ULACITTheory of Bilingual Education

Adriana Sand

Cascante

Teaching Language in Context. Alice Omaggio Hadley

Chapter 7 Summary

Becoming Proficient in Writing

Learning to write is not simply “writing things down.” It can be a slow and painful process.

Rivers

differsbetween speech and writing: “to write (…) communicating a message, (…) is an art which requires consciouslydirected effort and deliberate choice of language.

Bizzel

distinguishes between

composing

(the process to write,reflection about the topic, gathering of information, taking notes, working, on drafts, revising) and

writing

(transcription of the material itself. Writing is subsumed under composing.

Dvorak

subsumes transcription andcomposing under writing. Writing must be a continuum of activities, more than a mechanical writing down. In thesecond or foreign language context, students first struggle transcription before more complex written expressions,particularly in languages with a difficult writing system (Japanese, Chinese, Arabic, Russian, or Hebrew) even withthe same alphabet it can be difficult for novice or intermediate levels.

Magnan

said that at first, students write down or transcribe in the second language what they might say.Writing is considered a support skill for speaking. The difference between writing as a support skill and it as acommunicative art is paralleled to River’s distinction between

skill-getting

and

skill-using

activities. The first onehelps to understand the language and the second one uses the code for expressive writing a purposefulcommunication. Skill-getting includes 2 categories of activities:1.Writing down : copying or reproduction, spelling, punctuation, grammatical agreements.2.Writing in the language : grammar practice activities, reinforcing growing knowledgeSkill-using develops flexibility and creative language and includes:1.Flexibility measures : writing framework, transformation exercises, sentences combining,expansions, or idea frames.2.Expressive writing : guided and composition that fulfill “

normal purposes

” (practical things as note-taking, letter writing, to inform)Rivers says that teachers must bridge the gap between

skill-getting

and

skill-using.

Activities might becontextualized, meaningful, or personalized, and include different creative writing activities, like journal writing orcinquain poetry. Tasks that elicit performance varying from “careful to vernacular style” (

Tarone

) develop writtenproficiency at all levels.

A curricular planning for teaching writing

Writing begins with guidelines for planning, presented with the ACTFL proficiency descriptions in mind.Activities attempt to combine writing purposes: writing as a support for what is learned in class; assignments andexercises present language in context. As competence increases, assignments become less structured, less teacher-directed, and more creative. Students use the language to inform, narrate, describe, question, persuade, expressfeelings and attitude, discuss ideas, and support points of view. Writing instruction helps them understand it as adiscourse(

Kaplan

). There are various conventions that distinguish it in style and tone from spoken discourse. Studentslearn more about composing process, recursive, problem-solving activity affects students’ writing and thinking skills.This chapter is divided into two sections:1. Appropriate activities for novice and intermediate levels, and2. Approaches to teaching writing.

Approaches to teaching writing at the lower levels of proficiency

Techniques for teaching writing as a support skill

Writing isn’t practice in isolation it is an interdependent fashion. For example, dictation involves listening,fill out a form involves reading. To practice various skills approximate it to authenticity. Writing can be used tosupport learning. Students can also write in discourse-length frames for communicative purposes.

Novice-level activities

Simple description with visuals

A picture is given to the students in order they identify and list the objects in a room, complete a descriptiveparagraph, use prepositions and locative expressions, or write a short description from questions.

Sentence-Builders

Students are asked to describe a daily routine using a guide with different columns, each one for every partof the sentence structure: time adverb + subject + verb + object. Each column has a question mark that invitesstudents to add their own ideas.

Dictation and variation

It can be based on familiar material, students are stimulated to use listening a writing skills. At least aparagraph in length is best. Partial dictation should be contextualized.

Filling in forms

Students are provided with an incomplete menu or a personal information form. They must complete themwith information they have learned, or their real information.

Cinquain poetry

Students create simple five-lines poems within a very structured framework, using learning vocabulary. It isconstructed according to this sheme:Line 1: States a subject in 1 word (noun)

Tree

Line 2: Describes it in 2 words

Green branches

Line 3: Describes an action in 3 words

Growing, living, reaching

Line 4: Expresses an emotion in 4 words

Your shade protects me

Line 5: Restates the subject in 1 word (another noun)

Peace

Intermediate-level activities: preparing for advance-level writing

They are a bridge between the structured writing and more advanced ones. Students can grate with thelanguage in very familiar context, using simple vocabulary, limited narration and description in present tense, andvery basic grammatical structures. Topics should coincide with their level of proficiency or to prepare them for thenext one.In order to move toward advance level, students need practice using past and future time in more extendednarration and description.

Slash sentences

(Intermediate) Students write short narrative from the sentences cues given, and complete them according tothe example:



The LeBlanc/to spend/summer/in the country



The LeBlanc spend the summer in the country

(Preparing for advance) Students write the paragraph in past, adding details.

Telegraphic sentences

As intermediate level, students describe the events using present tense; as preparation for advance, students

narrate events as a reporter would, by using past tense.

Partial translation

Students apply learned vocabulary and grammatical structures. It can serve as a model for letter writing in asubsequent activity.

Sentences combining

It helps students to link simple propositions into more complex sentences. They must join them to writeparagraph, or compositions. This technique teaches principles of paragraph construction, connectors, qualifiers, andother discourse features.

Paragraph completion

Students complete the description of the person in a given picture. This task improves the ability to describesomeone in detail.

Guided compositions: a bridge to free expression

The following activities have characteristics of

Hillocks’ environmental mode

and

Applebee’s structured process

approaches. Teacher organize tasks to help students in the composing process and practice writing usingmodel texts, small-group interaction, and evaluative checklists. Composition tasks are guided through the use of prewriting and semi-structured writing activities.

Multiple tasks based on a picture

Raimes

suggests writing tasks around a picture moves students to a higher level of difficult as they addvocabulary, structural sophistication, and organizational skills.Tasks can be

prewriting

for intermediate level (words, or questions tasks),

description

(intermediate),

narration

(intermediate), and

narration in the past

, for preparing for advance level.

Elaboration

Students write fuller descriptions and narrations using cues supplied by the teacher. Elaboration includesadjectives, adverbs, relative clauses, or whole sentences. By providing cues related to the content and style, theteacher encourages students to enhance their creative expression.

Guide composition based on oral interview

Students interview a partner by choosing a topic from several categories (can be present, past, or futuretenses). They take notes on what their partners say. Then, they write a composition of three paragraphs about theinterview. Students practice skills needed at advance level in oral and written aspects.

Guide and free composition: writing letters and notes

Intermediate level

Short essays of 2 or 3 paragraph are expected. Topics elicit personal information and simple statements aboutpreferences, experiences, and likes.

Preparing for advance level

In this case topics are more specific as, writing a Christmas card, a page of your personal diary, planning ongetting married, getting a job, moving to another town, etc.

Dialogue journals (Novice through advance levels)

They are appropriate for beginning and intermediate students (

Staton, Peyton and Reed

). They provide awritten conversation between teachers and students that can continue during the entire course. Topics are interestingto students (questions, promises, apologies, complaints). The teacher then reads the journals and responds to them.