How to write

a
“RESEARCH PAPER”
Definition of the research paper…
• To present our views and research findings on a
chosen topic in a typewritten paper.
• It is also called as “Term paper” or “Library paper”.
• The research paper is usually five to fifteen pages
long, but usually teachers stress for minimum
number of pages (5-6 pages).
• The task is to read on a particular topic, evaluate
information about it and report our findings on our
paper.
Format of the research paper…
• It cannot be written according to a random formula
but must conform to a specific format.
• The format governs the entire paper from the placing
of the title to the width of the margin, and to the
notations used in acknowledging the material drawn
from other sources.
• The format of scholarly writing, is simply an agreed
upon way of doing things.
Format of the research paper…
• The citation is followed in a style wherein the
author of a quotation is briefly introduced, the
quotation cited and a page reference supplied in
parentheses.
• This sort of standardization is time saving to
scholars. To do research or even to read articles
about it, we must be familiar with the major citation
styles used by scholars.
Why a scientific format is followed?
• Though the scientific format may seem confusing
for the beginning science writer due to it’s rigid
structure, one reason for using this format is that it
is means of efficiently communicating the scientific
findings to the broad community of scientists in a
uniform manner.

• Another reason is, it allows the paper to be read

at different levels. Scientific format helps to ensure
that at whatever level a person reads our paper,
they are more likely to get key results and
conclusions.
Reasons for writing the research paper…
•The experience familiarizes the students with the
conventions of scholarly writing.
•The student learns the accepted styles of documentation, the
ethics of research and a great deal about the subject chosen.
•The student becomes familiar with the library through the
“Learn by doing” method. The ability to use the library is a
priceless skill, because sooner or later everyone needs to find
out something.
•Everyone can profit from knowing how to do research.
•Other benefits include exercise in logic, imagination and
common sense.
They learn…
• How to think?
• How to organize?
• How to disseminate between worthless and useful
opinions?
• How to budget their time?
• How to conceive of a research project from the start?

and finally assemble the information uncovered into a

useful coherent, paper.
Steps and schedule involved in
writing a research paper
Generally there are seven distinct steps required to
produce at least one hand-in/week for five weeks.

What we must do?

• A topic must be selected that is complex enough to be
researched from a variety of resources, but narrow
enough to be covered in ten or fifteen pages.
• Exploratory scanning and in-depth reading must be
done on the approved topic.
• The information gathered must be recorded in cards
(preferably) and assembled into a meaningful
sentence.
• A thesis statement must be drafted, putting forth
the major idea of our paper and the paper must be
outlined in it’s major stages.
• The paper must be rough drafted, and the thesis
argued, proved, or supported with the information
uncovered from the sources. Borrowed ideas, data
and opinions must be acknowledged.
• A bibliography must be prepared, listing all
sources used in the paper and the final paper must
be written.
Report paper : summarizes and reports a writer’s
findings on a particular subject.
Thesis paper : is a proposition or point of view
that a writer or speaker is willing to argue against
or defend.
CHOOSING A TOPIC
How to choose a topic?
• Choose a topic that interests us.
• Pick a subject that we are curious about or that we are
either an expert on or we are genuinely interested in.
• If we are at a loss of subject or that where we have no
interest at all then go to the library and browse..
• Take time on searching the topic. Do not start on the
topic that we have first seen or do not work on the idea
that first comes to our mind.
How to choose a topic?
• Give time to think and work on the idea that gets
us excited. Do not commit the mistake of choosing
any old topic merely for the sake of getting on with
it.
• If we choose carefully now, we will be rewarded
with the age-old excitement of research.
• Avoid topics that are too big and hence narrow
down the topic.
• There are topics that can be traced down to a single
source.
• Research paper must be documented with a variety
of opinions from different authorities and sources.
• The students are exposed to the opinions of
different authorities in a variety of books and articles,
and to other reference sources.
• Choose any topic that is broad enough to be
researched.
• Avoid topics that are too technical.
• The skills that a research paper could instill in the
researcher are better displayed in a paper on a general
subject.
• Stick to some subject that is broad enough to be
understood by any decently educated reader.
• We should use our expertise and experience and
steer away from topics that are too ordinary.
NARROWING THE TOPIC
• Once a general area subject is found, narrow it
down to a suitable small topic.
• We should be guided by the available resources
and information.
• Experiment with the topic, pursue one line of
thought and see where it proceeds, and see whether
or not it yields an arguable thesis.
• The first attempt at narrowing down the topic is
easier than the second.
• Use trial and error until we have got a topic that
we are comfortable with.
• Further narrowing will take us directly to the
research topic.
• Whatever topic that we choose must be approved
by our instructor.(Initially basic outline must be
approved by our instructor)
THE LIBRARY
Layout of the library…
• Most of the research for our paper needs to be

done at the library.

• Basic design varies from one library to another.

 Card catalog…

This is an alphabetical index of all the books in the

library. It consists of 3 x 3 cards that are stored in
little drawers, usually near the main entrance of
the library. The card catalog lists all books under at
. least three headings viz. author, subject and title
Microform indexes…

These are used for periodicals, and permanent

books in each and every library, but the systems
vary from one library to another. Microfilm systems
are also used by some libraries to index the
articles of major periodicals.
Stacks
This is the name given to the shelves in which the books
and periodicals are stored in the library. They may
either be open or closed.
• Open stacks: Here the readers may roam at will
among the shelves and handle the books.
• Closed stacks: Here the readers are denied direct
entry access to the shelves, and must obtain the books
from clerks by listing the title of the book, it’s author
and it’s call number on a request slip. These are more
common in large libraries.
Reference Room
Encyclopedias, indexes, gazetteers, and other works
that are ordinarily consulted for information are stored
in a reference room. These can neither be checked
outside nor taken home.

Main Desk
This functions as an information centre as well as a
checkout counter for books. Librarians and clerks
stationed here are well trained to help the researcher
find out what they want or track down difficult
sources.
Audiovisual Desk
This room contains cassettes, tapes, picture slides,
filmstrips, and other non-book media and generally
indexed by whatever conventional filing system the
library uses.

Newspaper racks
Many libraries subscribe to major national and
foreign newspapers. Current issues are displayed on
long wooden clamps (Newspaper racks).These hold
and store newspapers and are often surrounded by
comfortable chairs.
Xerox room : Xerox machines are available in most
libraries for photocopying and the charges differ from
one library to another.
Typing room : Typewriters are available in many
libraries, either at a reasonable rental rate or without a
charge. The machines are usually kept in a designated
typing room, which is usually sound-proof.
The computer : The computer is fast becoming an
invaluable research tool in the library. Information is
stored in databases and accessed through a terminal.
ORGANIZATION OF THE LIBRARY
Knowledge has grown so enormously, and classification
systems have become so complex, that today librarians
are trained extensively in classifying books. Two main
systems are used.
They are,
1. Dewey decimal system.
2.Library of congress system.
The Dewey decimal system
This system devised by Melvil Dewey in 1873 divides all knowledge
(except fiction and biography) into 10 general categories. They are,

• 000-099 - General Works

• 100-199 - Philosophy and Knowledge
• 200-299 - Religion
• 300-399 - Social Sciences
• 400-499 - Language
• 500-599 - Pure Science
• 600-699 - Technology (Applied Sciences)
• 700-799 - The Arts
• 800-899 - Literature
• 900-999 - History

Each of these is subdivided into 10 smaller divisions. The

advantage here is that it yields specific categories to accommodate
the rapid proliferation of books.
The Library of Congress System
This is named for the library that invented it (1800).This
is now widely used by the larger libraries and has grown
in popularity. This system represents the main branches
of knowledge by 21 letters of the alphabet.
•A - General Works - Polygraphy
•B - Philosophy--------Religion
•C - History ------------- Auxiliary Sciences
•D - History and Topography (except America)
• E-F - America
Continued…
The Library of Congress System
•G - Geography -------- Anthropology
•H - Social Sciences
•I - Political Science
•K - Law
•L - Education
•M - Music
•N - Fine Arts
•P - Language and Literature
•Q - Science
Continued…
The Library of Congress System
•R - Medicine
•S - Agriculture- Plant and Animal Industry
•T - Technology
•U - Military Science
•V - Naval Science
•Z - Bibliography and Library Science

These general categories are narrowed by the

addition of letters.
Classification of periodicals…
Periodicals and newspapers are classified differently.
Current issues are shelved alphabetically by title and
accessible to the public.

Classification of non-books…
Non-book materials-films, microfilms, recordings, news
clippings, reproduction of masterpieces, transparencies,
slides, programmed books, and other audiovisual
material-are listed either in the general catalog or as a
special collection.
DOING THE RESEARCH
Where to look for information …
• Check an encyclopedia for general information on the
subject.
•Definitions of technical or controversial terms can be seen in
various standard dictionaries.
•The periodical indexes can be checked for magazine articles
on the subject.
•Check the specialized references .
•Check the book review digest for summaries of the contents of
the viewed books.
•For information about places and countries, the gazetteers
and atlases can be consulted.
 Domino theory

• It is the theory which governs the search for

sources. One source tends to lead to another.

• A book search will suggest an article: An essay

will connect us to a magazine. Make the liberal use
of the researcher’s most powerful tool-The mouth.
Ask the library personnel for help as they are
trained to find even the difficult of searches.
Using the computer in our search
Computer is the most indispensable work tool in our
search in most libraries. Information are stored in
databases which can be instantly accessed through a
terminal.
Eg - DIALOG - Consists of over 100 databases on
a wide range of subjects.
Eg - OCLC - Online computer library centre,
based in Ohio, is a database listing the collections of
over 100 libraries.
Assembling a working bibliography…
The bibliography is a list of sources on the research topic
and include encyclopedias, magazine articles, scholarly essays,
chapters of books and information stored on microform.
The working bibliography is assembled as the researcher
scans the references and the card catalog for information on
the subject.
The bibliography cards are portable and can be easily
arranged in alphabetical order. There are two kinds of cards.
1. Small bibliography card - containing title.
2. Larger note card - containing notes on the source.
The card should contain the following:
•Name of the author(s)
•Title of the work
•Facts of the publication
•Page(s) of information
•Name the library or place where the source was found in
the right hand corner of the card.
•The library call number of the source in the upper left hand
corner of the card.
- The researcher must ignore the irrelevant and useless
sources, while tracking down the articles, essays and books
that promise to be useful.
Selecting our sources…
The experienced researcher will skim through the source to determine
it’s usefulness. Major ideas are being searched in a piece of writing.
Skimming improves with practice. Some hints include
• Glance at the preface of the book.
• Look up the subject in the index of the book.
• Read the chapter headings. This will reveal what the chapter is about.
• Read the first and last two sentences in a paragraph to find out what
information it contains.
• Glance at the opening paragraph of the article as it can contain the
gist of the author’s theses.
• The concluding paragraph will sum up the discussion and reinstate
major ideas.
Primary and Secondary sources of information

• Primary sources of evidence include original

writings by an author, documents, artifacts,
laboratory experiments or other data providing
firsthand information.

• Secondary sources include writings, speeches and

other documents about a primary source. The
opinions of the critics are important.
Evaluating sources of evidence…
The sources vary in

• Quality of scholarship
• Force of argument
• Accuracy of detail
 Verify one opinion against another.
 Note the date of evidence as recent data is important.
 Try to evaluate the logic and probable authenticity of
any source we intend to use.
 Check our evaluations against those of the
professionals.
 Beware of statistics. The accuracy and inclusiveness
of the study should be determined. Evaluate all data
and statistics with an open mind.
 NOTE - TAKING

The information uncovered in our topic through

research should be transcribed on to 4 x 6 note
cards and eventually incorporated into the body
of the paper. a research paper should contain a
variety of material taken from different
sources.
Format of the note cards…
• Use 4 x 6 cards for note taking.
• Write in ink rather than pencil.
• Write down only one idea or quotation on each card.
• Upper left hand corner should contain the source-
use author’s last name or the key words from the title.
• Upper right hand corner contains a general heading
as to what the card contains.
Kinds of note card…

Notes gathered from research must be blended

into the body of the paper to provide
documentation, proof and evidence in support of
the thesis. These notes are of 4 kinds. They are
1. The summary
2. The paraphrase
3. The quotation.
4. The personal comment
-The summary is a condensation of significant facts
from an original piece of writing. A chapter is
condensed into a page, a page into a paragraph or a
paragraph into a sentence, but retaining the essential
facts at each stage.

- The paraphrase means to say in one’s own words

what someone else has said. It restates the passage
in approximately the same number of words as the
original.
- The quotation reproduces an author’s words
exactly as they were spoken or written, preserving
even peculiarities of the spelling, grammar or
punctuation.
- The personal comment can be used to record any
ideas, conjectures or conclusions that occur to us
during the research. These notes are used to stress
a particular point, draw a conclusion or clarify an
issue.
Plagiarism : What it is and how to avoid it?

Plagiarism is the act of passing off another’s words

and ideas as one’s own. Blatant plagiarism, involves
the conscious and deliberate stealing of another’s
words and ideas generally with the motive of earning
undeserved rewards. The conventions of writing
research papers dictate that one must acknowledge
the source of any idea or statement not truly their
own.
To avoid plagiarism the following must be done:

• Provide a note for any idea borrowed from another.

• Place quoted material within quotation marks.

• Provide a bibliography entry at the end of the book

for every source used in the text or in a note.

THE THESIS AND THE OUTLINE
Definition
The thesis is a statement that summarizes the central idea
of the paper. By custom this statement is the final sentence
of the opening paragraph.
The thesis serves three functions. They are,
1.Establishing a boundary around the subject that
discourages the writer from wandering aimlessly.
2.If worded properly, can chart an orderly course for
the paper, making it easier to write.
3.The thesis gives the reader an idea of what to
expect, making the paper consequently easier to read.
Choosing the thesis…
We have to look for a central idea that summarizes the
information that we have gathered on the subject. The thesis
specifies exactly what the writer has to do, and what
information is needed to do it.
Rules for wording the thesis…
To be useful the thesis must be properly worded.
1.The thesis should be clear, comprehensible and direct.
2.Predict major divisions in the structure of the paper.
3.Commit the writer to an unmistakable course, argument,
or point of view.

• The thesis should commit the writer in a single line of

argument.
• The thesis should not be worded in a figurative language.
• The thesis should not be worded as a question.
• The thesis should be as concise as possible.
Placing the thesis
The thesis is usually introduced in the final sentence of
the first paragraph- a position that gives the writer a
chance to establish an opening context.
The outline
This is an ordered listing of the topics covered in the
paper. They vary in complexity and style and useful to
both the writer and the reader. The writer who writes
from the outline sticks to the main topic. The reader
benefits from the outline as a complete and detailed table
of contents.
Visual conventions of the outline
1. Main areas are designated by Roman numerals
(I,II,III,IV).
2. Sub-ideas branching off from the main ideas are
designated by capital letters A,B,C,D,).
3.Sub-divisions of these sub-ideas are designated by
Arabic numerals (1,2,3,4 )

The main idea is to support our conventions and

propositions with examples and details. The basic idea is
that larger ideas and elements are stacked to the left, with
smaller ideas and elements to the right.
 Types of outline
There are three main types of outline.

1.The topic outline.

2.The sentence outline.

3.The paragraph outline.

The topic outline
This words each entry as phrase, breaking down the
subject into major sub-headings. This is used for
outlining relatively simple subjects.

The sentence outline

This uses a complete grammatical sentence for each
entry. These are well suited for complex subjects. The
detailed entries giving the writer an excellent overview
of the paper.

The paragraph outline

This records each entry as a separate paragraph, thus
providing a condensed version of the paper. This form
is useful mainly for long papers whose individual
sections can be summarized in whole paragraphs.
 TRANSFORMING THE NOTES INTO A ROUGH DRAFT
Preparing to write the rough draft : a checklist
1.We should formulate a thesis. Information shifted from the sources and
assembled on the note cards should be carefully grafted into the main body of
the paper.
2.Relevant note cards should be picked out while others are discarded.
3.Arrange and rearrange the cards until they are organized in an order.
4.Sketch an outline of the paper, breaking down the thesis into an ordered
listing of the
topics.
5.Incorporate note-taking into the flow of the paper. The notes that have been
taken must
be smoothly blended into the natural flow of the paper.
6.The sources of summaries and paraphrases must be given within the text or
in parentheses.
 SYSTEMS OF DOCUMENTATION

When to provide documentation?

No documentation is necessary if the idea, opinion or conclusion is of the
kind that any well read person can know.
Types of documentation
Documentation is the process by which we give credit to the appropriate
sources for every borrowed idea used in the paper. These can be
incorporated into the paper either as direct quotations, summaries, or
paraphrases. The two types of documentation used are
1.Note phrases.
2.Paranthetical citations.
The following is a guide to the systems of documentation…

Author/Work(MLA) Language
Literature
Author/Year Agriculture Geology
Anthropology Home economics
Archaeology Linguistics
Astronomy Physical Education
Biology Political Science
Botany Psychology
Business Sociology
Education
Traditional Art Philosophy
(Footnote/Endnote)
Dance Religion
History Theater
Music
Numbers Chemistry Mathematics
Computer Science Medicine
Health Nursing
 Parenthetical Documentation : Author and Work (MLA Style)

• Use of Arabic numerals for everything except titles or preliminary

pages of a text.
• Omission of “p” or “pp” for page numbers.
• Omission of “L” or “lL” in favour or “line” or “lines” until lineation
is established in the paper.
• Anew form for journal entries, as follows
a)Changing the heading of the bibliography section to
“Works cited’.
 REFERENCE CITATIONS IN THE TEXT
The rules fit for text citations are as follows
• Introducing the authority
Introduce paraphrases or quotations by giving the authority’s
name. Use both the first name and the surname the first time the
authority is used.
• Identifying the source
Whenever possible, identify what makes the source important.
• Documenting without mention of authority
Whenever the authority is not mentioned in the introduction to the
paraphrase or quotation, place in parenthesis the authority’s
name, followed by a page reference.
• Material by two authors
When referring to material written by two authors, mention
the names of both authors.

• Material by more than two authors

For more than three authors or editors, use the first name
followed by” et al” or “ and others”(without a comma following
the name).

• Mentioning both author and work

When it can be accomplished smoothly, mention both the
author and the work in the introduction.
• Anonymous author
When a work is listed as anonymous, mention the fact that it is
anonymous in the text and place the title in parenthesis.
• No author
When a work has no author, cite the first two or three
significant words from the title.
• Multivolume works
When referring to a specific passage in a multivolume work,
give the author, the volume number followed by a colon and a
space, and the page reference.
• Use Arabic numerals
Use Arabic numerals for books, parts, volumes, and chapters of
works; for acts, scenes, and lines of plays; for stanzas etc.
  One work by a single author
The APA style sheet requires an author –date method of
citation; the surname of the author and the year of publication are
inserted in the text of the paper at the appropriate point.

 Subsequent references
To refer the same study in the same paragraph the name
alone can be indicated without the year.

 One work by two or more authors

Scientific papers commonly reflect multiple authorship since
scientific research involves team work or co-operative studies.

 Corporate authors
If a work is authored by a committee, an institution, a
corporation, or a governmental agency, the names of such
corporate authors should be spelled out each time they appear as a
reference source in our text.
Parenthetical Documentation :Numbers

 Place the citation enclosed within parenthesis,

immediately after the authority’s name.
 If the running text does not use the authority’s name,
insert both the name and number within parenthesis.
 If necessary, add specific data to the entry.
 In citing more than one authority in our text, use an
alternate style of format.
Government publication or legal reference
Due to their complicated origin, government publications can be
difficult to document. The citation should list first the author or
agency, then the title of the publication(underlined), followed by
the publication facts and the page reference.

Content notes
This consists of material that is relevant to our research but that
does not need to interrupt the flow of our text. These notes may
contain an explanation, additional information, reference to other
sources, information about procedures used to gain information,
or acknowledgement of special assistance.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

• The last part of a research paper is a bibliography- a

list in alphabetical order of the sources actually used
in the paper.
• The purpose of this list is to help the reader to
identify and retrieve any source used.
• Every reference cited in the text must therefore
appear in the bibliography; conversely every work
appearing in the bibliography must have been used
in the text.
Alphabetizing bibliography entries
• Arrange entries in the alphabetical order.
• Alphabetize letter by letter.
• Single author entries precede multiple author entries, those beginning
with the same name.
• A row of three hyphens followed by a period replaces the name of the
repeated authors.
• Works by authors with the same surname are alphabetized according to
the first letter of the name.
• Corporate authors- associations, government agencies, institutions- are
alphabetized according to the first significant word of the name. Use the
full name, not the abbreviation.
• A parent body precedes a subdivision.
• When a work is anonymous, it’s title moves into the author’s place and
is alphabetized according to the first significant word in the title.
• Bibliography is mainly prepared `to transcribe information.
The following points are observed while preparing bibliography
• The bibliography must occupy a separate page.
• Centre the title “Works Cited” one inch from the top of the
page.
• Leave two spaces from the title and the first entry.
• List all entries in the alphabetical order. Anonymous works
are listed alphabetically according to the first word of the title.
• Place the author’s last name first.
• Second and subsequent entries by the same author(s) are
listed with a line of three hyphens followed by a period.
• Indent the second line of each entry five spaces.
• Double space throughout the “Works Cited” list.
General order for bibliographic references to books in
“Works Cited”
• Author
• Title
• Name of the editor, compiler, or translator.
• Edition (if other than first)
• Series ,name and number
• Volume numbers
• Publication facts
• Page numbers
• Differences between endnotes and bibliography entries
 General order for bibliographic references to
periodicals in “Works Cited”
• Author
• Title of the article
• Publication information
• Pages
 Reference List
The reference list should contain the following elements:
• Start the reference list on a new page
• Centre the title “Reference List” on the page two inches from the
start.
• List all entries in alphabetical order.
• List the names of all initial authors in inverted order.
• Second and subsequent entries by the same author(s) are listed
with a line of three hyphens followed by a period:---,
• Indent the second line of each entry five spaces.
• Double space throughout the reference list.
 FINISHED FORM OF THE PAPER
The finished form of paper contains the following parts:
• Outline( if required)
• Title page
• Text of the paper
• Content notes (if required)
• Endnotes or footnotes (if required)
• Works Cited (if required)
The outline should look uncluttered and balanced. Small roman numerals
are used to paginate all pages. Name of the instructor, name of the course
for which the paper was written and the date is written in the upper left
hand corner of the paper.

A separate title page is not required. Instead the first page should contain
the full title of the paper, name, the date, and the opening text of the
paper.

The text should contain,

• Normal paragraphing
• Double space
• Number pages on the upper right hand corner of the paper
• Use pica type, which is easier to read
• Avoid multiple corrections
Tables, charts, graphs, and other illustrative
materials
• Papers in many fields require tables, graphs, charts,
maps, drawings, and other illustrations. As a general rule
all illustrative materials should appear as close as
possible to the part of the text that they illustrate.
• When using the parenthetical style of documentation,
content notes numbered consecutively, would appear at
the end of the paper under the heading “Notes”.
• The endnotes should appear on a separate page at the
end of the paper.
THANK YOU !!!