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Table of Unit 2 Present Perfect and Past

Construction and use of the Preterit* (Past

contents
...Simple)
Regular and Irregular Verbs
The Present Perfect
Differences between Present Perfect and
Unit 1 Present ...Preterit* (Past Simple)
The verb ‘to be’ and contractions The Present Perfect Continuous
The verb ‘to have’ Present Simple ‘For’ /‘Since’ / ‘Ago’
The negative form – verb ‘to be’, Present 'Ever' / 'Never'
...Simple Expressions with the Present Perfect
Tags- short answers – verb ‘to be’, Present The Preterit Continuous* (Past
...Simple ...Continuous)
The Present Simple vs. Present Continuous Past Perfect
The Present Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
The Affirmative Imperative ‘Used To’
The Negative Imperative
Verbs without a continuous form Unit 3 Future
Verbs without a continuous form: exceptions The Near Future be + -ing* (Present
‘Always’ + Present Continuous ...Continuous for Future)
The Future – ‘Will’
Future Continuous – ‘Will be doing’
The Future – ‘Will’ + ‘To be going to’
Future Perfect – ‘Will have done’
The Future with ‘be’ + Infinitive

*This is the title of the grammar point in the online software. 3


Unit 4 Modals Unit 5 Questions
‘Can’ – ability and likelihood Questions without interrogative words
‘Can’ – perception and knowledge Interrogative Words
‘Can’, ‘could’, ‘to be able to’ ‘How long...’
‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: advice Past Interrogatives
‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: probability Question Tags
‘Must’ and ‘have to’ ‘Which’ / ‘What’
Using ‘must’ for obligation ‘How long…..(for)’/ ‘Since when'
Strong probability using ‘must’ Short Questions
Absence of necessity
‘May’ and ‘Might’ Unit 6 Articles and Nouns
‘Shall’ Definite and Indefinite Articles
‘Would like’: expressing wishes The Plural
Modal Auxiliaries Names of Countries: Capitals
Near certainty in the past: Countable and Uncountable Nouns
...‘must have/ can’t have’ Exclamations with ‘what a’
Construction of Compound Nouns
The use and omission of ‘the’
Definite articles with geographical names
Nouns without singular forms
Negation of the indefinite article

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Unit 7 Pronouns and Determiners Unit 8 Relative Clauses and
Subject Pronouns Dependent Clauses
Object Pronouns Relative Pronouns and Adverbs
Possessive Pronouns ‘That’ and Dependent Clauses
Reflexive Pronouns When ‘that’ may be left out
‘No’ / ’None’ ‘To hope’ + Dependent Clause
The Possessive
Unit 9 Adjectives and Adverbs
More uses of the Possessive
Possessive Adjectives
The Indefinite Possessive
‘Too’ / ‘Too Much’
Use of Pronoun ‘one’
Placement of ‘Enough’
Demonstrative Pronouns
‘Also’ / ‘As well’ / ‘Too’
‘Here’/ ‘There’
Adverbs of Time / Frequency
‘Some’ and ‘Any’
The Adverb ‘that’
‘How much’ / ‘How many’
‘Yet’ / ‘Not yet’
‘As much as’ / ‘As many as’
‘Still’ / ‘Yet’
‘Some’ / ‘Any’: singular or plural?
Compound Adjectives
‘Either……or’
Adjectives ending in –ing and –ed
‘Either……. or’ / ‘Neither …….nor’
Adjectives ending in –ing
‘Everybody’ / ‘Nobody’
The Past Participle as an adjective
‘Everybody’ / ‘Somebody’ / ‘Nobody’
Adverbs of Degree
‘Each other’ / ‘One another’
Adverbs and Adjectives
Different meanings of ‘all’
Uses of ‘so’
‘A little’ / ‘A bit’
The placement of ‘even’
Use of ‘both’
‘Even though’ / ‘Even if’
‘Quite’ / ‘Quite a few’

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Unit 10 Comparatives Unit 13 Gerunds and Infinitives
and Superlatives Gerunds and Infinitives
Comparing equals using ‘as…..as’ Use of ‘be used to’
Regular and Irregular Comparatives Use of ‘get used to’
Regular and Irregular Superlatives Verbs: Reactions and Preferences
‘The more . . . the more’ Verb + Infinitive Clause
A use of the comparative Verbs expressing a wish to act
Expressions followed by the gerund
Unit 11 Prepositions
Verbs introducing a second action
Prepositions of Time
Prepositions of Place Unit 14 Conditionals
Final Prepositions Present Conditional* and Sequence
Verbs + prepositions ...of Tenses with ‘if’* (Zero, First, Second)
The Perfect Conditional* (Third Conditional)
Unit 12 Conjunctions
The Perfect Conditional using ‘should’
Conjunctions
Use of ‘so’ to express a goal Unit 15 Subjunctive and Wishes
‘So that’ + ‘may’ or ‘can’ Present Subjunctive
Similarity: ‘like’ and ‘as’ Past Subjunctive
Wishes and Regrets

Unit 16 Passive
The Passive Voice
The Impersonal Structure

Unit 17 Reported speech


The Sequence of Tenses* (Reported
...Speech)

*This is the title of the grammar point in the online software.


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Unit 18 Phrasal Verbs Unit 20 Other
The Main Postpositions* (Common phrasal ‘There is/are’
...verbs) Time
Phrasal Verbs ‘Have’ or ‘make’ without ‘to’
‘To let’
Unit 19 Expressions ‘When’ / ‘while’ + Present
‘To get’ + Adjective ‘How’ + Adjective or Adverb
‘To look forward to’ ‘Had better’ / ‘Would rather’
‘Kind of’ followed by a noun Expressions of Preference
‘To be likely’ Words ending in ‘ever’
‘To be left’ / ‘To have left’ ‘Whether’
‘For the sake of’ Emphatic 'do’
Expressions with ‘to have’ Verbs expressing impressions
Baseball Expressions ...and feelings
‘To be at stake’ ‘I am told’
Expressions of Increase

*This is the title of the grammar point in the online software.


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I
You
Present
The verb ‘to be’ and contractions
The verb ‘to be’ expresses existence, action, or occurrence.
Conjugation of ‘to be’

He /She /It
We
am
are
is
are
I’m
Contraction of ‘to be’

You’re
He’s / She’s / It’s
We’re
I am a student.
I’m a student.

He is my brother.
Use + examples
( as a stative verb)

They are They’re He’s my brother.


Negative ‘to be’ Negative contraction ‘to be’ Question


I am not I’m not Am I?
You are not You’re not or You aren’t
He /She /It is not He’s / She’s / It’s not or
He / She / It isn’t Is he/ she/ it?
We are not We’re not or We aren’t

Are we / you / they?


They are not They’re not or They aren’t

The verb ‘to have’


The verb ‘to have’ is used to express possession, ownership, qualities or characteristics.
The verb ‘to have’ Negative ‘to have’ Question
I I don’t have Do + I + have…?
You You don’t have you
He /She / It He/ She/ It doesn’t have we
We We don’t have they
They They don’t have Does + he + have?
she
it

Examples Examples Examples


I have 2 brothers. I don’t have 2 brothers. Do you have 2 brothers?
He has 2 brothers. He doesn’t have 2 brothers. Does he have 2 brothers?

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Present Simple

We use the present simple for:


◌ things that are true in general
◌ things that happen sometimes or all the time
◌ to describe regular actions, events or habits

Present simple affirmative Present simple negative Present simple question


I work I don’t work Do + I + work…?
You work You don’t work you
He /She / It works He / She /It doesn’t work we
We work We don’t work they
They work They don’t work Does + he + work?
she
it

Examples Examples Examples


I work everyday. I don’t work everyday. Do you work everyday?
He works everyday. He doesn’t work everyday. Does he work everyday?

Third person (He / She / It)


You must always add an –s to the verb.
Spelling
Verbs ending in: –s / –sh / –ch pass : passes finish : finishes
add –es
Verbs ending in : –y study : studies try : tries
add –ies
Except when the verb is preceded by a vowel. play : plays
Also do : does go : goes

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The Negative Form


The negative form of the verb to be expresses the nonexistence, nonaction, or non
occurrence of an action.
Structure Examples
The verb ‘to be’
I am not
Add : not or n’t to contractions You are not
He /She /It is not
We are not
They are not

They are not my friends. (aren’t)


He is not my brother. (isn’t)
Present Simple
I don’t work.
Add : do not (I, you, we, they) You don’t work.
or don’t He / She /It doesn’t work.
We don’t work.
does not (he, she, it) They don’t work.
or doesn’t
I don’t play football on the weekends.
He doesn’t go to university.

Tags – short answers


When we answer a question with ‘yes’ or ‘no’, it is usually followed by a tag which is
a repetition of the verb ‘to be’ or an auxiliary.
The verb ‘to be´
Am I a teacher? Yes, you are. No, you’re not. / you aren’t.
Are you a teacher? Yes, I am. No, I’m not.
Is he a teacher? Yes, he is. No, he’s not. / he isn’t.
Is she a teacher? Yes, she is. No, she’s not. / she isn’t.
Are we teachers? Yes, we are. No, we’re not. / we aren’t.
Are they teachers? Yes, they are. No, they’re not. / they aren’t.

Present Simple
Do I like football? Yes, you do. No, you don’t.
Do you like football? Yes, I do. No, I don’t.
Does he like football? Yes, he does. No, he doesn’t.
Does she like football? Yes, she does. No, she doesn’t.
Do we like football? Yes, we do. No, we don’t.
Do they like football? Yes, they do. No, they don’t.

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The Present Simple and Present Continuous


The present simple describes a present condition, regular or general action; the
present continuous describes the action that is currently taking place.
Use Examples
The Present Simple
- Regular actions or events I always eat eggs for breakfast.
- When talking in general
- Facts He often has English class.
- Often used with adverbs
of frequency – sometimes, Banks lend money to make profits.
often, always, never etc.

The Present Continuous


- The action is not happening Catherine wants to work in Italy, so
. at the time of speaking. she is learning Italian. (but
perhaps she isn’t learning exactly
at the time of speaking)

He is having English class at


- Now the moment.

- For temporary situations Banks are lending more money


(these days) to encourage
businesses to expand.

I’m eating.

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The Present Continuous

Present continuous:
something is happening now / at the moment / currently
Past Now Future
I’m working.
He’s playing football.
They’re watching television.

Structure + Examples
The verb ‘to be’ + verb –ing
I am (not) verb-ing I am working.
He/she/it is (not) verb-ing Chris is writing a letter.
We/you/they are (not) verb-ing We’re having dinner.

Question:
What are you doing now?
What is he doing now?

We are
I’m eating. running.

It is raining.

Spelling
Verbs that end in –e drop the ‘e’ , add –ing
Make – making, write – writing, come – coming, dance – dancing
Verbs that end in –ie change to –ying
Lie – lying, die – dying, tie – tying

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The Affirmative Imperative

Sit down.
You can use the
imperative form to
give an order, a
warning or advice.

Affirmative Imperative Structure Examples


you (singular + plural) Infinitive without ‘to’ Be Quiet!
Walk down the street
I, he, she, we, they Let + object pronoun + Let me check in
infinitive without ‘to’ the dictionary.

Let + noun phrase + Let Mark sit there.
infinitive without ‘to’ Let’s (us) go to the beach.
Let them do what they want.

The Negative Imperative


The negative imperative form is used to give an order, warning or the advice to NOT
perform a specific action.

Negative Imperative Structure Examples


you (singular + plural) Do not (don’t) Don’t be quiet!
+ Infinitive without ‘to’ Don’t walk down the street
I, he, she, we, they Do not (don’t) let + object Don’t let me fall asleep.
pronoun + infinitive without ‘to
Do not (don’t) let + noun phrase + Don’t let the children fall asleep.
infinitive without ‘to’

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Verbs without a continuous form


Some verbs are never or hardly ever used in continuous forms.
Many of these non-continuous verbs refer to states rather than actions.

Mental and emotional states


To believe
To doubt
To feel (= have an opinion)
To imagine
To know
To (dis)like
To love
To hate
To prefer
To recognize
To remember
To see (= understand)
To suppose
To think (= have an opinion)
To understand
To want
To wish
To realize

Use of the senses


To appear
To hear
To look (=seem)
To see
To seem
To smell
To sound
To taste

Communicating and causing reactions


To agree
To deny
To impress
To please
To satisfy
To mean
To disagree

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Verbs without a continuous form: exceptions


Certain verbs which do not normally take the continuous form may take it in some cases.
Verbs of perception
When they express ‘voluntary actions’ To see
To hear
To feel
To smell
To taste

I’m seeing Lynn tomorrow.


I see what you mean.
NOT I’m seeing what you mean
Stative verbs
Expressing notions of belief, To think (to reflect)
preference, feelings or an What are you thinking about?
intellectual activity.
. NOT to think ( have an opinion)
What are you thinking of it?
What do you think of it?

‘Always’ + Present Continuous


‘Always’ is normally used with the simple present. However, sometimes it is used with the
present continuous in these situations:
Use Example
To express a repeated action which You’re always running late!
has an effect on the speaker.

To talk about unexpected or Compare:


unplanned events. When Alice comes to see me, I always
meet her at the station.
(a regular, planned arrangement)

I’m always meeting Mrs. Jones at the supermarket.
(accidental, unplanned meeting)

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Present Perfect and Past Simple


The Preterit (Past Simple)

USE
To talk about completed actions or finished events that
happened at a specific time (yesterday, last year, etc.)
I watched television
yesterday.

Regular Verbs:
For regular verbs add –ed
For regular verbs ending in –y , drop the –y , add –ied
I watched I didn’t watch Did you watch?
You watched You didn’t watch he/she/it
He/she/it watched He/she/it didn’t watch
We watched We didn’t watch we
They watched They didn’t watch they

Examples
I watched television last night. I didn’t watch television last night. Did you watch television last night?

Irregular Verbs: There is no rule for the construction of irregular verbs in the past, therefore
you must memorize them.
Here are some important irregular verbs:
begin began fall fell leave left sell sold
break broke find found lose lost sit sat
bring brought fly flew make made sleep slept
build built forget forgot meet met speak spoke
buy bought get got pay paid stand stood
catch caught give gave put put take took
come came go went read read(red) tell told
do did have had ring rang think thought
drink drank hear heard say said win won
eat ate know knew see saw write wrote

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Irregular Verbs
For the preterit (past simple) and past participle of regular verbs add -ed
However, for irregular verbs there are no rules. You must memorize them.

Here are some common irregular verbs:

Verb Past Tense Past Participle


be was/were been
begin began begun
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
do did done
drink drank drunk
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
fly flew flown
give gave given
have had had

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The Present Perfect


The Present Perfect is used to indicate actions that happened in a unfinished period of time.

Structure Past Participles


I/you/we/they have + past participle go gone
He/she/it has + past participle have had
take taken
Have I/you/they/we + past participle….? eat eaten
Has he/she/it + past participle…? drink drunk
sing sung

Uses Examples
Shows there is a connection with now. -‘Where is your key?’ ‘I don’t know. I have lost it.’
An action in the past has a result now. (I can’t find it now.)

-‘Is Sally here?’ ‘No, she has gone to the mall.’


(She is at the mall now.)
Describes an action that started in the -I have tried to learn French, but haven’t succeeded.
past and continues in the present.
-I have always studied a lot in university.

Shows that an action has -Ouch! I have (just) cut my finger.
recently happened. -The road is closed. There has (just) been an accident.
- (Just is used to show that something -I have (just) finished a great book!
happened recently)

They are at home. They are going out. They have gone out.
(=They are not at home now)

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Differences between the Past Simple and the Present Perfect


Uses Examples
Past Simple I saw three movies last week.
When the time period has finished (the action has finished in a specific time
period in the past).
Present Perfect I have seen three movies this week.
When the time period has not finished (the week has not finished, so more actions in
this time period may take place).

Past Simple Martin has crashed his car last year.


To indicate “old” information
Present Perfect Martin crashed his car again.
When giving recent news

Past Simple I saw that movie on Thursday. (specific day)


When the time of the action is clear

Present Perfect I have already seen that movie.
When the time of action is not specific (no specific day or date of the action)

Past Simple ‘For’ I lived in Victoria for five years.


‘For’ is used in the past simple
when we want to indicate the period of time that
the action occurred but has already finished.
Present Perfect I have lived in Victoria for five years.
‘For’ and ‘since’ are used when we want to
indicate the period of time that the action has
been occurring, though the action has
not finished yet.

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The Present Perfect Continuous


We use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past
and has continued up until this moment in the present.

rb –ing
been + ve rb –ing
Structure h e y have been + ve
I/ y o u /w e /t
has
He/she/it n + v e r b –ing ….?
e bee g …?
I/you/they/w been + verb –in
Have he/she/it
Has

Uses Examples
Describes an action that has recently -Paul is very tired. He has been working hard.
stopped and has a connection with now. -Why are your clothes so dirty? What have
you been doing?
Describes an action that has been -I have been learning English for three years.
repeated over a certain amount of time. -She has been playing basketball since she
was 6 years old.
-They have been traveling to Europe every
summer since 1995.
It is raining now. It began raining two hours ago
and it is still raining.
How long has it been raining?
It has been raining for two hours.

We often use the present perfect continuous in


this way, especially with
How long, for… and since…The activity is still
happening (as in the example) or has just stopped.

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‘For’ / ‘Since’ / ‘Ago’

For, since, ago


=
to say how long something has been happening.

Use Examples
‘For’ = a period of time two hours a week
20 minutes 50 years
five days a long time
six months ages

I have been studying English for 3 years.

‘Since’ = the start of a period 8 o’clock 1977


Monday Christmas
12 May lunchtime
April they were at school

I have been studying English since 2000.

‘Ago’ = expression of time + ago six weeks ago


is usually used with the past tense a long time ago
two days ago

I studied English 5 years ago.

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‘Ever’ – ‘Never’

‘Ever’
=
at some/any time
up to now

‘Never’
=
not ever

Structure Examples
Question – ‘Ever’
Used in present simple and present perfect Do you ever play tennis?
Auxiliary + subject + ‘ever’ + main verb Have you ever been to Argentina?
Affirmative – ‘Ever’ She’s the nicest person I’ve ever met.
Used with ‘if’ or superlative (superlative)
Visit the Eiffel Tower if you ever go to
Paris. (if)
Negative – Negative I never drink and drive.
‘Never’ + verb in affirmative I’ve never been to Argentina.

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Expressions with the Present Perfect


The Present Perfect is used to indicate unfinished past actions, past actions when
the time is not specified, and when a past action is relevant now.
Structure + Use Examples
We can use these expressions with the
present perfect:
Today
All day
This week
This year He’s been in a bad mood all day.
Already I’ve visited my grandmother 2 times this week.
Just I’ve just started the class.
Yet I haven’t studied in the last two months.
Lately I haven’t heard about it so far.
Recently
In the last two months
All my life
So far
Ever
Never
They refer to a period of time that is
not yet over or is recent.
We cannot use these expressions with the
present perfect:
Two months ago
One year ago
Last week
Yesterday
When I was a child
They refer to a time in the past that is over.

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The Preterit Continuous (Past Continuous)

Preterit Continuous =
to say that someone was in the middle of doing
something at a certain time.

Sarah Sarah
4 O´clock 6 O´clock

It’s 6 o’clock now. Sarah is at home. She is watching television.


At 4 o’clock she wasn’t at home. She was playing tennis.

Positive Negative Question


she/it was + verb –ing I/he/she/it was not (wasn’t) + verb –ing Was I/he/she/it + verb –ing?

We/you/they were + verb -ing We/you/they were not (weren’t) + verb -ing Were we/you/they + verb-ing?

It was raining. It wasn’t raining. Was it raining?

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The Past Perfect


For actions that happened before related past events or times.
Structure
I/we/they/you + had (=I’d etc.) + past participle (gone, seen, finished etc.)
He/she/it + had (= he’d etc.) + past participle

Use Examples
1. To express an action completed I had never seen a movie before then.
before a given time in the past.
2. A state or action beginning in the past They had been friends for ten years when he left.
continuing until some later time in the past.

9
10
11 12 1
2
3
10
11 12 1
2
Half an hour later
9 3
8 4
7 6 5
Bye 8
7 6 5
4
Hello

Paul Sarah

Sarah went to a party last week. Paul went to the party too, but they
didn’t see each other. Paul went home at 10:30 and Sarah arrived at 11
o’clock.

So: When Sarah arrived at the party, Paul wasn’t there. He had gone
home.

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The Past Perfect Continuous

The Past Perfect Continuous is used for actions


that were unfinished when another action
took place.

Structure
I/you/we/they had been + verb –ing (studying, working, listening, etc.)
He/she/it had been + verb –ing

I/you/we/they had not been + verb-ing (sleeping, reading, eating, etc.)


He/she/it had not been + verb-ing
Had I/you/they/we been + verb –ing ….? (helping, playing, talking, etc.)
he/she/it been + verb –ing …?

Uses Examples
To show that something started in the past and Mary had been talking with John for 15
continued up until the moment that something minutes until Lindsey arrived.
else happened.
To show cause and effect. Jason was tired because he had been jogging.

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‘Used To’

Structure + Use Examples


I/you/he/she/it/we/you/they + ‘to be’ +
used to + verb + ing+ object.
Is used for expressing habits or things I am used to reading before going to sleep.
which you are comfortable with or
accustomed to.
For expressing a point in the process of I have gotten used to walking to work.
becoming accustomed to something.
For expressing actions that were habitual I used to eat seafood, but now I prefer meat.
in the past and implies that the action no
longer takes place. In this sense it is used
as a modal auxiliary.

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Future
The Near Future ‘be’ + –ing / Present Continuous for Future
The present continuous for future indicates that a specific action will be taking place
at a specific time in the future.
Structure Use Examples
‘To be’ + verb-ing for the future What are you doing
(tomorrow / next week) tomorrow evening?

I am (not) eating for fixed future I am staying at home.


You are (not) eating arrangements
He/she/it is (not) eating
We are (not) eating
They are (not) eating

I’m playing tennis


tomorrow

The Future – ‘Will’


We use ‘will’ for the future (tomorrow / next week etc.)
I/we/you/they will (‘ll) be
He/she/it will not (won’t) eat etc.
win
Subject + ‘will’ + infinitive Will I/we/you/they be?
(without to) He/she/it win? etc.
eat?
Examples:
I will be at home tomorrow.
Will you be at home this evening?

We use ‘will’ when we make a decision in the moment of speaking.


‘It’s cold in here.’ ‘I’ll close the window’
‘What would you like to order?’ ‘I’ll have the beef please.’

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The Future Continuous – ‘Will be doing’


Structure Use Examples
‘will’ + ‘be’ + gerund This is used to say you will be in The football games at 7:30 and
the middle of doing something. ends at 9:15. At 8:15, Kevin will
be watching the game.
It is used to talk about complete Q: If you see Sally, can you ask her
actions in the future. to call me?
A: Sure, I’ll be seeing her
this evening, so I’ll tell her then.

The Future – ‘Will’ vs. ‘To be going to’


Structure Use Examples
‘Will’ + infinitive Indefinite future predictions Next year I think I will go to New York.
I, you etc.+ ‘will’ + verb
(infinitive without to) When we make a decision in the ‘It’s cold in here’.
I, you etc.+ ‘will not’ (won’t) moment of speaking. ‘I’ll close the window’
+ verb (infinitive without to)

‘To be’ + ‘going to’ + infinitive


‘I am (not) going to’ + verb Future plans and intention I am going to meet Jill for lunch today.
(infinitive without to) (I’ve decided to do something, my
intention is to do it) He is not going to finish the project on time.

We also use ‘to be going to’


when there is evidence in
the present that something
is going to happen in the Example:
future. It is clear now that it There is a black cloud in the sky.
is sure to happen. It’s going to rain.

It’s going
to rain.

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The Future Perfect – ‘Will have done’


Structure Use Examples
‘Will have’ + past participle To indicate that something will occur You will have perfected your
before another action in the future. English by the time you
come back from the USA.
I, you etc.+ ‘will’ + ‘have’ To show that something will By Monday, Susan will have had
+ past participle continue up until another action in my book for a month.
the future.

The Future with ‘be’ + infinitive


Structure
‘To be’ + infinitive with ‘to’
This is used to express the idea of the future in the following situations:
Use Examples
A planned or agreed action
Present: ‘To be’ (present) + infinitive with ‘to’ We’re to see them tomorrow.
Past: ‘To be’ (past) + infinitive with ‘to’ I was to become a priest. (but I didn’t)
(This is a planned or agreed action that was
not done.)
An action which should be done What’s to be done?
An imposed action / a strict order You’re not to read that letter.

Instructions and directions for use The medicine is to be taken twice a day.
‘To be’ + passive infinitive

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Use
Modals
‘Can’ – ability and likelihood
Structure
‘Can’ ability
Use Examples
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- to be able to do something.
Example:
He can carry the bag.
‘Can’ likelihood / possibility g.
Example: 30 K
Sometimes when the weather is bad it can rain. ( It is possible that this happens.)
It can’t be true. (I certainly is not true, there is no possibility that it is true.)

Structure
I / we / you / they + can + verb
he / she / it cannot (can’t)

Question
Can + I / we / you / they + verb
he / she / it
Example: Can you swim?

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‘Can’ - perception and knowledge


Use
‘Can’ ability / knowledge
- to know how to do something
Example: I can play the guitar.

‘Can’ perception
- with verbs of perception such as to hear, to see, to feel.
Example: I can see Sarah coming.

Structure
I / we / you / they + can + verb
he / she / it cannot (can’t)

Question
Can + I / we / you / they + verb
he / she / it

Example: Can you swim?

I can play
the piano .

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‘Can’, ‘Could’, ‘To be able to’


The modal ‘can’ has the following form

n s p e a k 5 languages.
I ca g very well.
H e c a n ’t s in
Can u ld p la y th e piano. s sick.
Present hild I c o use I wa
Can’t W h en I was a c class yesterday beca

I c ouldn’t go to
Co u ld
u t y o u r p ro blem. She
Pas t Could n ’t b o
A s k Catherine a help you.
to
b e a b le to m ight be able
To ith you later. ecause
Infinitive to m e e t w b
I will be ablebe able to leave early .
to ’t
They won finish their homewo rk
Will be able n’t) be able to they have to
Future W il l n o t (w o

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‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: advice


Use
To give advice
Should / ought to = You shouldn´t
It is a good thing to do; it is the right thing to do. watch TV so much
Should not / ought not to =
It is not a good thing to do.

I, you, we, they + should (not) + infinitive without to


he, she, it
Examples:
It’s a good film. You should go and see it.
Tom shouldn’t go to bed so late.

I, you, we, they + ought (not) to + infinitive without to


he, she, it
Examples:
Carol ought to buy some new clothes.
You ought not to eat so much.
‘should’ or ‘ought to’ + ‘have’ + past participle
=
to express regret or reproach

We should have gone to the mountains.


They ought to have invited her.

‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: probability


Structure Use Example
‘Should’
subject + ‘should’ + To show something that is The train should arrive soon.
infinitive without ‘to’ desirable or probable

‘Ought to’
subject + ‘ought to’ + Implies an expectation or assumption He is intelligent. He ought to
infinitive without ‘to’ pass the exam.

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‘Must’ and ‘Have to’


Must = a need or obligation to do something
Structure Example
I, you, we, they + must + infinitive without to You must wash your hands before eating.
He, she, it + must + infinitive without to

Mustn’t = an obligation to NOT do something. You must not do it.


Must not
Structure Example
I, you, we, they + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’ You mustn’t smoke in the elevator.
He, she, it + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’’

NO
SM
OK
ING

Have to = a need or obligation to do something.


Structure Example
I, you, we, they + have to + infinitive without to You have to finish the assignment by tomorrow.

Don’t have to = NO obligation to do something. It is optional.


Doesn’t have to
Structure Example
I, you, we, they + don’t have to + infinitive You don’t have to do the homework if you don’t
without ‘to’ want to.
He, she, it + doesn’t have to + infinitive ( You can either do it or not; it is optional)
without ‘to

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Using ‘must’ for obligation

Must
=
a need or obligation to do something.

I, you, we, they + must + infinitive without ‘to’ You must wash your hands before eating.
He, she, it + must + infinitive without ‘to’

Mustn’t
=
an obligation NOT to do something.

I, you, we, they + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’ You mustn’t walk on the grass.
He, she, it + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’

Please keep
off the grass

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Strong probability using ‘must’

Must
=
strong probability or near certainty.

Structure Example
Subject + must + verb (infinitive without ‘to’) You must be Mr. Brown. My sister has told me all about you.

Negative:
Subject + cannot + verb (infinitive without ‘to’) You can’t be Maggie’s mother; you’re not old enough!
Subject + can’t + verb (infinitive without ‘to’)

:
The past form is ast participle
must + have + p
s s e s n e a r c e rt ainty in the past.
It expre s t have gone out.
Exa m p le : H e m u

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Absence of necessity
To say it is not necessary to do something or it is optional you can use ‘needn’t’ and ‘don’t
have to’. It shows an absence of necessity.

Structure Examples
Subject + needn’t + infinitive without ‘to’ You needn’t bring your bike; it’s not that far.
Subject + don’t / doesn’t need to + infinitive without ‘to’ You don’t need to bring your bike.
This expresses the opinion of the speaker.

Subject + ‘don’t’ / ‘doesn’t have to’ + infinitive without ‘to’ You don’t have to do your homework.
This can imply the speaker’s opinion or not.

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‘May’ and ‘Might’


To say it is not necessary to do something or it is optional you can use ‘needn’t’ and ‘don’t
have to’. It shows an absence of necessity.

Use Examples
May
I, you, etc. + may + verb (infinitive To say that something I may go to the cinema later.
may not without ‘to’) is about 50% possible. He may call her.

Might
I, you, etc. + might + verb (infinitive To say that something He might have a meeting.
might not without to) is less than 50% possible. He might know.

The uses of ‘may’ and ‘might’ above are to talk about the present or future.
These other structures are also possible.
may/might + be + verb –ing to talk about present or future
I may be working at that time.
He might be having lunch.
may/might + have + past participle to talk about uncertain
events in the past
She may have been asleep.
She might have left it in the shop.

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‘Shall’
In British English, ‘shall’ can be used for ‘will’ to express the future. In American English, it
is not often used.
Use ‘shall’ with I/ we
I shall be late tomorrow. ( I will be late)
Shall we go to the museum later?
Do NOT use
‘shall’ with you/they/he/she/it
Tom will be late. (not ‘Tom shall be’)

‘Shall’ can express obligation.


This is stronger and more formal than other modals of obligation (‘must’, ‘have to’).
It is used in legal texts and official rules.

Examples:
1. The insurance holder shall pay back the full amount
within three years.
2. Students shall not play loud music after 10PM.

‘Would like’: expressing wishes


‘Would like’ expresses a wish or desire.
‘Would like’ + infinitive
Example: I would like to go to the movies.
‘Would like’ + noun or noun phrase
Example: I would like a drink.
Interrogative ‘would like’ more polite form of (do) want
Example: Would you like a coffee?

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Modal Auxiliaries
A modal auxiliary is a verb used with other verbs to express mood or tense. When a
modal is used, the following verb is in the infinitive minus ‘to’ form.
Modal Use Example
Can Ability He can play the piano.
Negative: cannot / can’t
Past: could
Future: will be able to
Permission Can I leave the room?
Could Possible actions now or in the future. When you go to New York you could
(to make suggestions) stay with Jane.
Permission Could I open the window?
May To say that something is about I may go to the cinema later.
50% possible.
Permission May I open the window?
Might To say that something is less He might have a meeting.
than 50% possible.
Must Obligation You must go to the bank
Negative: mustn’t You mustn’t go to the bank.

You’ve been travelling all day,
Deduction you must be tired.
Negative: can’t You’ve been sleeping all day,
you can’t be tired.

Could + have + past participle Possibility in the past. I could have studied Architecture
Something you could have in university.
done but did not do / did
not attempt to do.
May + have + past participle To say that it is possible that Polly’s very late. She may
something happened or have missed her train.
was true in the past.
Might + have + past participle To say that it is possible that You were stupid to try climbing
something happened or was up there. You might have
true in the past. killed yourself.
BUT did not happen.

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Near certainty in the past: ‘must have’ / ‘can’t have’


When we are unsure of occurrences in the past, we can use these expressions to
indicate an assumption of the event that probably took place in a past moment.

Structure Use
subject + must have + past participle Deduction
Near certainty in the past
Example:
John wasn’t in class yesterday. He must have been sick.
Structure Use
subject + can’t have + past participle A deduction about something that
didn’t happen in the past.
Example:
I saw John in the pub. He can’t have been sick.

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5 Questions
Questions without interrogative words
SmartEnglish

Examples
The Verb ‘to be’

‘To be’ + subject Are you married?


Is John a policeman?
Am I?
Are you?
Is he / she / it?
Are we?
Are they?

Present Simple

Do + subject + verb Does he study English?


Does Do they have television?

Do you / we / they?
Does he / she / it?

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Interrogative Words
Interrogative words are used to ask very specific questions related to the person, place,
reason, etc. that an action occurs.

Example
Interrogative word Use Who is he?
Who refers to people Who do you know?
e?
Which do you prefer tea or coffe
Which refers to people or things
when there is a choice
What sport do you play?
What refers to things
anner)
How do you spell your name? (m)
How refers to manner or means How do you go to work? (means

Why don’t you like her?
Why asks about reason
Where is the museum?
Where refers to location
When does the store open?
When refers to time or date When do you leave?

Whose pen is this?
Whose refers to possession

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‘How long’

‘How long’
is used to ask
questions about
duration.

Structure Example
‘How long’ + ‘to be’ ‘How long’ + ‘is’/’are’ + noun How long is your vacation?
How long are the books?

‘How long’ + present simple ‘How long’ + ‘do’/’does’ + How long do you take to
subject + verb eat breakfast?
How long does it take to get to work?

Beginner level should only study the two structures above.


Below are some examples of ‘how long’ with other tenses.

Structure Example
‘How long’ + preterit (past simple) ‘How long + ‘did’ + subject + verb How long did you spend in Italy?

‘How long’ + present perfect ‘How long’ + ‘have’ / ‘has’ + How long have you had that car?
subject + past participle

‘How long’ + present perfect How long’ + ‘have’ / ‘has’ + How long have you been
continuous subject + ‘been’+ gerund studying English?

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Past Interrogatives

The verb ‘to be’


‘Was’ / ‘were’ + subject
I? Where was Ann yesterday?
was Was the weather good?
he?
she?
it?
we? Were they expensive?
were
you?
they?

The Preterit (Past Simple)


‘Did’ + subject + verb
I
you What did you do yesterday?
Where did he go on holiday?
he
she watch? Did it rain on Saturday?
Did
it
we
they

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Questions – Tags
Question tags are ‘mini-questions’ placed at the end of a sentence.
A positive sentence A negative question tag
A negative sentence A positive question tag
Examples
The verb ‘to be’ Present Continuous
You’re a doctor, aren’t you? He is studying English, isn’t he?
He is not here today, is he? You’re not meeting Jim, are you?
Present Simple Preterit/ Past Simple
They work together, don’t they? He went on vacation, didn’t he?
She doesn’t eat meat, does she? They didn’t work yesterday, did they?

Question tags can be formed for all tenses. Your teacher will give
you examples for the tenses you have learned so far.

The meaning of a question tag depends on how you say it.


If your voice -

Goes down You aren’t really asking a question; you are only
inviting the listener to agree with you.
Example: It’s a beautiful day, isn’t it?
Yes, lovely.
It’s a beautiful
day, isn’t it?
Yes, lovely.

You are asking a real question.


Example: You didn’t see Mary, did you?
Goes up No, I’m afraid not.

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‘Which’ / ‘What’

Which, What
=
both are used for choices. They are often used
interchangeably.

What - a choice between or among things. What books do you prefer?


(usually objects) What kind of services do you want?

Which – a choice between or among a Which do you prefer: romance novels or


limited number of things/possibilities science fiction?
(usually objects and people) Which of these shirts is yours?

‘How long…..(for)’ / ‘Since when’


Structure Examples
‘How long’ + ‘have’/’has’ + subject + Q: ‘How long have you been waiting for?’
‘been’ + verb -ing + ‘for’? A: ‘I have been waiting for over an hour’.

We use ‘for’ when we say a period of time.


(two hours, a week, 20 minutes, six months etc.)

‘Since when’ + ‘have’/‘has’ + subject + Q: ‘Since when has it been snowing?’


‘been’+ verb –ing A: ‘It has been snowing since yesterday’.

We use ‘since when’ we say the start of a period of time.


(8 o’clock, Monday, 12 May, 1990, lunchtime etc.)

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Short Questions
In informal everyday and professional situations, you may use short questions.

You can only use They ask for feedback,


These are questions them when the check understanding, ask
formed with context has been for clarification, ask for
incomplete sentences. clearly established. advice / suggestions, make
requests and verify
agreement.

Here are some examples:


Short Questions Possible complete form
Any thoughts? Do you have any thoughts on what I just said?
Suggestions? Do you have any suggestions?
Ideas? Can you give me some ideas?
Any problems? Have you been having any problems?
Objections? Does anyone have any objections to my proposal?
Anything serious? Are the problems serious?
Louder, please? Could you speak a bit louder, please?
Sorry? Sorry? I didn’t hear what you said.

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Articles and Nouns


Definite and Indefinite Articles
An article is a word that is combined with a noun to indicate the type of reference being
made by the noun.
A definite article indicates that its noun is a particular one. An indefinite article indicates
that its noun is not yet a particular one.

Language Use Example


The indefinite article - one thing or person. He is a teacher.
A - a noun in a general context.

The definite article - a noun in a specific context. He is the teacher.


The

Language Use Example


The indefinite article is used before words that begin I am a man.
A with consonants.

The indefinite article is used before words that begin This is an orange.
An with vowels (a,e,i,o,u)
or vowels sounds It’s an honor.

Exceptions:
an hour (h is not pronounced: an (h)our)
a university (pronounced yuniversity)
a European country (pronounced yeuropean)

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The Plural

Plural rules Examples


To make a noun plural add
– s a flower two flowers
a book two books

For nouns ending in:


–s / –sh / –ch / –x – es bus : buses dish : dishes
box : boxes church : churches

Also: potato : potatoes


tomato: tomatoes

For nouns ending in:

–y – ies baby : babies party : parties

but –ay / –ey / –oy – ys day : days monkey: monkeys

For nouns ending in:

–f / –fe – ves shelf : shelves wife: wives

Some nouns have irregular endings man men


woman women
foot feet
child children
person people

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Names of Countries: Capitals


a university (pronounced yuniversity)
a European country (pronounced yeuropean)

Names of
countries have
capital letters.

He’s a friend from France.

They live in Spain.

I am from the United States!

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Countable and Uncountable Nouns


a university (pronounced yuniversity)
A noun can be

countable
or uncountable

Countable nouns
You can use one/two/three etc. + (a) car
countable nouns. (you can count them) (a) man
(a) house
Countable nouns can be singular or plural. (an) idea

Examples I have a car.


I have two cars.

Uncountable nouns
You cannot say one/two/three etc. water
rice
Uncountable nouns only have one form. money
You cannot use ‘a’/ ‘an’ + uncountable nouns. salt
music
Uncountable nouns are always singular.
Examples I have money.
I have some money.

Exclamations with ‘what a’


‘What a /an’ (+adjective) + singular countable noun What a rude man!
What a nice dress!

‘What’ (+ adjective) + uncountable / plural noun What beautiful weather!


What lovely flowers!

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Construction of Compound Nouns

A compound noun
=
two nouns joined together.
One noun modifies the other.

Example:
tooth, paste: toothpaste

Compound nouns can be written in these ways:


There are not many rules for joining compound nouns. You must
check a dictionary for the correct form.
1. The two words are joined together.
Example: tooth + paste = toothpaste | bed + room = bedroom
2. They are joined using a hyphen.
Example: check-in
3. They appear as two separate words.
Example: full moon
Other Examples:
ski boots, alarm clock , housework, great-grandfather

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The use and omission of ‘the’

Use Examples
The We use ‘the’ before plural nouns or Tom sat down on a chair.
uncountable nouns when we are (perhaps one of many chairs)
thinking of one particular thing. Tom sat on the chair nearest the door.
(a particular chair)

No ‘the’ When we are talking about things or I’m afraid of dogs. (not the dogs)
people in general, we do not use ‘the’. Children learn a lot from playing.
(children in general)

No ‘the’ We do not use ‘the’ with names of people, I visited Europe last year.
countries, continents, states, regions, (not the Europe)
islands, cities, mountains.

The But we do use ‘the’ in names with I live in the USA.


‘Republic’, ‘Kingdom’, ‘States’, oceans, She is from the Republic of Ireland.
seas, rivers and canals. The Atlantic Ocean is very big.

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Definite articles with geographical names


Use Examples
No ‘the’ Singular name of a country, continent or region. France, Great Britain, Spain
Exceptions: the Sahara, the Congo, the South Pole.

The Plural name of a country. The British Isles, the West Indies,
the Philippines

The But we do use ‘the’ in names with ‘Republic’, The United States, The Republic
‘Kingdom’, ‘States’. of Ireland, The United Kingdom

The Abbreviations of countries, continents and regions. The UK, the USA, the EU

No ‘the’ The names of streets, squares, monuments Carnaby Street, Hyde Park,
and parks. ( generally) Wesminister Abbey

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Nouns without singular forms


Some plural nouns have no singular forms.
Nouns referring to objects composed of Scissors, glasses, trousers, jeans, shorts,
2 symmetrical parts tights, pyjamas

When used as a countable noun, use


‘pair of’

Some collective nouns Clothes, goods, people, cattle, police, savings

Negation of the indefinite article


The negative form of the indefinite article is expressed like this:
Structure Examples
With a singular countable noun: I haven’t got a pen./ I don’t have a pen.
‘Not………..a’
With plural countable nouns and There aren’t any buses here.
uncountable nouns It doesn’t require any equipment.
‘Not………………any’

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Pronouns and Determiners


Subject Pronouns

s
Subject Pronoun
I
You (singular)
He
She
It
We
You (plural)
They

Object Pronouns
Object Pronouns Examples Use
(subject (object
pronoun) pronoun)
I me Ann knows me. We use:
You you Ann knows you. a verb +
He him Ann knows him. object pronoun
She her Ann knows her.
It it Ann knows it.
We us Ann knows us.
They them Ann knows them.

It’s nice. They’re nice.


I Iike it. I like them.

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Possessive Pronouns
Mine Ours Yours His Hers Theirs

(possessive We use my/your etc. + a noun


pronoun) My hands are cold.
I my mine
you your yours We use mine/yours etc. without a noun
he his his Is this book mine or yours?
she her hers
we our ours Possessive pronouns show possession and answer
they their theirs the question ‘whose’.

Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns Use Examples
I myself
You yourself I talk to myself when I am nervous.
He himself We use reflexive pronouns
She herself when the subject and object of a We blame ourselves for the results
It itself sentence are the same person of the test.
We ourselves or non-person.
You yourselves It saw itself in the mirror.
They themselves

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‘No’ / ‘None’
No Use Examples
‘No’ + noun When we want to - We have no bread.
exclude all possibilities. - There were no problems.

None Use Examples


‘None’ When no part of - Do you have any more pie?
something is left. No, sorry, I have none.

When none exists, not even - When she returned to the


a group of people or a small amount office, none of us
of something. recognized her with her new haircut.

The Possessive
To show possession for people, countries, groups and institutions we use –’s
Examples:
It is John’s birthday. (not the birthday of John)
It’s my mother’s umbrella.
Chile’s economy is doing well.

friend’s and friends’

My house Our house

My friend’s house = one friend My friends’ house = 2 or more friends


(=his house or her house) (= their house)
(singular) (plural)

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More uses of the Possessive

s s iv e – ’s c a n also
e
The poss h dates, durations Dates Sunday’s weather
be used wdit distances. Tomorrow’s flight
an Next year’s budget
’s to a s in g ular noun
We add postrophe (’) to a Durations Three weeks’ vacation
and an a n, for example:
plural nou Distances A hundred miles’ drive

The Indefinite Possessive


Use Structure Examples
I met a friend of Lucy’s.

We can’t usually put a possessive determiner + noun + of Have you heard this new
before another determiner and a noun. + possessive idea of your boss’s?
We can say ‘my friend’ but not (’s)
‘a my friend’. So we use these ( a, this = determiners)
structures.
determiner + noun + of How’s that brother of yours?
+ possessive
(mine, yours, his, hers, Peter is a cousin of mine.
ours, theirs)
( a, that = determiners)

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Use of the pronoun ‘one’


The pronoun ‘one’ or ‘ones ‘ is used after an adjective to replace:
•a countable noun already expressed
•a noun that hasn’t been expressed

These
chocolates are nice Would you like one? =
Would you like one? Would you like a chocolate?
One = a /an (a chocolate / an apple etc.)

Which one
do you want? This one

One (singular)
Which one? = which hat?

Which one The white


do you want? ones
Ones (plural)
Which ones? = which
flowers?

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Demonstrative Pronouns: ‘This’, ‘That’, ‘These’, ‘Those’


The demonstratives this, that, these, those show where an object or person is in relation
to the speaker.

this that these those

This (singular) Refers to an object or person near the speaker

These (plural) Examples:

Is this John’s house?


This is a nice surprise!

That (singular) Refers to an object or person further away

Those (plural) Examples:

Who owns that house?


That’s nothing to do with me.

Position Examples:
a) Before a noun. This car looks cleaner than that car.

b) Before the word one. This one is more expensive.

c) Before an adjective + noun. Do you remember that wonderful day in June?

d) Alone when the noun is understood. I’ll never forget this.

‘Here’ / ‘There’
‘Here’ is used for something that is near to us. Here is the money (in my hand).

‘There’ is used for something that is far from us. There is the bank, about 2 blocks away.

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‘Some’ / ‘Any’
Use ‘some’ / ‘any’ to describe an undetermined quantity.
Use with both countable and uncountable nouns.

‘Some’: in positive sentences, I have got some money.


offers and requests. Would you like some water? (offer)
Can I have some bread? (request)

I have

$
some money.

‘Any’: in negative sentences I haven’t got any money.


and questions Do you have any information?

I don’t have
any money.

‘Any’: to express total Feel free to ask questions at any time.


permission, possibility,
or restriction. Any of these designs are fine.
‘Any’: to express possibility or indifference.

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‘A lot of’, ‘Much’ / ‘Many’

Use ‘a lot of’ with mass and count nouns in Ann has a lot of meetings.
positive sentences, negative sentences
and questions. I have a lot of work to do.

Use ‘much’ with mass nouns in negative Ann doesn’t have much time to see New York.
sentences and in questions.
How much coffee did you drink?

Use ‘many’ with count nouns in negative I don’t have many classes today.
sentences, positive sentences and in questions.
Did many people come to the party?

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‘How much’ / ‘How many’


‘How much/many’ = to ask questions about quantity

‘How much’ + uncountable nouns How much money do you want?


How much time do you have?

‘How many’ + plural countable nouns How many friends do you have?
How many books are there?

‘As much as’ / ‘As many as’


To compare two things that are the same.
‘as much as’ Use with: Examples:

singular, uncountable nouns You have as much money as I do.


(= the same amount)

‘not as much as’ You don’t have as much money as I do.

‘as many as’ plural, countable nouns There are as many parks in Santiago
as there are in Buenos Aires.
‘not as many as’ There aren’t as many parks in Santiago
as there are in Buenos Aires.

We can use ‘as much as’ + ‘as many as’ without a noun also.
Here the comparative refers to the previous clause or an implied or previously stated noun.

It’s twice as much as the rent.


(=It’s twice as much money as the rent)

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‘Some’ / ‘Any’: singular or plural?


‘Some’, ‘any’, ‘none’, ‘all’, ‘most’ Examples:

When they refer to a singular noun, Some of the meal was really good.
the verb is singular. None of the presentation is interesting.

When they refer to a plural noun, the Some of the books are quite funny.
verb is plural. None of the stories are interesting.

‘Either…or’
A negative clause must never contain more than one negation. So, we use ‘either’ after a negative verb.
‘Either’ is always placed at the end of a clause. It means ‘too’ / ‘as well’

I’m not happy.


I’m not happy either. (not ‘I’m not …too’) I’m not I’m not
happy. happy either.

I can’t cook.
I can’t cook either. (not ‘I can’t …too’)

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‘Either……. or’ / ‘Neither …….nor’


Use Example
‘Either…….or’ A choice between 2 things I want either fruit juice or coffee.

or ? ? Either you come to class or you do the


Either
work at home.

‘Neither……..nor’ To exclude 2 things I can neither read nor write French.


She’s neither nice nor helpful.
neither
(not + either)

‘Everybody’ / ‘Nobody’

‘Everybody’ (everyone) singular Everybody needs friends.


(all the people) All the people need friends.

‘Nobody’ (no one) singular Nobody is here.


(no people) No people are here.

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‘Everybody’ / ‘Somebody’ / ‘Nobody’ with question tags

e d b y s in g u la r verbs.
b o d y , n o b o d y a re foll o w
, th e ta g is in th e plural.
g
Everybody, soemyeare followed by a question ta
However, if th
E v e ry body needs
ry o n e ) singular fr ie n d s , d o n’t they?
Everybody (eve

(all the people)
S o m e body has to goy?
e o n e ) singular s h o p p in g , don’t the
Somebody (som

o n b u t w e d o n ’t know who)
( a pers
o
N o b o d y really knows, d
o n e ) singular they?
Nobody (n o

(no people) p le : N o b o d y li k es Mike.
rb in th e p o s it iv e form. Exam
Nobody + ve

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‘Each other’ / ‘One another’


‘Each other’ and ‘one another’ can be used interchangeably.
They show a reciprocal relationship between the subjects in the sentence.

John and Paul looked at each other.


(= John looked at Paul / Paul looked at John)

‘Each other’ and ‘one another’ can be used in the possessive.


They took each other’s hands.
We often meet at one another’s places.

Formerly, it was said that ‘each other’ was used for a relationship
between two subjects whereas one another was used for a
relationship between more than two subjects. Today, however,
most do not observe this distinction.
Maria and Jorge love each other. (Two subjects)
The children are sitting opposite one another.
(More than two subjects)

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Different meanings of ‘all

‘All’ = all of
something limited.
It is used with uncountable or
plural countable nouns.

‘All’ + noun All cities have the same problem.

‘All (of)’ + the All the children at this school are tall.
this/that/these/those (demonstrative) All these books are mine.
my/your etc. (possessive adjective) I have spent all my money.

Personal Pronouns
personal pronoun + ‘all’ Have you read these books?
I’ve read them all.
‘all of’ + personal pronoun I’ve read all of them.

with Subject Pronouns


Subject (pronoun) + ‘all’ + simple verb The girls all left.
Subject (pronoun) + modal auxiliary / ‘to be’ + ‘all’ We will all have some juice.
They are all ready to go.

With a singular countable noun = ‘every’

Every student in the class passed the exam.


Every country has a national flag.

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‘A little’ / ‘A bit’
‘A little’ / ‘A bit’ = a small quantity

Structure Use Examples


‘A little’ Use with uncountable nouns. We want a little fresh air.
It can also replace the noun to ‘Do you want some coffee?’
avoid repetition. ‘A little, please.’

‘A bit of’ Use with uncountable nouns. We want a bit of fresh air.

‘A little’ Adverb of degree. We’re a little busy today.

‘A little’ + adjective This tooth aches a little.

Verb + ‘a little’

Little Use with countable nouns. I have little time to finish the report.
(negative connotation)

‘A bit’ Often replaces ‘ a little’ as an adverb. Can you drive a bit slower?

‘A few’ Use with countable nouns. I have a few books I can lend you.
It can also replace the noun to avoid ‘How many science fiction novels
repetition. do you have?’
‘Few’ ‘A few.’
(negative connotation) Use with countable nouns. I am lonely. I have few friends.

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Use of ‘both’

‘Both’ = two elements


With nouns I want both books.
Both shirts are good.

With determiners
Before a noun with a determiner (the, this, I want both (of) those books.
my, your, those etc.) ‘both’ and ‘both Both (of) the books.
of’ are possible.

With object pronouns


(me, you, him, her, it, us, them) Both of them are my sisters.
Use ‘both of’ before the pronoun. She has invited both of us.
‘Both’ can be put after object pronouns. She has invited us both.

With verbs
Both goes after auxiliaries and before We have both gone to the beach.
other verbs. We both want to go.

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There are two types of


relative clauses.
Defining Relative Clauses Non- defining Relative Clauses

The woman who lives next door is a doctor. My brother Jim, who lives in London, is a doctor.

The relative clause tells you which person or thing The relative clause does not tell you which person
the speaker means. or thing the speaker means. (We already know
which thing or person is meant.)
This is extra information about the person or thing.

We do NOT use commas. We use commas.

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‘That’ and Dependent Clauses


A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence. It is usually attached to an
independent clause.
When the main clause is in the preterit, the dependent clause (introduced by ‘that’ or
a relative pronoun) is also in the preterit. If it is in the present, then the dependent
clause is in the present also.
Reported Speech
When ‘that’ is used in reported speech, the dependent clause should follow the rule of agreement. (see
reported speech)

Relative Clauses – (Omission of ‘that’)


‘That’ is used as a relative pronoun in relative clauses. When the relative pronoun is an object pronoun it
can be omitted in a defining relative clause*.

*see ‘relative pronouns and adverbs’ for an explanation on the difference between a defining
and non-defining clauses.

Subject or Object Pronoun?


Subject Pronoun = the relative pronoun is followed by a verb.

the apple that is laying on the table

Object Pronoun = the relative pronoun is followed by a noun or pronoun.

the apple (that) George laid on the table

Examples of when ‘that’ can/ cannot be omitted.


We stayed at the hotel (that) Ann recommended.
‘that’ + noun (Ann) = object pronoun. This is a defining relative clause.

This morning I met somebody (that) I hadn’t met for ages.


‘that’ + pronoun (I) = object pronoun. This is a defining relative clause.

Barbara works for a company that makes washing machines.


‘that’ + verb (makes) = subject pronoun.

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When ‘that’ may be left out


‘That’ may be left out in the following situations:.

Reported speech After many reporting verbs ‘that’ can be James said (that) he was
left out. feeling better.
Examples: said, thought, suggested

However, ‘that’ cannot be dropped after James replied that he was


certain verbs feeling better.
Examples: replied, shouted, disagreed

After adjectives In ‘that’ clauses after some adjectives, I’m glad (that) you’re all right.
‘that’ can be left out.

Conjunctions ‘That’ can be left out in an informal style Come in quietly so (that)
in some common two-word she doesn’t hear you.
conjunctions such as:
I was having such a nice
‘so that’ time (that) I didn’t want to
‘such…that’ leave.
‘now that’
‘providing that’
‘provided that’
‘supposing that’
‘considering that’
‘assuming that’

Relative structures Leave out the relative pronoun ‘that’ Look! There are the
when it is the object in a relative clause. people (that) we met in
*See ‘that + dependent clauses’ Brighton

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‘To hope’ + Dependent Clause

Examples
Structuree
She hopes he’ll come. any problems getting home.
‘To hope’ + future I hope you won’t have

all right.
mple He hopes the traffic is too cold.
‘To hope’ + present si I hope the water is not
(refers to the future)

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9 Adjectives and Adverbs
Possessive Adjectives
A possessive adjective is used with a noun to indicate possession, ownership or close
relationship.
SmartEnglish

Possessive adjectives Examples Use


(subject pronoun) We use:
I my I like my job. possessive adjective + a noun
You your You like your job. to show possession
He his He likes his job
She her She likes her job.
It its It likes its food. (The dog)
We our We like our jobs.
They their They like their jobs.

my hat our hats your hat

her hat their hats

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‘Too’ / ‘Too much’/ ‘Too many’

‘Too’ / ‘too much’ / ‘too many’


=
More than you want, more than is good.
This is a negative concept.

Structure Examples
‘Too’ + adjective/adverb The music is too loud.

‘Too much’ + uncountable nouns There is too much sugar in my tea.

‘Too many’ + plural countable nouns She has too many books.

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Placement of Enough

‘Enough’
=
sufficient, adequate
He can’t reach the shelf.
He’s not tall enough.
Structure Examples
After adjectives and adverbs I’m not tall enough.
You drive fast enough.

Before nouns and noun phrases There isn’t enough time.

After verbs (including past participles) He doesn’t work enough.


I’ve eaten enough.

‘Also’ / ‘As well’ / ‘Too’


Also As well Too
Before a verb and after ‘to be’ At the end of a sentence At the end of a clause or for
emphasis (with commas)

I also have a dog. I have a dog as well. I have a dog too.


I, too, have a dog.

She also studies English. She studies English as well. She studies English too.
She, too, studies English.

She is also tall. She is tall as well. She is tall too.


She, too, is tall.

We are also Chinese. We are Chinese as well. We are Chinese too.


We, too, are Chinese.

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Adverbs
An adverb modifies a verb. It helps to tell ‘how’, ‘when’ or ‘where’ the action took place.
To make an adverb: Adjective + –ly
Examples:
Accidently Quickly
Angrily Safely
Badly

Exceptions and Irregular adverbs:


These are some words that are adjectives and adverbs: hard, fast, late, early

Good (adjective) well (adverb)


Your English is very good.
You speak English very well.

Spelling Rules -If the adjective ends in /y/ add –ily


Easy Easily, Heavy Heavily

-If the adjective ends in /e/, we keep /e/ before the /ly/
Polite Politely, Extreme Extremely

-If the adjective end in /le/, we do not keep the /e/ before the /ly/
Simply Simply, Terrible Terribly

Adverbs of Time / Frequency


Adverbs of time or frequency are adverbs that tell us ‘how often’ we do something.
How often do you go to the mall?
I sometimes go to the mall.
never
seldom/rarely
sometimes*
often
usually
aways
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Adverb placement Examples
Before a verb I never go to the mall.
I always play basketball on the weekends.
She often practices English.

After verb ‘to be’ I am always tired.


She is usually late for English class.

82 *Sometimes can also go before the subject.


SmartEnglish

The Adverb ‘that’

‘that’ as an adverb

Structure Use Example


‘That’ + adjective/ adverb To intensify the meaning Are you that afraid?
of the adjective/ adverb I had no idea I was that far from home.

Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of manner tell us how something happens or how somebody does something.
They are usually placed after the main verb or after the object.
Examples:
The train stopped suddenly.
I opened the door slowly.

Be careful with the differences between adjectives and adverbs:

Adjective Adverb
-Sue is very quiet. -Sue speaks very quietly. (Not speaks very quiet)
-It was a bad game. (Describes the game -Our team played badly. (Describes how the team played)
which is a noun)

-I am nervous. -I waited nervously.

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‘Yet’ / ‘Not yet’

‘Yet’ = until now

Bill will be Where’s Bill?


here soon. He’s very late.

Twenty minutes ago they were waiting for Bill. They are still waiting for Bill.
Bill hasn’t come yet.

Use Examples
Yet Use in negative sentences and questions Where is Diane?
She isn’t here yet.

‘Yet’ is usually at the end of a sentence. Are you ready to go yet?


No, not yet..

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‘Still’ / ‘Yet’
Still
=
something is the same as before

THE RAIN HASN´T STOPPED

An hour ago it was raining. It is still raining now.


Example: I had a lot to eat but I’m still hungry. (= I was hungry before and I’m hungry now)

Yet
=
until now

Bill will be Where’s Bill.


here soon. He’s very late.

Twenty minutes ago they were waiting for Bill. They are still waiting for Bill.
Bill hasn’t come yet.
Use Examples
Yet Use in negative sentences and questions Where is Diane?
She isn’t here yet.

‘Yet’ is usually at the end of a sentence. Are you ready to go yet?


Not yet.

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Compound Adjectives

A compound adjective is formed when two or


more adjectives work together to modify
the same noun.
The second part of the compound adjective may be:
An adjective ice-cold
A present participle heartbreaking
A past participle well-deserved
HEART BREAKING
A noun + ed old-fashioned
Irregular
(Do not follow the second-hand
structures above)

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Adjectives ending in –ing and –ed


Ending in –ing Use Examples
Subject + verb ‘to be’ + When the adjective ends I hate snakes. They’re terrifying.
adjective + –ing in –ing, it means that the
particular person or thing
causes a particular effect.

Ending in –ed Use Examples


Subject + verb ‘to be’ + When the adjective ends in Snakes terrify me. I am always
adjective + –ed –ed, it means that the terrified when I see one.
particular person or thing
experiences a particular effect.

Adjectives ending in –ing


Some adjectives are made by adding –ing to the verb.

Examples:

Disgust disgusting
Bore boring
Interest interesting
Depress depressing
Surprise surprising

Adjectives ending in –ing Adjectives ending in –ed

Tells you about the situation Tells you how somebody feels.

Examples: Examples:
My job is boring. I’m bored with my job.
The news was shocking. We were shocked when we heard the news.
It was surprising that he passed the Everyone was surprised that he passed the
exam. exam.

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The past participle as an adjective


Some past participles can be used as adjectives.
Regular Verbs add –ed or –d
Examples: worked, finished, boiled
Irregular Verbs No general rules

Some common irregular past participles


break broken drive driven
write written eat eaten
fall fallen forget forgotten
give given see seen
take taken know known
fly flown drink drunk
swim swum throw thrown

Examples:
That is a broken cup.
We are visiting the forgotten city of the Incas.

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Adverbs of Degree
Describe the strength or intensity of something that happens.
Many adverbs are gradable, which means we can intensify them.
They answer these questions: ‘How much ..?’ or ‘How little...?’
Highest Intensity ++ Lowest Intensity
totally somewhat hardly
completely somehow scarcely
entirely fairly barely
thoroughly rather
absolutely kind of
definitely
positively

+++ +
almost slightly
very a bit
extremely a little
really
quite
practically

Use / Structure Example


Place the adverb before the adjective or The water was extremely cold.
adverb they are modifying

Place the adverb before the main verb She has almost finished.

Examples:
I’m really enjoying working on this project.
The exam was fairly easy.
He has barely worked this year.

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Adverbs and Adjectives


Adverbs are used to modify nouns, verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. This way we
can indicate how things are done. Refer to the chart below for examples:

Other uses
Adjective
Adverb well
good with difficulty )
difficult publicly deeply (feelingn)
public deep (place) directly (=soo m)
deep direct hardly (=seldove)
direct hard highly (figuratitly)
hard high (place) lately (=recen lly)
high late mostly (=usuast)
late most nearly (=almo
most near prettily )
near pretty (=rather)
shortly (=soon
pretty short r, fa s t, h o u rl y , little,
arly, fa
short d aily, enougho,nethly, much, straight,
o w in g a d je c ti ves are lo n g , low, m
The foll as adverbs w e e k ly , yearly, …
also used dification)
(without mo g iv e e x tr a in formation
o used to
adverbs are tiavlses (or other adverbs).
about adjec

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Uses of ‘so’

Structure + Examples
‘So’ + adjective or adverb = an exclamation
You’re so kind!
Don’t be so sensitive!

‘that’ clauses so…………that


It was so cold that we stopped playing. (not It was very cold that we stopped playing)
He was driving so fast that he went through a red light.

Substitute word
‘So’ can be used in some structures instead of repeating an adjective or adverb.
The weather is stormy and will remain so over the weekend.
We thank you for flying with us and hope you’ll do so again.

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The placement of ‘even’

Use
We use ‘even’ to say that something is surprising or unusual.

Example
Tina loves watching television. She has a TV set in every room of the house, even the bathroom.

Use
We can use ‘even’ + a comparative (cheaper / more expensive)

Example
I got up very early, but John got up even earlier.

Position of even
‘Even’ + nominal group* / pronoun + verb
Even my sister will be there.
Even you can come.

Auxiliary + ‘even’ + verb


I don’t even know you.
I have even invited John.

*A nominal group typically comprises a noun surrounded by other words that all in some way
characterize that noun.

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‘Even though’ / ‘Even if’


‘Even if’ and ‘even though’ mean basically the same thing: ‘although’. They have the
following distinct meanings:
Structure Use Examples
‘Even though’ Concession. Even though you’re my
Describes a reality that friend, I can’t trust you.
seems to contradict main clause.
Even though she tried her
best, she fell twice.

‘Even if’ Something hypothetical or theoretical. Even if you were my friend,


A contradiction of some hypotheses. I wouldn’t trust you.
All conditional forms can be used.
He won’t transfer to Africa,
even if they double his salary.

‘Quite’ / ‘Quite a few’


Use Examples
‘Quite’ = less than ‘very’ but more than ‘a little’ It’s quite cold. You’d better put a coat on.

‘Quite’ goes before a/an Quite a nice day. (not a quite nice day)

‘Quite a few’ = modifies plural nouns to indicate large quantities.


Example: I have quite a few letters for you.

Quite also means ‘completely’.


Example: ‘Are you sure?’ ‘Yes, quite sure.’ (= completely sure)

With theses adjectives, ‘quite’ means ‘completely’:


sure right true clear different incredible amazing certain wrong safe obvious
unnecessary extraordinary impossible

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Comparatives and Superlatives

Comparing equals using ‘as…as’


Structure
‘as’ + adjective / adverb + ‘as’

Use
To compare two people or things according to a common trait.

Examples
My brother is as tall as my dad.
I’m as old as you are.

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Regular and Irregular Comparatives S


I’m 93.
I’m 92.

40 50
KG
KG
old older heavy heavier
Comparatives are used to compare two things. You can use sentences
with ‘than’, or you can use a conjunction like ‘but’.

1 syllable adjectives add -er My brother is older than my sister.


old older

2 syllable adjectives ending in ‘y’ add -ier English is easier than Russian.
easy easier

2 or more syllables add more (before the adjective) Helen is more beautiful than Jane.
beautiful more beautiful

Spelling Rules
Words with one syllable ending with a vowel and a consonant at the end. (Double the consonant.)

Example:
hot hotter big bigger fat fatter
Irregular Comparatives
good better
bad worse
far farther/further
much/many more
little less

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Regular and Irregular Superlatives

Box A is bigger than Box B.


Box A is bigger than all the other boxes.
Box A is the biggest box.
Superlatives are used to compare more than two things. Superlative sentences usually use
‘the’, because there is only one superlative.

1 syllable adjectives add the -est My brother is the oldest of my siblings.

old the oldest

2 syllable adjectives ending in ‘y’ add the -iest English is the easiest language to learn.

easy the easiest

2 or more syllables add the most Helen is the most beautiful in her family.
(before the adjective)
beautiful the most beautiful

Spelling Rules
Words with one syllable ending with a vowel and a consonant at the end double the consonant.

Example:
hot – hottest big – biggest fat – fattest

Irregular Superlatives
good the best
bad the worst
far the farthest/ the furthest
much/many the most
little the least

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‘The more . . . the more’


Structure
‘the’ + comparative..............., ‘the’ + comparative

Parallel progression: we use comparatives with ‘the....the....’ to say things change or vary together.

Examples
The younger you are, the easier it is to learn a language.
The more I learn, the more I know.
The older I get, the happier I am.

A use of the comparative


Structure Examples
‘the’ + comparative The younger generation
(as opposed to ‘the older generation’)

Use
Sometimes a comparative may express an This class is for the more intelligent students
opposition between 2 elements without actually (as opposed to ‘the slower students’)
stating both elements (the second element is implied)

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Prepositions of Time
Prepositions
A preposition of time connects words in a sentence showing the relationship of a noun
and the moment/day/time/date of the action.
Preposition Use Example
At Time I start work at 9 o’clock.
I go to bed at midnight.
The shops close at 5.30.

On Days of the week I have class on Tuesdays.


Specific dates My birthday is on May 25th.
New Year’s Day etc. I go home on Christmas Day.

In Months My birthday is in June.


MT W TFSS Seasons I take vacation in the summer.
1
8
2
9
3
10
4
11
5
12
6
13
7
14
Years I was born in 1980.
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 May
23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30 31

By To show ending date or period. I need to finish the report by Friday.


It will be ready by the summer.

Fixed expressions:
in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening
But
on Monday morning, on Tuesday afternoon etc.

At the weekend (British) / On the weekend (American)


At night
At the moment

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Prepositions of Place
A preposition of place connects words in a sentence showing the relationship of a
noun and the location/area/position/surface of an object.

At In On
•General location •Inside of a place •Surface
•Precise point in larger •Country, city, district
space something is located in

at the corner in the garden on the wall


at the bus stop in London on the ceiling
at the door in France on the door
at the front desk in a car on a page

Here are some prepositions of place.

on above over in front of

beside behind under below

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Final Preposition
A final preposition is a word which comes after the verb and requests the results between
the action performed and the subject or object of the sentence.
Verb + preposition
Some verbs are commonly followed by a preposition in order to indicate a common action.

Examples:
Listen to
Look at
Look for (search for, try to find)
Look after (take care of)
Talk about
Talk to
Worry about
Pay for
Depend on
Complain about
Go to
Go for
Go on
Go in
In some structures we put the preposition at the end of the sentence:
Interrogative questions What are you looking at?
(when the question word is the object of the What kind of music do you like to listen to?
preposition)

Relative clauses This is the house that I am talking about.


(when the relative pronoun is the object of That’s what I’m worried about.
the preposition)

I’ve got lots of music to listen to.


Infinitive clauses She has nothing to complain about.

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12 Conjunctions
Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word that “joins” the words in a sentence to each other in order to send a
logical message. It literally connects parts of a sentence.
SmartEnglish

Frequently Used Conjunctions: Examples:


‘And’
- To suggest that one idea is chronologically Karen sent in her applications and
sequential to another. waited by the phone for a response.

-To suggest that one idea is the result of Kevin heard the weather report and
another. packed his camping gear.

- To suggest that one idea is in contrast to Juan is brilliant, and Sandra has a
another. pleasant personality.

-To suggest an element of surprise. Melipilla is a beautiful town and suffers


from severe pollution.

-To suggest that one clause is dependent Use your credit cards frequently, and
upon another, conditionally. you’ll soon find yourself deep in debt.

-To suggest a kind of ‘comment’ on the My lazy friend Charlie failed the math test
first clause. and that didn’t surprise anyone.

‘Yet’
-To suggest addition, more of something. She is a simple, yet very intelligent woman.

-Despite, even though The story is unbelievable, yet supposedly it’s all true.

-To indicate that something can ‘eventually’ occur. They may yet win the game.

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‘Nor’
-Used with ‘neither’ for negative sentences. He is neither young nor ambitious.

-Used with other negative expressions. That is not what I meant, nor should you
misinterpret my statement.

‘But’
- To suggest a contrast that is unexpected based Joey lost his job last year, but he still
on the first clause. seems able to live quite comfortably.

- To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first The students never studied for the test,
part of the sentence implied in a negative way. but used their notes to work on the
assignment in class.

- To use with the meaning of ‘with Everybody but Mark is trying out for the team.
the exception of’.

‘Or’
- To suggest that only one possibility can be You can study hard for this exam or you
achieved, excluding one or the other. can fail. (= only one of these things can happen)

- To suggest the inclusive combination We can broil chicken on the grill tonight,
of alternatives. or we can eat hamburgers.

- To suggest a refinement of the first Smart English is the best language center in the
clause. country, or so it seems to most students at the UAI.

- To suggest a restatement or ‘correction’ There are no rattlesnakes in this canyon,


of the first part of the sentence. or so our guide tells us.

- To suggest a negative condition. Either you participate in class or get a 1.0 grade for
class participation.

- To suggest a negative alternative without They must like her style or they wouldn’t keep asking
the use of an imperative. her to design the uniforms each year.

‘For’
Though used as a preposition, we can use ‘for’ John thought he had a good chance to
as a conjunctive when we introduce the reason for get the job, for his father was on the
the preceding clause. company’s board of trustees.

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‘So’
- To connect two independent clauses together Steve has always been nervous in large
with a comma. gatherings, so it is no surprise that he
avoids crowds when he is at the beach.

- To indicate ‘as well’ or ‘in addition’. John is not the only Olympic athlete in his
family, so are his uncle, sister, and his
aunt Sally.

- At the beginning of a sentence, ‘so’ will act as a So, the sheriff promptly removed the child
kind of summing up device or transition, and when it from the custody of his parents.
does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence
with a comma.

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Use of ‘so’ to express a goal


Examples:
I’m saving money so I can travel in the summer.
She gave him more time so he could finish the assignment.

‘So that’ + ‘may’ or ‘can’


Objectives are expressed using ‘so that’ followed by:
Structure Example

Present simple He’ll take a taxi so that he arrives on time.

‘May’ / ‘might’ ‘can’ / ‘could’ He stayed after school so that he could help me
with my homework.

‘Will’ / ‘would’ I wrote it in my daily planner so that I wouldn’t forget.

In an informal style, ‘that’ is often dropped.


Example:
I’ve come early so I can talk to you.

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Similarity: ‘like’ and ‘as’


Use
We can use ‘like’ or ‘as’ to say that things are similar.

Structure Example
‘Like’
- is similar to a preposition
•Like + noun / pronoun You look like your sister.
He ran like the wind.

•We can use ‘like’ to give examples She’s good at scientific subjects, like chemistry.

‘As’
- is a conjunction
•‘As’ + clause (subject + verb) They did as they promised.

•‘As’ comes before nouns designating He worked as a taxi driver.


tittles and functions

s but have different meanings.


‘Like’ and ‘as’ can both be used as preposition
‘Like’ = ‘similar to’
‘As’ = ‘in the position of’, ‘in the form of’
Compare: pany. As the manager, she has to make ma
ny
‘As’ – Brenda Casey is the manager of a com
important decisions. nager)
(‘As the manager’ = in her position as the ma
the ass ista nt ma nag er. Like the ma nag er (Brenda Casey), she also has to
‘Like’ – Mary Stone is
make important decisions.
(‘Like the manager’ = similar to the manager)

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Gerunds and Infinitives


Gerunds and Infinitives
The infinitive (‘to’ + verb) is used:
• To say why you do something
I go to the gym to get some exercise.

• To say why something exists


Here’s an example to help you.

• After ‘too’ and ‘enough’


It’s too cold to go swimming.

The gerund (verb ending in –ing) is used:


• After prepositions (see below)
He’s made a lot of friends by joining the tennis club.

• As non-count nouns
Climbing is safer than it looks

PREPOSITIONS: after before by for on despite without since

If verbs are followed by another verb, that verb is either in the infinitive or the gerund form.

Verbs Followed by an Infinitive


She agreed to speak before the game.

agree consent hope prepare try


aim continue hurry proceed use
appear dare intend promise wait
arrange decide leap propose want
ask deserve leave refuse wish
attempt expect long remember
be able fail mean say
beg forget neglect shoot
begin get offer stop
bother happen ought strive
care have plan swear
choose hesitate prefer threaten

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Verbs Followed by an Object and an Infinitive


Everyone expected her to win.
advise choose have order send
allow command hire pay teach
ask dare instruct permit tell
beg direct invite persuade urge
bring encourage lead prepare want
build expect leave promise warn
buy forbid let remind
challenge force motivate require
Note: Some of these verbs are included in the list above and may be used without an object.

Verbs Followed by a Gerund


They enjoyed working on the boat.
admit delay get through practice risk
advise deny have quit spend (time)
appreciate enjoy imagine recall suggest
avoid escape mind report tolerate
can’t help excuse miss resent waste (time)
complete finish permit resist
consider forbid postpone resume

Verbs Followed by a Preposition and a Gerund


We concentrated on doing well.
admit to depend on prevent (someone) from
approve of disapprove of refrain from
argue about discourage from succeed in
believe in dream about talk about
care about feel like think about
complain about forget about worry about
concentrate on insist on
confess to plan on

Expressions followed by the gerund


It’s no good It’s not worth It’s no use
It’s a waste of time Can’t stand Can’t bear
Can’t help

Verbs followed by either an infinitive or a gerund


begin love dislike prefer
continue like hate start

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‘Get used to’


We use ‘get used to’ to say that an action or situation becomes less strange or new. We can use the
expression in present simple, interrogative and present continuous forms.

Structure:
‘get used to’ + noun or gerund

It took them a long time to get used Have you got used to driving She is getting used to waking up
to the new office. on the left side of the road yet? early for her new job.

‘Be used to’


We use the expression ‘be used to’ to say that we have already become familiar with something/someone which
was in the past new or strange. We can use the expression in the present simple, negative and affirmative
sentences, in question form and when the object involves a verb, we use the gerund form.

Structure:
subject + be + used to + object.

Mary is used to horses. Are you used to horses? We are used to taking the bus.
Kurt is not used to horses.

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Verbs: Reactions and Preferences


Some verbs that express reactions and preferences are followed by a verb in the gerund
(verb ending in –ing). Some are followed by a verb in the infinitive (‘to’ + verb) or a gerund.

Followed by the gerund To enjoy


To mind
To resent
To object to
To miss
Cannot stand

They enjoy dancing very much.


I miss going to my English class.

Followed by gerund
or infinitive To like
To love
To dislike
To hate
To loathe
To prefer
Cannot bear

I love eating.
I love to eat.

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Verb + Infinitive Clause


Verbs that express a command, wish, preference and prohibition follow this structure.
Verbs: allow, command, forbid, hate, instruct, like, love, need, oblige, recommend, want
verb + object + infinitive
Examples:
He wants John to rent a car.
They don’t allow people to smoke.

Many of these verbs can also be used in


the passive structure.

Subject + passive verb + infinitive


Examples:
We were advised to come early.
We were instructed to put down our pens.

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Verbs expressing a wish to act


Verbs expressing a wish to act may be followed by infinitives (‘to’ + verb) or gerunds (verbs
ending in –ing).

To intend Infinitive or gerund* He intends to go to New York.


*A gerund with this verb He intends going to new York.*
is only used in British English.
To propose Infinitive or gerund What did he propose doing?
What did he propose to do?

To try Infinitive I am trying to do this exercise.


(attempt to do, make
an effort to )

To try Gerund I wouldn’t try rafting; it is very


(do something as an dangerous.
experiment or test)

To agree Infinitive He agreed to help her.

To consent Infinitive She consented to go with her.

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Verb + Preposition ‘at’ / ‘to’


Verb + ‘at’ Verb + ‘to’
Look / have a look / stare / glance AT. Talk / speak TO
Laugh / smile AT Listen TO
Aim / point AT Write TO
Invite (somebody) TO
-Why are you looking at me? Explain (something) TO (someone)
-I was laughing at his joke. Apologize TO (someone)

-Can I speak to Jane please?


-I invited 200 people to my wedding.
-I need to apologize to my friend because
I shouted at her yesterday.

Some verbs can be followed by at or to, but there is a difference in meaning.

Shout AT somebody – when you are angry


Shout TO somebody – so that they can hear you

Throw something AT somebody/something – in order to hit them


Throw something TO somebody – for somebody to catch

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14 Conditionals
Conditionals
Zero, First, and Second Conditionals (Sequence of tenses with ‘if’)*
* For ‘construction of the present conditional’, see ‘second’ in table below.
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For ‘sequence of tenses with if’ see ‘zero, first, second and third’ below.
Conditionals are used to talk about possibility.
Conditional Structure Uses
Examples
Zero ‘If’ + subject + present simple , subject + Used to describe something that is
present simple generally or always true.

If water boils, it reaches 100 degrees.

First ‘If’ + subject+ present simple, subject + ‘will’ Used to describe a situation that is likely.
+ infinitive without ‘to’

‘If’ the weather is good, I will go to the beach.

Second ‘If’ + subject + past simple, subject + Used to describe a situation that
(present) ‘would’ + infinitive without ‘to’ is not likely.

If’ I won a million pounds, I would buy a house. Describes a hypothetical situation
in the present.

Third ‘If’ + subject + past perfect, subject + Used to describe a


(perfect) ‘would’ + ‘have’ + past participle hypothetical situation in the past.
It describes a situation that is
If I had won the lottery, I would have impossible.
bought a car.

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The Perfect Conditional / Third Conditional


‘If’ + subject + past perfect, subject + ‘would’ + ‘have’ + past participle

If I had seen you, I would have said hello.

Describes hypothetical situations in the past. These situations are in the past and therefore they are impossible
and never happened.

Example:
Last month Gary was in hospital for an operation. Liz didn’t know this, so she didn’t go to visit him. They met a
few days ago. Liz said:

‘If I had known you were in hospital, I would have gone to visit you.’

What Liz said is hypothetical because the real situation is that she didn’t know he was in hospital.

The Perfect Conditional using ‘should’


Structure
‘Should’ + ‘have’ + past participle

Use Example
Regret or reproach (to blame someone) I should have studied harder. (regret)

You should have gotten up earlier. (reproach)

(unfulfilled) expectation or assumption You should have received my e-mail.


regarding the past I sent it half an hour ago.

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15 Subjunctive and Wishes
Present Subjunctive
FORM
Use the simple form of the verb. The simple form is the infinitive without the ‘to’. The
SmartEnglish

simple form of the verb ‘to go’ is ‘go’. The Subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms
and tenses.
USE
The Subjunctive is used to emphasize urgency or importance. It is used after certain
expressions (see below).
Examples:
• I suggest that he study.
• Is it essential that we be there?
• Don recommended that you join the committee.
NOTICE:
The Subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms and tenses. In the examples below, the
Subjunctive is not noticeable in the you-form of the verb, but it is noticeable in the he/she-
form of the verb.

Examples:
YOU-FORM OF ‘TRY’: HE-FORM OF ‘TRY’:
•You try to study often. •He tries to study often.

SUBJUNCTIVE FORM OF ‘TRY’ LOOKS THE SAME: SUBJUNCTIVE FORM OF ‘TRY’ IS NOTICEABLE:
•It is important that you try to study often. •It is important that he try to study often.

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Verbs Followed by the Subjunctive


The Subjunctive is used after the following verbs:
to advise (that)
to ask (that)
to command (that)
to demand (that)
to desire (that)
to insist (that)
to propose (that)
to recommend (that)
to request (that)
to suggest (that)
to urge (that)

Examples
•Dr. Smith asked that Mark submit his research paper before the end of the month.
•Donna requested Frank come to the party.
•The teacher insists that her students be on time.

Expressions Followed by the Subjunctive


The Subjunctive is used after the following expressions:
It is best (that)
It is crucial (that)
It is desirable (that)
It is essential (that)
It is imperative (that)
It is important (that)
It is recommended (that)
It is urgent (that)
It is vital (that)
It is a good idea (that)
It is a bad idea (that)

Examples
•It is crucial that you be there before Tom arrives.
•It is important she attend the meeting.
•It is recommended that he take a gallon of water with him if he wants to hike to the bottom of the
Grand Canyon.

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Negative Forms of Subjunctive


The Subjunctive can be used in negative, continuous and passive forms.
Examples:
•The boss insisted that Sam not be at the meeting.
•The company asked that employees not accept personal phone calls during business hours.
•I suggest that you not take the job without renegotiating the salary.

The Past Subjunctive


Past Forms of the Subjunctive
The past tense of the subjunctive has the same forms as the indicative.

Present: The President requests that they stop the invasion.


Past: The President requested that they stop the invasion.

However, we usually use the subjunctive ‘were’ instead of ‘was’ after ‘if’ and other words with similar meanings.
(‘was’ is often used informally in speech)

Examples
He wishes he were a better student.
If I were seven feet tall, I’d be a great basketball player.*
*This is also a second conditional. See below.

The past subjunctive is commonly used with these expressions ‘if only’, ‘I wish’, ‘suppose’, ‘as if’.
Examples
If only I had more money.
I wish I were thinner.
Suppose she were married.
It’s not as if I were ugly.

Note: Some sentences combine a past subjunctive with a conditional. In this example, part 1 is a subjunctive
and part 2 a conditional.

If only I had more money, I would buy a new car.


1 2

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Wishes and Regrets

Wish Regret
= =
To show you want a To feel sorrow or
situation to be different remorse for something
you did/did not do.

Wishes in the present


To make wishes about the present, use the past tense.
For the verb ‘to be’, use ‘were’.

Situation: My sister is untidy.


Wish: “I wish she were tidier.”

Wishes in the past (regret)


To make wishes about the past, use the past perfect.

Situation: I didn’t go on a vacation this year.


Wish: “I wish I had gone on a vacation this year.”

Wishes about ability


To make wishes about ability use ‘could’.

Situation: I can’t play a musical instrument.


Wish: “I wish I could play a musical instrument.”

Wishes about habit and free will


To make wishes about habit and free will use ‘would’.

Situation: He sings in the office.


Wish: “I wish he wouldn’t sing in the office.”
(In this sentence you are stressing the fact he wants to sing and makes a habit of it.)

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16 Passives
The Passive Voice
Passive Voice = ‘To be’ + past participle
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The passive exists in every tense.

We use an active verb to say what the subject does.


We use a passive verb to say what happens to the subject.

When we use the passive, ‘who’ or ‘what’ causes the action is often unknown or unimportant.

If we want to say who does or what causes the action, we use ‘by…’

Tense Active Passive


Present Simple He cleans the room. The room is cleaned by him.
Present Continuous He is cleaning the room. The room is being cleaned by him.
Past Simple He cleaned the room. The room was cleaned by him.
Past Continuous He was cleaning the room. The room was being cleaned by him.
Future simple ‘will’ He will clean the room The room will be cleaned by him.
‘To be going to’ future He is going to clean the room. The room is going to be cleaned by him.
Present Perfect He has cleaned the room. The room has been cleaned by him.
Past Perfect He had cleaned the room. The room had been cleaned by him.

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The Impersonal Structure


An impersonal structure is used to talk about people in general. Here are some different
ways to form an impersonal structure.

Passive form without the agent We are expected at 7pm.


(Somebody expects us)

The personal pronouns ‘we, you, they’ We drive on the left side of the road.
(the speaker is included in the group of people
in question)

You drink a lot of tea in Britain.


(the listener is included)

They are very friendly in Ireland.


(neither the speaker nor listener is included)

People (plural meaning) People in Ireland are very friendly.


Somebody/someone (singular meaning) Someone is on the phone for you.

Other Impersonal Structures:


gerund + object + ‘to be’ conjugated + Reading English newspapers is often difficult.
(adverb of frequency) + adjective
Playing tennis is excellent exercise.

It + ‘to be’ conjugated + It is sometimes exciting to walk in the


(adverb of frequency) + adjective pouring rain.
+ infinitive
It was strange to say that Russian is
easier than English.

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17 Reported Speech
The Sequence of Tenses / Reported Speech
Reported Speech is used to communicate what someone else said, but without using the
exact words.
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I’m feeling ill.

You want to tell someone else what Tom said. There are 2 ways of doing this:
1. You can repeat Tom’s words (direct speech)
Tom said, ‘I’m feeling ill’

2. You can use reported speech.


Tom said that he was feeling ill.

Reported speech:
-The main sentence of the verb is usually in the past tense. (said, told)
-The rest of the sentence is usually in a past tense too. (each tense goes a step back in time)
-‘That’ is optional.

Here are the changes in tense (sequence of tenses) in reported speech:

Direct speech Reported speech


She said “I watch TV every day.” She said (that) she watched TV every day.
She said “I am watching.” She said she was watching TV.
She said “I watched TV.” She said she had watched TV.
She said “I have watched TV.” She said she had watched TV.
She said “I will watch TV.” She said she would watch TV.
She said “I am going to watch TV.” She said she was going to watch TV.
She said “I can watch TV.” She said she could watch TV.
She said “I may watch TV.” She said she might watch TV.
She said “I must watch TV.” She said she had to watch TV.
She said “I should watch TV.” She said she should watch TV.
She said “I ought to watch TV.” She said she ought to watch TV.
She said “Watch TV.” She told someone to watch TV. *

*The imperative changes to the infinitive. ‘Tell’ is usually used instead of ‘say’.

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General Guidelines for Reported Speech


1. This formal sequence of tenses is used both in speaking and writing.

2. However, sometimes in spoken English no change is made if the speaker is reporting something
immediately after it was said.

Immediate Reporting: What did the teacher just say?


He said he wants us to read Chapter Six.

Later Reporting: I didn’t go to the class yesterday. Did Mr. Jones give any
assignments?
He said he wanted us to read Chapter Six.

3. If the sentence is a general truth, sometimes the present tense is retained.

She said that Alaska is the largest state in the USA.

4. The past simple can stay the same in reported speech or you can change it to the past perfect.

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18 Phrasal Verbs
The Main Postpositions / Common Phrasal Verbs
A phrasal verb consists of a verb and a preposition or adverb that modifies or changes the
meaning.
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Here are some common phrasal verbs in English.


Preposition Use Example
Away Estrangement: to go away All evidence of the crime was swept away.
Disappearance: to sweep away

Back Backward movement: to stand back The student answered back to the teacher.
Return to point of departure: to bring back
Reply: to answer back

Down Downward movement: to go down Please turn down the radio; it is very loud.
Writing: to write down
Decrease: to turn down

In Inward movement: to get in I will drop in later and see how you are doing.
Visit: to drop in

Off Averting: to put off I have put off my dental appointment.


Departure: to go off / to take off because I have a class.

On Start: to turn on / switch on Can you turn on the fan please?


Continuation: to go on

Out Outward movement: to move out I always eat out on Fridays.


Outside: to eat out
Distribution: to give out

Over Repetition: to say over I will have to think over your offer carefully.
Action done with care: to think over

Up Upward movement: to climb up Speak up, I can’t hear you.


Increased volume: to speak up

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Phrasal Verbs

A phrasal verb is a verb plus a preposition or adverb which creates a meaning different from the
original verb.
Example:
I ran into my teacher at the movies last night. RUN + INTO = MEET
He ran away when he was 15. RUN + AWAY = LEAVE HOME

Some phrasal verbs are intransitive. An intransitive verb cannot be


followed by an object.
Example:
He suddenly showed up. SHOW UP cannot take an object.

Some phrasal verbs are transitive. A transitive verb can be followed by an


object.
Example:
I made up the story. ‘Story’ is the object of ‘made up’.

Some transitive phrasal verbs are separable. The object is placed between
the verb and the preposition.
Example:
I talked my mother into letting me borrow the car. TALK INTO = PERSUADE

Some transitive phrasal verbs are inseparable. The object is placed after the
preposition.
Example:
I ran into an old friend yesterday. RUN INTO = MEET BY CHANCE

Some transitive phrasal verbs can take an object in both places.


Example:
I looked the number up in the phone book.
I looked up the number in the phone book.

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WARNING!
Although many phrasal verbs can take an object in both
places, you must put the object between the verb and the
preposition if the object is a pronoun.
Example:
I looked the number up in the phone book. CORRECT
I looked up the number in the phone book. CORRECT
I looked it up in the phone book. CORRECT
I looked up it in the phone book. INCORRECT

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Expressions
‘To get’ + Adjective
The verb ‘to get’ has many different ‘To get’ + adjective :
meanings such as: to become, show a change of state
Some adjectives used with ‘get’

To obtain get hungry


To receive Examples: get thirsty
To buy It gets dark early in winter. get tired
To reach I’m getting tired of working get ready
To arrive (at a place) such long hours. get serious
To become It is getting warmer. get wet
get better
get prepared
get dressed
get bigger

Get dressed

‘To look forward to’


‘To look forward to’ = To think of a future event with anticipation

Structure
Verb ‘to be’ + ‘look forward to’ + noun

Example:
I am looking forward to the vacation.

Structure
Verb ‘to be’ + ‘look forward to’ + gerund

Examples:
I look forward to hearing from you.
He is looking forward to seeing you.

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‘Kind of’ followed by a noun

‘kind of (a/an)’ + noun


When you ask for a more precise definition What kind of (a) problem are you having?*
or description of something. What kind of experience do you have?

* It is more informal to include ‘a’

To describe something in an approximate way, She’s kind of rude.


not precise. It’s a kind of telephone but plays music as well.

‘Kind of like (/a/an)’ + noun


To compare one thing to another in an It looks kind of like an earring, but is much
bigger.
approximate or partial way.

‘Kind of’ = sort of / type of What sort/type of computer is that? =


What kind of computer is that?

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‘To be likely’

‘To be likely’
=
high probability of something happening.

Present
‘To be likely’ + infinitive He is likely to pass the exam.
The meeting is likely to be very long.

Past
‘To be (was/were) likely’ + infinitive The meeting was likely to be very long.

Negative
‘To be unlikely’ + infinitive He is unlikely to come.

Related expression
‘It is likely that’ It’s likely that it will rain.
It’s unlikely that it is very cold there.

‘To be likely’ + ‘to have’ + past participle He is likely to have forgotten about the appointment.
= an opinion about a past event. They are likely to have finished early.

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‘To be left’ / ‘To have left’


‘To be left’ /‘to have left’ = remaining, not used, still there
Structure Example
‘to be left’ This is a passive structure.

Subject + ‘be left’ The weather was bad. Few people were left on the streets.

to have left This is an active structure.

Subject + ‘have’ + direct object + ‘left’ Do you have any rooms left?
Yes, we have some rooms left.

‘For the sake of’


‘For the sake of’ = in the interests of
Structure Examples
‘For’ + noun / noun phrase +’ -’s sake’ For John’s sake
For the children’s sake

‘For’ + possessive adjective + ‘sake’ For his sake


For their sake

‘For the sake of’ + noun / noun phrase / gerund For the sake of the children
For the sake of saving

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Expressions with ‘to have’

Use Examples
Here are some fixed expressions with the
verb ‘to have’
To have a bath Did you have a bath yesterday?
To have lunch We will have lunch later.
To have a rest I’d like to have a rest before going out.
To have a look Have a look at this!

‘To have reason to’ + infinitive We have reason to hope for continued success.
( to analyze causes and consequences)
‘To have to do with something’ The report has to do with our financial
( to say what the topic is) results for the last quarter.

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Baseball Expressions
Baseball is an important part of American culture. Its influence is so strong that it
has become the source of many expressions that are used in informal and busi-
ness contexts.
Expression Example
Touch base It’s good to touch base with clients regularly.

Playing field Now that more companies have made offers,


we’re dealing with a bigger playing field.

On the ball Our new attorney seems to be on the ball.

Ballpark figure I can only give you a ballpark figure.

In the ballpark The offer isn’t in the ballpark yet.

Big league We’ll move into the big league if we secure this deal.

To cover one’s bases This is a complicated transaction; make


sure to cover your bases.

Home run Jenny hit a home run with that deal.

Play hard ball We’re going to have to play hard ball if we want to
get this deal.

Right off the bat Dan started criticizing right off the bat.

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‘To be at stake’
Structure Use Example
‘To be’ + ‘at stake’ To be threatened or endangered. If we don’t respond to this
This may be used to talk about threats crisis now, our financial
to someone or something’s well-being stability will be at stake.
or reputation.
The firm’s reputation is at
stake following the recall of
its latest product.

These expressions are similar in meaning ‘to be at stake’:


‘to be in jeopardy’, ‘to be on the line’, ‘to be at risk’

Expressions of Increase
There are several different words and expressions to describe increase.
Use Expression Example
To describe increase in a To rise Share values rose steadily last quarter.
general way. To climb
Next year, productivity
should climb sharply.

To talk about slow or To creep up Stocks crept up last quarter.


gradual increase. To edge up
To inch up Prices are inching up due to inflation.

To describe sharp and To take off The company is only two years old,
sudden increase. To skyrocket but it has really taken off.
To shoot up
To soar Stocks are skyrocketing following
To go through the roof economic recovery.

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20 Other
‘There is’ / ‘There are’
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Affirmative Negative Question


Singular: There is There is not Is there…….?
There isn’t
There’s not

Plural: There are There are not Are there…..?


There aren’t

Examples:

STATION

There’s a man on the roof. There’s a train in the station.

MT W TFSS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 May
23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30 31

There are seven days in a week.

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Dates

First 1st, Second 2nd, Third 3rd

Ordinal Numbers Fourth 4th, Fifth 5th, Sixth 6th, Seventh 7th, Eighth 8th,
Ninth 9th, Tenth 10th…

20th, 21st, 22nd, 23rd ….


30th, 31st, 32nd, 33rd….

Weekly Calendar
Days Week of_______________
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

Years
Up until the year 2000,
years are pronounced 1998 = nineteen ninety-eight
in two parts:
2010 = two thousand (and) ten (‘twenty ten’ is also becoming popular)
1925 = 19part1 25part2 =
‘Nineteen1 twenty-five2’

1: American format = July 2, 2010


month / day / year = 07/02/2010
Date (written form)
2: British format = 2 July 2010
day / month / year = 02/07/2010

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Time

What time………? = what time of day?


What time is it?
What time do you get up?

O’clock
The time + o’clock = indicates an exact hour.
It’s six o’clock.

British English
To express a time after the hour we use ‘past’.

12 1
11 12 12 1
2 11 1 11
10
10 2 10 2
9 3
9 3 9 3
8 4
8 4 8 4
7 5
6 7 5 7 5
6 6

It’s twenty past four. It’s quarter past three It’s half past twelve.

To express a time after the half hour and before the hour we use ‘to’.

12 1 12 1
11 11
10 2 10 2

9 3 9 3

8 4 8 4
7 5 7 5
6 6

It’s ten to two. It’s quarter to five.

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American English
To express a time after the hour we use ‘after’. (except for the half hour)

12 12 12 1
11 1 11 1 11
10 2 10 2 10 2

9 3 9 3 9 3

8 4 8 4 8 4
7 5 7 5 7 5
6 6 6

It’s twenty after four. It’s quarter after three. It’s twelve thirty.

To express a time after the half hour and before the hour we use ‘to’.

12 1 12 1
11 11
10 2 10 2

9 3 9 3

8 4 8 4
7 5 7 5
6 6

It’s ten to two. It’s quarter to five.

In both British and American English


You can also tell the time by reading the hour and then the minutes.
6:05 It’s six o five.
6:10 It’s six ten.
6:15 It’s six fifteen.
6:20 It’s six twenty.
6:30 It’s six thirty.
6:45 It’s six forty-five.
6:55 It’s six fifty-five.

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‘Have or ‘Make’ without ‘to’

Use Structure Example


To cause someone to to ‘have’ or ‘make’ + I had him service my car.
do something direct object + infinitive without ‘to’ He made me laugh so much.

To cause something ‘to have’ + direct object + He had his car repaired.
to be done past participle She had her hair cut.

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‘To Let’

‘Let’ means the same as ‘to allow’ or ‘to permit’


but is more informal.

‘Let’ + object + infinitive without ‘to’

Example:
Please allow me to buy you a drink.
Please let me buy you a drink.

Example:
My parents don’t allow me to go out at night.
My parents don’t let me go out at night.

Remember, in the third person present we use ‘lets’ but in


the past simple we use ‘let’.

Conjugation of ‘to let’


The present The past simple

I let I let
You let You let
He/She/It lets He/She/It let
We let We let
They let They let

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‘When’ / ‘While’ + present


With conjunctions of time, like ‘when’ and ‘while’, we use the present tense.
Structure
‘Will’ + verb, conjunction of time + present simple

Examples:
They will eat when they arrive.
While I am in Santiago, I’ll call you.

Conjunctions
of time
after
as soon as once
as long as until
as much as when
before whenever
while wherever

‘How’ + Adjective or Adverb


Structure Use Examples
‘How’ + adjective or Forms an open question. How tall are you?
adverb (you can’t answer yes or no) I am very tall. / I’m 1.60m

How high is Mt Everest?


It is extremely high. /
It’s 8848m

How often do you go to the cinema?


I hardly ever go.

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‘Had better’ / ‘Would rather’


Structure Use Examples
‘Had better’
Subject + ‘had better’ + infinitive -A firm suggestion You had better tell her the
without ‘to’ bad news.
Subject + ‘had better’ + not -An order You had better not finish the cake!
+ infinitive without ‘to’

‘Would rather’
Subject + ‘would rather’ + -To show preference I would rather go for a swim.
infinitive without ‘to’

Subject + ‘would rather’ + not I would rather not go for a swim.


+ infinitive without ‘to’

‘Would’ + subject + ‘rather’ Would you rather go for a swim?


+ infinitive without ‘to’

Expression of Preference
These expressions are used to talk about preference.

Structure Examples
‘Would prefer’ I’d prefer to talk to someone else.
Would you prefer to stay at home?
Subject + ‘would prefer’ + infinitive with ‘to’
(‘d)

‘Would rather’ He’d rather be on the beach.


Subject + ‘would rather’ + infinitive without ‘to’ Would you rather stay here or go away?
(‘d)

Used mainly in speech.

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Words ending in ‘ever’


The words whoever, whatever, whichever, however, whenever, wherever mean it
doesn’t matter who/ what / which etc.
(‘any person who’, ‘any thing that’ etc. or ‘the unknown person who’, ‘the unknown
thing that’)

Word ending in
ever Examples
Whoever Whoever comes to the door, tell them I’m out.

Whatever Whatever you do, I’ll always love you.

Whichever Choose whichever book you like.

However However you travel, it will take you at least 3 days.

Whenever Whenever I go to London, I try to see Vicky.

Wherever Wherever you go, you’ll find Coca- Cola.

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‘Whether’
‘Whether’
=
to talk about choices or
alternatives. Like ‘if’ it
expresses uncertainty.

The differences between ‘whether’ and ‘if’:


If Whether
For situations with only one condition. To discuss two or more alternatives.
You can have dessert if you eat your I don’t know whether we should invest right now or not.
vegetables.
(the son having dessert depends on
consumption of dessert, so this is conditional)


Use ‘whether’ after prepositions.
I am uncertain whether we should go to the dinner party.

Use ‘whether’ with infinitives that come after ‘to’.


Jenny doesn’t know whether to study for her test or
go to a movie with friends.

Answer yes or no questions with ‘whether’ or ‘if’.


Sally asks: ‘Can you go shopping with me tonight?’
I’m not sure if I can go shopping with you tonight. OR
I’m not sure whether I can go shopping with you tonight.

It’s becoming increasingly popular to use ‘whether’ and ‘if’ interchangeably in certain situations. Although this
might be acceptable in casual conversation, it is not considered grammatically correct to interchange them.

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Emphatic ‘do’
For emphasis we can put do in an affirmative clause.
Use Examples
Insistence on speaker’s point of view. She does look pretty.

Confirmation of what precedes. He said it would rain and it did rain.

Contradiction He didn’t come to the party yesterday.


He did come, but he didn’t stay long.

Persuasion using the imperative ‘I can’t do it! It’s too difficult!’


‘Do try again!’

Verbs expressing impressions and feelings


Verbs that express impressions and feelings are: to look, to sound, to smell, to taste,
to feel etc.
They may be followed by:
Structure Examples
the preposition ‘like’ He looks like his father.

It sounds like you’re angry.

‘as if’ / ‘as though’ You look as if you don’t understand me.
It sounds as though you aren’t listening to me.

an adjective He looks happy.


This ice cream tastes good.

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‘I am told’

The present sometimes stands in for the present perfect, as in:

Structure Examples
‘I am told’ (= I understand ) I am told that you are in charge of the
Instead of ‘I’ve been told’ sales department.

‘I forget’ (= I can’t remember) What time is the match tonight?


Instead of ‘I’ve forgotten’ I forget.

‘I hear’
Instead of ‘I’ve heard’ I hear you have been promoted.

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