from the
existingethnographies about these peoples. In other words, an ethnology is
essentially a synthesis of the work of many ethnographers.

ethnopharmacology

the scientific study of traditional uses of plants and other organisms for
medical purposes. Ethnopharmacology is a specialization within
ethnobiology, which is an interdisciplinary field of research carried out by
people trained in cultural anthropology, biology, and medicine.

ethnoscience

the field of anthropology that tries to learn about how people in different
cultures categorize things in their environment. The focus is on emic
categories. This data provides important insights into the interests, concerns,
and values of cultures.

etic categories

referring to the classification of things according to some external system of

analysis brought in by a visitor to another society. This is the approach of

20
biology in using the Linnaean classification system to define new species. It
assumes that ultimately, there is an objective reality and that is more
important than cultural perceptions of it. See emic categories.
exogamy
a marriage partner selection rule requiring that marriage be with someone
outside of a defined social group such as one's nuclear family. Selection is
usually further restricted by endogamy rules.
extended family
two or more nuclear families tied together by
bonds of descent. Usually an extended
family contains living relatives from three or
more generations.

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-F-
family of orientation

see nuclear family.

family of procreation

see nuclear family.

feuding

prolonged hostility and occasional fighting between individuals and their

supporters. It is a universal form of aggression that mostly occurs between
members of the same society, though it can occur between people from
separate societies as well. It is caused by a desire for revenge for a
perceived prior wrong. Usually, both sides in feuds believe that they have
been wronged and seek to settle the score. Inherent in feuds is a failure in
communication between the feuding parties and the belief that there needs to
be "an eye for an eye." Without adequate retribution, there is minimally a loss
of face for the families involved.

fictive kinship

21
a socially recognized link between individuals, created as an expedient for dealing with
special circumstances, such as the bond between a godmother and her godchild.
Fictive kinship bonds are based on friendship and other personal relationships rather
than marriage and descent.

foragers

people who live in more or less isolated, small societies and obtain their food by
foraging wild plants and hunting wild animals. Foragers generally have a passive
dependence on what the environment contains. They do not plant crops and the only
domesticated animals that they usually have are dogs. Most foraging societies do not
establish permanent settlements. Rather, they have relatively temporary encampments
with tents or other easily constructed dwellings. The length of time that they stay in any
one location is largely determined by the availability of resources. Foragers are also
referred to as hunters and gatherers.

formal education

structured and directed teaching and learning primarily under the control and
direction of adult teachers who are professional "knowers." Formal education
is usually what happens in a classroom. See informal education.
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-G-
gender
sexual identity as male or female.

genealogy

the family history, or record of descent, of an individual from his or her

ancestors.

generalized reciprocity

gift giving without the expectation of an immediate return. It is understood that

at some time in the future there will be an appropriate repayment.
Seereciprocity.

general purpose money

22
a portable, arbitrarily valued medium of exchange. All market economies
today use this form of money. It can have a variety of physical forms--e.g.,
coins, paper money, or bank checks. It can also be simply a digital
transmission from one computer to another that occurs with the use of credit
cards or the electronic transfer of funds. The key point about general purpose
money is that anything that is for sale can be bought with it--everyone accepts
it. General purpose money is also referred to as "standardized currency."
See special purpose money.

genocide

the act or attempt to systematically kill all members of an ethnic group or

culture. The Nazi extermination of Jews and gypsies by the millions before
and during World War II is an example of genocide. See ethnocide.
globalism
the progressive emergence of a single worldwide economic system and the
simultaneous reduction in global cultural and political differences. A
presumed result of globalization would be the merging of previously separate
political entities and the growth in power and prestige of international
institutions. Those who advocate globalism generally believe
that ethnocentrism, nationalism, and tribalism are obstacles that must be
overcome.
god or goddess
a powerful supernatural being with an individual identity and recognizable attributes.
Another term for a god is a deity . Like spirits, gods have individual identities and
recognizable attributes (gods are male and goddess are female). However, gods and
goddesses are more powerful than spirits and other lesser supernatural beings--they
can effectively alter all of nature and human fortunes. As a result, they are commonly
worshipped and requests are made of them to help in times of need.

godparent

a person who sponsors a child and assumes some parental responsibility for
its upbringing. A godparent shares this responsibility with the "real" parents.
A godparent is a fictive kinsman who may be either a godmother or a
godfather to a godchild.

grammar

the part of language analysis that is concerned with how the sounds are used
to make sense. Grammar consists of morphology and syntax.

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 Back to Top

-H-
hallucinogen

a mind altering drug that can cause profound hallucinations or an altered state of
awareness. Most hallucinogens used for religious purposes by shamans and others are
derived from plants.

Hawaiian naming system

a kin naming system in which relatives are distinguished only by generation

and gender. This results in just 4 different kin terms of reference. Ego's
father and all male relatives in his generation are referred to by the same kin
term (1). Likewise, ego's mother and all female relatives in her generation
have the same kin term (2). All brothers and male cousins are linked by
giving them the same kin term (3). Sisters and all female cousins are also
referred to by the same term (4).

herbivorous
eating only vegetable foods. Animals that have this sort of diet are herbivores or
vegetarians.

heterogeneous society

a society consisting of many different ethnic and/or "racial" groups, social

classes, languages and/or dialects, and cultural traditions. The U.S. and
Canada are heterogeneous societies. See homogenous society.

heterosexual

an individual who is sexually and/or emotionally attracted by members of the

opposite gender from himself or herself. Heterosexuality generally refers to
sexual interaction between members of the opposite gender.
See bisexual and homosexual.

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hierarchical society
a society that is divided into unequal social classes and individual statuses. There
commonly is a ranking of classes and statuses in hierarchical societies such that those
that are at the top of the ranking have greater power and wealth. Large intensive
agriculture based societies typically have a social and political pyramid with an elite
ruling class at the top and the majority of the people at the bottom.

Hispanic

referring to Spanish and/or Latin American cultural traditions. In the U.S.,

Portuguese speaking Brazilians also are often considered Hispanics
for official census recording purposes while people from Spain and Portugal
are frequently excluded. See Latino.

holism

the view that human existence can be adequately understood only as a multifaceted
whole. Human beliefs and actions must be seen in terms of their interrelatedness with
all other aspects of culture, human biology, social interaction, and environmental
influences.

homogenous society

a society that predominantly or entirely consists of people who share the

same ethnicity/race, language, and cultural traditions. Most small-scale
societies are homogenous. A few large-scale ones, like Japan, are as well.
See heterogeneous society.

homosexual

an individual who is sexually and/or emotionally attracted by members of his

or her own gender. Homosexuality generally refers to sexual interaction
between members of the same gender. In North America, female
homosexuals are often referred to as "lesbians" while males are known as
"gays." See bisexual andheterosexual.
horticulturalists
people who obtain most of their food by low intensity farming. This subsistence pattern
involves at least part time planting and tending of domesticated food plants. Pigs,
chickens, or other relatively small domesticated animals are often raised for food and
prestige. Many horticultural societies supplement their farming subsistence base with
occasional hunting and gathering of wild plants and animals. They usually practice slash
and burn field clearing methods and do not add additional fertilizer or irrigate. Multi-
cropping is common. They often have a partial reliance on foraging for wild foods.

25
Their societies are usually larger and more sedentary than those of foragers but still are
at a low technological level and relatively small-scale.

household

a residential group usually, but not always, consisting of members of the same
family.

humoral pathology

a naturalistic medical system based on the idea that our bodies have four
important fluids or humors--blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. Each
humor is thought to have its own "complexion." Blood is hot and wet. Phlegm
is cold and wet. Black bile is cold and dry. Yellow bile is hot and dry. These
complexions have nothing to do with actual temperature and humidity. In
addition to bodily fluids, three internal organs are considered highly important
in humoral pathology. Each one has its own characteristic complexion. The
heart is dry and cold. The brain is wet and cold. The liver is hot and wet.
Specific forms of illnesses, medicines, foods, and most natural objects also
have specific complexions. Curing an illness involves discovering the
complexion imbalance and rectifying it.

hunters and gatherers

see foragers.
hyperendemic
an endemic disease present at a
continuously high frequency within a
population.

hypodescent

the criterion for assigning individuals to

specific "races" based on only a distant hereditary relationship. The Nazis
used this criterion for labeling people as Jews whose only connection with
Judaism was a grandparent. Similarly, it has been used in North America to
label people as African American even if they were mostly European in
biological ancestry. Hypodescent is also known as the "drop of blood"
criterion.
hypothesis
a tentative explanation for a set of observable or measurable facts that is
tested using the scientific method.

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 Back to Top

-I-
incest taboos

rules prohibiting sexual intercourse with close relatives. The prohibition

includes at least members of one's nuclear family and may extend to more
distant relatives in some cultures.
ideal behavior
what people believe that they should do in their lives rather than what they
think they are doing or what they actually are doing. In most societies there is
a discrepancy between these three kinds of behavior. It is important for
anthropologists to distinguish between actual, believed, and ideal behavior
when they learn about another society and its culture.
imitative magic
see sympathetic magic.
indigenous
referring to the native population of an area.

indigenous world-view

a world-view in which it is believed that humans are not separate from nature
and the supernatural world. Living creatures and non-living objects in nature
as well as supernatural beings are thought to be human-like in their
motivations, feelings, and interactions. When the characteristics of this type
of world-view were first proposed in the early 1950's by Robert Redfield, it was
called a "primitive world-view." See metropolitan world-view.

Industrial Revolution

the transition from a society primarily dependent on hand tools produced by individual
craftsmen to one with machine and power tools developed through large-scale industrial
production. In Western Cultures, this began to occur during the last half of the 18th
century. It resulted in increased individual wealth, progressive urbanization, and
globalization of the economy.

infanticide

27
the killing of children. Extreme threat of starvation has at times forced some
societies, such as the Inuit of the North American Arctic, to kill family
members. When this occurred, the decision was usually to eliminate the
youngest daughter because she was the least likely to add to the family's food
supply. Though illegal, female infanticide does occur occasionally in India and
mainland China where there is a high value placed on having sons.

infibulation

Infibulation is partially closing off the opening to the vagina by sewing, pinning,
or clamping part of the vulva. This surgery is usually done as part of a rite of
passage marking the transition from childhood to adulthood for girls.
See clitoridectomy.

informal education

learning as a result of imitation, experimentation, and repetitive practice of

basic skills. This is what happens when children role-play adult interactions in
their games. See formal education.

informal negative sanction

an "unofficial", non-governmental punishment for violations of social norms.

Informal negative sanctions usually are in the form of gossip, public ridicule,
social ostracism, insults, or even threats of physical harm by other members
of the community. See negative sanction and positive sanction.
informant
someone who is not only knowledgeable about his or her own culture but who
is able and willing to communicate this knowledge in an understandable way
to an anthropologist or some other outsider. Ethnographers usually try to
develop a warm and trusting relationship with their informants. This makes it
more likely that they will learn what the informant's culture is really like.

ingroup-outgroup dynamics

the social and psychological forces that operate in the interaction between groups of
people and societies. In this interaction, ethnocentrism and the desire to defend ethnic
boundaries generally inhibits clear communication and cultural diffusion.
in-law
a person, other than a spouse, whose kinship relationship to ego is only through a
marriage bond. Brother-in-law and mother-in-law are examples. In-laws are often
considered to be relatives by societies following the Eskimo kin naming system.

28
However, such affinal relatives are usually considered to be more distant in terms of
kinship obligations and privileges than consanguinal ones.

inner-directed personality

a personality that is guilt oriented. The behavior of individuals with this sort of
personality are strongly controlled by their conscience. As a result, there is
little need for police to make sure that they obey the law. These individuals
monitor themselves. The inner-directed personality is one of the modal
personalitytypes identified by David Riesman in the early 1950's.

intensive agriculture

a subsistence pattern characterized by full-time farming in which large beasts of burden

or highly mechanized farm equipment (e.g., rototillers and tractors) are used to prepare
the land for planting and later to harvest crops. Intensive agriculture usually involves
the use of irrigation or other forms of water management. Often there is mono-
cropping with heavy applications of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides. This form of
agriculture is highly productive but generally capital intensive.

interaction distance

the distance our bodies are physically apart while talking with each other. If
two speakers have different comfortable interaction distances, a ballet of
shifting positions usually occurs until one of the individuals is backed into a
corner and feels threatened by what may be perceived as hostile or sexual
overtures. As a result, the verbal message may not be listened to or
understood as it was intended. Interaction distance is an aspect
of proxemics.

internalization of the moral code

the situation in which people accept society’s moral code and do not need police or
other external means of social control to get them to follow it. They feel guilty if they do
something “wrong” and punish themselves or turn themselves in for punishment.

invention

something new that is created. Invented cultural traits may be new things or ideas. It is
rare for inventions to be based on entirely new principles, functions, and forms. Most
often, old principles are applied to new functions and/or forms. Inventions may also
result from stimulus diffusion
Iroquois naming system

29
a kin naming system in which the same term of reference is used for father and father's
brother (1) as well as mother and mother's sister (2). Parallel cousinsfrom both sides of
the family are lumped together with siblings but distinguished by gender (5 = male and 6
= female). All cross cousins are similarly lumped together and distinguished by gender
(7 = male and 8 = female).

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-J-
joint family

two or more relatives of the same generation living together with their
respective spouses and children. Joint families typically consist of 1-2
generations. Seeextended family.
judgment sample
a probability sample that includes only a limited number of key people
selected by an anthropologist to be his or her informants based on the
likelihood that they possess knowledge concerning the research questions
and will be most able to communicate it. For example, religious leaders would
be the most likely informants if research concerns religious beliefs and
practices. The judgment sample approach works best if the focus of research
concerns cultural information that only some members of the host society
possess.
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-K-
kindred

a family group bound together by their kinship ties to one person. An individual's
kindred consists of all of the people who are related to him or her

30
throughconsanguinal ties and possibly affinal ones as well. That is, it includes one's
biological relatives and sometimes spouses and in-laws.

kinesics

the part of non-verbal communication consisting of gestures, expressions, and

postures. This part of paralanguage is also known as body language.

kin naming system

a culturally defined set of rules for terms of address and reference to be used for
specific categories of relatives. There are 6 different kin naming systems in use around
the world: Eskimo, Hawaiian, Sudanese, Omaha, Crow, and Iroquois. Kin naming
systems are also referred to as "kin terminological systems."

kinship

culturally defined relationships between individuals who are commonly thought of as

having family ties. Kinship is based on marriage, descent, and,
occasionally, fictive relationships as well.
koro
an irrational perception that one's prominent sexual body parts are
withdrawing into the body and subsequently being lost. In the case of men,
the concern is that their penis and testes are shrinking. For women, the focus
is on the perceived shrinking of the vulva and nipples. In both cases it is a
fear of the loss of masculinity or femininity followed by premature
death. Koro is traditionally believed to be caused by "unhealthy sex" (e.g.,
masturbation or sex with prostitutes). It also thought to be caused by "tainted"
foods. Koro is found in China and areas of Southeast Asia where Chinese
culture has diffused (especially Vietnam, Malaysia, and Singapore).

Kula Ring

the complex system of inter-island commerce that existed among the

Trobriand Islanders of the Southwest Pacific Ocean. The Kula Ring was a
closed trading system in which only established senior male trading partners
from each island could participate. The trade was carried out with large
outrigger sailing canoes. On the surface, it appeared to be primarily an
exchange of gift items and ceremonial feasting organized to reinforce bonds
between senior trading partners. The trade network was essentially circular.
If a trader was traveling in a clockwise direction around the circuit, he would
give long necklaces of red shells (soulava) as gifts to his trading partner. If he

31
was traveling in a counterclockwise direction, he would give armbands of
white shells (mwali). These necklaces and armbands were the kula items.
While the senior trading partners were formally greeting each other and
reinforcing their friendship by giving kula gifts, the younger men were usually
unloading more practical trade items on the beach to be bartered. These
were mostly surplus luxury items from their home islands. While the kula
items were exchanged via a system of generalized reciprocity, the regular
trade goods were mostly traded in a manner that resulted in balanced
reciprocity.
kuru
a fatal disease caused by prions that was found among the South Foré
people of the eastern New Guinea Highlands. The symptoms include palsy,
contracted face muscles, and the loss of motor control resulting in the inability
to walk and eventually even eat. Kuru victims become progressively
emaciated. Death almost always occurs within 6-12 months of the onset of
symptoms. This disease was spread among the South Foré as a result of
cannibalism. Kuru is a variant of Kreutzfeld-Jacob disease in humans as well
as scrapies and mad cow disease in livestock and some wild animals.
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-L-
language

a specific set of rules for generating speech.

large-scale farming
see intensive agriculture.
large-scale society
generally, a society with cities, industry, intensive agriculture, and a complex
international economy. Such societies have socio-economic classes and a government
with hierarchies of officials. The importance of kinship is diminished in social,
economic, and political matters (in comparison to small-scale societies).

latent functions

functions that are less apparent and more difficult to uncover (e.g., building a
bridge to keep workers employed and provide a recognizable symbol of a
city). See manifest functions.

32
Latino
in contemporary American usage, this is a person of Hispanic ethnic identity.
The feminine form of "latino" is "latina"?

law

a society's rules of conduct that are usually based on social norms and
generally recognized by its members as binding or enforceable. See common
law.

lesbian

a woman who is sexually attracted to other women--a female homosexual.

levels of political integration
a term referring to general types of political systems used to organize and
manage societies. As a society's population size and territory grow, it must
develop new political solutions to keep from splitting apart. In the 1950's, the
American Anthropologist, Elman Service described four levels of political
integration that have have been used around the world to solve this problem--
band, tribe, chiefdom, and state. While there are some unique cultural
variations of each of these levels, they are remarkably similar from one
society to another. Subsequently, classifying a society in terms of its level of
political integration has proven to be a useful tool in comprehending the wide
range of human cultures and societies from small foraging communities to
modern nation states.

levirate

a rule specifying that a widow should marry the brother of her deceased
husband. This keeps the dead man's wealth and children within his family. It
also continues the bond between the husband's and wife's families. This rule
is most common in societies that have patrilineal descent and polygyny.
linguistics
the comparative study of the function, structure, and history of languages and
the communication process in general. Linguistics is also referred to as
linguistic anthropology.
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33
-M-
machismo

the Spanish and Latin American ideal of men being confident, strong,
dignified, brave, overtly masculine, and sexually active. This ideal of
a macho , or "real man", was brought to the New World from Spain and
Portugal. Its ultimate origin is probably to be found in the Islamic cultural
traditions of North Africa that heavily influenced the culture of the Spanish
Peninsula until the end of the 1400's A.D. See marianismo.
magic
using ritual formulas to compel or influence supernatural beings or powers to act in
certain ways for good or evil purposes. By performing certain magical acts in a
particular way, crops might be improved, game herds replenished, illness cured or
avoided, animals and people made fertile. This is very different from television and
stage "magic" that depends on slight-of-hand tricks and contrived illusions rather than
supernatural power.
majority group
an ethnic/racial group that has the largest population and usually the greatest
economic and political power in a society. The majority group in North
America today consists mostly of European Americans. See minority group.

mal de ojo (the "evil eye")

a kind of personalistic illness in Latin America and parts of the Mediterranean

Basin resulting from soul loss. The cause is traditionally thought to be a
strong person staring at a weak individual. The eyes of the strong person
drain the power and/or soul from the weak one. Proof that this has occurred
to someone is that he or she cries inconsolably without a cause, has fitful
sleep, diarrhea, vomiting, and/or a fever. It is thought that powerful people
can cause this draining of the soul intentionally or unintentionally. In
traditional Mexican and Central American culture, women, babies, and young
children are thought of as being weak, while men as well as rich and
politically powerful people of either gender are strong. People who believe in
the existence of mal de ojo are likely to seek out acurandero to cure it.

marianismo

the Spanish and Latin American ideal of women being modest, restrained,
virtuous, and nurturing. Women are expected to be sexually abstinent before
marriage and passive in response to their husbands' demands after marriage.

34
Women are expected to have sexual intercourse only with their husbands.
"Marianismo" comes from the Virgin Mary, whose life women are encouraged
to emulate as a model of "proper" femininity. See machismo.

marriage

the socially recognized union of two or more people. It is a universal method

of regulating heterosexual intercourse by defining who is acceptable as a
sexual partner and who is not. Marriage establishes social relationships that
are the foundation for families and households.

manifest functions

functions that are obvious and easily discovered even by strangers (e.g.,
building a bridge to get to quickly get across a narrow waterway). See latent
functions.

market economy

an impersonal but highly efficient system of production, distribution, and

exchange that is principally characterized by: 1) the use of money as a means
of exchange, 2) having the ability to accumulate vast amounts of capital (i.e.,
wealth that can be used to fund further production), and 3) having highly
complex economic interactions that are ultimately international in the scale of
their inter-relatedness. See non-market economy.

matricentric family

a nuclear family in which there is no continuing adult male functioning as a

husband/father. This man is missing due to death, divorce, abandonment, or
no marriage having taken place. In such families, the mother raises her
children more or less alone and subsequently has the major role in their
socialization. Matricentric families are also referred to as being
"matrifocused" .

matrilineage

a multi-generational group of relatives who are related by matrilineal descent.

Matrilineages usually consist of a number of related nuclear
families descended from the same woman.

matrilineal descent
35
unilineal descent that follows the female line. With this pattern, people are
related if they can trace descent through females to the same female
ancestor. Both males and females inherit membership in a matrilineal family
line, but only females can pass it on to their descendants.

matrilocal residence

the residence pattern in which a newly married couple moves in with or near
the bride's mother's house. This keeps women near their female relatives,
while men must leave their natal households. Matrilocal residence is strongly
associated with matrilineal descent.
mechanized grain farming
intensive farming for the production of cereals (e.g., corn, wheat, oats) in which
hundreds and even thousands of acres are planted, tended, and harvested by a small
number of people using large machinery (e.g., tractors and combines). There usually
are heavy applications of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides. This highly productive
form of intensive mono-cropping agriculture is capital but not labor intensive. The Great
Plains of North America is predominantly a region of mechanized grain farming.

medical system

a system of explaining, diagnosing, and curing illness. There are two broad
types of medical systems in the world--
naturalistic and personalistic.
Melanesia
New Guinea and other nearby islands in the Southwest
Pacific Ocean west of Polynesia. Indigenous people
from this region are referred to as Melanesians.
melting pot
a society in which immigrants and native ethnic/racial
minorities are assimilated into the dominant national culture. Those who
prefer this model for America generally advocate encouraging assimilation in
order to reinforce national unity. See multiculturalism.
messianic movement

36
A millenarian movement led by a prophet who is either perceived as a new messiah or
who predicts the imminent arrival of one.
Mesoamerica
Southern Mexico and northern Central America. This was the main center of early plant
domestication and ancient civilizations in North and Central America.

metropolitan world-view

a world-view in which people have an emotional detachment between people

and the realms of nature and the supernatural. Animals, trees, rocks, and
other things in nature are "its" rather than "thous" and do not have human
personalities. This separation of people emotionally from nature allows them
to exploit it with little care for its well being. When the characteristics of this
type of world-view were first proposed in the early 1950's by Robert Redfield,
it was called a "civilized world-view." See indigenous world-view.
millenarian movement
a conscious, organized movement that attempts to revive or perpetuate selected
aspects of an indigenous culture or to gain control of the direction and rate of culture
change being forced on them. These movements have also been referred to
as messianic, nativistic, and revitalization movements. They were especially common
among indigenous societies of European colonies. The Cargo Cults of New Guinea and
the Ghost Dance Movements of the North American Plains Indians are examples.
Millenarian movements typically have a prophet leader and religious beliefs requiring a
major leap of faith by their followers.
millennium
a golden age of great happiness, peace, and prosperity expected in the near future.
This sort of belief is characteristic of millenarian movements. Literally, "millennium"
refers to a period of 1000 years or the ending of such a period.
minority group

an ethnic/racial group that has a smaller population than the controlling

majority group in a society. Minority groups may also be based on shared
gender, age, disabilities, political views, etc. See majority group.

minor supernatural being

supernatural beings who are not spirits, gods, humans, or other natural beings. They
usually have a human-like appearance and/or personality but can do things that are
beyond the abilities of humans. Minor supernatural beings often have a "trickster" role--
they fool people, do outlandish things, and disappear. In European folk tradition,
leprechauns, elves, and pixies were minor supernatural beings.
modal behavior

37
the statistically most common behavior patterns within a society. Those who do not
exhibit these patterns are usually labeled as social deviants. What is defined as modal
behavior varies from society to society.

modal personality

the most common personality type within a society. In reality, there is usually
a range of normal personality types within a society. See inner-directed
personality, other-directed personality, and tradition-oriented personality.

moiety

one of two unilineal divisions of an entire society. Moieties have reciprocal

privileges and obligations with each other, such as providing marriage
partners and assisting at funerals. The founding moiety ancestor is often so
genealogically remote that he or she is now mythical. Societies with moieties
usually consist of a few thousand people or less. Societies
with phratries instead of moieties are often larger.

money

anything that serves as a medium of exchange for buying and selling goods
and services. See general purpose money and special purpose money.

mono-cropping
planting a crop of only one species in a farm field. This is a common practice
with intensive agriculture. While this can be a highly efficient farming strategy, it results
in crops that are more susceptible to being wiped out by insects and other parasites.
Mono-cropping is also known as "mono-culture". See multi-cropping.

monogamy

marriage of one woman to one man at a time. This is the most common
marriage pattern around the world today. If remarriage is allowed following
divorce or death of a spouse, the marriage pattern could be defined as being
"serial monogamy."
monotheism
a belief that there is only one god. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are usually
considered to be monotheistic religions. However, the distinction between monotheism
and polytheism can be a matter of focus. For instance, some scholars have argued that
monotheisms, such as Catholicism, are actually de factopolytheisms for many of the
faithful if Jesus, the Virgin Mary, and the saints are prayed to for guidance and help as if
they were minor gods themselves.

38
morpheme

the smallest combination of sounds (i.e., phonemes) that have meaning and
cannot be broken into smaller meaningful units. Words can be one or more
morphemes. For example, hot is one morpheme while hotdog is composed of
two (hot and dog).

morphology

the term in linguistics for the study of how sounds (i.e., phonemes) are
combined by language into larger units called morphemes.
multi-cropping
planting a farm field with more than one species. This is a common practice
among horticulturalists. Multi-cropping reduces the chances of total crop failure due to
insects and other parasites. However, it is far more labor intensive to plant, tend, and
harvest. See mono-cropping.
multiculturalism
a "salad bowl" model of society in which the permanent existence of
unassimilated and partially assimilated ethnic/racial minorities is accepted and
encouraged. Those who advocate this model for America generally advocate
providing special attention and assistance to minorities that had been
underrepresented in the past. See melting pot.
multinational corporation

a corporate business that has outgrown its national roots and identity as it became
multinational with facilities in many countries and no overriding feeling of obligation or

loyalty to any one of them. Such companies typically move their production facilities
from nation to nation in response to labor costs and tax advantages. As a result, they
are generally independent and beyond the control of any one national political system.
Multinational corporations have had a major impact on previously isolated indigenous
societies in the late 20th century. Multinational corporations are also known as
transnational corporations.

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-N-
nationalism

39
extreme loyalty and devotion to a nation and its interests, usually at the
expense of other nations or societies.

national personality type

a distinct culturally specific personality pattern acquired during the process of

being enculturated. The notion of national personality types implies
thatpersonality is almost entirely learned rather than genetically inherited.
This is no longer widely believed in anthropology and psychology.

nativistic movement

see millenarian movement.

natolocal residence

the residence pattern in which a bride and groom remain in their own separate
family's households or compounds after their marriage rather than occupy a
residence together. The children born of this union usually stay in their
mother's home, which becomes a de facto matricentric residence.

naturalistic medical system

a medical system that explains illness as being due to impersonal,

mechanistic causes in nature that can be potentially understood and cured by
the application of the scientific method of discovery. Typical causes accepted
in naturalistic medical systems include organic breakdown or deterioration,
obstruction, injury, imbalance, malnutrition, and parasites. Students learning
to be doctors or nurses in medical schools throughout the modern world are
taught this kind of naturalistic explanation. However, there are other kinds of
naturalistic medical systems also in use today. In Latin America, many people
still also rely on humoral pathology to explain and cure their illnesses. This is
especially true in rural areas. See personalistic medical system.
negative reciprocity

an attempt to get someone to exchange something he or she may not want to

give up or an attempt to get a more valued thing than you give in return. This
may involve trickery, coercion, or hard bargaining. At times, negative
reciprocity does not involve taking advantage of someone. In fact, someone
may willingly give you more than you believe that you are giving in return. For
example, a poor student wanting to go to an expensive university might be
polite and respectful toward a rich uncle with the hope that he will help out
40
financially. That uncle may gladly pay for his nephew's or niece's education in
return because of the attention and recognition that he receives. The money
is relatively unimportant to him compared to the respect and attention that is
offered. See reciprocity.

negative sanction
a punishment for violations of social norms. In large-scale societies, formal
negative sanctions usually take the form of fines or prison sentences. In
small-scale societies, informal negative sanction are more commonly used
against those whose behavior is unacceptable. See positive sanction.

neolocal residence

the residence pattern in which a married couple establishes a new residence

independent of both their relatives. This pattern is now common in North
America and other industrialized nations in which the importance of kinship is
minimized.
nomadism
see pastoral nomadism.

non-market economy

an economy with a low level of technological knowledge and a preoccupation

with the daily and, at most, seasonal food supply because techniques for long
term preservation of food are generally inadequate. Work teams are small
and usually only include members of the local community. Large-scale
collaboration on subsistence jobs is of short duration if it occurs at all because
most tasks are relatively simple and require only a few people. Work related
interactions between people are of a face-to-face personal kind. People who
work together hunting, gathering, herding, or tending crops are usually
kinsmen or lifelong friends and neighbors. Little or no attempt is made to
calculate the contribution of individuals or to calculate individual shares.
Social pressure generally obligates individuals to freely share food and other
products of their labor with whomever needs it or asks for it in the community.
This operates as an economic leveling mechanism. As a result, there is little
or no possibility of saving and becoming more wealthy than anyone else.
Subsequently, the incentive to work is not only derived from a desire to
acquire what is being produced. There also is the pleasure of working with
friends and relatives. In addition there is potential for increased social
prestige from doing the job well. Impersonal commercial exchanges rarely
occur in non-market economies. They usually take the form of either barter or

41
gifts. Every household usually provides for its daily needs from its own
production. Non-market economies can only function successfully in
isolation. They have always been destroyed by prolonged contact with
societies that have market economies.

non-verbal communication

see paralanguage.

norms

the conceptions of appropriate and expected behavior that are held by most
members of the society. Norms are also referred to as "social norms."

nuclear family

a family consisting of a man, woman, and their children. We are born into our "nuclear
family of orientation" and we have children in our "nuclear family of procreation."
Parents may think of themselves as being members of both of these families at the
same time. See matricentric family.

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-O-
Old World

The Old World is Europe, Asia, and Africa. The Americas are conventionally
referred to as the New World. This distinction is largely an ethnocentric
reflection of the European origin of our modern sciences and geography.
Omaha naming system
a patrilineally based kin naming system in which relatives are lumped together on the
basis of descent and gender. Siblings and parallel cousins of the same gender are
given the same term of reference (5 = male and 6 = female). Father and father's
brother also have the same kin term (1). Other people in ego's mother's patrilineage are
lumped across generations (2 = female and 4 = male).

42
other-directed personality
a personality that is shame oriented. People with this type of personality have
ambiguous feelings about right and wrong. When they deviate from a societal
norm, they usually don't feel guilty. However, if they are caught in the act or
exposed publicly, they are likely to feel shame. The other-directed personality
is one of the modal personality types identified by David Riesman in the early
1950's. See inner-directed personality and tradition-oriented personality.
otiose deity
a supreme god who established the order of the universe in the distant past and is now
remote from earthly activities and concerns ("otiose" is Greek for "at rest). As a result,
otiose deities are usually almost ignored in favor of lesser gods who take an interest in
the everyday affairs of humans.

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-P-
pandemic

an epidemic that becomes unusually widespread and even global in its reach.

pantribal association

groups that cross-cut a tribal society by bringing together a limited number of

people, typically at least one from each family. Pantribal associations often
are in the form of councils, groups of elder men or women who are members
of the same age set, warrior societies, religious cults, or secret societies, .
While these groups have specific purposes, they also serve to create order
and a sense of unity for a tribe. Pantribal associations are also referred to as
sodalities.

paralanguage

auxiliary communication devices that generally assure clarity by transmitting

the same message in different ways at the same time. These include
variations in tone and character of voice along with such non-verbal forms of
communication as kinesics, proxemics, clothing, and makeup.
parallel cousin

43
one's father's brother's children or mother's sister's children. The gender of
the children is not relevant in making this distinction. With unilineal descent,
parallel cousins are members of the same unilineage. See cross cousin.

parallel descent
the cognatic pattern of descent in which males trace their descent through the
male line of their father and females through the female line of their mother.
Unlike bilineal descent, every individual is a member of only one unilineage.

participant observation
physically and emotionally participating in the social interaction of another
society on a daily basis in order to learn about its culture. In practice this
usually requires living within the community as a member, learning their
language, establishing close friendship ties, eating what they eat, and taking
part in normal family activities. By becoming an active participant rather than
simply an observer, ethnographers reduce the cultural distance between
themselves and the host society.
pastoralists
people who make their living by tending herds of large animals. The species of animals
vary with the region of the world, but they are all domesticatedherbivores that normally
live in herds and eat grasses or other abundant plant foods (e.g., cattle, horses, sheep,
reindeer). Traditional pastoralists are essentially subsistence herders who form small-
scale societies. There are essentially two forms of pastoralism--
nomadism and transhumance.
pastoral nomadism
traditional pastoralists who follow a seasonal migratory pattern that can vary from year
to year. The timing and destinations of migrations are determined primarily by the
needs of the herd animals for water and fodder. These nomadic societies do not create
permanent settlements, but rather they live in tents or other relatively easily constructed

44
dwellings the year round. Pastoralist nomads are usually self-sufficient in terms of food
and most other necessities. Seetranshumance.

patrilineage

a multi-generational group of relatives who are related by patrilineal descent.

Patrilineages usually consist of a number of related nuclear
families descended from the same man.

patrilineal descent

unilineal descent that follows the male line. With this pattern, people are
related if they can trace descent through males to the same male ancestor.
Both males and females inherit a patrilineal family membership but only males
can pass it on to their descendants. Also known as "agnatic descent."

patrilocal residence

the residence pattern in which a newly married couple moves in with or near
the groom's father's house. This keeps men near their male relatives, while
women must leave their natal households. Patrilocal residence is strongly
associated with patrilineal descent. Just over half of the world's societies
have patrilocal residence.

pedestrian foragers

people whose subsistence pattern involves diversified hunting and gathering on foot
rather than horseback. The pedestrian hunting and gathering way of life was mobile.
Most of these societies moved their camps several times a year and had temporary
dwellings. The number of people living in a camp also often varied throughout the year
depending on the local food supply. Material possessions were generally few and light
in weight so that they could be transported easily. Subsistence tools included such
things as simple digging sticks, baskets, spears, and bows and arrows that could be
easily replaced when needed. This settlement flexibility is an efficient way of
responding to changing environmental opportunities. (The word "pedestrian" is derived
from the Latin wordpedester meaning "on foot"). See foragers.

45
personalistic medical system

a medical system that explains illness as being due to acts or wishes of other
people or supernatural beings and forces. There is no room for accidents.
Adherents to personalistic medical systems believe that the causes and cures
of illness are not to be found only in the natural world. Curers usually must
use supernatural means to understand what is wrong with their patients and to
return them to health. Typical causes of illness in personalistic medical
systems include intrusion of foreign objects into the body by supernatural
means, spirit possession, loss, or damage, and bewitching. Most of the non-
western world traditionally accepted a personalistic explanation for illness.
Today, it is mostly found among people in small-scale societies and some
subcultures of larger nations. See naturalistic medical system.

personality

all of an individual's complex of mental characteristics that makes him or her

unique from other people. It includes all of the patterns of thought, emotions,
and other mental traits that cause us to do and say things in particular ways.

personality type

a set of personality traits and behavioral tendencies which are shared by a

group of people.

phoneme

the smallest unit of sound that can be altered to change the meaning of a
word. In English, for example, the words pan and can have different meaning
due to the fact that the initial sound, or phoneme, is different. Phonemes do
not have meaning by themselves. The sounds represented by the p and c in
the words above are meaningless alone but they can change the meaning of
words.

phonology

the study of phonemes, or sounds, of language.

phratry

a unilineal descent group consisting of a number of related clans. The phratry

founding ancestor is so remote genealogically that he or she is usually

46
mythical. Phratries are larger and more inclusive kinship groups than
unilineages and clans.
physical anthropology

the study of the non-cultural, or biological, aspects of humans and near humans.
Physical anthropologists are usually involved in one of three different kinds of research:
1) non-human primate studies (usually in the wild), 2) recovering the fossil record of
human evolution, and 3) studying human biological diversity, inheritance patterns, and
non-cultural means of adapting to environmental stresses. Physical anthropology is

also referred to as biological anthropology.

pidgin

a simplified, makeshift language that develops to fulfill the communication

needs of people who have no language in common but who need to
occasionally interact for commercial and other reasons. Pidgins combine a
limited amount of the vocabulary and grammar of the different languages.
People who usepidgin languages also speak their own native language. Over
the last several centuries, dozens of pidgin languages developed as
Europeans expanded out into the rest of the world for colonization and
trade. There have been pidgins developed by non-European cultures as well.
placebo
a harmless medical treatment that should have no effect on a patient's
disease but actually improves his or her condition as a result of the belief that
it will help. For example, a doctor could give patients harmless sugar pills and
tell them that they are a powerful medicine. This placebo may actually make
some of them feel better and even help them recover from their disease. It is
assumed that the belief in the efficacy of a treatment can reduce the
production of stress hormones and improve the immune system in some
cases. The kind of placebo that works is highly culture related.

plantation agriculture

large, labor-intensive farms that mostly produce fruit, sugar, fiber, or vegetable oil
products for the international market. The laborers usually work for very low wages that
keep them in poverty. Many of the plantations of Indonesia, the Philippines, Central
America, the Caribbean, and West Africa are owned bymultinational corporations such
as Dole and the National Fruit Company. The net effect of this form of agriculture
generally has been the flow of wealth from poor nations in the Southern Hemisphere to
rich ones in the Northern Hemisphere.
47
political symbol

an idea or physical thing that is used by politicians as a tool for focusing the
attention and emotions of people. It can be something as simple as the
phrase "a chicken in every pot and a car in very garage" which was used by
Herbert Hoover in his 1928 U.S. presidential election. It can be a call for
change such as the replacement of a king with a legislature or conversion of
"non-believers" to the "true-religion." National flags are often powerful political
symbols.

politics

competition for power over people and things.

polyandry

the marriage of one woman to several men at the same time. This is a rare
type of polygamy. It usually takes the form of "fraternal polyandry", which is
brothers sharing the same wife.
polygamy

the generic term for marriage to more than one spouse at the same time. It occurs
as polygyny or, more rarely, polyandry.

polygyny

the marriage of one man to several women at the same time. This is the most
common form of polygamy. It often takes the form of "sororal polygyny", which
is two or more sisters married to the same man.
Polynesia

a major division of islands in the South Pacific Ocean,

east of the International Date Line, extending from
Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the south. In addition
to these islands, Polynesia includes Samoa, Tonga, the
Society, and Marquesas Islands. Theindigenous peoples of
Polynesia speak similar Polynesian languages.

polytheism

a belief in more than one god. Hinduism is usually considered a polytheistic religion.
However, the distinction between polytheism and monotheism can be a matter of focus.

48
In India and Bali, Hindus can be observed fervently worshipping hundreds of different
gods. This fits the classic description of a polytheistic religion. However, since the
many gods are only different manifestations of the supreme god, Shiva (or
Vishnu or Krishna ), Hinduism can also be interpreted as a monotheism.

positive correlation

a strong association between two different phenomena such that when one is the
present, the other is as well. For example, in the United States today, people who have
college degrees usually earn more money during their lifetimes than do people who
have only gone to high school. It is important to keep in mind that a positive correlation
does not necessarily imply a cause and effect relationship between the co-occurring
phenomena.
positive sanction
a reward for appropriate or admirable behavior that conforms with the
social norms. Common positive sanctions include praise and granting honors
or awards. See negative sanction.

post partum sex taboo

a prohibition against a husband and wife having sexual intercourse for a

specified period of time following the birth of a child.
potlatch
a complex redistributive system that existed among some of the Indian
cultures of the Northwest Coast of North America. This was a complex
system of competitive feasting, speechmaking, and gift giving intended in part
to enhance the status of the giver. For the Kwakiutl society, potlatches
were important social gatherings held to celebrate major life events such as a
son's marriage, the birth of a child, a daughter's first menses, and the initiation
of a sister's son into a secret society. They also were used to assert or
transfer ownership of economic and ceremonial privileges. It sometimes took
years to accumulate the things needed for a big potlatch. Loans (with
interest) had to be called in from relatives for this purpose. When all was
ready, high ranking, influential people from the local and other communities
were invited for several days of feasting and entertaining. Guests were
seated according to their relative status. The host made speeches and
dramatically gave gifts of food, Hudson Bay Company blankets, canoes,
slaves, rare copper artifacts, and other valuable items to the guests. Those of
higher status received more. The host was likely to also destroy money,
waste fish oil by throwing it on a fire, and do other things to show that he was
willing to economically bankrupt himself in order to increase his social status.

49
The acceptance of the gifts was an affirmation of the host's generosity and
subsequently of his increased status. The feast and the gifts essentially
placed the guests in debt to their host until they could at some future time
invite him to their own potlatch and give him more than he gave them--in
essence a return on an investment. The potlatch served as a tool for one-
upmanship for important Kwakiutl men.

prejudice

the act of judging someone or some thing before the facts are known.
Assuming that someone of a specific ethnic group or "race" will act in a
particular way is an example of pre-judging them. When people from different
groups have little or no contact with each other, they are likely to hold
prejudicial views about each other and to act upon them. If the prejudicial
views are inaccurate, they can be obstacles to productive dialog and
understanding. See stereotype anddiscrimination.

priest

a religious leader who is part of an organized religion. Different religions have different
terms for these individuals--they may be known as rabbis, ministers, mullahs, Imams, or
other terms. They are the keepers of the sacred law and tradition. They are found
mostly in large-scale societies. A female priests is often referred to as a priestess .
prion
a protein that has the ability to cause the cells that it invades to repeatedly
duplicate it. Prions are responsible for causing kuru and other similar
diseases. Apparently, prions are not effectively attacked by their host's
immune system nor can they be killed with existing antibiotics, extreme heat,
cold, or other normally lethal conditions. The word prion comes
from "proteinaceous infectious particle."
probability sample
a sample of people that is carefully chosen so that it will be representative of
the entire community or population. Choosing who will be in the sample can
be difficult, especially at the beginning of an ethnographic research project
when the first contacts are made and the composition of the society and its
culture are still poorly understood. Depending on the nature of the society
and the research questions, one of three different kinds of probability samples
may be employed. They are random sample, stratified sample, and judgment
sample.
production (systems of)

50
how food and other necessities are created in a society. See systems
of distribution and exchange.

progeny price

see bride price.

prophet

an individual who receives divine revelation concerning a restructuring of religious

practices and usually of society as well. Prophets call for dramatic change while
priesthoods usually act as conservative forces in preserving long-standing traditions.
Not surprisingly, prophets are usually outside of the priesthood and are seen by priests
as irritating, disruptive trouble-makers. See millenarian movement.
proprietary deed
the concept of ownership in which an owner of property has the right to keep it
whether or not it is being used or actively possessed. For instance, an
individual may own several houses or land and never use them. In addition,
the owner has the right to pass the property on to descendents or to others
chosen by the owner. In fact, ownership is not always absolute in large-scale
societies today. In the United States, for instance, ownership may be forfeited
to the government under certain circumstances (e.g., eminent domain, failure
to pay taxes, or use in the commission of a felony). See usufruct.

proxemics

the study of interaction distances and other culturally defined uses of space
that affect communication. Most people are unaware of the importance of
space in communication until they are confronted with someone who uses it
differently. Proxemics is a form of paralanguage.
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-Q-
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-R-
51
race

a biological subspecies, or variety, that consists of a more or less distinct

population with anatomical traits that distinguish it clearly from other races.
The human "races" commonly assumed to exist are mostly socio-cultural
creations rather than biological realities. They are ethnic groups that are
defined on the basis of both physical and cultural characteristics.

racialism

a relatively benign form of using "racial" distinctions, such as skin color and
facial characteristics, for reference purposes. An example of racialism is
identifying an accident victim as "an elderly Asian male." In America, "racial"
traits are commonly used along with age and gender distinctions when
referring to people who we do not know personally. See racism.

racism

harmful prejudice, discrimination, and/or persecution based on presumed

ethnic/racial differences. An example of racism is not hiring someone for a job
because of his or her skin color. Similarly, giving someone a preference in
hiring due to skin color can be racism if people with other skin colors are
disadvantaged by this act. See racialism.

raiding

surprise predatory attacks directed against other communities or societies.

The primary objective of raiding usually is to plunder and then to escape
unharmed with the stolen goods. In some societies, the goal is also to kill
men in the target community as well as kidnap women and children. Raiders
are virtually always men. Raiding is a more organized form of aggression
than feuding. Violent encounters are often the result of opportunistic meetings
in the case of feuding. In contrast, raids are planned in advance. Another
difference is that raids occur in a finite time period. They are rarely sustained
activities like feuds.
random sample
a probability sample in which people are selected on a totally random,
unbiased basis. This can be accomplished by assigning a number to
everyone in a community and then letting a computer or hand calculator
generate a series of random numbers. If a 10% sample is needed, then the
first 10% of the random numbers will indicate who will be the focus of the
research. This sampling approach is reasonable for ethnographic research
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only when there does not seem to be much difference between the people in
the population. Since this is rarely the case, random sampling is not often
used for ethnographic research.

"reasonable man" standard of law

the idea that legal judgments should be made based on what would be
acceptable to a reasonable man in the society. Jury systems in the Western
World are based on this assumption.

reciprocity (or reciprocal exchange)

a relationship between people that involves a mutual exchange of gifts of

goods, services, or favors. Inherent in reciprocal gift giving is the obligation to
return a gift in a culturally appropriate manner. Failure to do so is likely to end
the reciprocal relationship. Reciprocity requires adequacy of response but
not necessarily mathematical equality. Reciprocity is a common way of
creating and continuing bonds between people. See generalized
reciprocity, balanced reciprocity, and negative reciprocity.

redistribution (or redistributive exchange)

an economic exchange intended to distribute a society's wealth in a different

way than exists at present. In the Western World, charity and progressive
income tax systems are examples of redistributive exchanges. Progressive
income taxes are intended to make people with greater wealth give at higher
rates than those at the bottom of the economic ladder. Some of the tax
money is then allocated to help the poorer members of society. The intended
net effect is to reduce or prevent extremes of wealth and poverty. Some of
the most elaborate redistributive systems have been in small-scale societies
with non-market economies (e.g., potlatch).

regional dialect

a dialect associated with a geographically isolated speech community. An

example is the Texas in contrast to the upper midwestern American dialect.

religion
a system of beliefs usually involving the worship of supernatural forces or beings.
revitalization movement

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a millenarian movement in which the followers focus on recreating and revitalizing their
indigenous culture in response to tremendous pressure to acculturate to the culture of
another society that dominates them.
rites of passage
ritual ceremonies intended to mark the transition from one phase of life to
another.
rituals
stylized and usually repetitive acts that take place at a set time and location. They
almost always involve the use of symbolic objects, words, and actions. For example,
going to church on Sunday is a common religious ritual for Christians around the world.
role
the part a society expects an individual to play in a given status (e.g., child,
wife, mother, aunt, grandmother). Social group membership gives us a set of
role tags to allow people to know what to expect from each other.
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-S-
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

the early 20th century idea of Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf
that language predetermines what we see in the world around us.
In other words, language acts like a polarizing lens on a camera in
filtering reality--we see the real world only in the terms and
categories of our language. This hypothesis was objectively
testedby anthropologists in the 1960's. That research indicated
that Sapir and Whorf went too far. It is now clear that the
terminology used by a culture primarily reflects that culture's
interests and concerns. All normal humans share similar sense
perceptions due to the fact that their sense organs are essentially
the same. Therefore, they can understand and perceive the
categories of reality of another culture, if they are explained.
scientific method
the method of learning what is unknown in the natural world by formulating
a hypothesis to explain observable or measurable facts and then collecting
data through experiments and further observation to answer research
questions based on the hypothesis. If the results of the tests support the
hypothesis, it may become a theory. If the tests do not support the

54
hypothesis, new hypotheses are developed and tested. The scientific method
is the objective method by which old assumptions are challenged and
scientific knowledge grows.

secular

relating to worldly rather than religious things.

shaman

a person who is not part of an organized religion and is in direct contact with the spirit
world, usually through a trance state. A shaman has spirit helpers at his or her
command to carry out curing, divining, and bewitching. Shamanistic power is acquired
individually, usually in physical and/or mental solitude and isolation from other humans.
Spirits or some other supernatural entities are revealed to the shaman and he or she
learns how to control them. Training by older shamans usually occurs to help the
apprentice shaman understand and use his or her powers.

sexism

discrimination based on gender. An example of sexism is excluding people

from promotion to executive positions in a corporation due to their gender.
shifting agriculture
the horticultural practice of shifting from one field to another when crop production drops
due to the inevitable depletion of soil nutrients. Shifting agriculture is also referred to as
"swidden cultivation" . See slash and burn.
siblings
brothers or a sisters.
slash and burn
the method used by horticulturalists to clear fields of heavy vegetation in preparation for
planting new crops. Brush and small trees are cut down and allowed to dry out in
place. They are then burned. This simultaneously clears the field of all but large trees
and adds ash to the soil surface. The ash acts as a fertilizer. No other fertilizer is
applied to the field. As a result, soil productivity lasts only for a few years.
Subsequently, horticulturalists practice shifting agriculture.
small-scale farming
farming using horticultural techniques.
small-scale society
generally a society of a few dozen to several thousand people who live by foraging wild
foods, herding domesticated animals, or non-intensive horticulture on the band or
village level. Such societies lack cities as well as complex economies and

55
governments. Kinship relationships are usually highly important in comparison to large-
scale societies.
social anthropology
see cultural anthropology.
social dialect
a dialect spoken by a speech community that is socially isolated from others.
Social dialects are mostly based on class, ethnicity, gender, age, or particular
social situations. The upper class English "public school" way of talking is an
example of a social dialect.

socialization

the general process of acquiring culture as you grow up in a society. During

socialization, children learn the language of the culture as well as the roles
they are to play in life. In addition, they learn about the occupational roles that
their society allows them. They also learn and usually adopt their
culture's norms through the socialization process. See enculturation.

social norms

see norms.
social velocity
the common social phenomenon in which disruptive interpersonal conflicts
increasingly occur as the number of people in a society grows. Richard Lee
coined this term as result of observing the phenomenon among
the ju/'hoansi of southwest Africa. Band fissioning occurred before a
community reached the full carrying capacity of the environment. Families
decided to leave and form their own bands because the conflict settling
mechanisms were not adequate to resolve differences. It was not food
scarcity but, rather, social discord that was the cause of the break-up.
society
a group of interacting organisms. In the case of humans, societies are groups
of people who directly or indirectly interact with each other. People in human
societies also generally perceive that their society is distinct from other
societies in terms of shared traditions and expectations.
sodality
see pantribal association.

sororate

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a rule specifying that a widower should marry the sister of his deceased wife.
This is usually favored by their respective parents because it continues the
bond between their families. Where polygyny exists, an "anticipatory sororate"
is often practiced. That is to say, there is a degree of sexual permissiveness
allowed between a husband and his wife's younger sister in anticipation of a
presumed future marriage between them.
specialized foraging
a foraging subsistence pattern in which a limited number of species are hunted or
gathered. Aquatic and equestrian foragers usually are specialized in their food quest.
Specialized foraging can be highly productive but is risky in environments that
experience periodic droughts or other significant environmental changes that affect the
food supply. See diversified foraging.

special purpose money

objects that serve as a medium of exchange in only limited contexts. In

societies that have it, usually there are certain goods and services that can be
purchased only with their specific form of special purpose money. If you don't
have it, you cannot acquire the things that it can purchase. You may not be
able to easily obtain the special purpose money either. The Tiv people of
central Nigeria provide an example. In the past, they used brass rods to buy
cattle and to pay bride price. These rods were acquired by trade from Sahara
Desert trading peoples who ultimately obtained them from the urbanized
societies of North Africa. If a man could not acquire brass rods by trade or
borrowing them, he would be prevented from acquiring cattle and getting
married. See general purpose money.

speech
a broad term referring to patterned verbal behavior. See language.
spirit
a supernatural being who has less power than a god or goddess. It may be
an ancestral spirit or simply a spirit that inhabits a natural object or even all of nature. A
belief in spirits is the central tenet of animism.
state
the level of political integration in which a society has a permanent, highly
centralized political organization with an elite social class of rulers at the top.
The bulk of the people are at the bottom of the pyramid of power. Between
them and the rulers is a bureaucracy of officials who run the state on a daily
basis. States with hereditary rulers first appeared 4000-5000 years ago in
intensive agricultural societies of 10's to 100's of thousands of people. These
were the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq), India,

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China, Mesoamerica, and the Andean mountain region of Western South
America. Modern nations also have state levels of political organization, but
rulers are generally elected now.

status

the relative social position of an individual. For instance, student, teacher,

child, and parent are easily identifiable statuses in most cultures. Each of us
has a number of different statuses. We usually acquire new ones and lose old
ones as we go through life. See role.

stereotype

a fixed notion or conception of people based on their group identity. For

instance, assuming that a particular Chinese businessman is going to be
greedy and dishonest because you believe that all Chinese businessmen are.
Stereotyping is often at the base of prejudice and discrimination resulting
from it.

stimulus diffusion

a genuine invention sparked by an idea that diffused in from another culture. The
invention of a unique Cherokee writing system by Sequoyah around 1821 after seeing
English is an example.

stratified sample

a probability sample in which people are selected because they come from
distinct sub-groups within the society. This approach may be used
byethnographers if the information that is being sought is not specialized
knowledge such as the esoteric activities of a secret organization with
restricted membership.

subarctic

the area surrounding the arctic circle. In the Western Hemisphere, this includes the
northern regions of Alaska and Canada. Subarctic also refers to the cold climates of
these regions. Most subarctic regions are tundra.

subculture

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a regional, social, or ethnic group that is distinguishable from other groups in a
society. Members of a subculture often share a common identity, food
tradition, dialect or language, and other cultural traits that come from their
common ancestral background and experience. Subcultures are most likely
to exist in complex, diverse societies, such as the U.S. and Canada, in which
people have come from many different parts of the world.

subincision

cutting into the side of the penus or making a hole entirely through it. This
surgery is done as part of a rite of passage marking the transition from
childhood to adulthood for boys in some cultures.
See circumcision.
sub-Saharan Africa

the region of Africa south of the Sahara desert.

subsistence base

the main sources of food used by a society. The term "subsistence base" is often used
interchangeably with subsistence pattern.

subsistence pattern

the methods a society uses to obtain its food and other necessities
(e.g., foraging, pastoralism, horticulture, and intensive agriculture). The term
"subsistence pattern" is often used interchangeably with subsistence base.
Sudanese naming system
a kin naming system in which kinsmen are not lumped together under the
same terms of reference. Each category of relative is given a distinct term
based on genealogical distance from ego and the side of the family. Also
referred to as the "descriptive kin naming system."

susto

literally "fright or sudden fear" in Spanish. It is a kind of personalistic illness

found among some Latinos in the United States and parts of Latin America.
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The presumed cause is the loss of one's soul due to incidents that have a
destabilizing effect on an individual (e.g., being thrown from a horse, having a
nighttime encounter with a ghost, or being in a social situation that causes
fear or anger). Typical symptoms of susto are restlessness during sleep as
well as being listless and weak when awake, lack an appetite, and little
interest in one's own personal appearance. Susto is also known as perdida
de la sombra (literally "loss of the shadow" in Spanish).

symbol

a sound or thing which has meaning given to it by the user. Human

languages are systems of symbols.
sympathetic magic
magic based on the principle that "like produces like." For instance, whatever
happens to an image of someone will also happen to them. Sympathetic
magic is also referred to as "imitative" magic.
syncretism
an amalgamation or incorporation of traditional and introduced alien culture traits. In
Southern Mexico and Guatemala, the Maya Indian combination of mutually exclusive
indigenous religious and European Christian beliefs to create a new composite religion
is an example. Syncretism is often a psychologically more satisfying alternative to rapid
acculturation that totally replaces indigenous cultural beliefs and customs since one's
own cultural identity is maintained.
syntax
the standardized set of rules that determine how words should be combined to
make sense to speakers of a language. Along with morphology, syntax
makes up grammar.
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-T-
temperate
referring to the regions of the world mostly in the middle latitudes where winter
temperatures regularly fall below freezing and summers are warm. In the Northern
Hemisphere, the temperate regions are south of the colder subarctic and north of the
subtropics. Temperate regions often have deciduous and evergreen forests, but they
are too cold to grow such tree crops as oranges and avocados outside of a greenhouse.

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theory

a set of facts or principles that explain phenomena in the natural world. For
instance the heliocentric theory in astronomy proposes that the sun is at the
center of our solar system and that the earth and other planets revolve around
it.
third world
Societies that are underdeveloped.

tort

a crime against individuals or their property rather than against the society as
a whole. In modern Western societies, torts are settled in civil cases rather
than criminal ones. Torts include any damage or injury done willfully or
negligently that harms another individual. See crime.

totem

a mythical clan founding ancestor. Totem origins are so far back in time that
they are often believed to be non-human. Totems are used as symbols of
clans. When they are believed to be particular kinds of animals or plants,
killing or eating them is usually not allowed. Totems are also referred to as
"totemic emblems" .
tradition-oriented personality
a personality that has a strong emphasis on doing things the same way that
they have always been done. Individuals with this sort of personality are less
likely to try new things and to seek new experiences. The tradition-oriented
personality is one of the modal personality types identified by David Riesman
in the early 1950's.

trancing

activity that results in an altered state of consciousness in which an individual is in a

hypnotic-like mental state or at least profoundly absorbed. This is a common tool used
by shamans and others all over the world to enter the spirit world. Common techniques
used to achieve a trance state include fasting, self-torture, sensory deprivation,
breathing exercises and meditation, prolonged repetitive ritual dancing and/or
drumming, and hallucinogenic drugs.

transculturation

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what happens to an individual when he or she moves to a new society and adopts their
culture. See acculturation.

transhumance

a cyclical pattern of migrations made by some pastoralists that usually take them to cool
highland valleys in the summer and warmer lowland valleys in the winter. This is
seasonal migration between the same two locations in which they have regular
encampments or stable villages often with permanent houses. See pastoral nomadism.

transnational corporation

see multinational corporation.

transvestite

a person who wears the clothes and bodily adornment normally associated
with the other gender. Transvestitism, or cross dressing, is not necessarily
connected with homosexuality.
tribalism
a profound loyalty to one's tribe, ethnic group, or nation and a rejection of
others. Those who promote tribalism generally believe that globalism is a
threat that must be overcome. A pattern of establishing ethnically "pure"
nations through aggressive "ethnic cleansing" occurred in the former
Yugoslavia during the 1990's. Similar attempts to carve out tribal based
nations have occurred in the former republics of the Soviet Union and in a
number of African nations. Tribalism is a counter force to globalization.

tribe

the level of political integration in which a society uses pantribal

associations in order to provide unity and common interest. Tribes are more
complexacephalous societies than bands due largely to the fact that they have
more people and this new integrating mechanism that helps to prevent the
disintegration of society. Tribes often have a headman who must lead
through his powers of persuasion rather than clear authority to enforce his
decisions. Tribes have been common among horticultural, pastoral,
equestrian foraging, and rich aquatic foraging societies.

tribute

payments made by a defeated people to their conqueror.

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tundra

treeless regions with permanently frozen soil. Tundra environments are found in
the subarctic regions of the world and in some high mountains.

two-spirited

a term used to refer to North American Indian homosexual men of the Great
Plains and elsewhere in the West. In the past, two-spirited men led their lives
astransvestites and were given respected social statuses within their
societies. Formerly, they were known by the somewhat derogatory French
term "berdache", which in turn came from an Arabic word meaning a slave.
Today, some homosexual Native American women also refer to themselves
as being two-spirited.
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-U-
underdeveloped nation

a nation or society in which most of the people are persistently poor due to the way they
are integrated into the world economic system. They usually provide cheap raw
materials and labor for the rich, developed nations and purchase their manufactured
goods at high prices. The economies of underdeveloped societies are largely
dependent on the richer nations. Bangladesh and Guatemala are examples of
underdeveloped nations. They are also referred to as "third world" or "developing"
nations. See undeveloped nation.
underrepresented minority
a minority group that has a significantly smaller ratio of its members in
education, government, business, etc. than other groups.
Underrepresentation usually results from poverty and/or discrimination.
African Americans, Native Americans, Hispanics, Pacific Islanders, and some
Asian Americans are considered by the national government to be
underrepresented minorities in America today.

undeveloped nation

a largely isolated nation or society that has a low technological level but is economically
self-reliant. They are not participants in the world economic system. Such societies
mainly consist of indigenous peoples who have subsistence economies. By definition,

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undeveloped nations are not underdeveloped. Tibet and Afghanistan up until the
1950's are examples of undeveloped nations.

unilineage

a multi-generational group of relatives who are related by unilineal descent.

Unlike clans, phratries, and moieties, members of unilineages usually know
the precise genealogical link to the founder. Unilineages usually consist of a
number of related nuclear families. See also matrilineage and patrilineage.

unilineal descent

tracing kinship only through a single line of ancestors, male or female--that is,
descent links are traced only through ancestors of one gender. See
alsomatrilineal, patrilineal, and cognatic descent.

usufruct

the concept of ownership in which an owner normally can "own" land and
other substantial property only as long as it is being used or actively
possessed. The society as a whole is the real owner. The individual "owner"
is responsible for looking after the property for the society--he or she
essentially only has stewardship over it. If the "owner" no longer needs the
property or dies, it is reallocated by the society to others. Usufruct is most
commonly found in small-scale societies with non-market economies.
See proprietary deed.
uxorilocal residence
the residence pattern in which a man moves into his wife's home. If it is with
her mother instead, the residence pattern is called matrilocal.
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-V-
virilocal residence

the residence pattern in which a woman moves into her husband's home. If it
is with his father instead, the residence pattern is called patrilocal.
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-W-
warfare

organized, large-scale combat usually between clearly recognizable armies.

A significant portion of a population takes part in combat or support activities,
often for years. Soldiers are trained and equipped for combat. Warfare is a
larger scale, more organized and sustained form of fighting
than feuding andraiding.
weregeld (also weregild and wergeld; literally "blood money")
the material payment that a murderer must pay to the relatives of his or her
victim as compensation for the crime. Once the weregeld has been paid, the
crime is essentially expunged and there is no other punishment. The term
comes from Old English words meaning "man" + "gold". In small-scale
societies, all crimes are usually considered to be torts and weregeld is viewed
as the appropriate resolution for them. Weregeld is still an important legal
principle for murder cases in some conservative Moslem nations today.
Survivals of this legal concept also can be seen in financial settlements for
civil suits in the United States and other Western nations.

western cultures

European cultures and cultures derived from Europe, such as the United
States and Canada. Western societies predominantly speak a European
language and maintain European-like economic, political, legal, and
educational systems. These societies have been the principle sources of
pressure towards globalization in the late 20th century. The western cultures
are also referred to as the "western world."

Windigo psychosis

a culture bound syndrome reported occasionally among the Northern

Algonkian language group of Indians (Chippewa , Ojibwa , and
Cree ) living around the Great Lakes of Canada and the United
States. Windigo psychosis usually developed in the winter when families
were isolated by heavy snow for months in their cabins and had inadequate
food supplies. The initial symptoms of this form of mental illness were usually
poor appetite, nausea, and vomiting. Subsequently, the individual would
develop a characteristic delusion of being transformed into

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a Windigo monster. These supernatural beings eat human flesh. People who
have Windigo psychosis increasingly see others around them a being edible.
At the same time they have an exaggerated fear of becoming cannibals.
witchcraft
actions involving magic or supernatural powers usually undertaken for the purpose of
doing harm. This is a limited anthropological definition that does not describe the
activities of modern Western European and North American so-called witches or
Wicca. The latter are members of an organized religion.
world-view
the complex of motivations, perceptions, and beliefs that we internalize and
that strongly affect how we interact with other people and things in nature.
World-view is a set of feelings and basic attitudes about the world rather than
clearly formulated opinions about it. These feelings and attitudes are mostly
learned early in life and are not readily changed later. They have a determinate
influence on our observable behavior, both verbal and non-verbal.

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