A.V.C.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Title of the paper:

CAD/CAM/FEA

Presented by:

1. P.Arun Kumar,
2. G.Venkkatesh.
ABSTRACT:
Computer-aided ligand design is an active, challenging, and multidisciplinary research field that
blends knowledge of biochemistry, physics, and computer sciences. Whenever it is possible to
experimentally determine or to model the three-dimensional structure of a pharmacologically
relevant enzyme or receptor, computational approaches can be used to design specific high-
affinity ligands. This article describes methods, applications, and perspectives of computer-
assisted ligand design.

INTRODUCTION:
What is CAD?
Computer Aided Design and Draughting (sometimes known as CADD)
Generally, it is the use of computers in design and drawing processes. Traditionally, technical
drawings are made using manual drafting. It is often require a lot of effort and time consuming
particularly for large complex drawing. CAD is being used widely in modern practice. The
ability of computer that enable engineers to produce, revise, store and transmit original drawings
has made it very important. Example of CAD software: – AutoCAD, PRO/Engineer, IDEAS,
UNIGRAPHICS, CATIA, SolidWorks, etc.

CAD is used to design and develop products, which can be goods used by end consumers or
intermediate goods used in other products. CAD is also extensively used in the design of tools
and machinery used in the manufacture of components. CAD is also used in the drafting and
design of all types of buildings, from small residential types (houses) to the largest commercial
and industrial types (hospitals and factories).

CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models and/or 2D drawings of physical
components, but it is also used throughout the engineering process from conceptual design and
layout of products, through strength and dynamic analysis of assemblies to definition of
manufacturing methods of components.

HISTORY OF CAD:

Designers have long used computers for their calculations. It is argued that a turning point was
the development of SKETCHPAD system in MIT in 1963 by Ivan Sutherland (who later created
a graphics technology company with Dr. David Evans). The distinctive feature of SKETCHPAD
was that it allowed the designer to interact with computer graphically: the design can be fed into
the computer by drawing on a CRT monitor with a light pen. First commercial applications of
CAD were in large companies in the automotive and aerospace industries, as well as in
electronics. Notable company projects were at GM (Dr. Patrick J.Hanratty) with DAC-1 (Design
Augmented by Computer) 1964 The most influential event in the development of CAD was the
founding of MCS (Manufacturing and Consulting Services Inc.) in 1971 by Dr. P. Other key
points in the 1960s and 1970s would be the foundation of CAD systems United Computing,
Intergraph, IBM, Intergraph IGDS in 1974 (which led to Bentley MicroStation in 1984)
CAD implementations have evolved dramatically since then. Advances in programming and
computer hardware, notably solid modelling in the 1980s, have allowed more versatile
applications of computers in design activities. Key products for 1981 were the solid modelling
packages - Romulus (ShapeData) and Uni-Solid (Unigraphics) based on PADL-2 and the release
of the surface modeler CATIA (Dassault Systemes). Also of importance to the development of
CAD was the development of the B-rep solid modeling kernels (engines for manipulating
geometrically and topologically consistent 3D objects) Parasolid (ShapeData) and ACIS (Spatial
Technology Inc.) at the end of the 1980s beginning of the 1990s, both inspired by the work of
Ian Braid.

Starting the late 1980's, the development of readily affordable CAD programs that could be run
on personal computers began a trend of massive downsizing in drafting departments in many
small to mid-size companies. Today CAD is not limited to drafting and rendering, and it
ventures into many more "intellectual" areas of a designer's expertise. Computer aided design is
used in many businesses and organizations around the world.

CAD SOFTWARE IN THE FUTURE:

3D CAD software is today dominated by 3 vendors, Dassault, PTC and UGS. Their 3D CAD
software products are very similar - in fact so functionally similar that they now almost always
avoid competing on 3D CAD functionality but instead focus almost exclusively on their PLM
capabilities and "business process innovation". Technical innovation in 3D CAD software seems
to have flown out of the window as PLM stomped in through the door. What is PLM? What is
"business process innovation"? Do they really help ordinary CAD software users (designers and
engineers) get their job done? Or do they more likely help large CAD software companies make
their quarterly revenue targets? Clayton M. Christensen, author of "The Innovator's Dilemma"
shows that sustained innovation, even funded by billion dollar research budgets, only enables
leading companies to survive so long as no disruptive technology suddenly appears to upset the
corporate apple-cart. In the 1980s Digital and Computervision were leading companies in their
markets; today neither exists. Both were the victims of disruptive technologies. Just as propeller
powered aircraft could not compete with jets; neither will today's CAD software be able to
compete with new products on the imminent horizon. Watch this space!

WHY USE CAD?

CAD is used consistently throughout the Architectural and Design professions. Although there
are various other programs available (AutoCAD, Microstation, Allplan,etc.), traditionally,
Architects have used AutoCADä and
Interior Designers, VectorWorks. VectorWorks is very interactive and all the way through the
drawing process shapes, dimensions, etc. can be continually modified. Once an object is drawn
and saved, it can be re-scaled and details
added to it. Furthermore, any object you draw e.g. doors, windows, furniture, can
be brought into any future drawing. This enables you to save time and explore
alternative ideas easily. There are three main ways you can use CAD to help you with your
projects:
1. You can use CAD to create 2D drafting drawings which will be used
by all the professions involved in the implementation of a project. For example, if
your project involves the construction of a bar, you will need to give the fitter a
plan, elevations and sections of the bar, with annotations and measurements, for them to be able
to build it and understand your design intent.
. 2. You can use CAD to visualize the space you have to work with in 3D and manipulate
the drawing to quickly create different views that you can print (Fig. 0.1.).
You can then use those prints to sketch with, develop your design ideas and create,
For example, a perspective drawing or even build a model (Fig. 0.2.) using the
floor plan as a template
3. You can use CAD to create on screen 3D models of your space/building, complete with walls,
furniture, etc. This powerful feature enables you to present your design from different angles
and, in the case of VectorWorks, add rendering, textures and create walkthrough animations.You
can also export your drawings to other programs with rendering capabilities such as
RenderWorks (VectorWorks’ companion), Artlantisä, Adobe Photoshopä and Adobe Illustratorä
(Fig. 0.3.), 3D Studio Maxä, etc. Please note that some of these programs (e.g. Artlantis) require
plugins to be installed within VectorWorks This book focuses on how to use VectorWorks to
easily construct 3D ideas and view them from different angles in projection and perspective. To
do this we will be working with a tutorial based on one of our past project: the design of an
exhibition stand for a magazine at a London show. The tutorial introduces the concept of
Architectural drawing with VectorWorks. You will learn how to set up a project as well as the
basic architectural tools. The tutorial is designed to help you learn specific tools, drawing and
presentation methods so that in time, you will be able to define your own drawing strategies.
Tools and menu commands are reviewed in more details in its parent publication, grounding in
the drawing strategies and tools of VectorWorks”. These complementary publications are
designed to provide you with enough knowledge and understanding of VectorWorks to give you
the opportunity to adapt and apply what you have learnt to a myriad of other projects such as any
other type of interior or furniture design and even entire buildings
HOW CAD IS USED?

Electronic Paper with Drawings and Editing Tools - Analogous to Manual Drafting • Valuable
and More Efficient in Modifying Drawings. Object can be moved, copied, rotated, erased,
redrawn, etc. Editing in AutoCAD is faster than in manual drawing. Drawing Layers to Enhance
Drawing and Visibility. AutoCAD provides a set of drawing layer which is equivalent to the
engineering layers on working drawings. Storage/database of commonly used Object. Complex
objects that are frequently used can be stored as symbol in the library. This would increase the
productivity in the drafting work.

ADVANTAGES OF CAD:

Easier Creation and Corrections - Working/detail drawings may be created more quickly and
makings changes is more efficient than correcting drawings made by hand. Better Visualisation
of drawings - Many systems allow different views of the same object and 3D pictorial view.
Database of Drawing Aids - Designs and symbols can be stored for easy recall and reuse.
Increased Accuracy - Using the computer, the drawing can be produced with more accuracy.
Improved Filing - Drawings can be more conveniently filed, retrieved and transmitted on
disks and tape. Quick Design Analysis.Simulation and Testing
Few advantages of 2d `
Reduced design timescales. Reuse of designs. Drawing errors can be corrected easily.
Drawings can be sent/received via email in seconds. Few advantages of 3d
More stylish /complex products can be designed using 3D surfacing. Parametric modelling
allows many design itterations to be generated & evaluated quickly. Designs can be analysed and
optimised virtually using finite element analysis. Clearance/inteference checks can be mase
easily 3D CAD data can be imported directly in to CAM software, futher reducing timescales
and mistakes from interpretation of 2D drawings.

DISADVANTAGES:
Time & cost of implementing the CAD system. Time & cost of training people to use the CAD.
Time & cost of migrating legacy drawings into CAD format. Expensive to set up.Training
needed on how to use soft/hardware

INTRODUCTION OF CAM:

Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) is the use of computer software and hardware in the
translation of computer-aided design models into manufacturing instructions for numerical
controlled machine tools. It is the use of computer-based software tools that assist engineers and
machinists in manufacturing or prototyping product components and tooling. Its primary purpose
is to create a faster production process and components and tooling with more precise
dimensions and material consistency, which in some cases, uses only the required amount of raw
material (thus minimizing waste), while simultaneously reducing energy consumption. CAM is a
programming tool that makes it possible to manufacture physical models using computer-aided
design (CAD) programs. CAM creates real life versions of components designed within a
software package. CAM was first used in 1971 for car body design and tooling.

HISTORY OF CAM:

The history of computer aided manufacturing (CAM) starts with the advent of numerically
controlled (NC) machine tools. The first automated machine tool, in 1948, used punched paper
cards to control the tool. Later, researchers at MIT experimented with punched paper tape and
magnetic tape. They built the first true NC machine tool in 1952. The problem then, was how
could the data be generated for controlling the NC machine tool?

Douglas Ross, a mathematician working in the MIT Servomechanisms Lab, invented a

programming language called APT (Automatically Programmed Tool). This was a huge
breakthrough and actually one of the very first computer programming languages ever designed.
It could be used to create NC instructions relatively quickly and easily. This was the birth of
computer-aided manufacturing.

While APT programs could simply be typed in on a teletype or keypunch machine, it was always
the vision of Ross that a graphical input system would be used. Thus, the first computer aided
design (CAD) systems were an outgrowth of the early CAM work with APT. Systems which
allowed both the design of mechanical parts and the manufacturing with NC mill and lathe
machines were designated CAD-CAM.
APPLICATION OF CAM:

The field of computer-aided design has steadily advanced over the past four decades to the stage
at which conceptual designs for new products can be made entirely within the framework of
CAD software. From the development of the basic design to the Bill of Materials necessary to
manufacture the product there is no requirement at any stage of the process to build physical
prototypes.

Computer-Aided Manufacturing takes this one step further by bridging the gap between the
conceptual design and the manufacturing of the finished product. Whereas in the past it would be
necessary for a design developed using CAD software to be manually converted into a drafted
paper drawing detailing instructions for its manufacture, Computer-Aided Manufacturing
software allows data from CAD software to be converted directly into a set of manufacturing
instructions.

CAM software converts 3D models generated in

CAD into a set of basic operating instructions
written in G-Code. G-code is a programming
language that can be understood by numerical
controlled machine tools – essentially industrial
robots – and the G-code can instruct the machine
tool to manufacture a large number of items with
perfect precision and faith to the CAD design.

Modern numerical controlled machine tools can be linked into a ‘cell’, a collection of tools that
each performs a specified task in the manufacture of a product. The product is passed along the
cell in the manner of a production line, with each machine tool (i.e. welding and milling
machines, drills, lathes etc.) performing a single step of the process.

For the sake of convenience, a single computer ‘controller’ can drive all of the tools in a single
cell. G-code instructions can be fed to this controller and then left to run the cell with minimal
input from human supervisors.

BENEFITS OF CAM:

While undesirable for factory workers, the ideal state of affairs for manufacturers is an entirely
automated manufacturing process. In conjunction with computer-aided design, computer-aided
manufacturing enables manufacturers to reduce the costs of producing goods by minimizing the
involvement of human operators.

In addition to lower running costs there are several additional benefits to using CAM software.
By removing the need to translate CAD models into manufacturing instructions through paper
drafts it enables manufactures to make quick alterations to the product design, feeding updated
instructions to the machine tools and seeing instant results.

In addition, many CAM software packages have the ability to manage simple tasks such as the
re-ordering of parts, further minimizing human involvement. Though all numerical controlled
machine tools have the ability to sense errors and automatically shut down, many can actually
send a message to their human operators via mobile phones or e-mail, informing them of the
problem and awaiting further instructions.

All in all, CAM software represents a continuation of the trend to make manufacturing entirely
automated. While CAD removed the need to retain a team of drafters to design new products,
CAM removes the need for skilled and unskilled factory workers. All of these developments
result in lower operational costs, lower end product prices and increased profits for
manufacturers.
PROBLEM WITH CAM:
Unfortunately, there are several limitations of computer-aided manufacturing. Obviously, setting
up the infrastructure to begin with can be extremely expensive. Computer-aided manufacturing
requires not only the numerical controlled machine tools themselves but also an extensive suite
of CAD/CAM software and hardware to develop the design models and convert them into
manufacturing instructions – as well as trained operatives to run them.

Additionally, the field of computer-aided management is fraught with inconsistency. While all
numerical controlled machine tools operate using G-code, there is no universally used standard
for the code itself. Since there is such a wide variety of machine tools that use the code it tends to
be the case that manufacturers create their own bespoke codes to operate their machinery.

While this lack of standardization may not be a problem in itself, it can become a problem when
the time comes to convert 3D CAD designs into G-code. CAD systems tend to store data in their
own proprietary format (in the same way that word processor applications do), so it can often be
a challenge to transfer data from CAD to CAM software and then into whatever form of G-code
the manufacturer employs.

Further information regarding computer-aided manufacturing can be found at the Berkeley CAM
Research site, UC Irvine’s CAM resource site and the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) (PDF).

TECHNOLOGY TRENDS IN CAM:

More multi-axis and multifunctional machining. There is a clear trend toward greater use of
multi-configuration machine tools. Tools are becoming increasingly complex in terms of being
multifunctional, multi-spindle with subspindles, multi-turret, and multi-axis. Lathes with 12 or so
axes are being put into production, and the use of four-axis lathes and mill/turn machines is
commonplace. The milling capability is comparable to that of some machining centers. Parts that
previously required multiple turning and milling machines are now being produced on a single
machine. This requires advanced software to effectively use the machines and may also require
new postprocessors to drive the tools. However, the savings in setup time and the increase in
production efficiency can be significant.

Increased use of continuous five-axis machining. Continuous five-axis machines are machining
centers in which three mutually perpendicular axes and two rotational axes move simultaneously.
This type of machining has long been employed in aerospace operations, but it is now finding
use in mold and die machining. Five-axis machines have the reputation of being expensive and
difficult to program. However, with prices ranging from $100,000 to $200,000 and with software
that is easier to learn and execute, their use is broadening.

High-speed cutting is becoming commonplace. Most mold and die shops now employ high-
speed machining. The software to support this technology must provide for fast and efficient
transfer of data; smooth tool movement that minimizes any sudden change in direction: a
constant chip load to maximize the life of the cutter; and support of those machine tool features
necessary to produce gouge-free, high surface finish parts. Surfaces must be tangent, without
gaps or overlaps. Machining is sometimes done on the actual surfaces as opposed to tessellated
surfaces to obtain a higher quality output. However, quality problems sometimes occur with high
speed machining, as the material can overheat, cracks can develop and the material can move.
Nevertheless, the use of high speed cutting has become mandatory for toolmakers, and all CAM
software vendors providing products to this industry segment must effectively support this
technology.

Further automation and greater use of knowledge-based machining (KBM). Every aspect of
CAM software is becoming more automated, making it easier to learn and use and more
productive for the user. The utilization of KBM is the centerpiece technology for implementation
of semi-automatic and automatic toolpath generation.

The two primary technologies for implementation of knowledge-based machining are adaptive
and/or generative. In addition, a KBM process can be either feature-based or parts-based. When
employing feature-based machining, automatic feature recognition software can be used to
examine a model, determine which features exist and extract the features for subsequent
processing.

More solid-base machining. Solids-based machining is increasing and is now commonplace.

Seamless interoperability with solid models is occurring. Machining is often accomplished
directly on a solid model. The three main elements of solid-based machining system are:

--A solid modeling system.

--The ability to import the data contained within the model into the CAM system without
translation.

--A CAM system that uses the inherent intelligence and functionality with the solid model.
Most software vendors now support machining on a tessellated solid or surface model and solid
and surface definitions can be intermixed with the same hybrid model.

Increased use of 3 + 2 machining. In five-axis positioning, also known as 3 + 2 machining, a

two-axis tilting rotary figure is added to a three-axis machining center so that work pieces can be
positioned at different angles. Once positioned, the work pieces are then cut in three-axis mode.
This type of machining provides many of the benefits of full five-axis milling, and it can serve as
an alternative approach to either three-axis or five-axis continuous machining.

This type of machining is particularly important for cutting deep cavities or deep standing cores
in molds. Software is sometimes employed to optimize the tilt angle of the tool. The user defines
the maximum tilt angle but does not need to define the specific tilt angles. The software finds the
locations where tilt of the cutter is required and the calculates minimum tilt angle to avoid hitting
the side. The software will maintain that angle until a collision is apparent. At that point, it will
change the angle in order to avoid a collision. If an area is encountered that does not require a
tilt, then the software reverts the tool to a position normal to surface or one with less tilt. All
repositioning of the tool can be done automatically with a minimum amount of tilt. The tool path
from this process will look like a continuous five-axis tool path. This technique is becoming
increasingly common in mold machining.

Introduction of process-focused automation. Software is evolving from the use of basic

instructions to full-process automation. A process-focused approach is better able to consider the
full needs of a specific type of user. For instance, wizards can be used for processes such as
electrode design or tooling assembly creation. A number of vendors have introduced application
suites for design and cutting of progressive dies. Full five-axis processes including the machine
tool, controller, toolpath generator and postprocessor, are available from some vendors for
milling of intricate products such as impellers, blisks, turbine blades, tubes, pipes, tire molds,
aerospace components, dies and deep cavities within molds. Software is usually customized to
enhance a process.

Emergence of more realistic simulation. Significant improvement is being made in software for
machine simulation, toolpath verification, and rendering. Realistic simulation of the entire
machining process including the machine tool, holders, machine components, cutting tools and
stock can be made. Simulation of the tool path is provided to verify its accuracy. Gouges,
undercuts and any discrepancies between the target part and the machined part are shown. Users
can compare the in-process model with the designed work piece. Rendering software provides
for photorealistic images of the machined part.
INTRODUCTION OF FEA:

Finite element analysis (FEA) is a fairly recent discipline crossing the boundaries of
mathematics, physics, engineering and computer science. The method has wide application and
enjoys extensive utilization in the structural, thermal and fluid analysis areas. The finite element
method is comprised of three major phases: (1) pre-processing, in which the analyst develops a
finite element mesh to divide the subject geometry into subdomains for mathematical analysis,
and applies material properties and boundary conditions, (2) solution, during which the program
derives the governing matrix equations from the model and solves for the primary quantities, and
(3) post-processing, in which the analyst checks the validity of the solution, examines the values
of primary quantities (such as displacements and stresses), and derives and examines additional
quantities (such as specialized stresses and error indicators).

The advantages of FEA are numerous and important. A new design concept may be modeled to
determine its real world behavior under various load environments, and may therefore be refined
prior to the creation of drawings, when few dollars have been committed and changes are
inexpensive. Once a detailed CAD model has been developed, FEA can analyze the design in
detail, saving time and money by reducing the number of prototypes required. An existing
product which is experiencing a field problem, or is simply being improved, can be analyzed to
speed an engineering change and reduce its cost. In addition, FEA can be performed on
increasingly affordable computer workstations and personal computers, and professional
assistance is available.

It is also important to recognize the limitations of FEA. Commercial software packages and the
required hardware, which have seen substantial price reductions, still require a significant
investment. The method can reduce product testing, but cannot totally replace it. Probably most
important, an inexperienced user can deliver incorrect answers, upon which expensive decisions
will be based. FEA is a demanding tool, in that the analyst must be proficient not only in
elasticity or fluids, but also in mathematics, computer science, and especially the finite element
method itself.

Which FEA package to use is a subject that cannot possibly be covered in this short discussion,
and the choice involves personal preferences as well as package functionality. Where to run the
package depends on the type of analyses being performed. A typical finite element solution
requires a fast, modern disk subsystem for acceptable performance. Memory requirements are of
course dependent on the code, but in the interest of performance, the more the better, with a
representative range measured in gigabytes per user. Processing power is the final link in the
performance chain, with clock speed, cache, pipelining and multi-processing all contributing to
the bottom line. These analyses can run for hours on the fastest systems, so computing power is
of the essence.

One aspect often overlooked when entering the finite element area is education. Without
adequate training on the finite element method and the specific FEA package, a new user will not
be productive in a reasonable amount of time, and may in fact fail miserably. Expect to dedicate
one to two weeks up front, and another one to two weeks over the first year, to either classroom
or self-help education. It is also important that the user have a basic understanding of the
computer's operating system.

HOW FEA WORKS?

FEA uses a complex system of points called nodes which make a grid called a mesh. This mesh
is programmed to contain the material and structural properties which define how the structure
will react to certain loading conditions.

Types of engineering analysis:

 Structural Analysis
 Vibrational Analysis
 Fatigue Analysis
 Heat Transfer Analysis

APPLICATIONS:

A variety of specializations under the umbrella of the mechanical engineering discipline (such as
aeronautical, biomechanical, and automotive industries) commonly use integrated FEM in design
and development of their products. Several modern FEM packages include specific components
such as thermal, electromagnetic, fluid, and structural working environments. In a structural
simulation, FEM helps tremendously in producing stiffness and strength visualizations and also
in minimizing weight, materials, and costs.

FEM allows detailed visualization of where structures bend or twist, and indicates the
distribution of stresses and displacements. FEM software provides a wide range of simulation
options for controlling the complexity of both modeling and analysis of a system. Similarly, the
desired level of accuracy required and associated computational time requirements can be
managed simultaneously to address most engineering applications. FEM allows entire designs to
be constructed, refined, and optimized before the design is manufactured.

This powerful design tool has significantly improved both the standard of engineering designs
and the methodology of the design process in many industrial applications. The introduction of
FEM has substantially decreased the time to take products from concept to the production line. It
is primarily through improved initial prototype designs using FEM that testing and development
have been accelerated. In summary, benefits of FEM include increased accuracy, enhanced
design and better insight into critical design parameters, virtual prototyping, fewer hardware
prototypes, a faster and less expensive design cycle, increased productivity, and increased
revenue.

ADVANTAGES OF F.E.A:
F.E.A. can be applied to cater irregular geometry. It can take care of any type of boundary,
material anisotropy and inhomogeneity can be treated without much difficulty any type of
loading can be handled.

DISADVANTAGES OF F.E.A:

Cost involved is very high, for vibration and stability problems in many cases the cost of analysis
by F.E.A method may be prohibitive. There are other trouble spots such as aspect ratio which
may affect the final results.

CONCLUSION:

Computational approaches have been used and will contribute to the future success of structure-
based ligand design. However, a lot of room for improvement exists in these relatively new
technologies. In particular, the prediction of the optimal docking of large and flexible ligands to a
protein and an accurate estimation of binding affinity are unresolved problems. These issues are
related because the more accurate the description of the binding strength [including solvation and
entropic effects] the more time consuming is the sampling of possible solutions. Inversely, the
coarser the approximation of the binding affinity the easier it is to sample docked conformations
but with the danger that a vast majority of them might be either irrelevant or incorrectly ranked.
At the present stage, and probably for the indefinite future, ligand and drug design will work best
if it involves a strong and day-by-day collaboration between protein crystallographers (or NMR
experts), who determine native and protein-ligand complex structures, theoretical chemists and
biophysicists, who develop and apply computational methods to predict new ligands, medicinal
chemists, who are willing to synthesize them, and biologists, who can perform the appropriate
tests. Some crystallographers are already using computational approaches for ligand design,
whereas only a few medicinal chemists like to complement their knowledge and intuition with
suggestions originating from computational methods. It is expected that computer programs for
(de novo) ligand design will become more efficient and user friendly, which will result in a much
larger number of users.

FEA has become a solution to the task of prediction failure due to unknown stresses by showing
problem areas in a material and allowing designers to see all of the theoretical stresses within.
This method of product design and testing is far superior to the manufacturing costs which would
accrue if each sample was actually built and tested.