Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Students
English Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 2
Reading ............................................................................................................................ 4
Becoming a Better Reader .........................................................................................................4
Reading Strategies (Practical and Philosophical) ...............................................................5
Reading Tips ............................................................................................................................6
Levels of Reading Literature ..................................................................................................7
Reading for Theme Rather than Plot .....................................................................................9
Effective Reading Behaviours Checklist ............................................................................10
Short Story Theory ...................................................................................................................11
Characteristics of the Short Story .......................................................................................11
Poetry Theory ............................................................................................................................12
Deriving Meaning from Poetry .............................................................................................12
Understanding and Appreciating Poetry ............................................................................13
Writing............................................................................................................................ 15
Managing Your English Assignments ....................................................................................15
Title Page................................................................................................................................16
Format for All Written Work .................................................................................................17
Writing for Theme Rather than Plot.....................................................................................18
Quoting from Literary Sources ............................................................................................19
Prose Forms That Develop Personal Response to Texts.....................................................22
The Essay ..................................................................................................................................25
The Parts of an Essay ...........................................................................................................25
Essay Writing.........................................................................................................................26
Writing an Outline for an Essay ...........................................................................................27
Hints for Writing Good Essays ............................................................................................28
The Thesis Statement: Some Caveats and Examples ......................................................29
Suggestions for Self-Editing and Peer Editing ..................................................................30
Grammar ....................................................................................................................................32
Parts of Speech .....................................................................................................................32
Sentences...............................................................................................................................33
Problems with Sentences.....................................................................................................35
Improving Your Grammar.....................................................................................................37
Punctuation Guide (Simplified)............................................................................................40
Style............................................................................................................................................43
How to Write Without Sounding Sexist...............................................................................43
Transitional Words and Phrases .........................................................................................45
Improving Your Style ............................................................................................................46
Speaking and Listening................................................................................................ 48
Overcoming the Fear of Speaking in Class............................................................................48
Listening Skills..........................................................................................................................48
Viewing........................................................................................................................... 51
The Language of Film...............................................................................................................51
The Role of Visual Communication.........................................................................................52
The Visual Elements .............................................................................................................53
Understanding Fonts ............................................................................................................53
Presenting...................................................................................................................... 60
Making Class Presentations ....................................................................................................60
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
Page 1
English Contents
Appendix A .................................................................................................................... 66
Literary Terms for Grade 10 Students ....................................................................................66
Appendix B .................................................................................................................... 67
Commonly Confused Words....................................................................................................67
Appendix C .................................................................................................................... 70
Strategies for Taking Multiple Choice Tests ..........................................................................70
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
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English
Introduction
This Guide for Students was developed by our teachers to help students learn and understand the
technical skills that form the basis of a successful high school experience in the English Language
Arts. Like our students, it is a “work in progress”; that is to say that it is neither a final and finished
work, nor is it perfect. It will grow, change, and improve with you as you progress through your
education.
As you begin your first year at Sir Winston Churchill High School, we welcome you with enthusiasm
and optimism. We have every expectation that you come to us prepared to work, to learn, and to
succeed.
The English Language Arts Department has an enduring and proud tradition of academic excellence
and achievement. With the hope that you will continue to develop habits of successful scholarship,
we offer you some advice based on our experience with the thousands of outstanding students who
came to us before you:
• Review your English notes and literary terms regularly, even if this is not assigned
homework.
• Read actively, writing notes and keeping track of observations as you read.
• Articulate your learning goals.
• Determine the best ways of studying or preparing for different types of tests and
assignments.
• Consciously plan the most effective strategies to approach a test or assignment.
• Consistently read pieces of literature that we are studying more than once, even if this is
not assigned by your teacher.
• Enthusiastically contribute ideas in small group discussions.
• Willingly and frequently contribute ideas in large group discussions.
• Consistently use class time effectively and efficiently.
• Read regularly, even if reading is not assigned for homework.
• Read newspapers, magazines, short stories, plays, essays or novels for pleasure.
• Connect the ideas in the literature that we read to your own life and experiences, and
connect ideas presented in the texts we study
• Think about the ideas presented in the literature we are studying even after we have
finished discussing the piece in class.
• Develop a strong, clear, and internalized understanding of the ‘language of literature’.
(That is, know and properly use the terms that are used to discuss literature intelligently
and effectively.)
• Do not rely on what other people say in class to form the basis of your interpretation of a
piece of literature.
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English
• Seek extra help when you are unsure of a concept or need some feedback on a project.
• Follow up with your teacher if you miss a class for any reason to find out what must be
done for class that day. (Or, phone a friend you can trust.)
• Keep up to date on world events (by watching the news or reading the newspaper regularly)
and connect these events with the ideas presented in the literature we read.
• Take advantage of opportunities to participate in the arts by attending theatrical or musical
performances.
• Pay attention to the ‘details’ in the works that we read and consistently ask yourself the
question “why might the author have included this?”
• Be familiar with at least 10 reading/reflecting strategies you can access to help you come to
an understanding of a piece of literature.
• Regularly bring a dictionary to class.
• Always look up a reference in a work that you are not familiar with.
• Be comfortable working individually, and in small and large group settings.
• Understand what skills are required to make effective oral presentations.
• Have a valid Calgary Public Library card.
• Be consistently conscious of spelling and grammar.
• Always spend time editing and proofreading your work. Look closely at marking
guidelines to ensure your work meets the necessary criteria.
• Understand the conventions of writing a proper theme statement.
• Be familiar with several strategies to use in the introduction of a piece of writing.
• Recognize and understand the elements of design and the strategies used in visual text.
• Develop strong critical viewing skills.
• Give every assignment your best effort.
• Enthusiastically accept challenges.
• Willingly explore new ideas and concepts.
• Be an active participant in explorations.
• Speak and write honestly and passionately about your ideas and opinions.
• CARE!
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English Reading
Reading
“Reading provides students with a means of accessing the ideas, perspectives and
experiences of others. By using effective reading strategies, students construct meaning and
develop thoughtful and critical understandings and interpretations of a variety of texts. They
also use reading strategies to reconstruct the meanings of others.”*
Reading involves a combination of skills which must be practiced; so, read every day. You have to
read a lot to become a good reader.
When you read, picture in your mind what you read. This is very important. It is called "visualizing."
Good readers see in their heads what is happening in a story. Many students today have a difficult
time visualizing what they read because they have gotten so used to watching television and movies
where things are laid out in front of them without having to think. A good reader needs to see what
she or he is reading. One has to think. The more you read, the better reader you will be.
When you find a reference (called an allusion) to something you do not know much about, such as a
historical occurrence, a myth or a Bible story, look it up. This will help you to understand why the
author has referred to that event or story, and try to relate it to the story you are reading.
Remember that even when you are reading fiction you can learn. Good readers, over time, come to
know a lot about many things, which they pick-up when they are reading. In addition, the more you
learn, the more you will understand. It is like a snowball rolling downhill: the farther it rolls, the bigger
it gets. The more you read, the more you will understand.
*
Alberta Education (2003) English Language Arts. Downloaded from:
http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/k_12/curriculum/bySubject/english/
**
Adapted from documents prepared by AACTchRdg, AAC Staff. Use of this material is protected under America Online and
other copyright. Any use of this material must cite AOL's Academic Assistance Center and the author as a source. (edited
by AACTchrAmy) (05/99)
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English Reading
3. Unfamiliar Words
• Buy a dictionary and thesaurus, and use them;
• Work at understanding word origins (etymology) and groupings. Seeing patterns in roots,
prefixes, and suffixes, will help you “guess” meaning more accurately;
• Decode meaning through the way a word is used (usage) and the words around it
(context);
• Read diverse material to build a varied vocabulary and to see the same words used with
different connotations (associated meaning) and denotations (dictionary definitions);
• Convince yourself that nothing is more important than human language, the origin of
words, their meaning, and their use;
• Understand that everything you want to do in life requires language;
• Because English has borrowed words from just about every other culture, studying other
languages will help you see the same words in a different way; taking Latin will increase
your vocabulary the most, especially if you plan on entering any profession, such as law,
medicine, zoology, or archaeology, that still demand more than a rudimentary familiarity
with Latin words;
• Learning the logic of another language’s grammar should also help you see the logic
in the grammar of English.
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English Reading
Reading Tips
This list of reading tips is by no means comprehensive. It does, however, provide you with a set of
strategies to help you begin to develop your interpretation and analysis.
1. Size up the piece before we begin. Articulate your genre expectations and adjust your reading
according to the type of literature you are reading (short story, play, novel, poetry, essay, article,
etc.)
2. Examine the piece to get a sense of what it is. (Check out the cover, the print size, the title, the
additional information given, the illustrations, the hook, etc.)
3. Read assuming the author is trying to reveal a truth.
4. Try to relate the literature to your own life and experiences.
5. Find key lines. Write these out (or underline, or highlight). Mark up the piece. It may be worth
copying a particularly challenging story so that you can highlight important parts and make
annotations.
6. Re-read. Just like a good CD gets better as you play it more, a well-written story should improve
as you re-read it. Subtle complexities may only be revealed after several readings.
7. Look for the basics. Identify the setting, the conflict(s), the main characters, and the point of view.
Note any repetition.
8. Determine whether or not the piece is a recollection.
9. Ask yourself whether or not setting seems to be significant. If so, what role(s) does it serve?
10. Pay attention to how language reveals characters’ personalities and motivations.
11. Turn the title into a question to help you predict what the story might be about.
12. Picture the story in your mind. Make “movies” in your head. See the setting and feel the mood.
13. Read slowly to “hear” in your head. You may need to slightly exaggerate the punctuation in order
to do this effectively.
14. Identify the literary devices and try to determine their purpose and effect in the story. (For
example, what is the symbol and what does it symbolize? What is the impact of the dramatic
irony? What purpose does the figurative language serve?)
15. Review the questions at the end of the piece.
16. Paraphrase difficult passages into your own language. In some places, it may be useful to
rearrange or reorder sentences.
17. When circumstances allow, read the piece out loud and/or discuss it with others.
18. Ask questions as you are reading. (For example, ask yourself what the author is trying to tell you.
Or, ask yourself, “Why is this here?”)
19. Pay attention to word choices. Identify connotations and look up the denotations of any words
that are not familiar to you.
20. Research any allusions that are not familiar to you.
21. If you are really stuck, research the author. It may provide a clue as to where to start your
analysis.
22. Ask yourself if you (as the reader) are feeling what the main character is feeling.
23. Check pronoun references. (This is particularly important in poetry and Shakespeare.)
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English Reading
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English Reading
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English Reading
• When reading for plot, the resolution of • When reading for theme, the resolution
the conflict means that the story has of the conflict is the beginning of
come, or is coming, to an end. reflection for the reader. It allows us to
see what life, especially our lives, would
be like if we employed the same
behavior or made the same choices as
the characters in the story.
• When reading for plot, the reader’s • When reading for theme, the end of the
engagement with the story ends when story signals a phase of deeper
the story ends. There is little, if engagement with the concepts
anything, learned, and no application for generated by the story. Anything that
the story. Such stories do not tend to might have been learned may remain
stick in the reader’s mind. with the reader for years to come.
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English Reading
*
Adapted from Tovani, Chris, I Read It, But I Don’t Get It.
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English Reading
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English Reading
Poetry Theory
Deriving Meaning from Poetry
1. What event, situation, or experience does the poem describe or record?
2. Why has the poet written this poem? What message does he or she want to communicate?
3. What is the strongest emotion in the poem? Does it change?
4. What does the poet want those who read or hear the poem to feel?
5. Is the poem’s form important?
6. If you are having trouble applying the above questions, try the following. Poems are:
Do not forget that, in addition to interpreting the poem, if you are working with a Personal Response
Question, you must keep the question in mind and look for key words in the poem and the question.
Your interpretation of the concrete and abstract meanings of the poem should be reshaped by the
Personal Response Question. Your response should include your interpretation shaped by the
question, references to the poem, and references to your experience.
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English Reading
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English Reading
• Types of Poems
Look up the following terms:
Ballad Lyric
Blank Verse Narrative
Concrete Poetry Ode
Dramatic Monologue Prose Poem
Elegy Imagination of Poetry
Epigram Sonnet
Free Verse Tercet
Light Verse Found Poetry
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English Writing
Writing
“Writing enables students to explore, shape and clarify their thoughts and to communicate
these thoughts to others. By using effective writing strategies, students discover and refine
ideas, and compose and revise with increasing confidence and skill.”*
*
Alberta Education (2003) English Language Arts. Downloaded from:
http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/k_12/curriculum/bySubject/english/
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English Writing
Title Page
(if required for your assignment)
By
Your Name
(or/and Your ID Number)
Date Here
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English Writing
1. At the top right corner of the first page of your assignment, indicate the following:
Your First and Last Name (or ID number, if required by your teacher)
Date (e.g., October 24, 2005)
English 20-1
Your Teacher’s Name
2. Centered, above your assignment, indicate the following:
The Title of Your Paper (or Name of Assignment)
3. At the top right corner of the second page, and subsequent pages, indicate the following:
Your last name and the page number
(e.g., Doe, page 2)
4. Word-processing:
• For most assignments, use a standard font. Do not get creative with font choice
unless there is a very good reason for doing so (i.e., it is a creative project.)
• Use 10 point Arial or 12 point Times Roman type
• Double space (1.5 spacing is also acceptable).
• Leave a 1 inch margin on all sides
5. Hand written work:
• Use blue or black ink. Assignments in any other colour, or in pencil without prior
agreement, are unacceptable.
• Double space (to allow room for me to write comments).
• Use white, 8½” x 11”, “clean edged” paper (i.e., not ripped from coil notebooks)
6. All assignments:
• Use only the front of the page (punched holes on the left side of the page).
• Correct mistakes with correction fluid or one neat stroke through the error. If you
use correction fluid, wait for it to dry before writing on it.
• Staple or bind all pages together.
• Indent new paragraphs. It is not necessary to skip a line for new paragraphs.
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English Writing
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English Writing
They can be embedded with some of your writing preceding, following, or both.
b. Blocked quotations are used for quotations of more than four lines (or 40 words) and,
especially, for dialogue in plays so that you can ascribe this dialogue without the
bulky devices of “he said . . . and then she said . . . and then he replied . . . and then
she went…”
When blocking a quote, justify it from the left and the right, single-
space it (the rest of your essay should be double-spaced, and do not
use quotation marks. The fact that you have single-spaced it,
separating it physically and intellectually from the rest of your essay
tells your reader that it is a quotation. Place the page number at the
end on the right. (p.52)
*
Adapted from: Mr. Jones’ Course Guide, Page 26-29
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English Writing
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English Writing
• When quoting plays, give act number, scene number, and line numbers, if the
play gives them.
• If the text uses Arabic numerals, use them; if it uses Roman numerals, you may
choose between them and Arabic numerals.
• Line numbers will always be in Arabic numerals.
• If the text is using Roman numerals, the Act will be in upper and the scene will be
in lower. You can formulate it as follows:
a. Act I, scene i, line 1
b. I, i, 1
16. A quick primer on Arabic and Upper- and Lower-Case Roman numerals:
1 I i 8 VIII viii
2 II ii 9 IX ix
3 III iii 10 X x
4 IV iv 50 L l
5 V v 100 C c
6 VI vi 1000 MM mm
7 VII vii
17. The titles of novels, books, plays, and longer poems are underlined.
• The rule is if they can be published on their own, in their own book, they get
underlined.
18. The titles of short stories and poems appear in quotation marks.
• The rule is that they are so short they must appear with others in an anthology, a
collection of literary works, which is then underlined.
19. The titles of films can appear either underlined or in quotation marks, NOT both.
• They are, usually, in formal writing, in BLOCK LETTERS.
20. Titles of songs are in quotation marks.
21. There is never an instance or reason to both “underline a title and put it into
quotation marks!”
22. “All Major Words in a Title Get Capitalized.”
• Non-Major Words, such as as, a, an, or, or the, “Get Capitalized Only if They
Begin the Title.”
23. Always include a page number when quoting from a literary source.
• If the title of the work is apparent from your title, you do not need to give it. If it is
not, give it only the first time you quote from the work.
• If you are referring to more than one work, you may refer to them by the name of
the author; unless two or more of the works are by the same author.
24. You do not need a page number if you are referring rather than quoting.
25. Buy and consult a good reference book for Examples of Bibliographic Forms.
26. Consult with your teachers; they may have personal preferences when it comes to
these rules.
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English Writing
Note: all forms require a beginning, middle and an end. How each is developed and the manner of
expression depends on the prose form. Ultimately, remember that there are time
constrictions and that your audience is a group of educated and literate evaluators.
*
With thanks to C.P. Hetherington from Central Memorial HS.
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English Writing
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English Writing
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English Writing
The Essay
The Parts of an Essay
The Introduction
1. The Lead
a. Get the reader’s attention.
b. May be an anecdote, a challenge, a joke, a shocking statistic, one person’s experience, a
description, a question, or a quotation.
2. The Connector
a. A transitional phrase or sentence that serves as a bridge from the lead sentence to the
thesis (main idea) statement.
3. The Thesis Statement
a. The most important part of the introductory paragraph.
b. A generalized statement that tells the reader:
i. What the topic (main idea) is.
ii. How you will limit the topic.
iii. How you will organize the topic.
c. May be one or more sentences, depending on the complexity of the thesis.
d. A thesis clearly and concisely conveys the writer's main argument in an essay, and it
allows readers to clearly grasp the focus of the essay, which will be developed in the
body of the work.
i. An effective thesis cannot be answered with a simple “yes” or “no”.
e. Example:
i. Judy Syfer's essay, "I Want a Wife," exaggerates the marital expectations facing
women in our society today. Those expectations include managing a household,
maintaining a career, and having a good relationship with a spouse.
Body Paragraphs
1. Topic Sentence
a. Alerts the reader as to which aspect of the thesis statement you are covering in this
particular paragraph.
b. Usually located at the beginning of the paragraph.
2. Specific Support
a. Provide details from the literary text as evidence to persuade the reader to believe what
you are saying.
The Conclusion
1. Rephrase or summarize the thesis.
2. Restate the key points that you covered in the body paragraphs.
3. Conclude with a statement that proves your thesis (main idea).
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English Writing
Essay Writing
4.
Lead: Get the reader’s attention with:
An anecdote A Challenge A Joke
A shocking statistic One Person’s Experience A Description
A question A Quotation
Connector
Use a transitional phrase or sentence that clearly shows
the relationship of the initial ideas in the paragraph to the
concluding thesis statement.
Body Paragraphs
Be sure to include all of the following components:
• topic sentence
• supporting evidence in the body sentences
• a closing sentence.
Follow this same format as you write the second and third body paragraphs.
• Save your best point for the last paragraph
• Start with your second-best point
Recap Supporting
Evidence
Explain what you concluded about the
essay
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English Writing
Brain-storming, thought-webbing, mind-mapping, and other similar techniques are great for getting
your ideas flowing, but not great for putting them in logical order. All writing, regardless of type, has a
beginning, a middle, and an end. The Essay, however, is more formal and thus has more rigid and
disciplined requirements. It also has a beginning, a middle, and an end, but certain things must be
done in each section.
Please note: An Essay for English and an Essay for Social Studies are vastly different. In an
English Essay, your Introduction states your thesis, and the rest of the Essay proves it or, at least,
explains it; in a Social Studies Essay, your Introduction explores a concept that you work toward
accepting or rejecting in your conclusion.
1) Introductory Paragraph
a. Lead Sentence (Get the reader’s attention.)
b. Connector Sentence (Connect your lead sentence to your thesis statement)
c. Thesis Statement (Introduce the key points, preferably at least three that you will
expand further in your body paragraphs.)
2) Body Paragraph #1
a. Topic Sentence (Identify the topic of the paragraph — the second most important key
point from the thesis statement.)
b. Support (Provide pieces of evidence, preferably taken directly from the text being
studied, that support your topic. Ideally, use Significant Sections.)
c. Transition Sentence (Indicate that you are moving to the next paragraph and topic.)
3) Body Paragraph #2
a. Topic Sentence (Identify the topic of the paragraph — the third most important key
point from the thesis statement.)
b. Support (Provide pieces of evidence, preferably taken directly from the text being
studied, that support your topic. Ideally, use Significant Sections.)
c. Transition Sentence (Indicate that you are moving to the next paragraph and topic.)
4) Body Paragraph #3
a. Topic Sentence (Identify the topic of the paragraph — the most important key point
from the thesis statement.)
b. Support (Provide pieces of evidence, preferably taken directly from the text being
studied, that support your topic. Ideally, use Significant Sections.)
5) Conclusion
a. Rephrase the Thesis Statement in the first sentence of the Conclusion.
b. Briefly summarize the key ideas presented in the three body paragraphs.
c. Make a broad sweeping statement about the central theme of your essay.
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English Writing
5. Proofread carefully
a. You want the reader to take your work seriously — show that you do too!
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English Writing
• A thesis should be as clear and specific as possible. Avoid overused, general terms and
abstractions.
*
Copyright 1999, Maxine Rodburg and The Tutors of the Writing Center at Harvard University
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English Writing
1. Begin with the work as a whole. In other words, examine the writer's purpose and
organization. Ask yourself: What does the writer want to achieve, and has the writing been
organized in a way that achieves or facilitates that purpose? When editing a literary essay,
ask yourself if the following necessary parts are present and doing what they are supposed to
do. (Note: These tips are most suitable for the literary essay. See your teacher for the
structure of other types of essays and writing.):
• Is there an Introduction that contains the Title, Author, and a Summary of the literature
to be discussed?
• Does the Introduction have a Thesis Statement or Controlling Idea that is rational,
defensible, and related to the brief summary of the literature?
• Does the thesis statement include, or is it followed by, Three Reasons or Hooks that
show the thesis statement is the result of consideration of the literature and map the
direction in which the essay will develop?
• Has any explanation of the reasons for the thesis statement been saved for the Body
Paragraphs?
• Do the Body Paragraphs follow the order the writer set out in the Introduction with the
three reasons?
• Do the Body Paragraphs develop these reasons with supporting details, examples,
explanations, references, and quotations?
• Are any references to and quotations of the literature the best examples to prove the
writer's assertions?
• Are all quotations commented upon and documented properly?
• Has the writer used transitions for supporting evidence within a paragraph and from
paragraph to paragraph?
• Has the writer included a Concluding Paragraph that brings the writing to a sense of
finality but at the same time makes the reader look beyond the paper to his or her life or
the lives of others?
2. Look at the ideas in the Body Paragraphs. Are they suitable to the literature and to the
thesis statement expressed about it? Are they complex and well-stated or merely straight-
forward and uninsightful or superficial? Do they increase your understanding of the literature,
life, people around you, and yourself, or are they merely unoriginal confirmations or
rearrangements of previous thoughts?
3. Examine the structure of each of the paragraphs. Are they of sufficient length to
properly develop a complex topic or argument? Do the Body Paragraphs have strong Topic
Sentences that are clearly related to the thesis statement and which clearly tell the reader
what the Body Paragraph is to be about? Are these Topic Sentences followed by
Developmental Sentences that develop and prove ideas? Do the Body Paragraphs end
with a Concluding Sentence that brings the paragraph to a close?
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English Writing
4. Consider the structure of each of the sentences in each of the paragraphs. Are the
sentences complete? In other words, has the writer avoided sentence-fragments and run-on
sentences? Do the sentences have variety? In other words, has the writer achieved a nice
combination of simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences?
5. Look at the components of the sentences; in other words, examine the sentences for word
choice, grammar, punctuation, spelling, and capitalization. (These are explained for you
in your Course Guide or will be explained for you in class, but you should take ownership of
your writing by getting guides such as The Elements of Style1 and The Elements of
Grammar2). Are choices superior, and are the mechanics correct?
6. Is the writing still missing something? Then it is probably still missing something! You are
going to have to develop an intuitive feel for what writing needs. This will come with practice
and experience, but only if you admit writing can be improved, and only if you are ruthless in
attempting to improve it.
1
Strunk, E.B., and White, E.B. (2000), The Elements of Style, Toronto: Longman
2
Shertzer, M. (1986), The Elements of Grammar, New York: MacMillan
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English Writing
Grammar
Parts of Speech
Knowing the following terms will make your discussion of your writing more accurate.
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English Writing
Sentences
(also known as clauses)
1. A complete sentence:
a. has a subject.
• The Subject is a noun or pronoun that is the person, place, or thing that the
sentence is about.
b. has a predicate.
• The Predicate is a verb that states the subject’s action (or existence).
c. expresses a complete thought.
• A Complete Thought answers one or more of the “who, what, when, where,
why, or how questions.
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English Writing
2. Sentence Types*
a. In English we have four types of sentences:
• Simple
• Compound
• Complex
• Compound – Complex.
b. Sentence types have nothing to do with sentence length; rather they are created by
the use of conjunctions (or the lack of conjunctions).
c. Simple Sentence (expression of one full idea, includes both a subject and predicate)
• Bob went to the store.
• Bob and Sue went to the store.
• Bob and Sue went to the store on the corner near the centre of town to buy groceries
and to get some drinks for the party.
d. Compound sentences (two complete sentences joined with either a semicolon or a
coordinating conjunction (BOYFANS) Remember: BOYFANS (but, or, yet, for, and,
nor, so — For and so can also act as subordinating conjunctions)
• Bob went to the store, and Sue went to the office.
• Bob went to the store; however, he forgot his wallet at home.
e. Complex sentences. These sentences use subordinate conjunctions to join a
dependant clause to an independent clause.
• Frequently used subordinate conjunctions: after, since, when, although, so
that, whenever, as, where, because, than, whereas, before, that,
wherever, though, whether, if, which, in order that, till, while, lest, unless,
who, no matter, until, why, how, what, even though.
• Because the problem proved difficult, they decided to from a committee.
• They decided to form a committee because the problem proved difficult.
• The issue, which we thought we had solved, came back to haunt us.
• Subordinate conjunctions can be found both at the beginning or the middle
of the sentence.
f. Compound –Complex Sentences. A compound-complex sentence is made up of
at least one dependent clause, and two or more independent clauses. These
sentences will include both a coordinating conjunction and a subordinating
conjunction.
• Even if you fail, at least you tried, and you're a better person for it.
*
Adapted from: http://www.class.uidaho.edu/adv_tech_wrt/resources/sentence_style/sentence_types.htm
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English Writing
*
http://www.learningcommons.uoguelph.ca/ByFormat/OnlineResources/OnlineFastfacts/OnlineWritingFastfacts/
FastfactsImprovingSentenceStructure.html
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English Writing
3. Wordy Sentences
• A loose sentence may result if you use too many "and" connectives when other
conjunctions would convey a more precise meaning.
• John had a weight problem, and he dropped out of school.
• Note the difference in meaning:
• John had a weight problem so he dropped out of school.
• John had a weight problem because he dropped out of school?
• A wordy sentence also results from weak sentence construction and the inclusion of
many phrases and clauses in no particular order. For example:
1. In the event that we get the contract, we must be ready by June 1 with the
necessary personnel and equipment to get the job done, so with this end in mind
a staff meeting, which all group managers are expected to attend, is scheduled
for February 12.
2. NOTE: Writing the previous passage as several sentences would be
more effective.
4. Choppy Sentences
• A succession of short sentences, without transitions to link them to each other, results
in choppy sentences. (see transitions list)
NO: Our results were inconsistent. The program obviously contains an error. We need to
talk to Paul Davis. We will ask him to review the program.
YES: We will ask Paul Davis to review the program because it gave us inconsistent results.
5. Excessive Subordination
• Excessive subordination is not an effective substitute for choppiness.
NO: Doug thought that he was prepared but he failed the examination which meant that
he had to repeat the course before he could graduate which he didn't want to do because it
would conflict with his summer job.
YES: Doug thought that he was prepared, but he failed the examination. Therefore, he
would have to repeat the course before he could graduate. He did not want to do that because
it would conflict with his summer job.
6. Parallel Structure
• Parts of a sentence which are in sequence must all follow the same grammatical or
structural principle.
NO: I like to swim, to sail, and rowing.
YES: I like to swim, to sail, and to row.
YES: I like swimming, sailing, and rowing.
NO: This report is an overview of the processes involved, the problems encountered, and
how they were solved.
YES: This report is an overview of the processes involved, the problems encountered, and
the solutions devised.
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English Writing
*
Adapted from: http://www.learningcommons.uoguelph.ca/ByTopic/Writing/WritingMechanics/index.html
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English Writing
2. Pronoun-Noun Agreement
a. A pronoun must agree in person (I, he, it, they, etc.) and number (singular or plural)
with the noun to which it refers. Remember that who and whom are used to refer to
people, and that and which refer to everything else.
• Mr. Smith took his work home with him.
• Mr. Smith and Mr. Jones worked hard on their projects.
• Neither John nor his parents enjoyed their afternoon. (The pronoun agrees with the
subject closest to it - as with subject-verb agreement with or and nor)
• The woman who voted for an increase in pay looked happy.
• The women who voted for an increase in pay looked happy.
• Each apple was chosen for its rosy appearance.
• Everyone must finish his or her work by Friday.
• NOTE: Since frequent use of his or her could sound awkward, as in the
previous example, it may be preferable to substitute plurals.
• Students must finish their work by Friday.
b. All pronouns must clearly refer to the noun they replace.
NO: Our patients are enjoying the warm days while they last. (Does “they” refer to
“patients” or “days”?)
YES: While the warm days last, our patients are enjoying them.
c. Do not mix "persons" (i.e., second person "you" with third person "he/she/it") unless
meaning requires it.
NO: To improve one's stroke, you have to learn the basics.
YES: To improve one's stroke, one has to learn the basics.
YES: To improve your stroke, you have to learn the basics.
3. Placement of Modifiers
a. Always place modifiers as close as possible to the words they modify.
Confusing: The supervisor told me they needed someone who could type badly.
Better: The supervisor told me they badly needed someone who could type.
Confusing: The fish was found by a fisherman floating in the river. (Who was
floating?)
Better: The fish was found floating in the river by a fisherman.
Or: The fisherman found the fish floating in the river.
Confusing: Wearing high boots, the snake failed to injure the supervisor. (The
snake is wearing high boots)
Better: Wearing high boots, the supervisor was protected from the snake.
Or: Because the supervisor was wearing high boots, the snake did not
injure him.
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English Writing
4. Use of Apostrophes
a. The apostrophe is used to indicate either a contraction or possession.
• When two words are shortened into one, the apostrophe replaces the missing
letter.
• The rule for using an apostrophe with a contraction always holds. (e.g., it
is or it has = it's; who is or who has = who's; they are = they're; will not =
won't [note change in spelling]; is not = isn't, etc.)
b. When showing possession, add 's to the owner word. Then, if the word ends in a
double or triple s, erase the one after the apostrophe and leave the apostrophe in
place.
1. one table's leg OR several tables' legs
2. one student's name OR several students' names
3. one day's work OR several days' work
4. one woman's job OR several women's jobs (note the plural form women does not use
an s)
5. one boss' house OR several bosses' houses
NOTE: Some grammar textbooks recommend keeping the -s's or -ss's
ending for words such as the Jones's party, boss's house, class's
work, congress's motion, and Jesus's life for easier pronunciation.
c. The exception to the possessive rule is that pronouns show possession without the
use of 's. (e.g., my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, our, ours, their, theirs, its,
whose, etc.). Compare the use of apostrophes here:
• That is my book. That book is mine. (no apostrophe for the possessive pronoun mine)
• That is Bob's book. That book is Bob's. (apostrophe for the possessive noun Bob's)
d. Compare contractions versus possessive pronouns here:
• They're hoping to increase their budget.
• You're having trouble with your car.
NOTE: To test whether to use it's or its in a sentence, read your sentence replacing
it's with it is. If it is doesn't fit, the word you need is its. Note that there is no
such word as its' with an apostrophe following the s.
• It's almost time to give the cat its medication.
e. Don't use an apostrophe for plurals of regular nouns.
NOT: Several students' went to the meeting.
NOT: The Smith's are on vacation.
f. Use an apostrophe for plurals of numerals, letters, and words being named.
• He received mostly A's on the papers marked by TA's.
• All she heard were no's in response to her proposal.
• Exception: Technology advanced greatly in the 1990s.
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English Writing
( . ! ? ) The Period, The Exclamation Mark, and The Question Mark are the three punctuation
marks used to end a sentence.
a. The Period comes at the end of an ordinary sentence
• This is a punctuation guide.
b. The Exclamation Mark comes at the end of an exclamatory sentence ( a
sentences that shouts)
• What an excellent punctuation guide!
c. The Question Mark comes at the end of interrogatory sentences
(sentences that ask questions)
• Is this punctuation guide a good one?
(,) The Comma is used to:
a. introduce ideas, time, or place
b. separate parts or ideas in a sentence
c. show that the second part of a sentence is logically dependent upon the
first part.
• When I was a little boy, I loved English.
• I like Shakespeare, Keats, and Shelley.
• Because I like English, I teach it.
(;) The Semi-Colon* is used to:
a. link two independent clauses with no connecting words.
• I am going home; I intend to stay there.
• It rained heavily during the afternoon; we managed to have our picnic
anyway.
• They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; they decided to
camp for the night.
b. You can also use a semicolon when you join two independent clauses
together with one of the following conjunctive adverbs (adverbs that join
independent clauses): however, moreover, therefore, consequently,
otherwise, nevertheless, thus, etc
• I am going home; moreover, I intend to stay there.
• It rained heavily during the afternoon; however, we managed to have
our picnic anyway.
• They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; therefore,
they decided to camp for the night.
*
http://www.arts.uottawa.ca/writcent/hypergrammar/semicoln.html
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English Writing
**
adapted from: http://www.mccc.edu/students/tutoring/colon.html
***
adapted from: http://www.mccc.edu/students/tutoring/hyphen.html
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English Writing
*
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_overvw.html
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English Writing
Style
How to Write Without Sounding Sexist*
Achieving unbiased language so that readers will concentrate on what you have to say rather than
how you say it is an admirable goal. It is also a necessity. For example, businesses and individuals
have been sued because job descriptions used "he" and seemed to exclude women--whether or not
the exclusion was intended. Therefore, gender-free language is a requirement of school and the
workplace.
It may be easy to avoid gender-biased nouns by replacing sexist nouns with more neutral ones:
chairman with chair, mailman with postal carrier, and policeman with police officer. But, how can you
avoid the pronouns he, him, and his when you refer to nouns meant to include both genders?
The following five options will enable you to revise your writing so that your use of pronouns is both
gender-free and correct. As you review this list, compare the biased language of the original
sentences with the gender-free phrasing of the revisions.
3. Use his or her when you occasionally need to stress the action of an individual. Such
references will not be awkward unless they are frequent.
• Biased Language: If you must use a technical term he may not understand, explain it.
• Gender-free Language: If you must use a technical term he or she may not
understand, explain it.
*
http://leo.stcloud.msus.edu/genderbias.html
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English Writing
4. Vary pronoun choice when you want to give examples emphasizing the action of an
individual. Ideally, choose pronouns that work counter to prevailing stereotypes. Growing
Child Newsletter (1982) decided to use this strategy throughout its publication, which
focused on children's developmental levels.
• Biased Language: Gradually, Toddler will see the resemblance between block
creations and objects in his world, and he will begin to name some structures, like
"house," "choo choo," and "chimney."
• Gender-free Language: Gradually, Toddler will see the resemblance between block
creations and objects in her world, and she will begin to name some structures, like
"house," "choo choo," and "chimney."
• Biased Language: The kitchen can serve as a centre for new experiences, an
interesting place where important things happen, and where she has a chance to learn
about the way big-people things are done.
• Gender-free Language: The kitchen can serve as a centre for new experiences, an
interesting place where important things happen, and where he has a chance to learn
about the way big-people things are done.
5. Switch from the third-person (he) to the second-person (you) or a "you" understood when
this shift is appropriate for what you're writing.
• Biased Language: Each manager should report his progress to the undersigned by
May 1.
• Gender-free Language: You should report your progress to me by May 1.
or
• Report your progress to me by May 1.
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English Writing
Examples of Transitions:
Illustration Thus, for example, for instance, namely, to illustrate, in other words, in particular,
specifically, such as.
Contrast On the contrary, contrarily, notwithstanding, but, however, nevertheless, in spite of, in
contrast, yet, on one hand, on the other hand, rather, or, nor, conversely, at the same time,
while this may be true.
Addition And, in addition to, furthermore, moreover, besides, than, too, also, both-and, another,
equally important, first, second, etc., again, further, last, finally, not only-but also, as well as,
in the second place, next, likewise, similarly, in fact, as a result, consequently, in the same
way, for example, for instance, however, thus, therefore, otherwise.
Time After, afterward, before, then, once, next, last, at last, at length, first, second, etc., at first,
formerly, rarely, usually, another, finally, soon, meanwhile, at the same time, for a minute,
hour, day, etc., during the morning, day, week, etc., most important, later, ordinarily, to
begin with, afterwards, generally, in order to, subsequently, previously, in the meantime,
immediately, eventually, concurrently, simultaneously.
Space At the left, at the right, in the center, on the side, along the edge, on top, below, beneath,
under, around, above, over, straight ahead, at the top, at the bottom, surrounding, opposite,
at the rear, at the front, in front of, beside, behind, next to, nearby, in the distance, beyond,
in the forefront, in the foreground, within sight, out of sight, across, under, nearer, adjacent,
in the background.
Concession Although, at any rate, at least, still, thought, even though, granted that, while it may be true,
in spite of, of course.
Similarity of Similarly, likewise, in like fashion, in like manner, analogous to.
Comparison
Emphasis Above all, indeed, truly, of course, certainly, surely, in fact, really, in truth, again, besides,
also, furthermore, in addition.
Details Specifically, especially, in particular, to explain, to list, to enumerate, in detail, namely,
including.
Examples For example, for instance, to illustrate, thus, in other words, as an illustration, in particular.
Consequence So that, with the result that, thus, consequently, hence, accordingly, for this reason,
or Result therefore, so, because, since, due to, as a result, in other words, then.
*
Adapted from: http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/trans1.html and http://www.virtualsalt.com/transits.htm
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English Writing
• Informal tone is personal, simple, and direct. Active voice is used more frequently than
is passive. Sentences may be somewhat shorter. Personal pronouns (I, we) may be
used. This style is used in more casual writing assignments, journal entries, and class
work which are designated as informal. Remember, however, that writing informally does
not necessarily mean you should use slang, colloquialisms, and contractions.
• Researchers believe there may be a link between vitamin A and cancer, but they
do not know exactly what it is yet.
• Formal tone is impersonal, uses a fairly learned vocabulary, and longer sentences, and
avoids personal pronouns. This style is used for academic articles and essays.
Remember, however, that writing formally does not mean that you should use
unnecessary jargon, clumsy structures, awkward vocabulary, excessive verbiage, or
pompous phrases such as this author believes in order to avoid using I or we, or that you
should overuse the passive voice.
• Research has shown an interesting connection between vitamin A and cancer, but
the exact nature of the connection has not been conclusively determined.
Whatever tone you use, always be clear, direct, and comprehensible.
2. Avoid using the passive voice unless absolutely necessary.
• Passive Voice: the object is being acted upon by an actor (e.g., "The man was bitten by
the dog"). Use the wordier passive structure only when the identity of the "actor" is
unknown or is less important than the receiver or the act itself.
• All beef has been marked down by the butcher. (i.e., the beef is the most
important idea.)
• The water was boiled for ten minutes. (The actor is unidentified; i.e., the water
was boiled by whom?)
• Active Voice: an actor acts upon a receiver (e.g., "The dog bit the man").
• The butcher has marked down all the beef. (i.e., the butcher is the most important
idea.)
• I boiled the water for ten minutes. (The actor is identified: "I".)
3. Be simple and concise in your writing.
• Choose a short word instead of a long one when the meaning is the same, and avoid
jargon.
• Cut out unnecessary words.
• Avoid starting a sentence with empty passive phrases such as: “it should be noted that”,
“it is recommended that”, or “it was found that”.
• Wordy: Poor living accommodations give promise of incrementing the negative side
of the morale balance so far as new personnel are concerned.
• Better: Poor living accommodations lower the morale of new personnel.
*
Adapted from: http://www.learningcommons.uoguelph.ca/ByFormat/OnlineResources/OnlineFastfacts/OnlineWritingFastfacts/Fastfacts-
ImprovingStyle.html
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English Writing
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English Speaking and Listening
2. A second technique to manage your fears of speaking in class is to concentrate more on your
message than on yourself.
3. Most of us are afraid of speaking in public because we are afraid we might do something
embarrassing. You may have experienced all the embarrassing things that can happen when
public speaking fears take hold: dry mouth, shaky knees, and losing your train of thought. While
these can be embarrassing, people in the class tend to overlook them or nod empathetically
because they have had similar experiences. People have come to hear what you say, rather than
how you say it. So, if you concentrate on delivering a relevant and organized message, your self-
consciousness becomes less important.
Listening Skills**
Listening is not the same as hearing. Listening is a communication skill that takes practice. By
becoming a better listener in class, you will become a better note-taker and a successful student.
Listening is an art and a gift. It is a tool that is essential to your success as a student, an employee,
and a friend, yet most of us have never been taught how to listen. Most of us listen poorly. We
concentrate more on ourselves than on what other people are telling us.
Becoming a better listener requires improving behaviours and attitudes. Listening is an active
process. A long time ago Epictetus told his Greek friends, "Nature has given us one tongue, but two
ears, that we may hear from others twice as much as we speak!"
Weak listening skills lead to misunderstanding. In industry millions of dollars are lost every year as a
result of poor listening. It has become standard practice at most major companies to "write it down" to
improve the possibility of being understood. Xerox, a leading corporation, has developed and now
markets to other industries its own listening improvement course.
*
Adapted from: http://www.uwm.edu/letsci/transitions/old/conquer.html
**
Adapted from: http://dl.clackamas.cc.or.us/os11class/LearningSkills/listenskills.htm
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English Speaking and Listening
LISTENING PROBLEMS
• Daydreaming is probably the most common listening problem because it affects everyone.
Frequently a speaker will mention some person or thing that triggers an association in our minds,
and off we go. When we return to reality and start listening again, we may find that the third point
is being discussed, and we have no recollection of points one and two.
There are lots of opportunities for daydreaming because the speaker's speed of talking is so
much slower than our speed of thought. While the teacher is talking at 125 words per minute, your
mind is racing along at several times that speed.
• Closed-mindedness is a fault that happens more outside the classroom, especially when we are
arguing. We often refuse to listen to the other side of the argument, especially when we have
already made up our minds. We think there is no use in listening since we know all there is to
know!
Anytime you fail to listen with an open mind, you may lose valuable information. Closed-
mindedness interferes with learning and relationships. Besides, it is not fair to the speaker — your
family, your teacher, your minister, your friend, your co-worker, your partner. If your point of view
is the correct one, opposing arguments will only reinforce your beliefs. If, on the other hand, your
position is wrong, refusing to listen won't make it right!
• False attention is a protection technique that everyone uses from time to time to fake out the
speaker. When we're not really interested in what someone is saying, we pretend to listen. We
nod our heads and make occasional meaningless comments and eye contact to give the
impression that we're listening. Usually our minds are a million miles away.
Sometimes the fake-listener has no choice; a boring person may be talking, and the listener
cannot escape. Maybe the listener is seated at a table or in a room with relatives when some very
important personal matter comes to mind. Conveniently, this listener can go through the motions
of listening, even make an occasional comment, while giving real attention to something of a
higher priority. This habit of false listening can become a problem for you if it becomes a routine
procedure, a technique to use whenever something not very interesting comes your way.
Remember that boredom is a state of mind. Do not let the bad habit of false attention become a
part of your life.
• Intellectual despair means giving up before you even get started. Listening can be hard to do
sometimes. In school, you have to sit through many discussions that are hard to understand.
Expect it; that is why you're going to school — to learn what you do not understand.
Occasionally, you may feel the urge to give up. You may say to yourself, "No matter how hard I
try, I don't get it. I just can't learn this stuff." With this type of thinking, it's easy to stop trying.
This listening despair is a self-defeating behaviour and may lead to a negative self-fulfilling
prophecy. Obviously, you will never understand it if you give up. The thing to do is to listen more
carefully than ever. Take notes in class; it will help you focus. It is your responsibility to ask
questions when you do not understand something. Discuss the material with another student.
Attack the problem as soon as you identify it. Try not to let several weeks go by before you take
some action! Procrastination is not the answer to intellectual despair. Catch up right away, and
you will feel more in control of your learning process.
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English Speaking and Listening
• Memorizing is a problem that happens when listeners try to memorize every word the teacher
says. These are usually students who are stressed, and in their goal to listen well; they commit
this listening fault because of their anxiety and come away from class remembering less.
There is no way to remember everything a teacher says. When you try, you miss the overall
sense of the class, and you are worse off than ever. A student who has this listening problem
does not seem to know any other way and may never have been taught techniques for effective
listening.
• Personality listening is something we all do. It is natural for listeners to evaluate a speaker, but
our impressions should not interfere with our listening. The content (what the speaker is saying)
should be judged on its own value to you and the speaker.
Sometimes you may be tempted to tune out the speaker because of his or her appearance. If an
instructor is sloppily dressed and careless about his or her appearance, you may conclude that
what s/he is saying is not worth listening to. Avoid the temptation and do not let your personal
feelings interfere with your learning.
• Prepare to listen. Your attitude in attending class is important. If you feel that a particular class
is generally a waste of your time, you obviously will not be in a good mood to listen. Use some
positive self-talk by deciding before class that this time will be well spent. Commit yourself to this
learning experience.
• Watch the speaker. Do not take your eyes off the speaker! Eye contact is a very important part
of the active listening process. Of course, taking notes is recommended to help you maintain your
focus; however, when you look away, you will be aware of visual distractions that compete with
the teacher for your attention. You have to listen with your eyes and your ears!
Try to develop an awareness of your instructor's mannerisms. Gestures, tone of voice, and other
body language usually emphasize a speaker's remarks. Some experts say that tone of voice and
body language are 95% of the listening communication process. All speakers communicate
physically as well as orally, so you must watch as you listen.
• Note questions. If you listen with a questioning attitude, learning will be easier for you. When the
teacher asks a question, pay close attention. This is usually a signal that the instructor thinks this
is important information. You have to realize that the teacher knows the answer, so there is
nothing he or she can learn from the answer. S/he is asking it so you will learn. S/he wants you to
understand and remember the answer. Speakers' questions are designed to help you listen and
learn.
• Also, be sure to notice questions asked by others in class. Student questions signal the teacher
about how the information is coming across to students. At this point, the teacher will often give a
more detailed explanation, repeat the point, or give examples to help the class to understand
better. Questions from both the teacher and students are valuable; pay attention to them.
• Listen creatively. You should not be listening and thinking about other things at the same time,
but you should be evaluating and organizing the speaker's words by taking notes. If you sit
passively, like a sponge, expecting to soak up knowledge, you are really only half listening. To
listen totally, you have to react by putting your mind to work. Like a computer, start to process the
data coming in. This causes you to think ahead and anticipate what is coming up.
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English Viewing
Viewing
“Visual imagery is an integral part of contemporary life. By developing viewing strategies
and skills, students come to understand the ways in which images may be used to convey
ideas, values and beliefs. Critical viewing enables students to acquire and assess
information, appreciate the experiences of others, and understand and evaluate others’ ideas
and perspectives.”*
*
Alberta Education (2003) English Language Arts. Downloaded from:
http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/k_12/curriculum/bySubject/english/
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English Viewing
Artists and designers use visual elements, fonts, and compositional elements to create
pieces of visual communication (photographs, paintings, drawings, graphic layouts, illustrations, etc.).
Even if you are not an artist or a designer you are familiar with these elements. You may not have
formal knowledge of the elements and how they work but you have seen them millions of times.
Chances are you used the visual elements when you created all sorts of masterpieces with your trusty
crayons as a child. The activities covered in the next few pages will introduce you to the basics of the
visual elements, fonts, and the compositional elements. Once you understand these basics you
will be able to analyze and create visuals at a higher level.
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English Viewing
Line Line is the most basic element of art; a continuous mark made on a surface can vary in
appearance (length, width, texture, direction, and curve). Five varieties of lines:
vertical, horizontal, diagonal, curved, zigzag
Colour Colour is produced when light strikes an object and reflects back in your eyes. This
element of art has three properties:
• Hue -the name of a colour (ex. - red, yellow. blue)
• Intensity -the purity and strength of a colour (ex- bright red or dull red)
• Value -the lightness or darkness of a colour
The use of colour is a complicated and subjective topic. The following websites will
provide a wealth of information.
Introduction to Colour Theory http://members.cox.net/mrsparker2/intro.htm
Color Maters – Design Art http://www.colormatters.com/colortheory.html
The Basics of Colour Theory http://www.bracknet.com/ess/Graphics/colourT.htm
Shape Shape is two - dimensional (circle, square, triangle, rectangle) and encloses space -
geometric, man-made or free form.
Form Form is three-dimensional and encloses space and takes up space -geometric, man-
made or free form.
Space Space is defined and determined by shapes and forms. Positive space is where
shapes and forms exist; negative space is the empty space around shapes and forms.
Texture Texture refers to the surface quality or "feel" of an object - smooth, rough, soft, etc.
Textures may be actual (felt with touch - tactile) or implied (suggested by the way an
artist has created the work of art -visual).
Note: An artist or a designer uses the visual elements (or the “visual alphabet”) to make a visual
composition in a similar manner as a writer uses letters and words to make a story. Just like the way a
writer uses words matters in literature the way an artist or designer uses the visual elements matters
in art and design.
Understanding Fonts
“Type is speech made visible, with all the nuances, inflections, tonalities and even dialects of the
human voice. It is one of humanity's most precious possessions.”
- Jan White author of Editing by Design
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English Viewing
TIMES
The little bits at the ends of the letters are called serifs.
• Sans Serif
Typefaces without these decorative marks to embellish characters are called Sans
Serif - Helvetica is a sans serif typeface. Sans serif fonts are commonly used in
Europe for the body copy of books, magazines, and newspapers. In North America
sans serif fonts are usually reserved for headlines. If serif fonts have a conservative
look and feel then sans serif fonts tend to have sleeker and more contemporary look
and feel.
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HELVETICA
See how this font does not have the little bits at the ends of the letters.
• Script
Script typefaces resemble calligraphy or other hand written text – Edwardian
Script is a script typeface.
fvÜ|Ñà
• Ornamental
Ornamental typefaces cover a very wide range of looks and styles; in fact they can
even be from the serif, sans serif, or script families. However, ornamental typefaces
are really only meant for use as large sized text blacks like headlines and titles. They
do not work well as body text since they are hard to read. There are far too many
ornamental fonts to list any names here, but take a look at the samples below and
you will get a good idea of the variety of styles that can be used…
Choosing Fonts
Anyone who has used a computer knows that there are a lot of typefaces (or fonts) to choose
from. Some may even ask why we need all these typefaces anyway? There are so many
different fonts because we humans have so many ways of communicating. Each font has its
own personality and meaning. Some fonts are serious, some are bold, some are silly, and
some are outright crazy. Do you remember what Jan White said? He said that, “Type is
speech made visible, with all the nuances, inflections, tonalities and even dialects of the
human voice. It is one of humanity's most precious possessions.” The font that is used in a
visual composition ad offers a certain kind of “voice” to the page.
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fig. 2
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fig. 3
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fig. 4
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fig. 5
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Presenting
“Representing may be envisioned as the expressive counterpart of viewing. Visual representation
enables students to communicate their ideas through a variety of text forms, including posters,
diagrams, photographs, collages, video presentations, visual art, tableaux and mime.
Representing, however, extends beyond the visual. For example, representations may have an oral
component. A speaker’s tone of voice can convey, or represent, his or her feelings and attitudes.
Music and sound effects that are selected to accompany a dramatic monologue, a dialogue or a
readers’ theatre presentation may be representational in that they set a mood and convey an
atmosphere.
Representing is also manifested in print. Tables and figures that accompany informative texts may
suggest spatial relationships, time sequences, and relationships between and among concepts and
ideas. Posters and other examples of promotional print texts typically employ design principles, such
*
as alignment and repetition, to represent relationships and to create emphases.”
*
Alberta Education (2003) English Language Arts. Downloaded from:
http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/k_12/curriculum/bySubject/english/
**
Adapted from Student Achievement Series No. 6, Counselling Service, McMaster University – downloaded from:
http://socserv2.mcmaster.ca/Inquiry/presentationsmaking.htm
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3. Preparation
• Identify the scope of your topic (What do you need to cover?)
• Organize it into sections
• Select information to present
• Practice the presentation
• Find out how long you are expected to talk
• Avoid large topics;
• Choose a small number of points which listeners can digest
• Explain each point carefully, with examples
• Narrow your focus in your preparation.
4. Visual Aids
• Visual Aids help listeners understand your points
o Blackboard: problem of writing down all your points; takes time; distracts listeners
o Transparency sheets: prepare material ahead of time (see more below)
o Blank Transparency sheets: write on them; special pens (see more below)
• Prepare photocopies; hand out
• Aim for simplicity and uncluttered visual aids. Use only important information; don't
overload with too much information.
• Visuals must be seen clearly by the whole class; don't make them too small. (see more
below)
• Use several sheets, each with small number of points.
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10. Nervousness
• A little bit of nervousness:
o Shows that you are not too arrogant.
o Gives you extra energy to give a really good presentation; channel your
nervousness into positive energy.
o Your feelings of nervousness will not be evident to your audience; examples
Increased heart rate
Sweaty palms
Shaky hands
Butterflies in your stomach
• Combat nervousness by thorough preparation; the day of the presentation should then be
easy.
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• Computer-Aided Presentations
o Computer-generated slides, such as Microsoft PowerPoint, have become standard in
many professional presentations. They are used increasingly by students in
classroom presentations.
o One advantage of computer-generated slides is that they can be revised right up to
the beginning of your presentation.
o Make sure your slide show fits on a single diskette, CD, DVD, or memory key for easy
transfer to the computer you will use in the classroom.
o Try to ensure a good balance of text and graphics.
o Use a modest number of computer slides. Do not overwhelm your audience with a
Multimedia show that emphasizes format over content.
o Test the slide show on the computer you are going to use and in the room you are
going to use before your presentation.
o Follow the guidelines for transparencies and slides. In particular, make sure that the
text on the slides is viewable from all parts of the room.
o Always use colour contrast between foreground and background. Never put text on a
noisy background. This drowns out the text.
o Make sure you prepare a hard copy handout of your slides in case something goes
wrong. You can fit three to six slides on a single sheet of paper for photocopying and
hand out.
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Appendix A
Literary Terms for Grade 10 Students
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Appendix B
Commonly Confused Words*
Words that sound alike or nearly alike but have different meanings often cause writers trouble. Here
are a few of the most common pairs with correct definitions and examples:
• ACCEPT: to receive: He accepts defeat well.
• EXCEPT: to take or leave out: Please take all the books off the shelf except for the red one.
• ALLUSION: an indirect reference: The professor made an allusion to Virginia Woolf's work.
• ILLUSION: a false perception of reality: They saw a mirage: that is a type of illusion one sees in the
desert.
• ALL READY: prepared: Dinner was all ready when the guests arrived.
• ALREADY: by this time: The turkey was already burned when the guests arrived.
• ALTOGETHER: entirely: Altogether, I thought that the student's presentation was well planned.
• ALL TOGETHER: gathered, with everything in one place: We were all together at the family reunion
last spring.
• BREATH: noun, air inhaled or exhaled: You could see his breath in the cold air.
• BREATHE: verb, to inhale or exhale: If you don't breathe, then you are dead.
• CITE: to quote or document: I cited ten quotes from the same author in my paper.
• SIGHT: vision: The sight of the American flag arouses different emotions in different parts of the world.
• SITE: position or place: The new office building was built on the site of a cemetery.
• CONSCIENCE: sense of right and wrong: The student's conscience kept him from cheating on the
exam.
• CONSCIOUS: awake: I was conscious when the burglar entered the house.
• COUNCIL: a group that consults or advises: The men and women on the council voted in favour of an
outdoor concert in their town.
• COUNSEL: to advise: The parole officer counselled the convict before he was released.
*
adapted from: http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/conford.html
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• ELICIT: to draw or bring out: The teacher elicited the correct response from the student.
• ILLICIT: illegal: The drug dealer was arrested for his illicit activities.
• EMINENT: famous, respected: The eminent podiatrist won the Physician of the Year award.
• IMMANENT: inherent or intrinsic: The meaning of the poem was immanent, and not easily recognized.
• IMMINENT: ready to take place: A fight between my sister and me is imminent from the moment I enter
my house.
• ITS: of or belonging to it: The baby will scream as soon as its mother walks out of the room.
• IT'S: contraction for it is: It's a beautiful day in the neighbourhood.
• LIE: to lie down (person or animal.): I have a headache, so I'm going to lie down for a while.(also lying,
lay, has/have lain—The dog has lain in the shade all day; yesterday, the dog lay there for twelve
hours).
• LAY: to lay an object down: "Lay down that gun, Bubba!” the sheriff demanded. The town lay at the
foot of the mountain. (Also laying, laid, has/have laid—At that point, Bubba laid the gun on the
ground.)
• LOSE: verb, to misplace or not win: Mom glared at Mikey. "If you lose that new lunchbox, don't even
think of coming home!"
• LOOSE: modifier, to not be tight; verb (rarely used): to release: The burglar's pants were so loose that
he was sure to lose the race with the cop chasing him. While awaiting trial, he was never set loose
from jail because no one would post his bail.
• PASSED: verb, past tense of "to pass," to have moved: The tornado passed through the city quickly,
but it caused great damage.
• PAST: belonging to a former time or place: Who was the past president of Microsquish Computers? Go
past the fire station and turn right.
• PRECEDE: to come before: Pre-writing precedes the rough draft of good papers.
• PROCEED: to go forward: He proceeded to pass back the failing grades on the exam.
• PRINCIPAL: adjective, most important; noun, a person who has authority: The principal ingredient in
chocolate chip cookies is chocolate chips. The principal of the school does the announcements each
morning.
• PRINCIPLE: a general or fundamental truth: The study was based on the principle of gravity.
• STATIONARY: standing still: The accident was my fault because I ran into a stationary object.
• STATIONERY: writing paper: My mother bought me stationery that was on recycled paper.
• SUPPOSED TO: correct form for "to be obligated to" or "presumed to", not "suppose to"
• SUPPOSE: to guess or make a conjecture
o Do you suppose we will get to the airport on time? When is our plane supposed to arrive?
We are supposed to check our bags before we board, but I suppose we could do that at the
curb and save time.
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• THAN: use with comparisons: I would rather go out to eat than eat at the dining hall.
• THEN: at that time, or next: I studied for my exam for seven hours, and then I went to bed.
• THEIR: possessive form of they: Their house is at the end of the block.
• THERE: indicates location (hint: think of "here and there"): There goes my chance of winning the lottery!
• THEY'RE: contraction for "they are": They're in Europe for the summer—again!
• THROUGH: by means of; finished; into or out of: He ploughed right through the other team's defensive
line.
• THREW: past tense of throw: She threw away his love letters.
• THOROUGH: careful or complete: John thoroughly cleaned his room; there was not even a speck of
dust when he finished.
• THOUGH: however; nevertheless: He's really a sweetheart though he looks tough on the outside.
• THRU: abbreviated slang for “through”; not appropriate in standard writing: We're thru for the day!
• WHO: pronoun, referring to a person or persons: Jane wondered how Jack, who is so smart, could be
having difficulties in Calculus.
• WHICH: pronoun, replacing a singular or plural thing(s); not used to refer to persons: Which math class
did you get into?
• THAT: used to refer to things or a group or class of people: I lost the book that I bought last week.
• WHO: used as a subject or as a subject complement: John is the man who can get the job done.
• WHOM: used as an object: Whom did Sarah choose as her replacement?
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Appendix C
Strategies for Taking Multiple Choice Tests
General Rule: Get an understanding of the stem before considering and choosing an alternative.
Underline key terms and clue words in the stem.
Some students find it effective to read the stem and anticipate the correct alternative before looking at
the alternatives. If you generally do better on essay exams, this strategy may help you. Research
shows that one in three students scores better with this strategy alone!
• Read the questions for the selection. This allows you to read the passage with a more
discerning eye. Knowledge of an impending question directs your focus as you read the
passage.
• Read the passage and try to identify the most important parts of the text.
• As you read, consider sources of information aside from the passage itself:
o Title: may give you a clue about the subject of the passage.
o Author’s Name: may be helpful if you have read anything else by the author.
o Author’s date of birth and/or death, and country of origin: may be helpful in
establishing the setting of the passage.
o Epigraph (a quotation at the beginning of a reading): may give you a clue about
the theme of the passage.
• Use all of the allotted time and answer every question.
• Eliminate the unlikely responses and then choose the best answer from those that are left.
• Do not look for patterns in the answer key. (The examiners have already examined the
answer key and made sure that there are no patterns to the answers.)
• Do not leave any answers blank. If you find a question that is too difficult, mark it and leave it
for later. The confidence that you gain by doing some easier questions first will often help in
dealing with the more difficult questions later on.
• If you are not certain of an answer, guess — but do so methodically. Do not guess too soon!
You must select not only a correct answer, but the best answer. It is therefore important that
you read all of the options and not stop when you come upon one that seems likely.
Eliminate the choices that you know are incorrect; then, relate each alternative back to the
stem of the question to see if it fits. Narrow the choices to one or two alternatives and then
compare them and identify how they differ. Finally, make an informed guess.
• If a question contains line references, then reread those lines before answering the question.
• Read the selections in order. The examiners will have carefully considered the difficulty of
each reading and in order to help students will have placed easier readings after harder
readings.
• Use the true-false technique to detect decoys. To use the true-false technique, you make a
complete statement from the stem and each of the options. An option that results in a false
statement is eliminated as a distracter. One that results in a true statement is probably the
correct answer.
• Do not dismiss an alternative because it seems too obvious and simple an answer.
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• Do not be wowed by fancy terms in the question (i.e., Do not say to yourself, "That sounds
impressive, so it must be the right answer!") Use context clues or your knowledge of common
prefixes, suffixes, and word roots to make intelligent guesses about terminology that you do
not know.
• Be wary of options which include unqualified absolutes such as “all,” "never," and "always".
Such statements are highly restrictive and very difficult to defend. They are rarely (though
they may sometimes be) correct options.
• The less frequently stated converse of the above is that carefully qualified, conservative, or
"guarded" statements tend to be correct more often than would be predicted by chance alone.
Other things being equal, favour options containing such qualifying phrases as "may
sometimes be," or "can occasionally result in."
• If time permits, review your answers, but change an answer only if you feel that you have a
better understanding of the passage after a second reading.
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