Professional Documents
Culture Documents
• Introduction
1. Technique of Counting
…..(b1,s1)
s1
…..(b1,s2)
s2
b1 …..(b1,s3)
s3
…..(b2,s1)
s1
b2 …..(b2,s2)
s2
…..(b2,s3)
s3
…..(b3,s1)
s1
b3 …..(b3,s2)
s2
…..(b3.s3)
s3
…..(b4,s1)
s1
b4 …..(b4,s2)
s2
…..(b4,s3)
s3
• b. Crossing Table
s s1 s2 s3
b
b1 (b1,s1) (b1,s2) (b1,s3)
b2 (b2,s1) (b2,s2) (b2,s3)
b3 (b3,s1) (b3,s2) (b3,s3)
b4 (b4,s1) (b4,s2) (b4,s3)
• C. Ordered Pairs
• Let B = {b1, b2, b3, b4} , S = {s1, s2,s3}
and the pair of bag and shoes C then
C = {(b1,s1), (b1,s2), (b1,s3), (b2,s1),
(b2,s2), (b2,s3), (b3,s1), (b3,s2), (b3,s3),
(b4,s1), (b4,s2), (b4,s3)}.
The Principle of Counting
Solution
2. In how many ways John, Romy, Grace and Tomy can stand up to
arrange their self in a row?
Solution
At the first place 4 persons can stand up, at the second 3 persons,
the third 2 persons, and the last 1 persons. So, there are
4.3.2.1 = 24 different ways they can stand up in a row.
2. Permutations
Factorial
The product of positive integers from 1 to n
inclusive occurs very often in mathematics and
hence is denoted by the special symbol n! (read ”n
factorial”)
So, n! = 1.2.3.
P ( n, r )
n ! …. .(n-2)(n-1)n
(n r )!
Defined that
0! = 1
2! = 1.2 = 2 8! 8.7.6!
4! = 1.2.3.4 = 24 8.7 56
6! 6!
• An arrangement of a set of n objects in a given order is
called a
permutation of the object ( taken all at a time).
An arrangement of any r < n of these objects is called an
r-permutation or a permutation of the n objects taken
r at a time.
• The number of permutation of n different objects taken r
at a time is denoted by P(n,r)
• Theorem
n!
P ( n, r )
(n r )!
• Example
1. How many permutations are there if 3
objects, say a, b, and c taken 2 at a time?
Solution
The permutations of 3 objects a, b, and c are
ab, ac, bc, ba, ca, and cb. So, there are 6
permutations.
Or, by the theorem
3! 3.2.1
P(3, 2) 6
(3 2)! 1
2. Find the numbers of permutations of 6 objects, say a, b, c, d, e, f
taken three at a time. In other words, find the number of “three
letter words” with distinct letters that can be formed from the above
six letters.
The first letters can be chosen in 6 letters different ways, following
this, the second letter can be chosen in 5 different ways, following
this, the last letters can be chosen in 4 different ways. By the
principle of counting then there are
6.5.4 = 120
three letters words without repetitions from the six letters or there
are 120 permutations of 6 objects taken 3 at a time. By the
theorem,
6! 6.5.4.3!
P(6,3) 120
(6 3)! 3!
• In the special case that n = r, then
n! n! n!
P (n, n) n!
(n n)! 0! 1
• Example
How many permutations are there of 3 objects,
say a, b, c
Solution
There are 3! = 1.2.3 = 6 such permutations.
• Permutation with repetitions
Theorem
The number of permutations of n objects with n1
are alike, n2 are alike, n3 are alike, …, nr are alike
is
n!
n1 !.n2 !...nr !
• Examples
1. Form all possible 3 letter words using the letters from the
word DAD.
Solution
If both D’s are distinguished by giving the subscripts then
the word becomes D1AD2. So, there are 3! = 3.2.1= 6
permutations of different objects D1,A,D2. Observe the
following permutations
D1AD2, D1D2A, D2AD1, D2D1A, AD1D2, AD2D1 but
D1AD2=D2AD1, D1D2A=D2D1A and AD1D2=AD2D1 if
the subscripts are removed. So there are 3 letter words
using the letters from the word DAD because there are 2
identical D’s. Or by the theorem that the number of
permutations of 3 objects with 2 objects alike are
3! 3.2!
3
2! 2!
• How many different permutations can be formed
from the word MATEMATIKA
• Solution
There are 10 objects with 2 M’s are alike, 3 A’s
are alike and 2 T’s are alike. So there are
10! 10.9.8.7.6.5.4.3.2!
151200
2!.3!2! 2.1.3.2.1.2!
different permutations.
• Circular Permutation
Solution
• Each committee is essentially a combination of 8
peoples taken 3 at a time. So
8! 8.7.6.5!
C(8,3) 56
3!(8 3)! 3.2.1.5!
different committees can be formed.
Binomial Theorem
n nr r n
( a b) a b
n
r 0 r
n 1 n ( n 1)
a na b
n
1.2 a n2b 2 ... nab n1 b n
th
The k term of Binomial
If and
are the coefficients of a and b then the
k th
term of ( a b) n denoted by uk
n ( n k 1) ( k 1)
uk ( n k 1)
. ( k 1)
. a .b
k 1
• Example
• 1. Expand and simplify ( x 2 2 y )6
• Solution
( x 2 2 y )6
( x 2 )6 16 ( x 2 )5 ( 2 y ) 1.2
6.5
( x 2 ) 4 ( 2 y ) 2 1.2.3
6.5.4
( x 2 )3 ( 2 y)3
1.2.3.4
6.5.4.3
( x 2 ) 2 ( 2 y ) 4 1.2.3.4.5
6.5.4.3.2
( x 2 )(2 y )5
6.5.4.3.2.1
1.2.3.4.5.6 ( x ) (2 y )
2 0 6
n( E )
P( E )
n( S )
• The complementary probability
c
If A is the complementary of an event A
c
then the probability of event A :
P( A ) 1 P( A)
c
• Examples
1. A die tossed once.
Find
a. the sample space, and the number of
sample points.
b. the probability of odd number occurs.
c. the probability of the number less than 5
occurs
• Solution
a. S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}; n(S) = 6
b. E = {1, 3, 5}; n(E) = 3
n( E ) 3 1
P( E )
n( S ) 6 2
n( B ) 4 2
P( B)
n( S ) 6 3
2. Two coins be tossed together once.
Find the probability of one head appears.
Solution
Any coin consist of two sides, head (H) and tail
(T).
Two coins be tossed once. So, the sample space
S = {(H,H), (H,T), (T,H),(T,T)}; n(S) = 4.
H is the event that a head appears.
So, H = { (H,T), (T,H)}; n(H)= 2.
n( H ) 2 1
P( H )
n( S ) 4 2
3. In a box there are 4 red, 3 blue and 2
white marbles. Taken at random 3 marbles
one time.
Find the probability that the marbles taken
consist of
a. 2 red and 1 blue marbles.
b. 1 red, 1 blue and 1 white marbles.
c. the 3 marbles are red
• Solutions
A B
. In other word, A and B are mutually exclusive if
they can not be occured simultaneously.
A B
P ( A B ) P ( A) P ( B )
n( A) n( B )
n( S ) n( S )
2 3 5
6 6 6
• 3. A pouch contains 10 red, 18 green, and 22 yellow marbles.
From the pouch taken a marble at random, find the probability
that the red or yellow marbles are taken.
Solution
n(S) = 10 + 18 + 22 =50
Let A be the event that the red marble taken.
B be the event that the green marble taken.
C be the event that the yellow marble taken.
The events A, B, and C are mutually exclusive events.
n( A) C (10,1) 10 n(C ) C (22,1) 22
P( A) ; P(C )
n( S ) C (50,1) 50 n( S ) C (50,1) 50
AC
P ( A C ) P ( A) P (C )
10 22 32
50 50 50
• Probability of Two Events
If A and B are two events, then
P( A B) P( A) P( B) P( A B)
Example
1. A die tossed one time.
A is the event that the prime numbers occurs
B is the event that the multiplication of 3 occurs
Find the probability of the prime or multiplication of 3
occurs.
Solution
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}; n(S) = 6
A = {2, 3, 5}; n(A) = 3
B = {3, 6}; n(B) = 2
A B {3}; n( A B ) 1
P ( A B ) P ( A) P ( B ) P ( A B )
n( A) n( B ) n( A B )
n( S ) n( S ) n( S )
3 2 1
6 6 6
4
6
2
3
• 2. Two dies are tossed together once.
Find the probability that number 3 of first die or sum is 5
of both dies appear.
Solution
n(S) = 36
A is the event that number 3 of the first die appears.
B is the event that sum is 5 of both dies appear
A = {(3,1),(3,2),(3,3),(3,4),(3,5),(3,6)}; n(A) = 6
B = {(1,4),(2,3),(3,2),(4,1)}; n(B) = 4
A B {(2, 3)}; n ( A B ) 1
n ( A) n( B ) n( A B )
P( A B)
n( S ) n( S ) n( S )
6 4 1
36 36 36
9
36
1
4
• The Probability of Stochastic Independent Event
• Two events are stochastic independence if an event
doesn’t influence the other, or an event doesn’t depend to
the other.
If two events A and B are stochastic independence, then
P ( A B ) P ( A).P ( B )
Example
1. Two coins are tossed together.
Let A is the event that head of the first coin appears and B is the event
that head of the second coin appears. Find the probability of A and B .
Solution
Because there are 2 coins, then the event of the first coin don’t influence
to the event of the second coin.
P ( A B ) P ( A).P ( B )
1 1 1
.
2 2 4
The other solution
A B {( H , H )}; n( A B) 1; n( S ) 4
n( A B ) 1
P( A B)
n( S ) 4