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...Simple)
Regular and Irregular Verbs
The Present Perfect
Differences between Present Perfect and
Unit 1 Present ...Preterit* (Past Simple)
The verb ‘to be’ and contractions The Present Perfect Continuous
The verb ‘to have’ Present Simple ‘For’ /‘Since’ / ‘Ago’
The negative form – verb ‘to be’, Present 'Ever' / 'Never'
...Simple Expressions with the Present Perfect
Tags- short answers – verb ‘to be’, Present The Preterit Continuous* (Past
...Simple ...Continuous)
The Present Simple vs. Present Continuous Past Perfect
The Present Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
The Affirmative Imperative ‘Used To’
The Negative Imperative
Verbs without a continuous form Unit 3 Future
Verbs without a continuous form: exceptions The Near Future be + -ing* (Present
‘Always’ + Present Continuous ...Continuous for Future)
The Future – ‘Will’
Future Continuous – ‘Will be doing’
The Future – ‘Will’ + ‘To be going to’
Future Perfect – ‘Will have done’
The Future with ‘be’ + Infinitive
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Unit 7 Pronouns and Determiners Unit 8 Relative Clauses and
Subject Pronouns Dependent Clauses
Object Pronouns Relative Pronouns and Adverbs
Possessive Pronouns ‘That’ and Dependent Clauses
Reflexive Pronouns When ‘that’ may be left out
‘No’ / ’None’ ‘To hope’ + Dependent Clause
The Possessive
Unit 9 Adjectives and Adverbs
More uses of the Possessive
Possessive Adjectives
The Indefinite Possessive
‘Too’ / ‘Too Much’
Use of Pronoun ‘one’
Placement of ‘Enough’
Demonstrative Pronouns
‘Also’ / ‘As well’ / ‘Too’
‘Here’/ ‘There’
Adverbs of Time / Frequency
‘Some’ and ‘Any’
The Adverb ‘that’
‘How much’ / ‘How many’
‘Yet’ / ‘Not yet’
‘As much as’ / ‘As many as’
‘Still’ / ‘Yet’
‘Some’ / ‘Any’: singular or plural?
Compound Adjectives
‘Either……or’
Adjectives ending in –ing and –ed
‘Either……. or’ / ‘Neither …….nor’
Adjectives ending in –ing
‘Everybody’ / ‘Nobody’
The Past Participle as an adjective
‘Everybody’ / ‘Somebody’ / ‘Nobody’
Adverbs of Degree
‘Each other’ / ‘One another’
Adverbs and Adjectives
Different meanings of ‘all’
Uses of ‘so’
‘A little’ / ‘A bit’
The placement of ‘even’
Use of ‘both’
‘Even though’ / ‘Even if’
‘Quite’ / ‘Quite a few’
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Unit 10 Comparatives Unit 13 Gerunds and Infinitives
and Superlatives Gerunds and Infinitives
Comparing equals using ‘as…..as’ Use of ‘be used to’
Regular and Irregular Comparatives Use of ‘get used to’
Regular and Irregular Superlatives Verbs: Reactions and Preferences
‘The more . . . the more’ Verb + Infinitive Clause
A use of the comparative Verbs expressing a wish to act
Expressions followed by the gerund
Unit 11 Prepositions
Verbs introducing a second action
Prepositions of Time
Prepositions of Place Unit 14 Conditionals
Final Prepositions Present Conditional* and Sequence
Verbs + prepositions ...of Tenses with ‘if’* (Zero, First, Second)
The Perfect Conditional* (Third Conditional)
Unit 12 Conjunctions
The Perfect Conditional using ‘should’
Conjunctions
Use of ‘so’ to express a goal Unit 15 Subjunctive and Wishes
‘So that’ + ‘may’ or ‘can’ Present Subjunctive
Similarity: ‘like’ and ‘as’ Past Subjunctive
Wishes and Regrets
Unit 16 Passive
The Passive Voice
The Impersonal Structure
I
You
Present
The verb ‘to be’ and contractions
The verb ‘to be’ expresses existence, action, or occurrence.
Conjugation of ‘to be’
He /She /It
We
am
are
is
are
I’m
Contraction of ‘to be’
You’re
He’s / She’s / It’s
We’re
I am a student.
I’m a student.
He is my brother.
Use + examples
( as a stative verb)
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Present Simple
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Present Simple
Do I like football? Yes, you do. No, you don’t.
Do you like football? Yes, I do. No, I don’t.
Does he like football? Yes, he does. No, he doesn’t.
Does she like football? Yes, she does. No, she doesn’t.
Do we like football? Yes, we do. No, we don’t.
Do they like football? Yes, they do. No, they don’t.
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I’m eating.
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Present continuous:
something is happening now / at the moment / currently
Past Now Future
I’m working.
He’s playing football.
They’re watching television.
Structure + Examples
The verb ‘to be’ + verb –ing
I am (not) verb-ing I am working.
He/she/it is (not) verb-ing Chris is writing a letter.
We/you/they are (not) verb-ing We’re having dinner.
Question:
What are you doing now?
What is he doing now?
We are
I’m eating. running.
It is raining.
Spelling
Verbs that end in –e drop the ‘e’ , add –ing
Make – making, write – writing, come – coming, dance – dancing
Verbs that end in –ie change to –ying
Lie – lying, die – dying, tie – tying
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Sit down.
You can use the
imperative form to
give an order, a
warning or advice.
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USE
To talk about completed actions or finished events that
happened at a specific time (yesterday, last year, etc.)
I watched television
yesterday.
Regular Verbs:
For regular verbs add –ed
For regular verbs ending in –y , drop the –y , add –ied
I watched I didn’t watch Did you watch?
You watched You didn’t watch he/she/it
He/she/it watched He/she/it didn’t watch
We watched We didn’t watch we
They watched They didn’t watch they
Examples
I watched television last night. I didn’t watch television last night. Did you watch television last night?
Irregular Verbs: There is no rule for the construction of irregular verbs in the past, therefore
you must memorize them.
Here are some important irregular verbs:
begin began fall fell leave left sell sold
break broke find found lose lost sit sat
bring brought fly flew make made sleep slept
build built forget forgot meet met speak spoke
buy bought get got pay paid stand stood
catch caught give gave put put take took
come came go went read read(red) tell told
do did have had ring rang think thought
drink drank hear heard say said win won
eat ate know knew see saw write wrote
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Irregular Verbs
For the preterit (past simple) and past participle of regular verbs add -ed
However, for irregular verbs there are no rules. You must memorize them.
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Uses Examples
Shows there is a connection with now. -‘Where is your key?’ ‘I don’t know. I have lost it.’
An action in the past has a result now. (I can’t find it now.)
They are at home. They are going out. They have gone out.
(=They are not at home now)
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rb –ing
been + ve rb –ing
Structure h e y have been + ve
I/ y o u /w e /t
has
He/she/it n + v e r b –ing ….?
e bee g …?
I/you/they/w been + verb –in
Have he/she/it
Has
Uses Examples
Describes an action that has recently -Paul is very tired. He has been working hard.
stopped and has a connection with now. -Why are your clothes so dirty? What have
you been doing?
Describes an action that has been -I have been learning English for three years.
repeated over a certain amount of time. -She has been playing basketball since she
was 6 years old.
-They have been traveling to Europe every
summer since 1995.
It is raining now. It began raining two hours ago
and it is still raining.
How long has it been raining?
It has been raining for two hours.
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Use Examples
‘For’ = a period of time two hours a week
20 minutes 50 years
five days a long time
six months ages
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‘Ever’ – ‘Never’
‘Ever’
=
at some/any time
up to now
‘Never’
=
not ever
Structure Examples
Question – ‘Ever’
Used in present simple and present perfect Do you ever play tennis?
Auxiliary + subject + ‘ever’ + main verb Have you ever been to Argentina?
Affirmative – ‘Ever’ She’s the nicest person I’ve ever met.
Used with ‘if’ or superlative (superlative)
Visit the Eiffel Tower if you ever go to
Paris. (if)
Negative – Negative I never drink and drive.
‘Never’ + verb in affirmative I’ve never been to Argentina.
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Preterit Continuous =
to say that someone was in the middle of doing
something at a certain time.
Sarah Sarah
4 O´clock 6 O´clock
We/you/they were + verb -ing We/you/they were not (weren’t) + verb -ing Were we/you/they + verb-ing?
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Use Examples
1. To express an action completed I had never seen a movie before then.
before a given time in the past.
2. A state or action beginning in the past They had been friends for ten years when he left.
continuing until some later time in the past.
9
10
11 12 1
2
3
10
11 12 1
2
Half an hour later
9 3
8 4
7 6 5
Bye 8
7 6 5
4
Hello
Paul Sarah
Sarah went to a party last week. Paul went to the party too, but they
didn’t see each other. Paul went home at 10:30 and Sarah arrived at 11
o’clock.
So: When Sarah arrived at the party, Paul wasn’t there. He had gone
home.
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Structure
I/you/we/they had been + verb –ing (studying, working, listening, etc.)
He/she/it had been + verb –ing
Uses Examples
To show that something started in the past and Mary had been talking with John for 15
continued up until the moment that something minutes until Lindsey arrived.
else happened.
To show cause and effect. Jason was tired because he had been jogging.
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‘Used To’
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Future
The Near Future ‘be’ + –ing / Present Continuous for Future
The present continuous for future indicates that a specific action will be taking place
at a specific time in the future.
Structure Use Examples
‘To be’ + verb-ing for the future What are you doing
(tomorrow / next week) tomorrow evening?
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It’s going
to rain.
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Instructions and directions for use The medicine is to be taken twice a day.
‘To be’ + passive infinitive
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Use
Modals
‘Can’ – ability and likelihood
Structure
‘Can’ ability
Use Examples
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- to be able to do something.
Example:
He can carry the bag.
‘Can’ likelihood / possibility g.
Example: 30 K
Sometimes when the weather is bad it can rain. ( It is possible that this happens.)
It can’t be true. (I certainly is not true, there is no possibility that it is true.)
Structure
I / we / you / they + can + verb
he / she / it cannot (can’t)
Question
Can + I / we / you / they + verb
he / she / it
Example: Can you swim?
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‘Can’ perception
- with verbs of perception such as to hear, to see, to feel.
Example: I can see Sarah coming.
Structure
I / we / you / they + can + verb
he / she / it cannot (can’t)
Question
Can + I / we / you / they + verb
he / she / it
I can play
the piano .
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n s p e a k 5 languages.
I ca g very well.
H e c a n ’t s in
Can u ld p la y th e piano. s sick.
Present hild I c o use I wa
Can’t W h en I was a c class yesterday beca
I c ouldn’t go to
Co u ld
u t y o u r p ro blem. She
Pas t Could n ’t b o
A s k Catherine a help you.
to
b e a b le to m ight be able
To ith you later. ecause
Infinitive to m e e t w b
I will be ablebe able to leave early .
to ’t
They won finish their homewo rk
Will be able n’t) be able to they have to
Future W il l n o t (w o
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‘Ought to’
subject + ‘ought to’ + Implies an expectation or assumption He is intelligent. He ought to
infinitive without ‘to’ pass the exam.
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NO
SM
OK
ING
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Must
=
a need or obligation to do something.
I, you, we, they + must + infinitive without ‘to’ You must wash your hands before eating.
He, she, it + must + infinitive without ‘to’
Mustn’t
=
an obligation NOT to do something.
I, you, we, they + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’ You mustn’t walk on the grass.
He, she, it + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’
Please keep
off the grass
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Must
=
strong probability or near certainty.
Structure Example
Subject + must + verb (infinitive without ‘to’) You must be Mr. Brown. My sister has told me all about you.
Negative:
Subject + cannot + verb (infinitive without ‘to’) You can’t be Maggie’s mother; you’re not old enough!
Subject + can’t + verb (infinitive without ‘to’)
:
The past form is ast participle
must + have + p
s s e s n e a r c e rt ainty in the past.
It expre s t have gone out.
Exa m p le : H e m u
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Absence of necessity
To say it is not necessary to do something or it is optional you can use ‘needn’t’ and ‘don’t
have to’. It shows an absence of necessity.
Structure Examples
Subject + needn’t + infinitive without ‘to’ You needn’t bring your bike; it’s not that far.
Subject + don’t / doesn’t need to + infinitive without ‘to’ You don’t need to bring your bike.
This expresses the opinion of the speaker.
Subject + ‘don’t’ / ‘doesn’t have to’ + infinitive without ‘to’ You don’t have to do your homework.
This can imply the speaker’s opinion or not.
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Use Examples
May
I, you, etc. + may + verb (infinitive To say that something I may go to the cinema later.
may not without ‘to’) is about 50% possible. He may call her.
Might
I, you, etc. + might + verb (infinitive To say that something He might have a meeting.
might not without to) is less than 50% possible. He might know.
The uses of ‘may’ and ‘might’ above are to talk about the present or future.
These other structures are also possible.
may/might + be + verb –ing to talk about present or future
I may be working at that time.
He might be having lunch.
may/might + have + past participle to talk about uncertain
events in the past
She may have been asleep.
She might have left it in the shop.
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‘Shall’
In British English, ‘shall’ can be used for ‘will’ to express the future. In American English, it
is not often used.
Use ‘shall’ with I/ we
I shall be late tomorrow. ( I will be late)
Shall we go to the museum later?
Do NOT use
‘shall’ with you/they/he/she/it
Tom will be late. (not ‘Tom shall be’)
Examples:
1. The insurance holder shall pay back the full amount
within three years.
2. Students shall not play loud music after 10PM.
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Modal Auxiliaries
A modal auxiliary is a verb used with other verbs to express mood or tense. When a
modal is used, the following verb is in the infinitive minus ‘to’ form.
Modal Use Example
Can Ability He can play the piano.
Negative: cannot / can’t
Past: could
Future: will be able to
Permission Can I leave the room?
Could Possible actions now or in the future. When you go to New York you could
(to make suggestions) stay with Jane.
Permission Could I open the window?
May To say that something is about I may go to the cinema later.
50% possible.
Permission May I open the window?
Might To say that something is less He might have a meeting.
than 50% possible.
Must Obligation You must go to the bank
Negative: mustn’t You mustn’t go to the bank.
You’ve been travelling all day,
Deduction you must be tired.
Negative: can’t You’ve been sleeping all day,
you can’t be tired.
Could + have + past participle Possibility in the past. I could have studied Architecture
Something you could have in university.
done but did not do / did
not attempt to do.
May + have + past participle To say that it is possible that Polly’s very late. She may
something happened or have missed her train.
was true in the past.
Might + have + past participle To say that it is possible that You were stupid to try climbing
something happened or was up there. You might have
true in the past. killed yourself.
BUT did not happen.
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Structure Use
subject + must have + past participle Deduction
Near certainty in the past
Example:
John wasn’t in class yesterday. He must have been sick.
Structure Use
subject + can’t have + past participle A deduction about something that
didn’t happen in the past.
Example:
I saw John in the pub. He can’t have been sick.
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5 Questions
Questions without interrogative words
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Examples
The Verb ‘to be’
Present Simple
Do you / we / they?
Does he / she / it?
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Interrogative Words
Interrogative words are used to ask very specific questions related to the person, place,
reason, etc. that an action occurs.
Example
Interrogative word Use Who is he?
Who refers to people Who do you know?
e?
Which do you prefer tea or coffe
Which refers to people or things
when there is a choice
What sport do you play?
What refers to things
anner)
How do you spell your name? (m)
How refers to manner or means How do you go to work? (means
Why don’t you like her?
Why asks about reason
Where is the museum?
Where refers to location
When does the store open?
When refers to time or date When do you leave?
Whose pen is this?
Whose refers to possession
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‘How long’
‘How long’
is used to ask
questions about
duration.
Structure Example
‘How long’ + ‘to be’ ‘How long’ + ‘is’/’are’ + noun How long is your vacation?
How long are the books?
‘How long’ + present simple ‘How long’ + ‘do’/’does’ + How long do you take to
subject + verb eat breakfast?
How long does it take to get to work?
Structure Example
‘How long’ + preterit (past simple) ‘How long + ‘did’ + subject + verb How long did you spend in Italy?
‘How long’ + present perfect ‘How long’ + ‘have’ / ‘has’ + How long have you had that car?
subject + past participle
‘How long’ + present perfect How long’ + ‘have’ / ‘has’ + How long have you been
continuous subject + ‘been’+ gerund studying English?
‘
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Past Interrogatives
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Questions – Tags
Question tags are ‘mini-questions’ placed at the end of a sentence.
A positive sentence A negative question tag
A negative sentence A positive question tag
Examples
The verb ‘to be’ Present Continuous
You’re a doctor, aren’t you? He is studying English, isn’t he?
He is not here today, is he? You’re not meeting Jim, are you?
Present Simple Preterit/ Past Simple
They work together, don’t they? He went on vacation, didn’t he?
She doesn’t eat meat, does she? They didn’t work yesterday, did they?
Question tags can be formed for all tenses. Your teacher will give
you examples for the tenses you have learned so far.
Goes down You aren’t really asking a question; you are only
inviting the listener to agree with you.
Example: It’s a beautiful day, isn’t it?
Yes, lovely.
It’s a beautiful
day, isn’t it?
Yes, lovely.
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‘Which’ / ‘What’
Which, What
=
both are used for choices. They are often used
interchangeably.
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Short Questions
In informal everyday and professional situations, you may use short questions.
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The indefinite article is used before words that begin This is an orange.
An with vowels (a,e,i,o,u)
or vowels sounds It’s an honor.
Exceptions:
an hour (h is not pronounced: an (h)our)
a university (pronounced yuniversity)
a European country (pronounced yeuropean)
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The Plural
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Names of
countries have
capital letters.
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countable
or uncountable
Countable nouns
You can use one/two/three etc. + (a) car
countable nouns. (you can count them) (a) man
(a) house
Countable nouns can be singular or plural. (an) idea
Uncountable nouns
You cannot say one/two/three etc. water
rice
Uncountable nouns only have one form. money
You cannot use ‘a’/ ‘an’ + uncountable nouns. salt
music
Uncountable nouns are always singular.
Examples I have money.
I have some money.
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A compound noun
=
two nouns joined together.
One noun modifies the other.
Example:
tooth, paste: toothpaste
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Use Examples
The We use ‘the’ before plural nouns or Tom sat down on a chair.
uncountable nouns when we are (perhaps one of many chairs)
thinking of one particular thing. Tom sat on the chair nearest the door.
(a particular chair)
No ‘the’ When we are talking about things or I’m afraid of dogs. (not the dogs)
people in general, we do not use ‘the’. Children learn a lot from playing.
(children in general)
No ‘the’ We do not use ‘the’ with names of people, I visited Europe last year.
countries, continents, states, regions, (not the Europe)
islands, cities, mountains.
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The Plural name of a country. The British Isles, the West Indies,
the Philippines
The But we do use ‘the’ in names with ‘Republic’, The United States, The Republic
‘Kingdom’, ‘States’. of Ireland, The United Kingdom
The Abbreviations of countries, continents and regions. The UK, the USA, the EU
No ‘the’ The names of streets, squares, monuments Carnaby Street, Hyde Park,
and parks. ( generally) Wesminister Abbey
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s
Subject Pronoun
I
You (singular)
He
She
It
We
You (plural)
They
Object Pronouns
Object Pronouns Examples Use
(subject (object
pronoun) pronoun)
I me Ann knows me. We use:
You you Ann knows you. a verb +
He him Ann knows him. object pronoun
She her Ann knows her.
It it Ann knows it.
We us Ann knows us.
They them Ann knows them.
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Possessive Pronouns
Mine Ours Yours His Hers Theirs
Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns Use Examples
I myself
You yourself I talk to myself when I am nervous.
He himself We use reflexive pronouns
She herself when the subject and object of a We blame ourselves for the results
It itself sentence are the same person of the test.
We ourselves or non-person.
You yourselves It saw itself in the mirror.
They themselves
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‘No’ / ‘None’
No Use Examples
‘No’ + noun When we want to - We have no bread.
exclude all possibilities. - There were no problems.
The Possessive
To show possession for people, countries, groups and institutions we use –’s
Examples:
It is John’s birthday. (not the birthday of John)
It’s my mother’s umbrella.
Chile’s economy is doing well.
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s s iv e – ’s c a n also
e
The poss h dates, durations Dates Sunday’s weather
be used wdit distances. Tomorrow’s flight
an Next year’s budget
’s to a s in g ular noun
We add postrophe (’) to a Durations Three weeks’ vacation
and an a n, for example:
plural nou Distances A hundred miles’ drive
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These
chocolates are nice Would you like one? =
Would you like one? Would you like a chocolate?
One = a /an (a chocolate / an apple etc.)
Which one
do you want? This one
One (singular)
Which one? = which hat?
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Position Examples:
a) Before a noun. This car looks cleaner than that car.
‘Here’ / ‘There’
‘Here’ is used for something that is near to us. Here is the money (in my hand).
‘There’ is used for something that is far from us. There is the bank, about 2 blocks away.
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‘Some’ / ‘Any’
Use ‘some’ / ‘any’ to describe an undetermined quantity.
Use with both countable and uncountable nouns.
I have
$
some money.
I don’t have
any money.
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Use ‘a lot of’ with mass and count nouns in Ann has a lot of meetings.
positive sentences, negative sentences
and questions. I have a lot of work to do.
Use ‘much’ with mass nouns in negative Ann doesn’t have much time to see New York.
sentences and in questions.
How much coffee did you drink?
Use ‘many’ with count nouns in negative I don’t have many classes today.
sentences, positive sentences and in questions.
Did many people come to the party?
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‘How many’ + plural countable nouns How many friends do you have?
How many books are there?
‘as many as’ plural, countable nouns There are as many parks in Santiago
as there are in Buenos Aires.
‘not as many as’ There aren’t as many parks in Santiago
as there are in Buenos Aires.
We can use ‘as much as’ + ‘as many as’ without a noun also.
Here the comparative refers to the previous clause or an implied or previously stated noun.
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When they refer to a singular noun, Some of the meal was really good.
the verb is singular. None of the presentation is interesting.
When they refer to a plural noun, the Some of the books are quite funny.
verb is plural. None of the stories are interesting.
‘Either…or’
A negative clause must never contain more than one negation. So, we use ‘either’ after a negative verb.
‘Either’ is always placed at the end of a clause. It means ‘too’ / ‘as well’
I can’t cook.
I can’t cook either. (not ‘I can’t …too’)
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‘Everybody’ / ‘Nobody’
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e d b y s in g u la r verbs.
b o d y , n o b o d y a re foll o w
, th e ta g is in th e plural.
g
Everybody, soemyeare followed by a question ta
However, if th
E v e ry body needs
ry o n e ) singular fr ie n d s , d o n’t they?
Everybody (eve
(all the people)
S o m e body has to goy?
e o n e ) singular s h o p p in g , don’t the
Somebody (som
o n b u t w e d o n ’t know who)
( a pers
o
N o b o d y really knows, d
o n e ) singular they?
Nobody (n o
(no people) p le : N o b o d y li k es Mike.
rb in th e p o s it iv e form. Exam
Nobody + ve
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Formerly, it was said that ‘each other’ was used for a relationship
between two subjects whereas one another was used for a
relationship between more than two subjects. Today, however,
most do not observe this distinction.
Maria and Jorge love each other. (Two subjects)
The children are sitting opposite one another.
(More than two subjects)
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‘All’ = all of
something limited.
It is used with uncountable or
plural countable nouns.
‘All (of)’ + the All the children at this school are tall.
this/that/these/those (demonstrative) All these books are mine.
my/your etc. (possessive adjective) I have spent all my money.
Personal Pronouns
personal pronoun + ‘all’ Have you read these books?
I’ve read them all.
‘all of’ + personal pronoun I’ve read all of them.
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‘A little’ / ‘A bit’
‘A little’ / ‘A bit’ = a small quantity
‘A bit of’ Use with uncountable nouns. We want a bit of fresh air.
Verb + ‘a little’
Little Use with countable nouns. I have little time to finish the report.
(negative connotation)
‘A bit’ Often replaces ‘ a little’ as an adverb. Can you drive a bit slower?
‘A few’ Use with countable nouns. I have a few books I can lend you.
It can also replace the noun to avoid ‘How many science fiction novels
repetition. do you have?’
‘Few’ ‘A few.’
(negative connotation) Use with countable nouns. I am lonely. I have few friends.
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Use of ‘both’
With determiners
Before a noun with a determiner (the, this, I want both (of) those books.
my, your, those etc.) ‘both’ and ‘both Both (of) the books.
of’ are possible.
With verbs
Both goes after auxiliaries and before We have both gone to the beach.
other verbs. We both want to go.
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The woman who lives next door is a doctor. My brother Jim, who lives in London, is a doctor.
The relative clause tells you which person or thing The relative clause does not tell you which person
the speaker means. or thing the speaker means. (We already know
which thing or person is meant.)
This is extra information about the person or thing.
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*see ‘relative pronouns and adverbs’ for an explanation on the difference between a defining
and non-defining clauses.
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Reported speech After many reporting verbs ‘that’ can be James said (that) he was
left out. feeling better.
Examples: said, thought, suggested
After adjectives In ‘that’ clauses after some adjectives, I’m glad (that) you’re all right.
‘that’ can be left out.
Conjunctions ‘That’ can be left out in an informal style Come in quietly so (that)
in some common two-word she doesn’t hear you.
conjunctions such as:
I was having such a nice
‘so that’ time (that) I didn’t want to
‘such…that’ leave.
‘now that’
‘providing that’
‘provided that’
‘supposing that’
‘considering that’
‘assuming that’
Relative structures Leave out the relative pronoun ‘that’ Look! There are the
when it is the object in a relative clause. people (that) we met in
*See ‘that + dependent clauses’ Brighton
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Examples
Structuree
She hopes he’ll come. any problems getting home.
‘To hope’ + future I hope you won’t have
all right.
mple He hopes the traffic is too cold.
‘To hope’ + present si I hope the water is not
(refers to the future)
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9 Adjectives and Adverbs
Possessive Adjectives
A possessive adjective is used with a noun to indicate possession, ownership or close
relationship.
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Structure Examples
‘Too’ + adjective/adverb The music is too loud.
‘Too many’ + plural countable nouns She has too many books.
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Placement of Enough
‘Enough’
=
sufficient, adequate
He can’t reach the shelf.
He’s not tall enough.
Structure Examples
After adjectives and adverbs I’m not tall enough.
You drive fast enough.
She also studies English. She studies English as well. She studies English too.
She, too, studies English.
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Adverbs
An adverb modifies a verb. It helps to tell ‘how’, ‘when’ or ‘where’ the action took place.
To make an adverb: Adjective + –ly
Examples:
Accidently Quickly
Angrily Safely
Badly
-If the adjective ends in /e/, we keep /e/ before the /ly/
Polite Politely, Extreme Extremely
-If the adjective end in /le/, we do not keep the /e/ before the /ly/
Simply Simply, Terrible Terribly
‘that’ as an adverb
Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of manner tell us how something happens or how somebody does something.
They are usually placed after the main verb or after the object.
Examples:
The train stopped suddenly.
I opened the door slowly.
Adjective Adverb
-Sue is very quiet. -Sue speaks very quietly. (Not speaks very quiet)
-It was a bad game. (Describes the game -Our team played badly. (Describes how the team played)
which is a noun)
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Twenty minutes ago they were waiting for Bill. They are still waiting for Bill.
Bill hasn’t come yet.
Use Examples
Yet Use in negative sentences and questions Where is Diane?
She isn’t here yet.
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‘Still’ / ‘Yet’
Still
=
something is the same as before
Yet
=
until now
Twenty minutes ago they were waiting for Bill. They are still waiting for Bill.
Bill hasn’t come yet.
Use Examples
Yet Use in negative sentences and questions Where is Diane?
She isn’t here yet.
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Compound Adjectives
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Examples:
Disgust disgusting
Bore boring
Interest interesting
Depress depressing
Surprise surprising
Tells you about the situation Tells you how somebody feels.
Examples: Examples:
My job is boring. I’m bored with my job.
The news was shocking. We were shocked when we heard the news.
It was surprising that he passed the Everyone was surprised that he passed the
exam. exam.
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Examples:
That is a broken cup.
We are visiting the forgotten city of the Incas.
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Adverbs of Degree
Describe the strength or intensity of something that happens.
Many adverbs are gradable, which means we can intensify them.
They answer these questions: ‘How much ..?’ or ‘How little...?’
Highest Intensity ++ Lowest Intensity
totally somewhat hardly
completely somehow scarcely
entirely fairly barely
thoroughly rather
absolutely kind of
definitely
positively
+++ +
almost slightly
very a bit
extremely a little
really
quite
practically
Place the adverb before the main verb She has almost finished.
Examples:
I’m really enjoying working on this project.
The exam was fairly easy.
He has barely worked this year.
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Other uses
Adjective
Adverb well
good with difficulty )
difficult publicly deeply (feelingn)
public deep (place) directly (=soo m)
deep direct hardly (=seldove)
direct hard highly (figuratitly)
hard high (place) lately (=recen lly)
high late mostly (=usuast)
late most nearly (=almo
most near prettily )
near pretty (=rather)
shortly (=soon
pretty short r, fa s t, h o u rl y , little,
arly, fa
short d aily, enougho,nethly, much, straight,
o w in g a d je c ti ves are lo n g , low, m
The foll as adverbs w e e k ly , yearly, …
also used dification)
(without mo g iv e e x tr a in formation
o used to
adverbs are tiavlses (or other adverbs).
about adjec
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Uses of ‘so’
Structure + Examples
‘So’ + adjective or adverb = an exclamation
You’re so kind!
Don’t be so sensitive!
Substitute word
‘So’ can be used in some structures instead of repeating an adjective or adverb.
The weather is stormy and will remain so over the weekend.
We thank you for flying with us and hope you’ll do so again.
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Use
We use ‘even’ to say that something is surprising or unusual.
Example
Tina loves watching television. She has a TV set in every room of the house, even the bathroom.
Use
We can use ‘even’ + a comparative (cheaper / more expensive)
Example
I got up very early, but John got up even earlier.
Position of even
‘Even’ + nominal group* / pronoun + verb
Even my sister will be there.
Even you can come.
*A nominal group typically comprises a noun surrounded by other words that all in some way
characterize that noun.
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‘Quite’ goes before a/an Quite a nice day. (not a quite nice day)
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Use
To compare two people or things according to a common trait.
Examples
My brother is as tall as my dad.
I’m as old as you are.
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40 50
KG
KG
old older heavy heavier
Comparatives are used to compare two things. You can use sentences
with ‘than’, or you can use a conjunction like ‘but’.
2 syllable adjectives ending in ‘y’ add -ier English is easier than Russian.
easy easier
2 or more syllables add more (before the adjective) Helen is more beautiful than Jane.
beautiful more beautiful
Spelling Rules
Words with one syllable ending with a vowel and a consonant at the end. (Double the consonant.)
Example:
hot hotter big bigger fat fatter
Irregular Comparatives
good better
bad worse
far farther/further
much/many more
little less
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2 syllable adjectives ending in ‘y’ add the -iest English is the easiest language to learn.
2 or more syllables add the most Helen is the most beautiful in her family.
(before the adjective)
beautiful the most beautiful
Spelling Rules
Words with one syllable ending with a vowel and a consonant at the end double the consonant.
Example:
hot – hottest big – biggest fat – fattest
Irregular Superlatives
good the best
bad the worst
far the farthest/ the furthest
much/many the most
little the least
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Parallel progression: we use comparatives with ‘the....the....’ to say things change or vary together.
Examples
The younger you are, the easier it is to learn a language.
The more I learn, the more I know.
The older I get, the happier I am.
Use
Sometimes a comparative may express an This class is for the more intelligent students
opposition between 2 elements without actually (as opposed to ‘the slower students’)
stating both elements (the second element is implied)
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Prepositions of Time
Prepositions
A preposition of time connects words in a sentence showing the relationship of a noun
and the moment/day/time/date of the action.
Preposition Use Example
At Time I start work at 9 o’clock.
I go to bed at midnight.
The shops close at 5.30.
Fixed expressions:
in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening
But
on Monday morning, on Tuesday afternoon etc.
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Prepositions of Place
A preposition of place connects words in a sentence showing the relationship of a
noun and the location/area/position/surface of an object.
At In On
•General location •Inside of a place •Surface
•Precise point in larger •Country, city, district
space something is located in
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Final Preposition
A final preposition is a word which comes after the verb and requests the results between
the action performed and the subject or object of the sentence.
Verb + preposition
Some verbs are commonly followed by a preposition in order to indicate a common action.
Examples:
Listen to
Look at
Look for (search for, try to find)
Look after (take care of)
Talk about
Talk to
Worry about
Pay for
Depend on
Complain about
Go to
Go for
Go on
Go in
In some structures we put the preposition at the end of the sentence:
Interrogative questions What are you looking at?
(when the question word is the object of the What kind of music do you like to listen to?
preposition)
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12 Conjunctions
Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word that “joins” the words in a sentence to each other in order to send a
logical message. It literally connects parts of a sentence.
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-To suggest that one idea is the result of Kevin heard the weather report and
another. packed his camping gear.
- To suggest that one idea is in contrast to Juan is brilliant, and Sandra has a
another. pleasant personality.
-To suggest that one clause is dependent Use your credit cards frequently, and
upon another, conditionally. you’ll soon find yourself deep in debt.
-To suggest a kind of ‘comment’ on the My lazy friend Charlie failed the math test
first clause. and that didn’t surprise anyone.
‘Yet’
-To suggest addition, more of something. She is a simple, yet very intelligent woman.
-Despite, even though The story is unbelievable, yet supposedly it’s all true.
-To indicate that something can ‘eventually’ occur. They may yet win the game.
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‘Nor’
-Used with ‘neither’ for negative sentences. He is neither young nor ambitious.
-Used with other negative expressions. That is not what I meant, nor should you
misinterpret my statement.
‘But’
- To suggest a contrast that is unexpected based Joey lost his job last year, but he still
on the first clause. seems able to live quite comfortably.
- To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first The students never studied for the test,
part of the sentence implied in a negative way. but used their notes to work on the
assignment in class.
- To use with the meaning of ‘with Everybody but Mark is trying out for the team.
the exception of’.
‘Or’
- To suggest that only one possibility can be You can study hard for this exam or you
achieved, excluding one or the other. can fail. (= only one of these things can happen)
- To suggest the inclusive combination We can broil chicken on the grill tonight,
of alternatives. or we can eat hamburgers.
- To suggest a refinement of the first Smart English is the best language center in the
clause. country, or so it seems to most students at the UAI.
- To suggest a negative condition. Either you participate in class or get a 1.0 grade for
class participation.
- To suggest a negative alternative without They must like her style or they wouldn’t keep asking
the use of an imperative. her to design the uniforms each year.
‘For’
Though used as a preposition, we can use ‘for’ John thought he had a good chance to
as a conjunctive when we introduce the reason for get the job, for his father was on the
the preceding clause. company’s board of trustees.
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‘So’
- To connect two independent clauses together Steve has always been nervous in large
with a comma. gatherings, so it is no surprise that he
avoids crowds when he is at the beach.
- To indicate ‘as well’ or ‘in addition’. John is not the only Olympic athlete in his
family, so are his uncle, sister, and his
aunt Sally.
- At the beginning of a sentence, ‘so’ will act as a So, the sheriff promptly removed the child
kind of summing up device or transition, and when it from the custody of his parents.
does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence
with a comma.
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‘May’ / ‘might’ ‘can’ / ‘could’ He stayed after school so that he could help me
with my homework.
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Structure Example
‘Like’
- is similar to a preposition
•Like + noun / pronoun You look like your sister.
He ran like the wind.
•We can use ‘like’ to give examples She’s good at scientific subjects, like chemistry.
‘As’
- is a conjunction
•‘As’ + clause (subject + verb) They did as they promised.
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• As non-count nouns
Climbing is safer than it looks
If verbs are followed by another verb, that verb is either in the infinitive or the gerund form.
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Structure:
‘get used to’ + noun or gerund
It took them a long time to get used Have you got used to driving She is getting used to waking up
to the new office. on the left side of the road yet? early for her new job.
Structure:
subject + be + used to + object.
Mary is used to horses. Are you used to horses? We are used to taking the bus.
Kurt is not used to horses.
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Followed by gerund
or infinitive To like
To love
To dislike
To hate
To loathe
To prefer
Cannot bear
I love eating.
I love to eat.
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14 Conditionals
Conditionals
Zero, First, and Second Conditionals (Sequence of tenses with ‘if’)*
* For ‘construction of the present conditional’, see ‘second’ in table below.
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For ‘sequence of tenses with if’ see ‘zero, first, second and third’ below.
Conditionals are used to talk about possibility.
Conditional Structure Uses
Examples
Zero ‘If’ + subject + present simple , subject + Used to describe something that is
present simple generally or always true.
First ‘If’ + subject+ present simple, subject + ‘will’ Used to describe a situation that is likely.
+ infinitive without ‘to’
Second ‘If’ + subject + past simple, subject + Used to describe a situation that
(present) ‘would’ + infinitive without ‘to’ is not likely.
If’ I won a million pounds, I would buy a house. Describes a hypothetical situation
in the present.
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Describes hypothetical situations in the past. These situations are in the past and therefore they are impossible
and never happened.
Example:
Last month Gary was in hospital for an operation. Liz didn’t know this, so she didn’t go to visit him. They met a
few days ago. Liz said:
‘If I had known you were in hospital, I would have gone to visit you.’
What Liz said is hypothetical because the real situation is that she didn’t know he was in hospital.
Use Example
Regret or reproach (to blame someone) I should have studied harder. (regret)
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15 Subjunctive and Wishes
Present Subjunctive
FORM
Use the simple form of the verb. The simple form is the infinitive without the ‘to’. The
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simple form of the verb ‘to go’ is ‘go’. The Subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms
and tenses.
USE
The Subjunctive is used to emphasize urgency or importance. It is used after certain
expressions (see below).
Examples:
• I suggest that he study.
• Is it essential that we be there?
• Don recommended that you join the committee.
NOTICE:
The Subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms and tenses. In the examples below, the
Subjunctive is not noticeable in the you-form of the verb, but it is noticeable in the he/she-
form of the verb.
Examples:
YOU-FORM OF ‘TRY’: HE-FORM OF ‘TRY’:
•You try to study often. •He tries to study often.
SUBJUNCTIVE FORM OF ‘TRY’ LOOKS THE SAME: SUBJUNCTIVE FORM OF ‘TRY’ IS NOTICEABLE:
•It is important that you try to study often. •It is important that he try to study often.
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Examples
•Dr. Smith asked that Mark submit his research paper before the end of the month.
•Donna requested Frank come to the party.
•The teacher insists that her students be on time.
Examples
•It is crucial that you be there before Tom arrives.
•It is important she attend the meeting.
•It is recommended that he take a gallon of water with him if he wants to hike to the bottom of the
Grand Canyon.
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However, we usually use the subjunctive ‘were’ instead of ‘was’ after ‘if’ and other words with similar meanings.
(‘was’ is often used informally in speech)
Examples
He wishes he were a better student.
If I were seven feet tall, I’d be a great basketball player.*
*This is also a second conditional. See below.
The past subjunctive is commonly used with these expressions ‘if only’, ‘I wish’, ‘suppose’, ‘as if’.
Examples
If only I had more money.
I wish I were thinner.
Suppose she were married.
It’s not as if I were ugly.
Note: Some sentences combine a past subjunctive with a conditional. In this example, part 1 is a subjunctive
and part 2 a conditional.
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Wish Regret
= =
To show you want a To feel sorrow or
situation to be different remorse for something
you did/did not do.
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16 Passives
The Passive Voice
Passive Voice = ‘To be’ + past participle
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When we use the passive, ‘who’ or ‘what’ causes the action is often unknown or unimportant.
If we want to say who does or what causes the action, we use ‘by…’
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The personal pronouns ‘we, you, they’ We drive on the left side of the road.
(the speaker is included in the group of people
in question)
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17 Reported Speech
The Sequence of Tenses / Reported Speech
Reported Speech is used to communicate what someone else said, but without using the
exact words.
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You want to tell someone else what Tom said. There are 2 ways of doing this:
1. You can repeat Tom’s words (direct speech)
Tom said, ‘I’m feeling ill’
Reported speech:
-The main sentence of the verb is usually in the past tense. (said, told)
-The rest of the sentence is usually in a past tense too. (each tense goes a step back in time)
-‘That’ is optional.
*The imperative changes to the infinitive. ‘Tell’ is usually used instead of ‘say’.
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2. However, sometimes in spoken English no change is made if the speaker is reporting something
immediately after it was said.
Later Reporting: I didn’t go to the class yesterday. Did Mr. Jones give any
assignments?
He said he wanted us to read Chapter Six.
4. The past simple can stay the same in reported speech or you can change it to the past perfect.
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18 Phrasal Verbs
The Main Postpositions / Common Phrasal Verbs
A phrasal verb consists of a verb and a preposition or adverb that modifies or changes the
meaning.
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Back Backward movement: to stand back The student answered back to the teacher.
Return to point of departure: to bring back
Reply: to answer back
Down Downward movement: to go down Please turn down the radio; it is very loud.
Writing: to write down
Decrease: to turn down
In Inward movement: to get in I will drop in later and see how you are doing.
Visit: to drop in
Over Repetition: to say over I will have to think over your offer carefully.
Action done with care: to think over
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Phrasal Verbs
A phrasal verb is a verb plus a preposition or adverb which creates a meaning different from the
original verb.
Example:
I ran into my teacher at the movies last night. RUN + INTO = MEET
He ran away when he was 15. RUN + AWAY = LEAVE HOME
Some transitive phrasal verbs are separable. The object is placed between
the verb and the preposition.
Example:
I talked my mother into letting me borrow the car. TALK INTO = PERSUADE
Some transitive phrasal verbs are inseparable. The object is placed after the
preposition.
Example:
I ran into an old friend yesterday. RUN INTO = MEET BY CHANCE
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WARNING!
Although many phrasal verbs can take an object in both
places, you must put the object between the verb and the
preposition if the object is a pronoun.
Example:
I looked the number up in the phone book. CORRECT
I looked up the number in the phone book. CORRECT
I looked it up in the phone book. CORRECT
I looked up it in the phone book. INCORRECT
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Expressions
‘To get’ + Adjective
The verb ‘to get’ has many different ‘To get’ + adjective :
meanings such as: to become, show a change of state
Some adjectives used with ‘get’
Get dressed
Structure
Verb ‘to be’ + ‘look forward to’ + noun
Example:
I am looking forward to the vacation.
Structure
Verb ‘to be’ + ‘look forward to’ + gerund
Examples:
I look forward to hearing from you.
He is looking forward to seeing you.
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‘To be likely’
‘To be likely’
=
high probability of something happening.
Present
‘To be likely’ + infinitive He is likely to pass the exam.
The meeting is likely to be very long.
Past
‘To be (was/were) likely’ + infinitive The meeting was likely to be very long.
Negative
‘To be unlikely’ + infinitive He is unlikely to come.
Related expression
‘It is likely that’ It’s likely that it will rain.
It’s unlikely that it is very cold there.
‘To be likely’ + ‘to have’ + past participle He is likely to have forgotten about the appointment.
= an opinion about a past event. They are likely to have finished early.
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Subject + ‘be left’ The weather was bad. Few people were left on the streets.
Subject + ‘have’ + direct object + ‘left’ Do you have any rooms left?
Yes, we have some rooms left.
‘For the sake of’ + noun / noun phrase / gerund For the sake of the children
For the sake of saving
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Use Examples
Here are some fixed expressions with the
verb ‘to have’
To have a bath Did you have a bath yesterday?
To have lunch We will have lunch later.
To have a rest I’d like to have a rest before going out.
To have a look Have a look at this!
‘To have reason to’ + infinitive We have reason to hope for continued success.
( to analyze causes and consequences)
‘To have to do with something’ The report has to do with our financial
( to say what the topic is) results for the last quarter.
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Baseball Expressions
Baseball is an important part of American culture. Its influence is so strong that it
has become the source of many expressions that are used in informal and busi-
ness contexts.
Expression Example
Touch base It’s good to touch base with clients regularly.
Big league We’ll move into the big league if we secure this deal.
Play hard ball We’re going to have to play hard ball if we want to
get this deal.
Right off the bat Dan started criticizing right off the bat.
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‘To be at stake’
Structure Use Example
‘To be’ + ‘at stake’ To be threatened or endangered. If we don’t respond to this
This may be used to talk about threats crisis now, our financial
to someone or something’s well-being stability will be at stake.
or reputation.
The firm’s reputation is at
stake following the recall of
its latest product.
Expressions of Increase
There are several different words and expressions to describe increase.
Use Expression Example
To describe increase in a To rise Share values rose steadily last quarter.
general way. To climb
Next year, productivity
should climb sharply.
To describe sharp and To take off The company is only two years old,
sudden increase. To skyrocket but it has really taken off.
To shoot up
To soar Stocks are skyrocketing following
To go through the roof economic recovery.
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20 Other
‘There is’ / ‘There are’
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Examples:
STATION
MT W TFSS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 May
23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30 31
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Dates
Ordinal Numbers Fourth 4th, Fifth 5th, Sixth 6th, Seventh 7th, Eighth 8th,
Ninth 9th, Tenth 10th…
Weekly Calendar
Days Week of_______________
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
Years
Up until the year 2000,
years are pronounced 1998 = nineteen ninety-eight
in two parts:
2010 = two thousand (and) ten (‘twenty ten’ is also becoming popular)
1925 = 19part1 25part2 =
‘Nineteen1 twenty-five2’
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Time
O’clock
The time + o’clock = indicates an exact hour.
It’s six o’clock.
British English
To express a time after the hour we use ‘past’.
12 1
11 12 12 1
2 11 1 11
10
10 2 10 2
9 3
9 3 9 3
8 4
8 4 8 4
7 5
6 7 5 7 5
6 6
It’s twenty past four. It’s quarter past three It’s half past twelve.
To express a time after the half hour and before the hour we use ‘to’.
12 1 12 1
11 11
10 2 10 2
9 3 9 3
8 4 8 4
7 5 7 5
6 6
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American English
To express a time after the hour we use ‘after’. (except for the half hour)
12 12 12 1
11 1 11 1 11
10 2 10 2 10 2
9 3 9 3 9 3
8 4 8 4 8 4
7 5 7 5 7 5
6 6 6
It’s twenty after four. It’s quarter after three. It’s twelve thirty.
To express a time after the half hour and before the hour we use ‘to’.
12 1 12 1
11 11
10 2 10 2
9 3 9 3
8 4 8 4
7 5 7 5
6 6
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To cause something ‘to have’ + direct object + He had his car repaired.
to be done past participle She had her hair cut.
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‘To Let’
Example:
Please allow me to buy you a drink.
Please let me buy you a drink.
Example:
My parents don’t allow me to go out at night.
My parents don’t let me go out at night.
I let I let
You let You let
He/She/It lets He/She/It let
We let We let
They let They let
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SmartEnglish
Examples:
They will eat when they arrive.
While I am in Santiago, I’ll call you.
Conjunctions
of time
after
as soon as once
as long as until
as much as when
before whenever
while wherever
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GRAMMAR BOOK
‘Would rather’
Subject + ‘would rather’ + -To show preference I would rather go for a swim.
infinitive without ‘to’
Expression of Preference
These expressions are used to talk about preference.
Structure Examples
‘Would prefer’ I’d prefer to talk to someone else.
Would you prefer to stay at home?
Subject + ‘would prefer’ + infinitive with ‘to’
(‘d)
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SmartEnglish
Word ending in
ever Examples
Whoever Whoever comes to the door, tell them I’m out.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
‘Whether’
‘Whether’
=
to talk about choices or
alternatives. Like ‘if’ it
expresses uncertainty.
Use ‘whether’ after prepositions.
I am uncertain whether we should go to the dinner party.
It’s becoming increasingly popular to use ‘whether’ and ‘if’ interchangeably in certain situations. Although this
might be acceptable in casual conversation, it is not considered grammatically correct to interchange them.
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Emphatic ‘do’
For emphasis we can put do in an affirmative clause.
Use Examples
Insistence on speaker’s point of view. She does look pretty.
‘as if’ / ‘as though’ You look as if you don’t understand me.
It sounds as though you aren’t listening to me.
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‘I am told’
Structure Examples
‘I am told’ (= I understand ) I am told that you are in charge of the
Instead of ‘I’ve been told’ sales department.
‘I hear’
Instead of ‘I’ve heard’ I hear you have been promoted.
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