METALS AND ITS ALLOYS

CLASSIFICATION OF METALS

FERROUS METALS / ALLOYS

NONFERROUS METALS / ALLOYS

 CLASSIFICATION OF METALS AND
METAL ALLOYS

Ferrous Nonferrous

Cu & its Alloys

Steels Cast Iron Al & its Alloys
Mg & its Alloys
Ti & its Alloys
The Refractory Metals
The Superalloys
The Noble Metals
Miscellaneous Nonferrous Alloys
 FERROUS ALLOYS
 Those of which IRON ( Fe ) is the prime
constituent.

 Areproduced in larger quantities than any

other metal type.

 Consideredas an especially important

engineering construction material.
 Ferrousmetals are iron-base alloys with
small percentage of C and other elements
added to achieve desired properties.

 Include all forms of iron and steel alloys.

 Few examples include wrought iron, cast

iron, carbon steels, alloy steels and tool
steels.
 Reasons for the widespread use of
ferrous alloys
(1) iron-containing compounds exist in
abundant quantities within the earth’s
crust;
(2) Metallic iron and steel alloys maybe
produced using relatively economical
process;
(3) Ferrous alloys are extremely versatile in
terms of mechanical and physical
properties.
Principal Disadvantage of Ferrous
Alloys

… its susceptibility to CORROSION.

 Ferrous Metals & Alloys

Steel Cast Irons

Low alloy High Alloy Gray cast iron

Low-C Ductile ( nodular ) iron

Plain
High-strength, White Iron
Medium-C
Plain Malleable
Heat treatable
High-C
Plain
Tool Tool Stainless
 Ferrous Metal Alloys
 Steel
 Low Alloy Steel
 Low Carbon Steel
 Medium Carbon Steel
 High Carbon Steel
 High Alloy Steel
 Stainless Steels
 Tool Steels
 Cast Iron
 Gray Cast Iron
 Ductile (nodular)
 White Iron
 Malleable Iron
 Nonferrous Alloys
 Copper and its Alloys
 Aluminum and its Alloys
 Magnesium and its Alloys
 Titanium and its Alloys
 The Refractory Metals
 The Super Alloys
 The Noble Metals
 Miscellaneous Nonferrous Alloys
HEMATITE
 COMMON IRON ORES
 Hematite - Fe2O3 - 70 percent iron
 Magnetite - Fe3O4 - 72 percent iron
 Limonite - Fe2O3 + H2O - 50 percent to 66 percent iron
 Siderite - FeCO3 - 48 percent iron
Usually, you find these minerals mixed into rocks containing
silica. Iron Ore
 To make iron, you start with iron ore. Iron ore is simply rock
that happens to contain a high concentration of iron.
 IRON

 Pure iron rarely exists outside of the

laboratory.
 Iron is produced by reducing iron ore to
pig iron through the use of a blast
furnace.

From PIG IRON, many other types of iron

and steel are produced by adding or
removing of carbon and alloying metals.
 PIG IRON

 pig iron is composed of about 93% iron, from

3% - 5% carbon, and various amounts of other
elements.
 Pig iron is comparatively weak and brittle,
therefore it has a limited use.
 About 90% produced pig iron is refined to
produce steel.
 Cast iron pipe and some fittings and valves are
manufactured from pig iron.
 STEEL
 An iron-carbon ( Fe-C ) alloy that may
contain appreciable concentrations of
other alloying elements;

 there are thousands of alloys that have

different compositions and/or heat
treatments.
 Mechanical properties are sensitive to the
content of carbon, which is normally less
than 1.0%wt.

 Typesof Steels
(1) Carbon Steels
(2) Tool Steels
 CARBON STEELS

 Contain only residual concentrations of

impurities other than C and a little
manganese.
 Type of steel when no minimum content is
specified or required for Cr, Co, Nb, Mo,
Ni, Ti, W, V, Zr or any other element to be
added to obtain a desired alloying effect ;
when C content not exceed the minimum
of 0.40%.
 ALLOY STEELS

Type of steel where more alloying elements

are intentionally added in specific
concentrations
 TYPES OF CARBON STEELS

1. Plain Carbon
2. Low Carbon Steel ( up to 0.25% C )
3. Medium Carbon Steel (0.25%-0.45%C )
4. High Carbon Steel (0.45%-1.50%C )
 INGOT IRON

 Is commercially pure iron ( 99.85% Fe )

 Easily formed and possesses good ductility
and corrosion resistance.
 Comparable to low carbon steel in its
chemical analysis and properties.
 Low Carbon steel has about 0.06% more
C than ingot iron.
 C in iron is considered as an impurity but
in steel, C is an alloying element.
 CAST IRON
 Any iron containing greater than 2% C.
 Has high compressive strength and good
wear resistance, however it lacks ductility,
malleability and impact strength.
 WROUGHT IRON
 Is made from pig iron with some slag mixed to it
during manufacture.
 Is almost pure iron, and the presence of slag
enables it to resist corrosion and oxidation.
 Is comparable to medium carbon steel in
chemical analysis.
 Can be gas & arc welded, machined, plated and
easily formed, however it has low hardness and
low fatigue strength.
 PLAIN CARBON STEEL

 Although called plane C, actually the iron

and carbon alloy contains manganese,
phosphorus, sulfur and silicon.
 Strength is primarily a function of its C
content, increasing with increasing C.
 However, ductility decreases as C
content increases.
 Disadvantages of Plain C Steels

 Low hardenability

 Its physical properties are decreased by

both high and low temperatures.

 Subject to corrosion in most

environments.
 LOW CARBON STEEL
 Contains up to 0.3% carbon
 Produced in greatest quantities among all the
different types of steels.
 The largest category of this class of steel is
flat-rolled products ( in sheet or strip ),
usually in the cold-rolled or annealed
condition.
 Unresponsive to heat treatment, that is why,
strengthening is accomplished by cold work.
 Microstructures : pearlite and ferrite
 PROPERTIES OF LOW C STEEL
 Not heat treatable; strengthening by cold
work process only.
 Relatively soft and weak ( pearlitic &
ferritic microstructure ) but have
outstanding ductility and toughness.
 Machinable, weldable
 The least expensive to produce among all
steels.
 Advantages of Low-C Steels

 Possess good formability

 Possess good weldability, best of all metals.
NOTE: as C % increases, there is a tendency for
the metal to harden & crack.
 Lowest cost
 Rated 55-60% machinability ( American Institute
of Iron and Steel AISI rating compares ability to
machine with 100% basis).
 APPLICATIONS

 Automobile body panels, tin plate and wire

products.
 For rolled steel structural plates and sections,
the C content may be increased to approx.
0.30%, w/ higher Mn content up to 1.5%.
These materials may be used for stampings,
forgings, seamless tubes and boiler plates.
 0.1-0.2% C : chain, rivets, nails, wire, pipe
where very soft, plastic steel is needed.
 0.2- 0.3% C : structural steels, machine parts,
soft and tough steels
 Medium Carbon Steel

 Have carbon concentrations between

0.3% - 0.80%

 Maybe treated by austenitizing, quenching

and then tempering to improve their
mechanical properties.
 Advantages of Medium-C Steels

 Machinability is 60-70%
 Good toughness and ductility.
 Fair formability.
 Extremely popular and have numerous
applications.
 Responds to heat treatment but is often
used in the natural condition.
 A good balance of properties can be
found.
That is optimum C level where high
toughness and ductility ( of the low C
steels) is compromised with the
strength and hardness of the increased
C.
 APPLICATIONS

 0.3 – 0.4%C : lead screws, gears, spindles, shafts and

machine parts.

 0.4 – 0.5%C : crankshafts, gears, axles, mandrels, tool

shanks and heat-treated machine parts

 0.6 – 0.7% C: called “ low carbon tool steel” and is used

where a keen edge is not necessary but where
shock strength is wanted: drop hammer dies,
set screws, screw drivers

 0.7 – 0.8%C : tough and hard steel. Band saws, Hammers,

wrenches, cable wire Etc.
 High Carbon Steels

 Normally having C content between 0.8%

to 1.4%

 Are the hardest, strongest and yet least

ductile of the carbon steels.
 Advantages of High-C Steels

 Hardness is high

 Wear resistance is high

 Fair formability

 Capable of holding a sharp cutting edge

 Disadvantages of High-C Steels

 Toughness and formability and hardenability are

quite low.

 Not recommended for welding.

 Usually joined by brazing with low temperature

silver alloy making it possible to repair or
fabricate tool-steel parts without affecting their
heat-treated condition.
 APPLICATIONS

 Drills, saw, planer tools, embossing dies,

cutlery, cutting tools, concrete drills,
blacksmith tools, woodworking tools.

 Tool and die steels are high C steels,

usually containing Cr, V, W and Mo. These
alloying elements combine with C to form
very hard and wear resistant carbide
compounds ( Cr23C6, V4C3, WC )
 ALLOY STEELS
 Steels that exceed the element limits of C steels.

 Also includes steels that contain elements not

found in C steels such as Ni, Cr ( up to 3.99%),
Co etc.
Common alloying elements :
Ni, Cr, V, Si, and W.

One or more elements maybe added to the steel during

manufacturing process to produce the desired
characteristics.
 May be produced in structural sections,
sheets, plates and bars for use in the “ as
rolled” condition.

 Are used in structures where the strength

of material is especially important.
 APPLICATIONS

 Bridge members, railroad cars, dump

bodies, dozer blades and crane booms.
 COMMON ALLOY STEELS
1). Chromium steels
2). Nickel Steels
3). Chrome-vanadium steel
4). Tungsten steel
5). Molybdenum steel
6). Manganese steel
Chromium Steels
 Steel + Cr to improve hardening ability, wear
resistance and strength.
 Contain between 0.20-0.75% Cr
 Some are highly resistant to wear that they are
used for the races and balls in antifriction
bearings.
 Are highly resistant to corrosion and to scale.
Nickel Steels
 Contain from 3.5%-5% Ni.
 Ni increases the strength and toughness of steel.
 More than 5% Ni increases resistance to
corrosion and to scale.
 Used in the manufacture of aircraft parts such as
propellers and airframe support members.
Chrome Vanadium Steel
 Has the maximum amount of strength with the
least amount of weight.
 Contains from 0.15% to 0.25% V, 0.6% to 1.5%
Cr and 0.1 to 0.6% C.
 Is used in the manufacture of crankshafts,
gears, axles and other items that requires high
strength.
 Also used in the manufacture of high quality
hand tools, such as wenches and sockets.
Tungsten Steel
 A special alloy that has the property of red
hardness, that is, the ability to continue to cut
after it becomes red hot.
 A good grade contains 13%-19% W, 1%-2% V,
3%-5% Cr, and 0.6 to 0.80% C.
 Because this alloy is expensive to produce, its
use is largely restricted to the manufacture of
drills, lathe tools, milling cutters and similar
cutting tools.
Molybdenum Steel
 Used as an alloying agent for steel in
combination with Cr and Ni.
 Mo adds toughness to the steel.
 Can be used in place of tungsten to make the
cheaper grades of high speed steel and in
carbon molybdenum high pressure tubing.
 STAINLESS STEELS
 Highly resistant to corrosion in a wide variety
of environment
 Predominant alloying element is Cr, at least
11% wt of Cr.
 Corrosion resistance may be enhanced by the
addition of Ni and Mo.
 Very versatile in their applicability because of
their wide range of mechanical properties
combine with excellent resistance to
corrosion.
 IRON ALLOY PHASES
 Austenite (γ-iron; hard)
 Bainite
 Martensite
 Cementite (iron carbide; Fe3C)
 Ledeburite (ferrite - cementite eutectic,
4.3% carbon)
 Ferrite (α-iron; soft)
 Pearlite (88% ferrite, 12% cementite)
AUSTENITE
 Is a FCC form of iron in which some C is
dissolved. It forms above the critical
temperature.

MARTENSITE
 A BCC form of iron in which some C is dissolved.
It forms during quenching, when FCC austenite
changes to the BCC structure w/o precipitation
of cementite. Instead, the C is retained in the Fe
crystal structure.
 Is also defined as a hardened microstructure of
steel that is obtained by quick cooling, avoiding
the formation of pearlite.
CEMENTITE
 Is Iron Carbide, Fe3C

FERRITE
 Is a BCC form of iron in which some C
is dissolved.
 Steel

cooled at a rate of about 400oC/ min

transform austenite to pearlite at 727oC

Faster cooling produces martensite.

3 CLASSES OF STAINLESS STEELS

(1) Ferritic Steels

(2) Austenitic Steels

(3) Martensitic Steels

 Martensite

 most commonly refers to a form of ferrite

supersaturated with carbon found in very hard steels, for
use in such products as springs and piano wire.
 The martensite is formed by rapid cooling (quenching)
of austenite which traps carbon atoms that do not have
time to diffuse out of the crystal structure.
 Martensite is usually considered to be a grain structure
not a phase. For this reason, martensite is not shown in
the equilibrium phase diagram of the iron-carbon
system. It consists of grains of ferrite supersaturated
with carbon
 Ferrite
 or alpha iron (α-Fe)
 is a materials science term for iron, or a
solid solution with iron as the main
constituent, with a body centred cubic
crystal structure.
 It is the component which gives steel and
cast iron their magnetic properties, and is
the classic example of a ferromagnetic
material.
In pure iron, ferrite is stable below 910°C.

Above this temperature the face-centered cubic

form of iron, austenite (gamma-iron) is stable.

Above 1390°C, up to the melting point at

1534°C, the body-centred cubic crystal structure
is again the more stable form (delta-iron).
 FERRITIC STEEL
 16-18% chromium; rustless iron with low carbon content
 Has high resistance to corrosion but low impact and
cannot be refined by heat-treatment alone.
 Prolonged service at 480°C can cause embrittlement.  
 Used for trim moldings and decorative applications.

 25-30% chromium iron for furnace parts; resistant to

sulphur compounds.
 Has low amount of carbon to chromium ratio; therefore
hardening by heat-treating is not done.
ADVANTAGES: DISADVANTAGES:
 Readily weldable  Poor ductility.
 Cheapest of the  Poor formability
stainless steels. because of the bcc
 Magnetic crystal structure.
 Hardened and
strengthened by cold
work; not heat
treatable.
 Easiest of all to
machine.
 AUSTENITIC STEELS

 Best corrosive resistance, but hardenable only

by cold working.
 Not heat treatable, but cold workable.
 With both nickel and chromium, the fcc
austenite is stabilized at room temperature to
produce a stainless steel.
 Most corrosion resistant because of the high Cr
content and Ni addition
ADVANTAGES: DISADVANTAGES:
 Best corrosive resistance,  Corrosive in hydrochloric
 Highest of all for strength acid and other halide
at high temperatures, acids and salts.
 Best of all for ductility at  Most expensive
low temperatures.
 Nonmagnetic
 Highly resistant to
chemical corrosion, mirror
polish,
 Attractive appearance.
 Formability is outstanding
characteristic of the fcc.
 Strengthen drastically
when cold worked
 MARTENSITIC STEELS
 High amount of carbon to chromium ratio
therefore can be heat treated.
 More corrosive resistant than ferrite, but still
corrosive.
 This material can be austenitic at high
temperatures. At the high temperature, carbon
can be dissolved in the fcc austenite, which in
turn is quenched to form a bcc martenitic
structure. So the steel is austenitized, quenched,
then stress relief tempered.
ADVANTAGES: DISADVANTAGES
 Increase in strength  May be susceptible to
 more corrosive red rust when
resistant than Ferritic annealed for
 ability to hold an machining or
“edge” fabrication.
 Cost 1 ½ times more
 good for impact
than the Ferritic
stainless steels.
 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL
(@25oC)
TOOL STAINLESS ALLOY CARBON PROPERTIES
STEELS STEELS STEELS STEELS
7.72-8.0 7.75-8.1 7.85 7.85 Density ( 1000 kg/m3)

190-210 190-210 190-210 190-210 Elastic Modulus ( GPa)

19.9-48.3 11.2-36.7 26-48.6 24.3-65.2 Thermal Conductivity

( W/m-K)
75.7-1020 210-1251 130-1250 Electrical Resistivity
(10-9 W-m)
640-2000 515-827 758-1882 276-1882 Tensile Strength(MPa)

380-440 207-552 366-1793 186-758 Yield Strength ( MPa)

5-25 12-40 4-31 10-32 Percent Elongation(%)

 Stainless steels have higher resistance to
oxidation (rust) and corrosion in many
natural and man made environments;
however, it is important to select the
correct type and grade of stainless steel
for the particular application.
 High oxidation resistance in air at ambient temperature
is normally achieved with additions of a minimum of
13% (by weight) chromium, and up to 26% is used for
harsh environments.
 The chromium forms a passivation layer of
chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3) when exposed to oxygen.
 The layer is too thin to be visible, meaning the metal
stays shiny. It is, however, impervious to water and air,
protecting the metal beneath.
 Also, when the surface is scratched this layer quickly
reforms.
 This phenomenon is called passivation and is seen in
other metals, such as aluminium and titanium.
 When stainless steel parts such as nuts
and bolts are forced together, the oxide
layer can be scraped off causing the parts
to weld together. When disassembled, the
welded material may be torn and pitted,
an effect that is known as galling.
 Nickel also contributes to passivation, as
do other less commonly used ingredients
such as molybdenum and vanadium.
 EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS

 Usually only a small amount of alloying element

are added to steels (usually less than 5%).
 Mostly the purpose is:
1. to improve the hardenability and
2. strength corrosion resistance,
3. stability at high/low temperatures,
4. control grain size
 EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS
Manganese - increases ductility, hardenability, high strain
hardening capacity, slightly strengthens,
excellent wear resistance
Sulfur - if carefully proportioned can add
machinability without imparting embrittlement
Nickel - increases toughness and impact resistance,
good properties at low temperatures.
With other alloys imparts excellent corrosion
resistance.
Increase strength with little loss of ductility
Chromium - if added in large enough amounts can impart
corrosion resistance and heat resistance and
Molybdenum - improves hardenability and increases
strength primarily under dynamic and high
temperature conditions.
Extremely stable at elevated temperatures.

It helps to retains fine grain sizes which

provides strength and creep resistance at
elevated temperatures.
Molybdenum carbides are used in hot work
tool steels and forging dies to impart
hardness even at red heat.
Vanadium - like molybdenum, forms strong carbides at
elevated temperatures.
Also limits grain size.
Tungsten- used in tool steels to maintain their
hardness at elevated temperatures.

Copper - increases the corrosion resistance.

Limits have to be controlled or it’ll
sacrifice surface quality and hot-working
behavior.
Silicon - increases strength without limiting grain size*
Used to promote large grain sizes used in
magnetic applications. Used in spring steels.
Boron - very important harden ability agent being several
hundred times better than nickel, molybdenum
and chromium.
Used more for low carbon steels.
Also improve machinability and cold forming.
*Limits on grain size can effectively increase
strength properties like elastic limit, yield
point, and impact strength (toughness)
with little loss of ductility.
 CARBON STEEL
Summary of Properties
 Mild (low carbon) steel:
with up to 0.4% manganese content
Less strong but cheap and easy to shape;
surface hardness can be increased through carburizing.
 Medium carbon steel:
with 0.60 to 1.65% manganese content.
Balances ductility and strength and
has good wear resistance;
used for large parts, forging and automotive components
 High carbon steel:
with 0.30 to 0.90% manganese content.
Very strong, used for springs and high-strength wires.
 TOOL STEELS
 refers to a variety of carbon and alloy steels that
are particularly well-suited to be made into tools.
 Their suitability comes from their distinctive
toughness, resistance to abrasion, their ability to
hold a cutting edge, and/or their resistance to
deformation at elevated temperatures (red-
hardness).
 With a carbon content between 0.7% and 1.4%,
tool steels are manufactured under carefully
controlled conditions to produce the required
quality.
HSLA ( High Strength Low Alloy ) Steel
 is a type of steel alloy that provides many
benefits over regular steel alloys.

 In general, HSLA alloys are much stronger and

tougher than ordinary plain-carbon steels.

 They are used in cars, trucks, cranes, bridges,

and other structures that are designed to handle
large amounts of stress, often at very low
temperatures.
 HSLA steels are so called because they only
contain a very small percentage of carbon.
 A typical HSLA steel may contain 0.15% carbon,
1.65% manganese and low levels (under
0.035%) of phosphorus and sulphur.
 It may also contain small amounts of copper,
nickel, niobium, nitrogen, vanadium, chromium,
molybdenum, silicon, or zirconium.
 are also referred to as "microalloyed", as they
are indeed alloyed in extremely small amounts
by comparison to other main commercial alloy
steels.
 Ferrous Metals & Alloys

Steel Cast Irons

Low alloy High Alloy Gray cast iron

Low-C Ductile ( nodular ) iron

Plain
High-strength, White Iron
Medium-C
Plain Malleable
Heat treatable
High-C
Plain
Tool Tool Stainless
 CAST IRON
 Class of ferrous alloys with carbon content above
2.14%wt.
 In practice, however, most cast irons contain
between 3.0% and 4.5% wt C + other alloying
elements.
 Alloys within this composition range becomes
completely liquid at temperatures between
aprrox. 1150 – 1300oC, considerably lower than
steel.
 Are easily melted and amenable to casting
 Some are very brittle that casting is the most
convenient fabrication technique.
 Iron accounts for more than 95%, while
the main alloying elements are carbon and
silicon.
 Cast irons contain appreciable amounts of
silicon, normally 1 - 3%, and consequently
these alloys should be considered ternary
Fe-C-Si alloys.
 Cast iron tends to be brittle, unless the
name of the particular alloy suggests
otherwise.
 With its
low melting point,
good fluidity,
castability,
excellent machinability and
wear resistance,

cast irons have become an engineering

material with a wide range of applications,
including pipes, machine and car parts.
 (1) GRAY CAST IRON

 C and Si content vary from 2.5 – 4.0% and 1.0 –

3.0%, respectively.
 Graphite exists in the form of flakes, which are
surrounded by ferrite and pearlite.

because of this microstructure, gray iron are
comparatively weak and brittle in tension.
 Strength and ductility are much higher under
compressive loads.
 Silicon is essential to making of grey cast iron as
opposed to white cast iron.
 Silicon causes the carbon to rapidly come out of
solution as graphite, leaving a matrix of
relatively pure, soft iron. Weak bonding between
planes of graphite lead to a high
activation energy for growth in that direction,

resulting in thin, round flakes.

This structure has several useful properties.

 PROPERTIES
 The graphite content offers good corrosion
resistance.
 Graphite acts as a lubricant, improving wear
resistance.
 The exceptionally high speed of sound in
graphite gives cast iron a much higher
thermal conductivity.
 Since ferrite is so different in this respect
(having heavier atoms, bonded much less
tightly) , grey cast iron tends to “damp”
mechanical vibrations (including sound), which
can help machinery to run more smoothly.
 All of the properties mentioned above ease the
machining of grey cast iron.
 Grey cast iron has less tensile strength and
shock resistance than steel.
 It is also difficult to weld.
 (2) DUCTILE (Nodular) IRON

 Gray iron + small amount of Mg and/or Cerium

before casting.
 A distinctly different microstructure is produced
--- and set of mechanical properties.
 Graphite still forms but in nodules or sphere like
particles.
 Stronger and more ductile than gray iron.
 Has mechanical properties approaching that of
steel.
 APPLICATIONS:
 Automotive and machine components,
gears, valves etc.
 (3) WHITE IRON
 Low silicon cast iron ( less than 1.0%), and rapid cooling
rates, most of the C exists as cementite instead of
graphite.
 A fracture surface of this alloy has a white appearance,
thus termed as white iron.
 As a consequence of its large amount of cementite
phase, white iron is extremely hard, very brittle to the
point of being unmachinable.
 Its use is very limited to applications that necessitate a
very hard and wear resistant surface without a high
degree of ductility.
 Example of its application
Rollers in rolling mills
 (4) MALLEABLE IRON
 Heating white iron at temps between 800-900oC
for a prolonged time period and in a neutral
atmosphere causes the decomposition of
cementite, forming graphite, which exists in the
form of clusters or rosettes.
 Relatively high strength and appreciable ductility
or malleability.
 Applications:
Pipe fittings, valve parts for railroad,
marine and heavy duty applications,
transmissions, gears etc.