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13 November, 2002
© Copyright 2002
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Synopsis
Synopsis
The hydrometallurgical zinc beneficiation process is studied by third year chemical
engineering students at the Western Cape Mineral Processing Facility in Stellenbosch. Currently,
students learn by first researching the zinc beneficiation process and giving a presentation to
demonstrate theoretical knowledge gained. They then perform experiments which demonstrate
the principles behind the industrial process. It is felt that the theoretical and practical knowledge
gained from these tasks is not adequately reconciled.
To combat this problem the process (from milling through to electrowinning) has been
successfully modelled using the Microsoft Excel spreadsheet add-on LIMN.
It is proposed that the simulator should be used as an educational tool for the third year
students. It is hoped that exposure to the simulator will help students to bridge the gap between
their theoretical and practical knowledge.
The simulator successfully shows trends in the process with changes of variables, but does
not, and is not intended to predict accurate process values.
The major assumption made for the entire process was that the ore fed to the system
consisted of pure ZnS. i.e. no impurities.
The models chosen for each unit operation are:
Milling: Standard population balance model, incorporating JKMRC Massive Sulphide
ore appearance function. Cyclone cut based on reduced recovery curve
Flotation: 1st order kinetics model, with rate constant estimated using the Jameson
equation
Roasting: Mass transfer limited shrinking core model in a fluidised bed
Leaching: Thermodynamic equilibrium model
Electrowinning: CSTR operating in a semi-batch environment
Several student learning assignments are proposed. They are:
A Fresh Feed Exercise
An Optimisation Exercise
Expected outcomes from the learning assignments are:
Understanding of knock-on effects in a system
Appreciation of the sensitivity of unit operations
An appreciation of the impact of economic and production factors on optimisation
i
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Synopsis ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------i
Table of Contents---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ii
List of Figures ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ iv
List of Tables -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- iv
Nomenclature -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- v
1 Introduction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.1 Background -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
1.2 Practical Procedure ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
1.3 LIMN – The Flowsheet Processor----------------------------------------------------------------- 3
1.4 Aims and Objectives --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
2 Review of the Hydrometallurgical Route ------------------------------------------------------ 5
2.1 Communition and Flotation ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 6
2.2 RLE (Roasting, Leaching, Electrowinning) Process Review -------------------------------- 6
2.2.1 Roasting of Zinc Bearing Ore -------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
2.2.2 Leaching -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7
2.2.3 Electrolysis ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8
3 Review of Mathematical Models ---------------------------------------------------------------- 9
3.1 Modelling of the Ball Mill------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10
3.1.1 Population Balance Model -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10
3.1.2 Modelling the rate of breakage---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11
3.1.3 A simplified Ball Mill Model ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12
3.2 Hydrocyclone Modelling -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12
3.3 Flotation circuit Modelling ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
3.3.1 First order Flotation Kinetics------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 15
3.3.2 Estimation of the First order rate Constant -------------------------------------------------------------- 15
3.3.3 Second order Flotation Kinetics -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
3.4 Roasting Models – Kinetic and Thermodynamic -------------------------------------------- 16
3.4.1 Roasting Thermodynamics -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
3.4.2 Bubbling Bed Model --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17
3.4.3 Shrinking Core Model ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
3.5 Zinc Leaching Models ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
3.5.1 Thermodynamics of Leaching ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
3.5.2 Leaching Kinetics – Mass-Transfer Limited Model --------------------------------------------------- 19
3.5.3 Thermodynamic Equilibrium Model --------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
3.6 Electrowinning Models ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
3.6.1 Single pass reactors----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
3.6.2 Semi-batch reactors----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21
4 Models Used and Major Assumptions Made -------------------------------------------------22
4.1 The Simulator Appearance ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
4.2 Ball Mill Model-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
ii
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Table of Contents
iii
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator List of Figures
List of Figures
List of Tables
Table 3.1 Table showing the Breakage Appearance Distribution matrix ------------------------- 10
Table 3.2 Table showing Rajamani and Herbst (1991) variables in hydrocyclone modelling- 14
Table 4.1 JKMRC Massive Sulphide ore appearance function ------------------------------------- 24
iv
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Nomenclature
Nomenclature
v
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Nomenclature
vi
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Nomenclature
vii
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Introduction
1 Introduction
1
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Introduction
1.1 Background
The Departments of Chemical Engineering of the University of Cape Town, the University of
Stellenbosch and Cape Technikon jointly own and operate the Western Cape Mineral Processing
Facility (WCMPF) in Stellenbosch. In 2001, the practical course that 3rd year mineral processing
students undertake was reorganised to concentrate on the zinc beneficiation route, more
precisely the hydrodynamic route. The course sets out five practicals that the students are to
complete and are listed below:
These experiments are designed to illustrate the principles of the RLE process (Roast-Leach-
Electrowinning) to students, which is the most common process to produce zinc (Reuter and
Lans, 2001). The other main route is the pyrometallurgical route which involves pre-treatment
(e.g. sintering), concentration (e.g. Waelz kiln process) and production (eg. Imperial Smelting
Process). This route of zinc beneficiation is however of little interest in this modelling exercise
as it is not studied at the WCMPF. Milling and flotation are common to both routes as they are
the accepted means of size reduction and ore concentration in zinc treatment.
Of the five practicals that were designed, only four are currently physically conducted by the
students. The roasting practical was deemed exceedingly “boring” by students and
demonstrators alike in 2001, and has therefore become a paper exercise based only on theory.
After the presentations, the students are then required to perform all four practicals in no
particular order. If one was to schematically represent the way in which students learn, Figure
1.1 would best show the two areas of interest in this thesis. As can be see in Figure 1.1, a
students understanding of zinc beneficiation will be derived from theory (Presentations) and
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Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Introduction
practice (practicals).
Utilising individual sheets to describe unit operations, one can use standard spreadsheet
functions to set up process models and solve for the product streams from a particular unit.
Macros embedded in the flowsheet enable the units to have inputs and outputs specified (linked
to the unit ops sheet) and allow the overall mass balance to be solved iteratively – a task which is
cumbersome without LIMN.
LIMN is however not a dynamic simulator and only solves for steady state, but still gives a good
indication of how certain parameters affect the overall product. LIMN is an additive system, i.e.
streams need to be specified in a measurement that can be added and subtracted directly (such as
mass). When certain unit ops use non additive measurements (e.g. concentration), one will need
to convert the product streams into an additive measurement before they can be used in the
flowsheet.
3
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Introduction
4
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Review of the Hydrometallurgical Route
5
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Review of the Hydrometallurgical Route
6
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Review of the Hydrometallurgical Route
2.2.2 Leaching
There are three distinct leaching stages of the calcine product from the roaster. They are Neutral
Leaching, Weak Acid Leaching and Hot Acid Leaching. A flow sheet of the process is illustrated
in Figure 2.2. The IMMSA has further refining steps where valuable trace metals such as
cadmium are recovered (Alfar and Castro, 1998). These refining steps are of no interest for the
purposes of this project.
The following description of the leaching process is elaborated on by Reuter and Lans (2001),
and Alfar and Castro (1998).
Spent Electrolyte Neutral Calcine
Leach
To electrolysis
Separation
Weak Acid
leach
To iron removal
Separation
Separation
Solid residue
Figure 2.2 Flow sheet of the leaching process at IMMSA, excluding advanced
refining. (Adapted from information and diagrams by Alfar and Castro, 1998, and Reuter
and Lans, 2001)
7
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Review of the Hydrometallurgical Route
Calcine from roasting and spent electrolyte is added to a cascade of neutral leaching tanks. These
tanks are mixed and sparged with oxygen. The streams are pumped to thickeners. Overflow
from the thickeners proceeds to electrowinning, while the underflow goes to the weak acid leach.
The weak acid leaching stage is fed by the underflow from the neutral leach stage and the
overflow from the hot acid leach. The overflow goes to the iron removal stage where either the
jarosite or goethite process is employed to precipitate the iron out of the solution. The overflow
from that process then proceeds to electrolysis.
Hot acid leaching allows the zinc entrained in the zinc ferrite to be leached. The hot acid leach
tanks are fed concentrated sulphuric acid and spent electrolyte. The tanks and agitators require
special coatings to prevent corrosion.
2.2.3 Electrolysis
At the IMMSA, purified solution from leaching is received in two 1000m3 tanks. It is pumped
continuously to forced convection cooling towers. This is mixed with spent electrolyte in the
main distribution launder. This combined solution is further cooled in more cooling towers
before being distributed amongst the cells. The cell house has 384 concrete cells with paraliners.
The cell cleaning cycle is approximately 30 days (Alfar and Castro, 1998).
Cathode surface areas for cells range from 1 to 4.5m2, and current density from 280 to 640A/m2
(James et. al., 2000).
8
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Review of Mathematical Models
This section will cover most of the Mathematical models available to simulate
the unit operations. Some are adapted from other applications whilst others
are very well documented and commonly used.
9
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Review of Mathematical Models
dM i (t )
= − Si ⋅ M i (t ) Equation 3.1
dt
where Si is the selection function and represents the rate of breakage. This corresponds to the
kinetic constant in first-order chemical reactions (Yovanovic and Moura, 1993). When using this
model one also needs to take into account the breakage function (bij) which represents the
fraction of larger particles that are reduced and can be found in the next (smaller) size fraction.
The breakage function corresponds to the stoichiometric coefficient in a chemical reaction
(Yovanovic and Moura, 1993).
The Breakage function is commonly found in the form of a normalised matrix and a simple
example can be seen in Table 3.1.
1 0 0 0 0 0
Fraction ending
2 0.5 0 0 0 0
3 0.3 0.5 0 0 0
4 0.2 0.3 0.5 0 0
in 'i'
5 0 0.2 0.5 1 0
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Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Review of Mathematical Models
A simple way to describe the meaning of Table 3.1 is to look at the behaviour of one size
fraction. Consider size fraction 1 (j), A one looks down the column one can see that of the
particles of this size fraction that are broken, 50% appear in size fraction 2, 30% in size fraction
3, 20% in size fraction 4 and none in size fraction 5. Similarly one can view the breakage
distribution of each size fraction. One can look across a row (i) to discover the appearance of
material. Therefore, looking at size fraction 4, we can tell that during breakage 20% comes from
size fraction 1, 30% from size fraction 2 and 50% from size fraction 3.
If it is assumed that the mill is operating at steady state and that there is perfect mixing taking
place inside the mill, then Equation 3.2 can be used to solve the mass balance over a particular
size fraction (Morrell and Man, 1997).
i rj ri
0 = f i − pi + ∑ bij pj − pi Equation 3.2
j =1 dj di
Using this equation, one can solve for the product flow of all the size fractions individually,
provided that the rate of breakages of each size fraction is known as well as the breakage
function. The discharge of a particular size fraction can be calculated as follows in Equation 3.3:
Q pulp
di = Equation 3.3
V pulp
If there is no segregation in the mill then all solid particles behave like water and thus di will be a
constant for all size fractions (Morrell and Man, 1997). Using Equation 3.3, Equation 3.2 and
Table 3.1, one is able to solve for the product flowrate of all size fractions.
J B DM2 LN
ri ∝ Equation 3.4
V pulp
If the above equation is combined with Equation 3.3 it can be found that the rate of breakage is
directly proportional to the net mill power divided by the hold-up in the mill as described in the
following equations.
P
ri ∝ Equation 3.5
V pulp
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Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Review of Mathematical Models
Equation 3.5 above has been varified by Herbst et al. (1977) who used milling tests in a 25-, a 38-
and a 76-cm ball mill and found the selection functions to be directly proportional to the specific
power draw of the mill. Namely;
P
ri = ri E Equation 3.7
V
pulp
where rEi is the specific selction function and can be calculated using a simple equation that was
formulated by Rajamani and Herbst (1991) and is written below.
1.427
dd
ri ∝ i i −1
E
Equation 3.8
dd
1 2
dRM
HM = M FF RFF + M UF RUF − k o H M RM − (M FF + M UF )RM Equation 3.9
dt
The simplification that is made here is the combinations of size fractions. This model only looks
at a specific size and then looks at what is above it and what is below it. This critical size would
in most instances be the same, or very close to, the cut size defined in the cyclone or screen
controlling the recycle to the mill. The value of the breakage constant would have to be solved
experimentally.
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Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Review of Mathematical Models
that has an equal chance of going to either the overflow or underflow. Most mathematical
models use a corrected cut size (d50(c)) which accounts for the short-circuiting that occurs in the
cyclone.
Modelling of hydrocyclones is very complex as all parameters involved are interrelated. Plitt
(1976) developed an empirical model that enables cyclone performance to be calculated with
reasonable accuracy without the need for experimental data (Wills, 1988).
These models are however only useful if the cut size needs to be determined from a specific
cyclone size. Another approach to the modelling of a cyclone is to specify a specific cut size and
then determine how efficient the cyclone will perform. This is most commonly achieved
through the use of a partition curve as seen in Figure 3.2 (Wills, 1988). However it must be
noted that Figure 3.2 is in fact a reduced efficiency curve but the curve shape is identical to that
of a partition curve. The efficiency of the cyclone can be described by what is called the
imperfection (Wills, 1988) is defined by Equation 3.11. This imperfection represents the slope
of the partition curve. The closer the slope is to vertical, the more efficient the hydrocyclone
(Wills, 1988).
1.000
Ideal
Fraction of feed appearing in underflow
Real
0.500
0.000
0.000 1.000 2.000
(d/d50)
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Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Review of Mathematical Models
d 75 − d 25
I= Equation 3.11
2d 50
The curve seen in Figure 3.2 can be described mathematically by Equation 3.12 (Tarr, 1985).
This equation however only takes into account the solids fraction recovery and doesn’t take into
account any short-circuiting that may take place in the cyclone. Short-circuiting is the term used
to describe the effect of solids that are entrenched in the flow and pass through the cyclone
unclassified.
eαx − 1
Y = αx Equation 3.12
e + eα − 2
The constant α in Equation 3.12 is a representation of the efficiency and is dependent of the
feed material. Equation 3.12 was first used by Yoshioka and Hotta in 1955 (Tarr, 1985) who
determined that α falls in the range of 3 to 4 for single stage processes in metallurgical plants.
When some washing (short-circuiting) is possible then α may reach 5 or 6. The larger the value
of α, the more efficient the cyclone will be. It can be found that α will normally range between
1 and 10 (Tarr, 1985).
The approach taken by Rajamani and Herbst (1991) to simplify the ballmill model results in its
own accompanying model for the attached hydrocyclone. As mentioned before, the model
proposed combines size fractions so that there are only two parts, those above the critical size
and those below it. Rajamani and Herbst therefore propose that the classification action be
described by two constants, C1 and C2. the dependancy of C1 and C2 on the cut size was foundto
be linear and can be described by Equation 3.13 and Equation 3.14
C 2 = a 21 d 50 + a 22 Equation 3.14
The model parameters used by Rajamani and Herbst (1991) were calculated at steady-state
experimentation using linear regression and their results can be seen in Table 3.2.
a11 0.0056
a12 1.181
a21 0.0480
a22 -2.029
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Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Review of Mathematical Models
(
M = M 0 1 − e − kt ) Equation 3.15
Flotation is governed by first order kinetics, and the most common models found in literature
are based on this assumption. In industrial practice, cells are commonly found in banks which
contain any number of cells in series. Using first order kinetics one can find an expression to
describe the recovery obtained at the end of the bank as seen in Equation 3.16, this is a size by
size recovery.
1
Ri = 1 − n
τ Equation 3.16
1 + k i b
n
The rate constant would in most instances be solved from pilot plant scale batch testing and then
scale-up techniques used to design the actual flotation plant. However, for modelling purposes,
the rate constant can be determined from theoretical estimates. To do this, microkinetics needs
to be investigated and combined with some practical macrokinetics.
3 J g Pcoll
k= Equation 3.17
2 db
Pcoll is referred to as the probability of collection and takes into account three independent
probabilities, namely the probability of collision (Pc), attachment (Pa) and detachment (Pd). The
relationship can be seen in Equation 3.18.
Many attempts have been made at modelling the probability of collision (Pc) using the bases of
hydrodynamic forces as the predominant force. Flint and Howard (1971) solved the Navier
Stokes equations numerically to obtain the probability of collision. Using this approach, Reay
15
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Review of Mathematical Models
and Ratcliff (1973) modified the modelling method and obtained an expression for the
probability of collection of the form seen in Equation 3.19.
m
dp
Pcoll ∝ Equation 3.19
db
The power (m) in Equation 3.19 is dependent on particle to fluid density and can range between
1 and 2.5. Equation 3.19 can again be modified to give Equation 3.20.
n
dp
Pcoll = m
Equation 3.20
db
(
M = M 0, f 1 − e
−k f t
)+ M (1 − e )
0,s
− k st
Equation 3.21
This model will however require that the feed composition, in terms of fast and slow floaters, be
known. It will also require knowing the rate at which fast and slow material floats and will in
most instances be solved using experimentation.
ZnS + 3/2O2 → ZnO + SO2 (Reuter and Lans, 2001) Equation 3.22
This reaction is achieved in the temperature range of 900°C to 950°C for a fluidised bed reactor
(Graf, 1996). The reaction predominance is also a function of partial pressure of oxygen and
sulphur dioxide.
The iron content in the ore leads to some undesired side-reactions, namely
16
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Review of Mathematical Models
the oxide products of which combine with ZnO to form zinc ferrite (ZnO.Fe2O3) which creates
problems in the leaching operation as the zinc cannot be liberated under normal leaching
conditions. (Reuter and Lans, 2001).
Which reaction products are formed, and in what quantities is controlled by temperature and
partial gas pressure.
Unknown variables in this model are plentiful. Following the procedure laid out by Fogler (1999)
one calculates fluid mechanics parameters, namely: porosity at minimum fluidisation velocity,
minimum fluidisation velocity, velocity of bubble rise and bubble size. These parameters are then
used to calculate mass transport coefficients.
Armed with these values, reaction rate parameters can be determined by first calculating fraction of
bed occupied by bubbles, fraction of bed consisting of wakes, and volumes of solid reactant in
the bubbles, clouds, and emulsion.
Finally the mass of solid reactant (ZnS) required for a chosen conversion of oxygen to SO2 is
defined by Equation 3.25.
ρ s As ub (1 − ε mf )(1 − δ ) 1
W= ln Equation 3.25
k sol K R 1− X
It is important to note that Kunii and Levenspiel derive their model for the purposes of a
catalytic fluidised-bed, and not directly for ore roasting. The model as described by Fogler (1999)
uses Equation 3.25 to solve for mass of catalyst required for a chosen gas conversion. The model
has been directly adapted to roasting purposes, and not derived from scratch. It does not solve
for solids conversion which is the factor that is of interest in this case.
17
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Review of Mathematical Models
The shrinking core model applied to ZnS roasting assumes all particles are approximately
spherical, and that a layer of ZnO forms around the core of ZnS (that shrinks as it reacts with
oxygen). Oxygen diffuses in through the ZnO layer, and SO2 diffuses out. This is more clearly
illustrated in Figure 3.3.
A derivation of the shrinking core model yields time as a function of the unreacted (core) radius.
(Equation 3.26)
ρ c R02φc
2 3
R R
t= 1 − 3 + 2 Equation 3.26
6 De C A0 R0 R0
In the case of this educational tool, roasting time is a known parameter, and thus the cubic
equation would be solved for R.
18
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Review of Mathematical Models
Then to liberate zinc locked up in zinc ferrites, a hot acid leach is used:
The thermodynamics of Equation 3.27 and that of the zinc-water system is discussed by both
Hayes (1985) and Jackson (1986). Regions in which dissolution of zinc takes place are best
illustrated by a potential/pH diagram. In the modelled process the region of interest is below a
pH of 7 and at a potential of greater than -0.85V (at 25°C, and assuming an activity of 10-3
mol.kg-1).
Equation 3.28 is discussed in Zinc College Course Notes (Reuter and Lans, 2001), along with the
Goethite process (used to precipitate the iron from solution).
It is known that the reaction takes place under these conditions, and assuming the system
operates under these conditions, dissolution will take place. Thermodynamics do not give an
indication of the rate of reaction.
Generally the rate limiting step is transport to the solid-liquid interface. For the purposes of the
leaching model this would be assumed to be the case.
A leach tank would be well mixed, with fluid velocities high enough to cause the turbulent flow
regime. Such conditions eliminate diffusivity as a significant factor in mass transfer, and the
traditional understanding of a concentration gradient becomes useless. The introduction of a
mass transfer coefficient compensates for these problems (Jackson, 1986).
The rate of mass transfer per unit area of surface area is expressed in Equation 3.29.
dn
= k m ( cb − c s ) Equation 3.29
dt
km can be estimated using the standard correlations involving the Sherwood number (Sh).
Assuming Zn2+ concentration at the particle surface and the mass transfer coefficient remain
constant with time, the mass of zinc leached into solution after a chosen time can be determined.
19
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Review of Mathematical Models
At equilibrium, the ratio of mass of soluble material per mass of solute free solvent is equal in
the underflow and overflow. i.e.
Xout=Yout Equation 3.31
Fsol
X out = Equation 3.32
S
Yout ( S − RFinsol )
%Recovery = Equation 3.33
Fsol
20
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Review of Mathematical Models
k A
X Asingle = 1 − exp − L τ Equation 3.34
VR
1
X single
= 1− Equation 3.35
A
k A
1 + L Q
Conversion is limited by mass transport and electrode area, and so it is important to optimise
these variables. Pletcher and Walsh (1993) show that the product of kLA can be calculated as:
iL
kL A = Equation 3.36
nFcb
Equation 3.34 and Equation 3.35 are derived by Pletcher and Walsh (1993).
c( IN , t ) t
X A =1− = 1 − exp − ⋅ X Asingle Equation 3.37
c( IN , 0) τT
Substitute Equation 3.34 or Equation 3.35 into XAsingle, depending on whether a PFR or CSTR
type model is desired.
21
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Models Used and Major Assumptions Made
The following section will cover the exact way in which each unit was modelled
with reference to Section 3. The major assumptions that were made will be
listed along with the strengths and weakness of each particular model. All user
inputs that can be varied in the simulator will also be mentioned. The
Simulator layout can be seen in Figure 4.1 following. Please see the Appendix
for print outs of all the spreadsheets used.
22
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Models Used and Major Assumptions Made
Figure 4.1 Schematic layout of the Unit operations used in Zinc Beneficiation
23
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Models Used and Major Assumptions Made
The selection function was based on the power draw associated with the mill. It was calculated
using a combination of the approach taken by Morell and Man (1997), Equation 3.5 and
Equation 3.6, Herbst et al (1977), Equation 3.7, and Rajamani and Herbst (1991), Equation 3.8.
These four equations were combined to solve for the selection function at any given mill size.
The Simplified model approach taken by Rajamani and Herbst (1991) seen in Section 3.1.3, was
not used due to the fact that it was over simplified for the computing power available when
using LIMN.
24
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Models Used and Major Assumptions Made
d n = d n +1 d n Equation 4.1
This model was chosen because of its simplicity and general use in mineral processing
applications. The major weakness of this model is that it tells us nothing about the actual
cyclone (ie. dimensions). This however is not of major importance as in the practicals the mill is
actually in closed circuit with a vibratory screen. This would mean that the most common thing
changeable in the practical would be to change the screen size. Changing the screen size is
effectively the same as changing the cut size in the cyclone, therefore making this model more
appropriate to the students.
The value of α in Equation 3.12 was left as a user defined constant. α can possibly range
between 1 and 10, but for mineral processing plants, it is best defined between 3 and 6 (Tarr,
1985). The simplified model of Rajamani and Herbst (1991) was not used due to its application
being with the simplified ball mill model only.
25
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Models Used and Major Assumptions Made
considered.
The practical that is carried out by the students requires them to solve for the kinetic rate
constant for four continuous cells in series as a function of particle size. This gave more
justification to the use of first order kinetics as it would give students the opportunity to
compare the results they obtain in the practical with the results they generate using the simulator.
To solve for the rate constant, the Jameson equation (Equation 3.17) was combined with
Equation 3.20 (where n=1.5 and m=2) to form Equation 4.2.
1.5
3 Jgdp
k= Equation 4.2
2 d b3
Using Equation 4.2 and Equation 3.16 the mass recoveries of all the size fractions can be
obtained and hence the flowrate of concentrate and tailings determined.
26
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Models Used and Major Assumptions Made
The shrinking core model is a superior choice to the bubbling bed model in these circumstances.
A particle size distribution in the roaster is known (the concentrate from flotation), and roasting
time can be chosen. Knowing R0 for each size fraction, R at time t can be calculated for each size
fraction. The volume of the particles is known, and so mass conversion can be determined. Note
that density is constant, so mass conversion can be calculated using volume.
3
V − Vcore R03 − R 3 R
X= 0 = 3
= 1 − Equation 4.3
V0 R0 R0
The obvious drawback of the shrinking core model is the large number of simplifying
assumptions that are required – as listed in Section 4.5.3.
4.5.3 Assumptions
The following assumptions and conditions have been applied in order to make the model
functional and useful as an educational tool in the short time available.
27
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Models Used and Major Assumptions Made
The second problem is far more severe and more difficult to resolve.
Consider Equation 3.29, the rate of mass flux of the leached component (zinc in this case) into
solution. It is only applicable to a single size fraction. To incorporate multiple size fractions, the
following procedure is followed:
The concentration of zinc in the bulk solution is a sum of the fluxes from each size fraction. i.e.
∑ ni Ai
Equation 4.4
cb = i =1
Vb
n
∑ ni Ai
dni
= km i =1
− cs Equation 4.5
dt Vb
This model has up to twelve size fractions. This function is impossible to integrate analytically,
and so can only be solved numerically.
Recall that LIMN operates in the Microsoft Excel spreadsheet environment. Excel does not have
any built-in capabilities to solve multiply differential equations. It would be necessary to write a
28
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Models Used and Major Assumptions Made
macro in the programming language VBA. Neither Fletcher nor Robinson have any knowledge
of VBA and unfortunately time allocated for the project was too short for them to attempt to
learn it.
As a result, this most promising approach to the leaching model was discarded.
In hindsight, Fletcher and Robinson feel that it might not have been necessary to completely
discard the mass transfer model. All size fractions could have been grouped together as in the
thermodynamic equilibrium model, and the total mass of the size fractions summed. This
assumption would effectively reduce Equation 4.5 back to Equation 3.29. At the conceptual
phase of the project Fletcher and Robinson were focussed on delivering a simulator that would
operate on a size-by-size basis in every unit operation. Once this model was shown to be
unusable in this application, it was completely discarded. Once the decision was made to group
size fractions, it did not occur to them to re-examine the possibility that the mass transfer model
could be used in this way.
4.6.3 Assumptions
Thermodynamic equilibrium is achieved – i.e. ratio of mass of soluble material per mass
of solute free solvent is equal in the underflow and overflow
A single leaching tank is used
Leaching occurs independently of particle size
Zinc will only be leached from ZnO, while ZnS will pass through the system
Only concentrated H2SO4 is added to the leach – there is no spent electrolyte
recirculation
29
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Models Used and Major Assumptions Made
30
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Results and Discussions
The following section will cover some basic examples of the type of trends that
can be generated using the simulator. The examples were chosen based on
which variables are easiest to change during the practicals run at the WCMPF.
31
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Results and Discussions
70
68
66
% passing 0.150mm
64
62
60
58
0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85
Fraction of critical speed
Figure 5.1 Graph showing the effect of mill speed on mill product size
The trend seen in Figure 5.1 is that which is expected theoretically as well as physically. By
increasing the mill speed, the impact velocity and frequency of contact is increased. This results
in better breakage and thus smaller particles.
For a mill of this size, the optimum speed is reported to be around 72%. As can be seen in
Figure 5.1, there is still an increase in the amount of fines being produced above this optimum.
The optimum running of a mill is based on the operating costs and efficiency (defined as energy
required per mass feed). Increasing the speed above the optimum has very little or no effect on
the efficiency (Wills, 1988).
Figure 5.1 shows no sign of levelling off at much higher speeds (namely above 1). This however
will not happen in reality. The critical speed of the mill will cause all the balls to adhere the sides
of the mill and no breakage will take place. The reason for the constant increase seen in the
simulator would be due to the directly proportional relationship between the rate of breakage
and the mill speed.
32
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Results and Discussions
70.00
68.00
66.00
64.00
Recovery (%)
62.00
60.00
58.00
56.00
54.00
52.00
50.00
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
3
Air Flowrate (m /s)
Figure 5.2 Graph showing the effect of volumetric gas flowrate on flotation recovery
Figure 5.2 shows how the volumetric flow rate of air affects the flotation performance. The
general increase in recovery as the flowrate increases is expected and will be seen by the students
during their completion of the practical. It must however be noted that this model in the
simulator is based on pure sphalerite being feed to the system and so grade of recovery is not an
issue. If it were, then one would need to remember that by increasing the flowrate, the froth
stability will be altered and the grade may be severely affected.
When looking from a purely physical point of view, the changing of the flowrate of air will have
a knock-on effect in the flotation cells. It will change the mixing in the cells and will also have
an affect in the bubble size. Here it was assumed that bubble size remains at a constant and thus
the result seen in Figure 5.2 is a purely theoretical result. It also implies that if you were to
continually increase the flowrate of air, the recovery would continually increase to some
maximum. However, at some point the air flowrate would be so great that it would physically
cause the flotation medium to “spew” out of the top.
33
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Results and Discussions
100.00
95.00
90.00
85.00
Recovery (%)
80.00
75.00
70.00
65.00
60.00
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5
Flowrate of Acid (ton/hr)
Figure 5.3 Graph showing the effects seen when changing the mass flow rate of acid
Referring to Figure 5.3 above, it is obvious that the zinc recovery increases steeply at first.
Recovery shoots from less than 66% to just under 90% with an increase of acid flowrate of 5tph.
The steep curve then levels off and it takes a further increase of 12tph of acid to shift recovery
up to 95%.
This behaviour is an expected result as recovery can never reach 100%, but will instead tend
towards that unachievable figure.
Average zinc recoveries in industry are in the region of 88.5% (James et al., 2000). Thus it is clear
that the model is performing satisfactorily in terms of recovery results. A recovery of 88.5% is
about optimum for this scenario, achieving the best recovery with minimum acid usage.
Whether the acid flowrates to the leaching section are reasonable or not is unclear. James and his
co-workers (2000) do not report mass flowrates, but rather acid concentration. Also, the effect
of air sparging is not accounted for.
34
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Results and Discussions
100
90
80
Recovery (%)
70
60
50
40
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Current (A)
Figure 5.4 Graph showing the effect when the current in the electrowinnig cell is altered
Current applied to the electrowinning circuit is a major variable. It is the source of greatest
expense to the unit operation, and ideally should be kept as low as possible. The other important
factor is the length of time that the batch runs for. Keeping batch time constant, and varying
current, Figure 5.4 was generated using LIMN. Low current resulting in low operating costs also
results in unacceptably poor recovery. Extremely high currents achieve acceptable recovery.
Although not illustrated here, the longer it takes to run the batch, the better the recovery will be
– but this also means that a lower current will be applied for a longer period of time, also
escalating cost.
Physically, what occurs in the cells when current density is increased is more electrons are made
available to the electrolyte. Thus a greater number of Zn2+ ions can receive electrons during the
batch, and thus more zinc is deposited on the cathode.
35
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Results and Discussions
80
70
Elemental Zinc recovery (%)
60
50
40
30
20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Fresh Feed (tons/hr)
By leaving the simulator at a fixed point and changing the initial fresh feed to the system, Figure
5.5 can be drawn up. The overall recovery was based on the mass of zinc leaving the
electrowinning plant divided by the elemental zinc entering into the plant (again assumed pure
ZnS). This gives an indication of how well the plant is running. The trend seen in Figure 5.5 is
exactly as one would expect to see. By increasing the flowrate, the residence times in all of the
units are decreased and hence they are less effective. The exception of course is the leaching
tank as it was modelled at equilibrium; it is however affected as the leaching acid will remain
constant whilst the input will increase.
The milling circuit will be the most dramatically affected by the fresh feed increase as its recycle
stream will become larger with the cyclone having to remain at the given cut size while the mill
produces courser material. Individual units will all react differently and they can each be studied.
36
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Results and Discussions
45.5
45
Elemental Zinc Recovery
44.5
44
43.5
43
42.5
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Fraction passing 0.150mm
Figure 5.6 Overall process efficiency as a function of the fresh feed size distribution
The physical results of varying the size of the particles fed to the system are illustrated in Figure
5.6. Smaller particles result in better elemental zinc recovery.
The reason why this occurs is quite complex, and is a combination of effects from all unit
operations.
In this model, the leaching and electrowinning models are independent of particle size, so their
impact can be discounted.
The contribution of the mill to this recovery is simple. The mill breaks particles into smaller
particles. If the particles are already small, then the mill does not add much value to the system,
and in fact is wasting a great deal of energy. The cost of that energy is high, and so the mill could
be doing more harm than good by operating in a system that already has exceptionally fine
particles.
Flotation is very sensitive to particle size. When particles are too small, they will not float. Thus
looking at the system solely from the point of view of the flotation operation, it is surprising that
recovery increases with decreasing particle size. However, the roasting circuit counters the
flotation circuit. Small particles will practically be completely converted in the roaster. Thus it
appears that the improved roaster performance compensates for the drop in flotation
performance.
37
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Concluding recommendations
Concluding Recommendations
6 Concluding recommendations
The following section will cover some of the possibilities that exist as tasks for
students to complete before performing the practicals. It will also reiterate
some of the key findings and conclude on the overall project.
38
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Concluding recommendations
With these tasks in mind, the students running the simulator will hopefully learn some valuable
lessons before they move on to completing the practicals. Some of the key learning outcomes
from this assignment are discussed below.
Knock-on Effects
Hopefully students will be able to see how all the units interact with each other and what the
effects of this interaction are. The most noticeable effect in this case would be that of the mill.
Here it can be seen that by increasing the mill’s feed and leaving the cyclone at the same cut size,
the recycle rate becomes very large. The reason for this lies in the fact that with more feed, the
mill is less efficient and will produce courser material. The cyclone will then just continue to
send the course material back to the mill and so increase its feed. This could carry on
indefinitely and the cause major plant problems.
Mathematical Models
When watching how each of the unit operations react with the changing feed rate, the students
are forced to look closer at the mathematical basis of the models. This will then hopefully allow
them to understand what assumptions were made and how the model actually works. With this
in mind it is hoped that when they then move on to do the practicals, they will be able to easily
predict what would happen if they were to do something during the practical. This will hopefully
also give students grounding so that when they are writing there practical reports, they will have
a feel as to what is correct.
39
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Concluding recommendations
For the completion of the economic evaluation and optimisation, the following tasks should be
looked into and completed by the student.
Attempt to optimise the plant taking these key cost indicators into account
o Cost of mill power consumption
o Cost of acid required in leaching unit
o Cost of electricity usage in the electrowinning unit
What happens to the system if acid is no longer paid for
o Is the system overly sensitive to it?
o Is it a key saving not having to pay for it?
The second part of the optimisation task would be to optimise one particular unit with respect to
performance. Once this is complete, the following could be investigated.
What is the effect of the optimisation on downstream units?
Some of the key learning outcomes learnt from this task are discussed below.
40
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Concluding recommendations
Convert the leaching model from thermodynamic equilibrium to mass transfer limited.
This will allow the user greater control over the simulator as the effects of variables such
as tank volume, residence time, zinc concentration, leach tank temperature and sulphuric
acid concentration can be investigated.
Implement the plug flow model in the electrowinning circuit. This is not to say that the
current CSTR model should be discarded – rather both can run simultaneously, and
comparative results can be produced
6.3 Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the following individuals who were indispensable to the successful
completion of this project.
Dr. Dave Deglon for his excellent supervision. A list of everything you did for us would
take up many pages – so we won’t kill off any more trees than necessary by including it.
Emile Scheepers of Stellenbosch University who gave us a tour of the WCMPF and
was more than happy to answer all of our questions.
Peter Lekoma for arranging permission for us to make use of the UCT Chemical
Engineering bakkie to travel to Stellenbosch.
Both Emile and Peter for providing us with the 3rd year student practical reports of the
previous couple of years. The reports were extremely useful in getting an idea of what it
was that the students actually did.
41
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator References
7 References
Alfaro, P., and Castro, S., 1998, The zinc refinery of IMMSA in San Luis Potosí,
Mexico, in Zinc and Lead Processing, Dutrizac et
al. (eds), Canadian Institute of Mining,
Metallurgy and Petroleum, pp 71
Fichera M.A. and Chudacek M.W., 1992 Batch Cell flotation models – A Review, Minerals
Engineering, Vol. 5, No.1, pp. 41-55, Great
Britain
Flint L.R. and Howard W.J., 1971 Collision efficiency of small particles with spherical
air bubbles, Chem. Eng. Sci., 26, pp 1155-
1168
Frew, J.A., and Trahar, W.J., 1980 Roughing and Cleaning Flotation behaviour and the
Realistic Simulation of Complete Plant Performance,
Int. J. Miner. Process., Vol. 9, pp 101-20
Gupta, C.K. and Mukherjee, T.K., 1990, Hydrometallurgy in Extraction Processes, Vol 1,
CRC Press, Boston, pp 18, 62
42
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator References
James, S.E., Watson, J.L., and Peter, J., 2000, Zinc production - A survey of existing smelters and
refineries, in Lead-Zinc, Dutrizac et al (eds),
The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society,
pp205 – 225
Jameson G.J., Nam S., and Moo Young M., 1977 Physical factors affecting recovery rates in flotation,
Miner. Sci. Eng., 9:103-118
Morrel S and Man Y.T., 1997, Using modelling and simulation for the design of full
scale Ball mill Circuits, Minerals Engineering,
Vol 10, No 12, pp. 1311 – 1327
Pletcher, D., and Walsh, F.C., 1993 Industrial Electrochemistry, 2nd ed., Blackie
Academic and Professional, Cambridge, pp
96
Rajamani K., and Herbst J.A., 1991, Optimal control of a ball mill grinding circuit -I.
Grinding circuit modelling and dynamic simulation,
Chemical Engineering Science, Vol 46, No.
3, pp 861-870
43
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator References
Reay D. and Ratcliff G.A., 1973 Removal of fine particles from water by dispersed air
flotation – Effects of bubble size and particle size on
collection efficiency. Can. J. Chem. Eng., 51,
pp178-185
Reuter, M.A. and Lans, S.C., (eds), 2001 Zinc College Course Notes, Delft University of
Technology, Delft, pp 72
Seader, J.D. and Henley, E.J., 1998 Separation Process Principles, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 1998, pp 234 -236
Wiseman D., 1999 Examples that ship with the LIMN Installation,
File name: mill circuit.xls
44
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Appendices
8 Appendices
Supplementary Calculations
To determining diffusivity of oxygen through the shell of the particle in the roaster, the
following equations were used:
Diffusivity for the diffusion of gas pairs of non-polar, nonreacting molecules is:
1
1
3 1 2
0.001858T 2
+
MA MB
D AB = Equation i
Pσ AB
2
ΩD
Where MA and MB are the molecular weights of A and B respectively; T is absolute temperature
(in K); P is absolute pressure (atm); σAB is the “collision diameter” (Ǻ); ΏD is the “collision
integral for molecular diffusion (dimensionless).
The gases in the roaster are assumed to be air and sulphur dioxide. Thus MA = Mair =
28.84g/gmol; and MB = MSO2 = 64g/gmol
σ A +σ B
σ AB = Equation ii
2
σA and σB are constant for a particular gas, and are available in literature. ΏD can be cross-
referenced in a table available in literature as it is based on the Lennard-Jones constants.
Other required variables in the calculation of the mass transfer through the shell are taken as
typical values. The typical values chosen are present in the spreadsheet.
45
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Appendices
0.2
Shifted Spread
0.18 Original Spread
0.16
0.14
Mass Fraction
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Size Fraction
Figure 8.1 Chart illustrating effect of shifting particle size distribution to the right
46
Development of a Spreadsheet Based Zinc Simulator Appendices
Simulator Spreadsheets
47
User Input Options
Instructions: Only alter cells highlighted in blue on this sheet
Major results are available on the sheet tagged "Results"
Important: Do NOT alter any values on ANY other sheet.
This will lead to unpredicable results
W/L 0.286
Solvent flow rate (H 2SO4) [t/hr] 10 Recirculating tank volume [m^3] 0.3
Actual value used (taking Smin into account) 10.00 Time to run batch [hr] 120
p
Breakage Function (Normalised) - JKMRC Model using Massive Sulphide (Pb,Zn,Cu) Selection Selection
size mm 0.85 0.6 0.425 0.3 0.212 0.15 0.106 0.075 0.053 0.038 0.025 <0.025 Function Function r/d
0.850 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.071987831 55.420418 6.698808 1 42.384
0.600 0.1081 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.05 38.492907 4.652736 2 28.54985
0.425 0.1442 0.1081 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.030491943 23.474471 2.837419 3 19.30694
0.300 0.1472 0.1442 0.1081 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.018595172 14.315645 1.730369 4 13.00515
0.212 0.1253 0.1472 0.1442 0.1081 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.011321014 8.715575 1.053474 5 8.771311
0.150 0.1006 0.1253 0.1472 0.1442 0.1081 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.006903994 5.3150963 0.642449 6 5.924163
0.106 0.0805 0.1006 0.1253 0.1472 0.1442 0.1081 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.004210324 3.2413523 0.391791 7 3.995546
0.075 0.06444 0.0805 0.1006 0.1253 0.1472 0.1442 0.1081 0 0 0 0 0 0.002567619 1.9767026 0.238929 8 2.698601
0.053 0.05076 0.06444 0.0805 0.1006 0.1253 0.1472 0.1442 0.1081 0 0 0 0 0.001565834 1.2054701 0.145708 9 1.820068
0.038 0.03958 0.05076 0.06444 0.0805 0.1006 0.1253 0.1472 0.1442 0.1081 0 0 0 0.000963974 0.7421229 0.089702 10 1.247888
0.025 0.03103 0.03958 0.05076 0.06444 0.0805 0.1006 0.1253 0.1472 0.1442 0.1081 0 0 0.000563929 0.4341454 0.052476 11 0.776055
<0.025 0.10829 0.13932 0.1789 0.22966 0.2941 0.3746 0.4752 0.6005 0.7477 0.8919 1 0 0.00026233 0.2019567 0.024411 12 0.369595
Cyclone Simulator
tph Solids Cyclone Model Parameters Average
size mm Feed Underflow Overflow d/d50 fraction feed in underflow Size (mm)
0.850 0.448 0.448 0.000 8.500 1.000 d50c - cut size [mm] 0.100 0.85
0.600 1.101 1.101 0.000 7.141 1.000 alpha 4.000 0.714
0.425 2.251 2.251 0.000 5.050 1.000 0.505
0.300 3.855 3.855 0.000 3.571 1.000 0.357
0.212 5.468 5.456 0.012 2.522 0.998 0.252
0.150 8.586 8.233 0.353 1.783 0.959 0.178
0.106 8.872 6.582 2.290 1.261 0.742 0.126
0.075 6.607 2.582 4.025 0.892 0.391 0.089
0.053 5.541 0.976 4.566 0.630 0.176 0.063
0.038 4.307 0.369 3.938 0.449 0.086 0.045
0.025 3.463 0.150 3.313 0.308 0.043 0.031
<0.025 11.362 0.136 11.226 0.125 0.012 0.013
Total 61.86 32.14 29.72
Flotation Simulator
flotation variables Flotation recovery and rates
Solids in Solids in
Solids Mass In Concentrate Tailings Average
Size [mm] k [funny unit] R [tons/hr] [tons/hr] [tons/hr] Size (mm)
No. of cells 15 0.850 308.567 1.000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.85
Total Residence time [hr] 0.484 0.600 237.628 1.000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.714
3
volume of one cell [m ] 2 0.425 141.295 1.000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.505
height of cell [m] 3.5 0.300 84.014 1.000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.357
3
volumetric air flow rate [m /s] 2.5 0.212 49.867 1.000 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.252
2
cross-sectional area [m ] 0.571429 0.150 29.651 1.000 0.35 0.35 0.00 0.178
-1
Superficial Air velocity [m.s ] 4.375 0.106 17.631 0.999 2.29 2.29 0.00 0.126
-1
Superficial Air velocity [m.hr ] 262.5 0.075 10.483 0.987 4.02 3.97 0.05 0.089
Bubble size [mm] 1 0.053 6.233 0.936 4.57 4.27 0.29 0.063
fraction solids in feed 0.3 0.038 3.743 0.820 3.94 3.23 0.71 0.045
total feed in [m3/hr] 61.92 0.025 2.131 0.631 3.31 2.09 1.22 0.031
<0.025 0.550 0.232 11.23 2.61 8.62 0.013
29.72 18.83 10.90
Roasting Simulator
Average size Average Initial Average Initial Critical Final Radius
Roasting Variables Size [mm] [mm] Radius [mm] Radius [m] Time [s] hours t/tc [m] X
Density of ZnS [kg/m^3] 3000 0.850 0.850 0.425 0.00042500 12.465874 0.003463 0.004011 0.000333862 0.51523157
Partial Pressure of Oxygen [atm] 0.8 0.600 0.714 0.357 0.00035707 8.7994404 0.002444 0.005682 0.000277742 0.52939356
Temperature [K] 1173 0.425 0.505 0.252 0.00025249 4.3997202 0.001222 0.011364 0.000191308 0.5650099
concentration of O2 at surface [kg/m^3] 0.26596343 0.300 0.357 0.179 0.00017854 2.1998601 0.000611 0.022729 0.000130134 0.61274077
0.212 0.252 0.126 0.00012610 1.097342 0.000305 0.045565 8.66672E-05 0.67531019
Mair 28.84 0.150 0.178 0.089 0.00008916 0.548671 0.000152 0.091129 5.59098E-05 0.75344494
MSO2 64 0.106 0.126 0.063 0.00006305 0.2743355 7.62E-05 0.182259 3.39054E-05 0.8444746
sigma (collision diameter) 3.954 0.075 0.089 0.045 0.00004458 0.1371677 3.81E-05 0.364517 1.78269E-05 0.93606111
omega (collision integral) 0.8386 0.053 0.063 0.032 0.00003152 0.0685839 1.91E-05 0.729034 1.68068E-05 0.84845474
Diffusivity [m^2/s] 0.000127686 0.038 0.045 0.022 0.00002244 0.0347492 9.65E-06 1 0 1
0.025 0.031 0.015 0.00001541 0.0163911 4.55E-06 1 0 1
volume fraction of ZnS 1 <0.025 0.0125 0.00625 0.00000625 0.0026959 7.49E-07 1 0 1
tortuosity 1.5
pellet porosity 0.4
constriction factor 0.8
Effective Diffusivity 2.72398E-05
cactus 69015218.8
ZnS 1.35
ZnO 17.48
Leaching Simulator
Leaching Variables
Fa (ZnS) [t/hr] 1.35
Fb (ZnO) [t/hr] 17.48
Electrowinning Simulator
Electrowinning Variables
Volumetric flow rate in [m^3/hr] 21.88
kLA 4.18E-03