Professional Documents
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theory
Øistein Gjøvik, NTNU
Introduction
In this paper, I will focus on the use of ICT for learning mathematics. The paper can
be seen as a preliminary clarification of the theoretical framework I will be using in
my study. I will briefly define e-learning, and recapitulate the technology-inspired
terminologies of instrumental genesis and webbing. I will also summarise some main
points of the learning theories that I have considered using in my project. Finally I
will attempt to look at the learning theories, together with the use of ICT, and see how
these can feed into my preliminary research questions and research project.
Throughout, I will have in mind that learning in this situation is e-learning and that
there is some kind of digital tool involved in the educational setting.
What is e-learning?
The increasing use of ICT in schools has led to the belief that there is something
special about the digital learning tools, and it has been compared to other specially
influential technologies:
Perhaps there is something in the technology related to the computer that makes it a
very peculiar artifact, which makes it similar to a basic technology like writing.
I want to use an alternative to the term ICT because, as it turns out, this is a rather
elusive concept, and I want to stress that tools are used for learning. Some people
have reacted to the technology and technical terms being used somewhat arbitrarily:
Landing on an e-learning definition everybody can agree upon is not an easy issue,
and several definitions exist. I turn to to find the following figure (by Markos Tiris)
and definitions, these being the definitions used by BECTA1 and being fairly accepted
terms:
Fig. 1
1
British Educational Communication and Technology Agency: http://www.becta.org.uk/
1
Model of e-learning
Instrumental genesis
As mentioned when defining e-learning, technology consists of equipment together
with skills for using them. A way of connecting utilization schemes and tool is by way
of instrumental genesis. The concept of instrumental genesis is central to discussing
use of computers or calculators in education. This concept is discussed in and it is
elaborated on in for instance . According to Artigue, there is a dialectic in which the
learner and the artifact, that is, the physical tool being considered are mutually
constituted in action. This is called instrumental genesis and includes the
instrumentalisation where the subject shapes the artifact for specific uses, and the
instrumentation, where the subject is shaped by interacting with the artifact.
Note that only part of the tool/artifact is incorporated in the overall instrument, i.e. we
can not be expected to know all the possibilities of one particular artifact.
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This can be referred to as Computationally Mediated Mathematical Knowledge (CMMK).
2
In str u m e n t
I n s t r u m e n t a l is a t io n
U t ili z a t io n s c h e m e s I n s t r u m e n t a l g e n e s is A r t if a c t
I n s t r u m e n t a t io n
Fig.2
Instrumental genesis
Based on figure in
Mediation
It seems that focusing on mediation of knowledge will be important for considering e-
learning or studying pupils in computationally rich environments.
A B
Fig. 3
Computer as mediator of knowledge
(based on Figure 1.2 in
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When interpreting how students use autoexpressive3 artifacts like computers, we not
only get access to see students’ expression of mathematical ideas and knowledge, but
we may also gain insight into more general aspects of the learning process, like
cultural influences, gender issues, identity, and how they affect students constructions
of mathematical concepts.
Webbing
Starting with Vygotsky’s appreciated zone of proximal development, ZPD, we find
this stated as:
Imagining we exchange the human tutor in Vygotsky’s quote, with a digital tool like a
computer. This will sort of be ‘translating’ Vygotsky’s ZPD into the world of e-
learning. Where the teacher or more capable peer up to now has been seen as a person
providing scaffolding for the student, we are now shifting focus from scaffolding for a
child to voyage safely into the zone, to webbing, indicating shifting perspective from
teaching to learning and from restricting what can be learned to opening it wide up.
The fact that this term is inspired the world of the Internet is not coincidal, as the
structure found in webbing resembles that of the Internet.
We find in an introduction to this concept of webbing. In the hunt for a metaphor of a
support system, Hoyles and Noss seek a system that can extend the concept of
scaffolding and also be as applicable to mathematics teaching as basket weaving.
They want the metaphor to capture the following:
• it is under the learner’s control;
• it is available to signal possible user paths rather than point towards a unique directed
goal;
• the structure of local support available at any time is a product of the learner’s current
understandings as well as the understandings built by others into it;
• the global support structure understood by the user at any time emerges from
connections which are forged in use by the user. (ibid)
They further elaborate this with
“The idea of webbing is meant to convey the presence of a structure that learners can
draw upon and reconstruct for support – in ways that they choose as appropriate for
their struggle to construct mathematical meanings.” (ibid)
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until they coincided. The observation the participants make is only meaningful, and
the mirror line, is only constructible in this manner when webbed from the Cabri
MicroWorld (see for the introduction to MicroWorlds), and the teachers’ challenge is
connecting the CabriProof to a mathematical proof.
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towards constructionism, the pedagogical outcome of having a constructivist
rationale, introduced in .
Doolittle has listed eight pedagogical recommendations as the result of having a
constructivist theoretical background, and these are pedagogical principles
independent of strand of constructivism:
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http://education.ti.com/us/product/software/cabri/features/features.html
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unmediated description: knowledge acquired through new tools is new knowledge,
MicroworldMathematics is new mathematics.
For example, it is not always clear what are the connections between
LOGOmathematics and traditional school mathematics. Students in a LOGO
MicroWorld, given a series of tasks may produce and construct a lot of mathematics,
but it can take on different shapes and formulations than traditional textbooks provide.
I believe that the computer presence will enable us to so modify the learning
environment outside the classroom that much if not all the knowledge schools
presently try to teach with such pain and expense and such limited success will be
learnt as the child learns to talk painlessly, successfully and without organized
instruction.
Regarding enculturation into a community of practice, the ways e-learning enters the
arena may influence students’ degree of belonging to such a community. For instance,
instrumented knowledge, say, the windowing scheme example given earlier, can
perhaps be compared to and e-learning version of street mathematics, and may not
gain the same status as what is considered school mathematics.
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The community does not have to be that of a classroom microculture either. Managing
to use mathematics by way of ICT in practice is a much sought skill in many different
job situations. Examples are spread sheets, architectural drawing, managing staff, etc.
I will suggest that it does not do justice to the implications of cultural psychology,
indeed that it cannot do so; that the assumption of complementarity leads to
incoherence; and as a consequence, that mathematics education would benefit from
abandoning constructivism as a view of how people learn.
The discussion of Rogoff’s, von Glaserfeld’s, Saxe’s and Steffe’s work indicates that
sociocultural analyses involve implicit cognitive commitments, and vice versa. It is as
if one perspective constitutes the background against which the other comes to the
fore.
As an example, consider where Cobb interprets the way the Oksapmin learn their
special way of counting with their body.
The constructivist analysis circumvents this difficulty by stressing that rather than
internalizing a cultural form that appears to be pregiven, the novice reorganizes his or
her own activity. (…) By the same token, the sociocultural perspective complements
the constructivist perspective by emphasizing that the novice trader reorganizes his or
her counting activities while attempting to achieve goals that emerge in the course of
his or her participation in the practice of economic exchange. (ibid)
Looking at e-learning in a similar manner; take the instrumental genesis, this is most
naturally viewed from an individual perspective. An individual constructs his or her
own instrument by interaction with the artifact. Then the focus can be seen as that of a
constructivist, the process of learning mathematics is one that takes place alongside
and after the student’s instrumentation processes. Seen from a socio-cultural
perspective, the instrumental genesis itself, and the learning of mathematics with this
artifact, is a way of becoming a participant in a community of practice.
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My research project
My research project concerns the learning of mathematics through the aid of e-
learning tools. In particular, the parAbel website6 will be a key data source, and
perhaps other artifacts will be considered. The website will consist of mathematical
activities and games, learning material and possibilities for online collaboration. The
intention is to make the entire curriculum of mathematics (and later on physics and
chemistry) available through the website.
My preliminary main research question is
How can digital tools influence on students’ mathematical learning?
This very wide question immediately spawns a series of sub questions:
• How does gender influence CMMK?
• How does the timing of incorporation of digital tools into the learning process
influence students’ understanding of mathematical concepts?
• How does the instrumental genesis of the digital tools influence students’
understanding of mathematical concepts?
Seeing the websites as a collection of MicroWorlds, this Internet resource could give a
diverse insight into students’ variant webbing processes. On example of a MicroWorld
is one where students alter an angle, drawn on a unit circle, and simultaneously see
changes occurring on a sine or cosine graph. This is in one way a constructivist
approach, seeing the computer mediating mathematical knowledge and giving the user
an experience from which to construct the relationship between angles and
trigonometry. Other ways of interpreting a situation in which a user interacts with a
computer like this, is taking into account the way the users perceives technology. Are
there gender differences in the way the computer is being used for such a MicroWorld
activity? Can one speak of fear of technology in any way? Is the real mathematics
“hidden” within the artifact somewhere? Taking such issues into account will
hopefully give richer tools with which to interpret mathematical learning.
References
6
See http://www.parabel.no, for information and samples. The resource is provided by the Agder
University College, Department of Technology.