ISSN 0484-8942

REVUE -------------------------------------------------- NUMISMATIQUE

Dirige par

Secrtaires de la rdaction

C. Morrisson, M. Amandry,
M. Bompaire, O. Picard

Fr. Duyrat, A. Hostein

C. Grandjean

2011

(167e volume)

Publie avec le concours de lInstitut National des Sciences Humaines et Sociales

du Centre national de la recherche Scientifique

---------------------------------------------------SOCIT FRANAISE DE NUMISMATIQUE

Diffusion : Socit ddition Les Belles Lettres
2011

Stefan Deschauer*

About Numismatics and Some Problems of Algebra

from a Byzantine Manuscript of 1436
(Cod. Vind. phil. gr. 65)
Summary The Cod. Vind. phil. gr. 65 is a unique mathematical document in the late Byzantine
period. The second book of the manuscript contains an algebraic theory in Italian style with
many profound and hardly known problems in the history of mathematics and in the numismatics.
Until today we dont know other algebraic works in Byzantium. I present here some typical problems
involving 15th century money.
Rsum Le Cod. Vind. phil. gr. 65 est un document mathmatique sans quivalent de lpoque
byzantine tardive. Le deuxime livre du texte contient une thorie de lalgbre litalienne
avec beaucoup de problmes profonds et peine connus dans lhistoire de la mathmatique et de
la numismatique. Jusqu aujourdhui on ne connat pas dautres uvres algbriques Byzance.
Jen prsente ici quelques problmes typiques dans lesquels figurent des monnaies du xve sicle.

Introduction
The Codex Vindobonensis phil. gr. 65 kept in the sterreichische Nationalbibliothek in Vienna is a mathematical manuscript written by two anonymous
authors (here called A and B). It contains 163 leaves with 36 lines each page.
The smaller text from B presents a pure collection of arithmetical problems
written in Saloniki about the year 1430 under Turkish occupation. The positional decimal system (with a point for 0) is used and also decimal fractions to
emphasize. The text has been edited, translated, and commented (in German)
by Hunger, Vogel 1963.
On the other hand 149 leaves come from the author A. He has written a
methodical reckoning book called by himself first book and with it he uses
the positional decimal system also (with a special character for 0). A problem
of multiplication (the days Anno Domini) reveals us the year of writing: 1436.
But in addition the author presents methods of approximation for roots (of
2nd until 4th degree), algebra, and geometry in the second book.1 Up to now
no other algebraic text is known from the Byzantine mathematics!

* Prof. Dr. Stefan Deschauer Technische Universitt Dresden Professur fr Didaktik der
Mathematik 01062 Dresden, Germany. Mail: Stefan.Deschauer@tu-dresden.de.
1. Now the text of A is completely analysed, in addition it exists an unpublished transcription
of the first book.
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STEFAN DESCHAUER

Without doubt his algebraic method is the Italian one at that time: Its a
question of an algebra by means of words, without any symbols. Obviously A has
grecianized the Italian technical terms merely: From numero (the constant), cosa
(thing, our x), censo (power, our x2), cubo (cube, our x3), and quadro (square,
our x4) has become jariqm~ (arithms), pr`agma (prgma), tzvev nson (tznson),
kovubon (kbon), and kvadron (kdron) or tetrvagwnon (tetrgonon).2
A completely annotated edition of the first book is under way. As well I plan
a detailed mathematical commentary of the second book.
In the following treatise I want to address myself to a series of demanding
problems from algebra I have found in the second book of A.3
Chap. 153: Boat trips4
Somebody had boat trips and took along florins (5).
After the first trip he had 13 of the initial amount more and 1 additionally.
After the second trip he had 13 of the last amount more and 2 additionally
etc.
The number of the trips was equal to the initial number of .
At the end he had 15 .
How many boat trips did he undertake?
What was the initial amount of ?6
Solution of the author
He estimates the number of trips: 3 or 4 (!). Thus his approach is (3 + x) trips,
i. e. (3 + x) by start also.
After the 1st trip the boat traveller has

After the 1st trip he has

After the 3rd trip he has

2. Apart from that tzvev nson, kovubon, and kvadron were not part of the classical Greek vocabulary.
3. Deschauer 2005 presents a short history of Byzantine mathematics as well as a view in
content of the Codex with some (other) algebraic and geometric problems.
4. See figure 1.
5. Abbreviation of the monetary unit flourvi (phlur), pl. flouriva (phluri) in the manuscript.
6. Similar problems are known from P. della Francesca (about 1440), L. Pacioli (1494),
E.de La Roche (1520), and M. Stifel (1544) see Tropfke 1980, p. 544.
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ABOUT NUMISMATICS AND SOME PROBLEMS OF ALGEBRA

187

Author: Due to x have still a 4th trip.

His further calculation is the following:
=

. So he linearizes the problem for the

Multiplication with x:
remaining !

(amount before the last trip) the sum must be

Addition of
equal to 15:

Solution of the quadratic equation and approximation of the square root7:

Result: He had

trips and just as many by start.

Generalization
Let a0 be the initial amount and an the amount after the nth trip.
We replace the fraction

by

for any k > 0.

Then we get the recursive formula an = 1 +

1
k

an

+ n,

*.

From that you can also derive an explicit formula:

an = ( a0 + k(1 + k) ) 1 +

1
k

k (1 + k + n).

The special values of the author are k = 3, a0 = n, an = 15.

7. In an earlier part of his second book the author has treated several approximate methods
for working out square roots he uses now.
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STEFAN DESCHAUER

Indeed he had must solve the following exponential equation:

15 = (n + 12)
(n 3.046)
His result

4
3

3(n + 4)

3,039 achieved by linearizing (see above) leads to 14,934

approximately on the right-hand side.

Chap. 157: The gambles
3 men have hyperpyra (8). One after the other doubles the money to the
other men.
Finally each of them has 8 . What was the amount of everyone at the
beginning?
Remark: The sum of is constant.
1.

2.

14

13

3.

16

3.

2.
1.

The author calculates backwards. For understanding the table in hand is useful.
The constant sum of is 24. Before the final distibution (first line) the third man
has to double the of the others, thus they had 4 each and the third 16
(second line). A further step before the second gambler had to double the money
of the others: The distribution was 2 , 14 , 8 see the third line. The next
back step leads to the initial distribution: The first man has to double the
amounts of the others.
Result: 1st 13 , 2nd 7 , 3rd 4 (see fourth line)
The author varies the problem repeatedly. His most complicated case is the
following:
4 men have hyperpyra (). One after the other triples the money to the other
men.
Finally each of them has 9 . What was the amount of everyone at the
beginning?
8. Abbreviation of the monetary unit in the manuscript
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ABOUT NUMISMATICS AND SOME PROBLEMS OF ALGEBRA

189

(The constant sum of is 36.)

His right solution (without any comment):
1st

9 = 24

3rd

9 =2

9 =8

, 2nd
, 4th

9 =1

For the then reader the factors probably must have been quite mysterious.
Generalization
Lets examine the general case.
n men have hyperpyra (). One after the other multiplies the money to the
*. Finally each of them has 1 9. What was the amount
other men by k
of everyone at the beginning?
(The constant sum of is n.)
In the following steps the money of the man who has just multiplied the
amounts of the others is in heavy type. The money to the right of it concerns
the men whose turn it was and the money to the left of it the men whose turn it
will be after that. The horizontal brackets are counting the number of terms.
1st step backwards:

2nd step backwards:

9. Special case for the general one.

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STEFAN DESCHAUER

sth step backwards (1 s n, by induction):

Bringing the second term to the common denominator ks you get the nominator
nks n + s nks1 + nks2 nks2 + nks3 ... nk2 + nk nk + n (s 1) 1
= nks nks1 + 1 (telescopic sum)
Thus the sth step backwards leads to

Finally for s = n we have

The sum of the n terms is

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indeed.

ABOUT NUMISMATICS AND SOME PROBLEMS OF ALGEBRA

Examples of the author:

10

191

Chap. 158: A well-known problem with a remarkable method of solution

3 men have florins ().
The first says to the others: Give me 13 of your and 5 more.
Then I will have the triple of your and 4 more.
The second says to the others: Give me 12 of your and 3 more.
Then I will have the quadruple of your less 5 .
The third says: I have 23 of your and 5 more.
Whats the amount of everyone?
This recreational problem is well-known from the history of mathematics11
and leads to a system of linear equations:

The author presents a remarkable method of solution. His algebra restricts

itself to a unique variable.
Now his approach is that the three men have x all together, i. e.
(4) x1 + x2 + x3 = x
Apart from x the author describes all variables by words.
10. You find this case at early German arithmeticians also, e. g. J. Widmann (1489) and
Chr. Rudolff (1525) see Tropfke 1980, p. 647 f.
11. See Tropfke 1980, p. 609-611.
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STEFAN DESCHAUER

Lets reproduce roughly the solution of the author in our notation. We restrict
ourself to his evaluation of (1).
Let
with

a) Approximation x 1' = 3(x 2' + x 3' ) implies

The authors gets
b) Correction: In reality

is valid. Thus you have

and

So the author gets

(6) x 1' =

3
4

x + 1, x 2' + x 3' =

1
4

x 1.

c) Situation before handing-over of 5 :

Let
with
according (5). With (6) follows

On the other hand you have according to (5)

With (4) follows from (8) and (9)

with the result
(10)
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ABOUT NUMISMATICS AND SOME PROBLEMS OF ALGEBRA

193

Following the same method the author gets from other equations (2) and (3):

According to (4) the adding up leads to the equation

that is solved by the author:
implying
Chap. 162: Unloading of a ship12
3 men want to unload a ship.
If the second and the third work 7 days, the first finishes the job during
3 days.
If the first and the third work 8 days, the second finishes the job during
4 days.
If the first and the second work 6 days, the third finishes the job during
2 days.
How many days does everyone need to unload the ship alone?
1.
3
8
6

2.
7
4
6

3.
7
8
2

Approach of the author:

1 day of the second = x days of the first, i. e. 1 daily work of the second are
x daily works of the first.
With the abbreviations dw(n) for the daily work of the nth man n = 1, 2, 3,
and fw for the full work, we have the following system of linear equations:
(11)
(12)
(13)

(3 + 7x) dw(1) + 7 dw(3) = fw

(8 + 4x) dw(1) + 8 dw(3) = fw
(6 + 6x) dw(1) + 2 dw(3) = fw

12. See figure 2.

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STEFAN DESCHAUER

If you regard 1 dw(1) as a unit, the variables x, dw(3), and fw are to determine.
A comparison of (11) and (12) shows to the author
(14) 1 dw(3) = ( 5 + 3x) dw(1)13
He multiplies this equation by 7 and substitues in (11) with the result
(15) (28x 32) dw(1) = fw.
A further substitution of (14) in (13) leads to
(16) (12x 4) dw(1) = fw.
Now the author forms the difference14 of the left sides of (15) and (16):
(28x 32) (12x 4) = 16x 28.
Afterwards he solves the equation 16 x = 28 : x = 1

3
4

According to his approach at the outset and to (14) he gets

(17)

1 dw(2) = 1

dw(1), 1 dw(3) =

(18)

7dw(1) = 4 dw(2) = 28 dw(3).

dw(1) with the consequence

Now his comparison of (18) with the first service (3 / 7 / 7) e. g. shows:

Finally it follows

The authors tests also the comparison of (18) with the other services,
(8 / 4 / 8) respectively (6 / 6 / 2), and receives the same result.
Generally speaking the author has complete command of solving a 3 3
system of linear equations only using one explicit variable. We find the methods
of comparison, substraction, and substitution. With it he handles negative numbers
and terms.
13. He is handling negative numbers and terms completely naturally. The term in brackets is
readable as follows: (less 5 and 3 prgmata)
14. in the words of the author:
. (28 prgmata less 32 less 12 prgmata less 4 is equal to 16 prgmata less 28.)
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ABOUT NUMISMATICS AND SOME PROBLEMS OF ALGEBRA

195

This work problem is charming because of its combination of simultaneous

working and working in succession. The usual structure of a work problem is
the following:
Let (19) be given. How many days do they need for the full job, if they work
simultaneously?
(Result: 5 days)15
An easier method
The author claims:
If the sums of columns in the chart are equal, then you get the result immediatly.
We see that the columns in the chart above always have the sum 17, but
in general the sums dont have to be equal. This shows e. g. the following chart
with the sums 6 or 5:
1.
1
2
3

2.
2
1
3

3.
2
2
1

(Here we get fw = 9 dw(1) = 9 dw(2) = 3 dw(3).)

Lets return to the claim of our author.
One of several examples he gives for substantiating his claim is the following:
1.

2.

3.

20

20

20

3
8
9

7
4
9

7
8
5

Without any calculation he presents the correct result:

fw = 20 dw(2) = 80 dw(1) = 11

dw(3)

(From fw = 20 dw(2) the corresponding relations between fw and dw(1),

dw(3) cant be read directly, but by the solution of a system of only two linear

equations.)
But the author doesnt explain, why just dw(2) has the sum of columns as
factor. Is the same also possible with the other dw? If so, how do you make the
right choice?
15. Tropfke 1980, p. 578-581 states only this easier type of work problems.
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STEFAN DESCHAUER

Indeed its not difficult to give a counter-example on principle:

1.

2.

3.

17

17

17

2
9
6

7
4
6

7
9
1

The calculation leads to

all different from 17.

with factors

Lets study the problem at issue more general:

1

a1
b1
c1

a2
b2
c1

a2
b1
c2

Let 1 dw(2) = x dw(1), 1 dw(3) = y dw(1) with the unit 1 dw(1), i. e. 1 dw(1):=1.
From the chart we get the system of equations
(20) a1 + a2 (x + y) = fw, b1(1 + y) + b2 x = fw, c1(1 + x) + c2 y = fw
with the additional condition
(21) a1 + b1 + c1 = a2 + b2 + c1 = a2 + b1 + c2 = d
Addition of the left and the right side of (20) leads to
(22) d(1 + x + y) = 3 fw.
According to (22) we have a2 (1 + x + y ) =

3 a2
d

fw. With (20) follows

Thus we need a differentiation of cases.

) 3a2 = d implies a2 = a1 and according to (21) b2 = b1, c2 = c1.
That leads to a1 = b1 = c1 = a2 = b2 = c2 because of (20). The system (20) is
reduced to just one equation, e. g. a1(1 + x + y) = fw. With constant a1 and fw
the equation is underdetermined. The claim of the author roughly examining we
set fw = d dw(i), i = 1, 2, 3, i. e. either fw = 3 a1 or fw = 3 a1x or fw = 3 a1y.
This is only fulfilled for x + y = 2 resp. 2x y = 1 resp. 2y x = 1 but not true
in general.

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ABOUT NUMISMATICS AND SOME PROBLEMS OF ALGEBRA

197

) 3 a2 d leads to

For calculating x, y we use the second equation of (20), and (22) again:
After elimination of x we get

Its obvious that b1 = b2 leads to the case ) again. Otherwise we have

Together with (22) you receive

Now (24) and a2 a1 = b1 b2 according to (21) yield to

In the same way you get from (26), (24), and a2 + b2 = d c1 according to (21)

On account of (24), (27), and (28) we are able to formulate criterions for
fw = d dw(i), i = 1, 2, 3, i. e. for fw = d or fw = dx or fw = dy.
We have:
(29) fw = d iff d = a1 + 2 a2.
Thats the sum of the numbers in the first line of the chart.
(30) fw = dx iff d = 3 b1 a2 + a1 resp. d = 2 b1 + b2 according to (21).
Thats the sum of the numbers in the second line of the chart.
(31) fw = dy iff d = 3 c1 a2 + a1 resp. d = 2 c1 + c2 according to (21).
Thats the sum of the numbers in the third line of the chart.
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STEFAN DESCHAUER

Result
If each of the columns in the above-mentioned chart has the same sum d
with d 3a2 (i. e. differently called numbers in the chart arent equal), then
is valid:
fw = d dw(i) iff the ith line of the chart has the sum d also. (i = 1, 2, 3)
Remark:
In both examples from the author the sum of columns is constant (17 resp. 20).
In the first example we find that he sum of the numbers in the first line (only)
is 17 too, and fw = 17 dw(1) is valid.
In the second example the sum of the numbers in the second line (only) is
20 too, and fw = 20 dw(2) is valid.
References
Deschauer 2005: St. Deschauer, Mathematik vor der Zeitenwende einige
Glanzlichter in einer byzantinischen Handschrift von 1436. In: European
mathematics in the last centuries. Stefan Banach International Mathematical
Center / Institute of Mathematics Wrocaw University, ed. W. Wisaw,
Wrocaw, 2005, S. 7-18.
Hunger, Vogel 1963: H. Hunger, K. Vogel, Ein byzantinisches Rechenbuch
des 15. Jahrhunderts 100 Aufgaben aus dem Codex Vindobonensis phil.
Gr. 65. Text, bersetzung und Kommentar, Wien, Denkschriften der phil.hist. Kl. der sterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 78. Band, 2.
Abh., 1963, 127p.
Tropfke 1980: J. Tropfke, Geschichte der Elementarmathematik, Band 1:
Arithmetik und Algebra, K. Vogel, K. Reich, H. Gericke (eds.), Berlin New York, 19804, 742 p.

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ABOUT NUMISMATICS AND SOME PROBLEMS OF ALGEBRA

199

Figure 1 - Beginning of the boat trips problem

(fol. 86r, chap. 153).

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STEFAN DESCHAUER

Figure 2 - Part of the problem Unloading of a ship

(fol. 155v, Appendix of chap. 162).

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