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October 17, 2008 17:9 Practical Array Processing/Mark Sullivan /154898-x/Ch02
CHAPTER
2
Array Signal ProcessingModels
I
n this chapter we will construct a mathematical model of theinteraction between an antenna array one or more emitters.In Sec. 2.1 we will show how a pair of commonly employedassumptions, the far-field approximation and the narrowband ap-proximation, simplify the task considerably. The response of an an-tenna array to a signal propagating in a given direction is given bythe array manifold function, described in Sec. 2.2. Using an array tosteergaintowardasignalisdiscussedinSec.2.3.Thearrayambiguityfunction presented in Sec. 2.4 characterizes the ability of an array todiscriminate between signals arriving from different angles. In Sec.2.5, the ability to steer a beam in the direction of a desired signal is en-hanced by adding a capability to simultaneously steer nulls in the di-rection of undesired signals. Sparse arrays with nonuniform spacingsare treated in Sec. 2.6. In Sec. 2.7, we discuss the use of nonuniformweighting to trade-off beamwidth versus sidelobe level. Section 2.8presents a more general array model that includes the effects of signalpolarization. In Sec. 2.9 the array manifold function is used to con-struct a model for an antenna array in the presenceof multiplesignalsandreceivernoise.Finally,inSec.2.10somepracticalissuesinvolvingarray and system calibration are discussed. This chapter serves as the basis for the remaining chapters, so you should read and understandthis chapter before moving on.
2.1
Simplifying Assumptions
Two approximations will simplify the model for an antenna array.The first approximation is that the array operates in the far field of theemitter. In the far field, the direction of propagation is approximatelyequal for each element in the array. So how far away does an emitter
23
October 17, 2008 17:9 Practical Array Processing/Mark Sullivan /154898-x/Ch02
24
P r a c t i c a l A r r a y P r o c e s s i n g
Emitter
q q
A r r a y
Circular Wavefront
d r
F
IGURE
2.1
The far-field approximation holds when the separation
d
between the emitter and array of length 2
r
is sufficient to keep the incidenceangles across the array within a desired range. In this example, the incidenceat the center of the array is normal to the array and the incidence angle at theedge of the array deviates from the normal by
θ
.
needtobetobeconsideredfarfield?Thisdependsuponthesizeofthearray and upon the desired accuracy of the approximation. Considerthe geometry shown in Fig. 2.1. An emitter at the center of the circleis a distance
d
away from a linear array of length 2
r
. In this example,the direction of propagation is normal to the array at the center, butdeviatesfromnormalincidenceby
θ
attheendofthearray.Ifwedesireto keep the deviation from normal incidence to less than a tenth of adegree, then
d
/
r
>
cot(0
.
1
π/
180)
∼=
573, so that the distance from thecenterofthearraytotheemittermustbeatleast573
/
2timesthelengthof the array for the far-field approximation to hold.Thenextapproximationconcernsthebandwidthofthesignalemit-ted. When the far-field approximation holds, the direction of propa-gation is the same at each array element, as shown in Fig. 2.2 for anarbitrary pair of elements. If
p
is a unit-length vector in the direc-tion of propagation and
d
is the vector from the first array elementto the second, then the signal at the second array element will be de-layed from that received at the first element by
τ
=
(
d
•
p
)
/
c
, where
c
isthespeedoflight.Ifthesignalreceivedatthefirstelementis
x
1
(
t
)
=
m
(
t
)
e
j
ω
t
, then the signal received at the second element is
x
2
(
t
)
=
x
1
(
t
−
τ
)
=
m
(
t
−
τ
)
e
j
ω
(
t
−
τ
)
=
m
(
t
−
τ
)
e
j
ω
t
e
−
j
ωτ
. Here is wherethe narrowband approximation comes in. The rate at which a signalchanges is constrained by the bandwidth of the signal. If the band-width of the modulation
m
(
t
) is much lower than 1
/τ
, we can use theapproximation
m
(
t
−
τ
)
∼=
m
(
t
) so that
x
2
(
t
)
=
m
(
t
−
τ
)
e
j
ω
t
e
−
j
ωτ
∼=
m
(
t
)
e
j
ω
t
e
−
j
ωτ
=
e
−
j
ωτ
x
1
(
t
). This approximation allows us to replace
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