Controlled Fusion

Contents:

 Introduction.

 Conditions for a fusion reaction.

 Fusion Device:
I. Inertial Confinement Fusion.
II. Magnetic Confinement Fusion.

 The Magnetic Mirror.

Introduction:
Nuclear reactions are capable of releasing huge quantities of energy. Such
reactions can be achieved either by the nuclear fission (splitting) of elements of
high atomic number or by the nuclear fusion (joining) of elements with low atomic
number. In astrophysics, fusion reactions power the stars and produce all but the
lightest elements. The most efficient reaction to utilize fusion on earth is the DT
fusion reaction in which nuclei of the two Hydrogen isotopes Deuterium (D) and
Tritium (T) are forced together to overcome the rejection due to their electric
charge and to allow them to fuse due to the strong nuclear binding force between
them. The product of this reaction is a Helium nucleus and a neutron, both with
very high kinetic energy.

Deuterium and tritium fuse together, forming a

helium nucleus, a neutron and lots of energy.

All forms of Hydrogen contain one proton and one electron. Protium, the common
form of Hydrogen has no neutrons, Deuterium has one neutron, and Tritium has
two. If forced together, the Deuterium and Tritium nuclei fuse and then break
apart to form a helium nucleus (two protons and two neutrons) and an uncharged
neutron. The excess energy from the fusion reaction (released because the
products of the reaction are bound together in a more stable way than the
reactants) is mostly contained in the free neutron.
Conditions for a fusion reaction:
Temperature:
Fusion reactions occur at a sufficient rate only at
very high temperatures – when the positively
charged plasma ions can overcome their natural
repulsive forces. Typically, over 100 million
Kelvin is needed for the Deuterium-Tritium
reaction to occur – other fusion reactions (e.g. D-
D, D-He3) require even higher temperatures.

Density:
The number of fusion reactions per unit volume is
roughly proportional to the square of the density.
Therefore the density of fuel ions must be
sufficiently large for fusion reactions to take place
at the required rate. The fusion power generated is
reduced if the fuel is diluted by impurity atoms or
by the accumulation of Helium ions from the
fusion reaction itself. As fuel ions are burnt in the
fusion process they must be replaced by new fuel
and the Helium products (the “ash”) must be
removed.
Plasmas occur at very high temperatures – the
electrons are stripped from the atomic nuclei.

Energy Confinement:
The Energy Confinement Time is a measure of how long the energy in the plasma
is retained before being lost. It is officially defined as the ratio of the thermal
energy contained in the plasma and the power input required to maintain these
conditions. Mostly, magnetic fields are used to isolate the very hot plasmas from
the relatively cold vessel walls in order to retain the energy for as long as possible.
A significant fraction of losses in magnetically-confined plasma is due to
radiation. The confinement time increases dramatically with plasma size (large
volumes retain heat much better than small volumes) - the ultimate example being
the Sun whose energy confinement time is massive.
For sustained fusion to occur, the following plasma conditions need to be
maintained simultaneously.

 Plasma temperature: (T) 100-200 million Kelvin

 Energy Confinement Time: (t) 4-6 seconds
 Central Density in Plasma: (n) 1-2 x 1020 particles m-3 (approx. 1/1000
gram m-3, i.e. one millionth of the density of air).
 Fusion Device:

1) Inertial Confinement Fusion:

This technique involves imploding a small fuel pellet (most likely a 50/50 mixture
of deuterium and tritium). If it is compressed quickly and hard enough,
temperature and density rise, allowing the reaction to reach or exceed the Lawson
criterion. It is the inertia of the imploding pellet that keeps it confined
momentarily. Because it is confined only by its own inertia, the plasma lasts for
about one nanosecond. Therefore, to achieve breakeven point, a very large density
is needed, usually around 1024 particles/cm3, which is many times more than lead.

The fuel pellet, or target, is compressed and heated with what are called energy
drivers. These high-powered sources of energy are usually either high-powered
laser or ion beams, which bombard the target from all sides symmetrically. The
outer layer of the pellet vaporizes and moves away from the pellet like a rocket.
This projection creates shock waves which go on to compress and heat the core.
The compressed fuel then burns, releasing much energy, and expands. This is
partially offset by the shock waves, which tend to continue compressing the
material. This behavior is known as inertia. The result is an inertial confinement
fusion reaction.

Schematic diagram of the stages of inertial confinement fusion using lasers. The
blue arrows represent radiation; orange is blow off; purple is inwardly transported
thermal energy.
1. Laser beams or laser-produced X-rays rapidly heat the surface of the fusion
target, forming a surrounding plasma envelope.
2. Fuel is compressed by the rocket-like blow off of the hot surface material.
 3. During the final part of the capsule implosion, the fuel core reaches 20 times the
density of lead and ignites at 100,000,000 ˚C.
4. Thermonuclear burn spreads rapidly through the compressed fuel, yielding
many times the input energy.

2) Magnetic Confinement Fusion:

Magnetic confinement fusion is one of the two current methods being researched
for the containment of the plasma. Within these machines, magnetic fields are
used to contain the charged particles that compose the hot plasma and keep it away
from the chamber walls. This method is used for containing the plasma for a
relatively long time at a low density.

Magnetic confinement rests upon the property that charged particles, like those in
plasma, will travel along the lines of a magnetic field. By arranging magnetic
fields in just the right way, scientists have been able to "trap" the plasma within
the fields. While the plasma is held, it can be heated through a combination of
microwaves, particle beams, and the heating generated from currents flowing
through the plasma. The plasma density in a magnetically confined reactor is
roughly 1015 particles/cm3, which is thousands of times less dense than that of air
at room temperature. Currently there are two types of magnetic confinement
systems: the mirror (open) and the toroidal (closed). The primary toroidal method
we will be looking at is the tokamak, although there are other toroidal confinement
techniques, including reversed-field pinch, sellarator, and others undergoing
research.

Charged particles are moving helically around magnetic field lines

The Magnetic Mirror:
A magnetic mirror is a magnetic field configuration where the field strength
changes when moving along a field line. The mirror effect results in a tendency
for charged particles to bounce back from the high field region.

A more mathematical treatment of the mirror effect describes it as a result of the

adiabatic invariance of the magnetic moment. For a given mirror ratio (the
maximum field strength divided by the minimum field strength), particles with a
pitch angle (angle between the particle velocity and the magnetic field) greater
than a critical value will be reflected, those with a smaller pitch angle will escape.
In particular,

Magnetic mirrors also occur in nature. Electrons and ions in the magnetosphere,
for example, will bounce back and forth between the stronger fields at the poles.

Magnetic field lines in a "magnetic mirror".

Older designs of magnetic confinement machines involved designs similar to what

is known as the magnetic mirror. These are considered to be of the open type. The
original idea was based on the fact that an electric current generates a magnetic
field, and that the currents flowing in the plasma will essentially "pinch" the
plasma, containing it within its own magnetic field. Magnetic fields are much
stronger than gravitational forces, so there was hope that strong fields would
contain the plasma. However, the magnetic force is two-dimensional, and acts
only perpendicularly to the direction of the current. Thus, the plasma contained
with these devices was cylindrical. To lessen the loss of plasma at the two ends,
two coils placed a distance apart produce a stronger magnetic field near
themselves, with the weaker field in the center. The coils essentially create a
"bottleneck" to the plasma at each end, preventing the plasma from escaping. The
plasma is reflected at the ends by the stronger fields.
 References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion#ICF_mechanism_of_action
http://library.thinkquest.org/17940/texts/inertial_confinement/inertial_confinement.ht
ml
http://www.jet.efda.org/fusion-basics/what-is-fusion/
http://library.thinkquest.org/17940/texts/magnetic_confinement/magnetic_confinemen
t.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_mirror
http://library.thinkquest.org/17940/texts/magnetic_confinement/magnetic_confinemen
t.html