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Petroleum Geology

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Outline
 Petroleum systems
 Geologic principles and geologic time
 Rock and minerals, rock cycle, reservoir
properties
 Hydrocarbon origin, migration and accumulation
 Sedimentary environments; stratigraphic traps
 Plate tectonics, structural geology
 Structural traps
 Geophysical methods
 Importance to Schlumberger

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Petroleum System
A Petroleum System requires timely convergence
of certain geologic factors and geologic events.

These Include:
Seal or cap rock
Reservoir rock
Migration
Mature source rock

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Cross Section Of A Petroleum System
(Foreland Basin Example)
Geographic Extent of Petroleum System
Extent of Play

R Reservoir

Stratigraphic
Extent of
Petroleum
Overburden Rock
System Essential

Sedimentary
Seal or Cap[Rock

Basin Fill
Elements
of
Reservoir Rock
Petroleum
Active System Source Rock
Source Rock
Underburden Rock
Petroleum Reservoir (R)
Basement Rock
Fold-and-Thrust Belt Top Oil Window
(arrows indicate relative fault motion)
Top Gas Window

(modified from Magoon and Dow, 1994)


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Basic Geologic Principles
 Uniformitarianism - “The present is the key to the
past.”
 Original Horizonality - “Sedimentary layers are
deposited in a horizontal or nearly horizontal position.”
 Superposition - “Younger sedimentary beds occur on
top of older beds, unless they have been overturned or
faulted.”
 Cross-Cutting Relations - “Any geologic feature that
cuts another geologic feature is younger than the
feature that it cuts.”

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Cross-Cutting Relationships

K
J
I
H
G
Angular Unconformity
C
E
F
D Igneous
B
Dike
Sill
ous
e
Ign A

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Mechanical
Layers:

1. Lithosphere
2. Asthenosphere
3. Mesosphere

Fall 2003 EASA-123 Intro to Earthquakes Lecture-3 17

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Geologic Time Chart
Eon Era Period Epoch

Quaternary
period
0 Quaternary Recent
0 0 Pleistocene
Billions of years ago

Millions of years ago


Phanerozoic Tertiary

Millions of years ago


Pliocene
50 10

Cenozoic Era
1

Mesozoic
100 Cretaceous 20 Miocene
(Precambrian)

Tertiary
period
Cryptozoic
2 150 Jurassic 30 Oligocene

200 Triassic 40
Eocene
3
250 Permian 50

4 300 Pennsylvanian
60 Paleocene
Mississippian
4.6 350
Paleozoic

Devonian
400
Silurian

450 Ordovician

500

550 Cambrian

600
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Rocks

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Classification of Rocks
IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
Rock-forming Source of
material

Rocks under high


Molten materials in Weathering and
temperatures
deep crust and erosion of rocks
and pressures in
upper mantle exposed at surface
deep crust
process

Recrystallization due to
Crystallization Sedimentation, burial
heat, pressure, or
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
chemically active fluids

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The Rock Cycle

Magma
Co
g So oling
in (Cr lidi
ys fic a

t
el
tal at

nd
iza

i o n)
n
ti o
Metamorphic Heat and Pressure Igneous
Rock Rock
We
ath
orphism)

And Dep
eri

T ransportaritng,
an ng, T
ure
And

Weat he
d D ra
ep nsp
Press

osi ort
Heat

tion atio
m

o
n,

s
a

i
t

t
ion
(Me

i on
Weathering,
Transportation
Sedimentary and Deposition
Rock Sediment
Ceme
ntation and
Compaction
(Lithification)
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Igneous Rocks
Comprise 95% of the Earth's crust.
Originated from the solidification of molten material
from deep inside the Earth.
There are two types:
•Volcanic - glassy in texture due to fast cooling.
•Plutonic - slow-cooling, crystalline rocks.

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Igneous Rocks and

Reservoirs
Igneous rocks can be part of reservoirs.
 Fractured granites form reservoirs in some parts of the world.
 Volcanic tuffs are mixed with sand in some reservoirs.

Example: Granite Wash - Elk City, Okla., Northern Alberta,CA 13


Metamorphic Rocks
 2) Metamorphic rocks
 formed by the action of temperature and/or pressure on
sedimentary or igneous rocks.

 Examples are
• Marble - formed from limestone
• Hornfels - from shale or tuff
• Gneiss - similar to granite but formed by metamorphosis

Field Example:
1. Point Arguello - Monterey Formation is actually layers of fractured Chert and Shale. Oil is in the fractures
2. Long Beach, Calif. - Many SS producers on an Anticline above fractured Metamorphic basement rock
3. Austin, TX eastward - Lava flows of Basalt (Serpentine) from Volcanoes in ancient Gulf of Mexico 14
Sedimentary Rocks
 These are the most important for the oil industry as it contains
most of the source rocks and cap rocks and a majority of the
reservoirs.
 Sedimentary rocks come from the debris of older rocks and are
split into two categories
 Clastic and Non-clastic.
• Clastic rocks - formed from the materials of older rocks by the
actions of erosion, transportation and deposition.
• Non-clastic rocks - from chemical or biological origin and then
deposition.

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Rock Classification
Clastics
Rock type Particle diameter
 Conglomerate Pebbles 2 - 64mm
 Sandstone Sand .06 - 2mm
 Siltstone Silt .004 - .06mm or 4 to 65 microns
 Shale Clay < .004mm or 4 microns

Non-Clastics
Rock type Composition
 Limestone CaCO3
 Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
 Salt NaCl
 Anhydrite CaSO4
 Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
 Coal Carbon

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Sedimentary Rock Types
• Relative abundance
Sandstone
and conglomerate
~11%

Limestone and
dolomite
~13%
Siltstone, mud
and shale
~75%

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Depositional Environments
 The depositional environment can be
 Shallow or deep water.
 Marine (sea) and lake or continental.
 This environment determines many of the reservoir
characteristics

Frigg Gas Field - North Sea

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Depositional Environments
 Continental deposits are usually dunes.
 A shallow marine environment has a lot of turbulence hence varied grain
sizes. It can also have carbonate and evaporite formation.
 A deep marine environment produces fine sediments.

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Depositional Environments
 The depositional characteristics of the rocks lead to some
of their properties and the reservoir property.
• The reservoir rock type clastic or non-clastic.
• The type of porosity (especially in carbonates) is determined
by the environment plus subsequent events.
 The structure of a reservoir can also be determined by
deposition; a river, a delta, a reef etc.
 This can also lead to permeability and producibility of
these properties are often changed by further events.

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Clastic Reservoirs
 Consolidated and unconsolidate sands

 Porosity
• Determined mainly by the packing and mixing of grains.

 Permeability
• Determined mainly by grain size and packing, connectivity
and shale content.

 Fractures may be present.

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Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Breccia Conglomerate

Sandstone Shale
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Average Detrital Mineral Composition of
Shale and Sandstone
Mineral Composition Shale (%) Sandstone (%)
Clay Minerals 60 5

Quartz 30 65

Feldspar 4 10-15

Rock Fragments <5 15

Carbonate 3 <1

Organic Matter, <3 <1


Hematite, and
Other Minerals (modified from Blatt, 1982)

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Clastic Rocks
Clastic rocks are sands, silts and shales.
The difference is in the size of the grains.

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Sedimentation

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Sedimentation
 Sedimentary muds become sedimentary rocks.
• Calcareous muds become limestone.
• Sands become sandstone.
 Grains in the matrix and the fluids reacting to
create new minerals changing the matrix and
porosity. Fluids can also change creating a
new set of minerals.
 This whole process is called Diagenesis.

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Clastic Sedimentary Environments
Environment Agent Of Transportation
Sediments
Deposition

Alluvial Rivers Sand, gravel, mud


Lake Lake currents, waves Sand, mud
Desert Wind Sand, dust
Glacial Ice Sand, gravel, mud
Delta River + waves, tides Sand, mud
Beach Waves, tides Sand, gravel
Shallow shelf Waves, tides Sand, mud
Deep sea Ocean currents, settling Sand, Mud

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Depositional Environment - Delta
 Sediments are transported to the basins by rivers.
 A common depositional environment is the delta where the river empties into the sea.
 A good example of this is the Mississippi (Miocene and Oligocene sands)

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Rivers

 Some types of deposition occur in rivers and sand bars.


 The river forms a channel where sands are deposited in
layers. Rivers carry sediment down from the mountains
which is then deposited in the river bed and on the flood
plains at either side.
 Changes in the environment can cause these sands to be
overlain with a shale, trapping the reservoir rock.
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Fan Deposition

Example
Alluvial sedimentation

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Sandstone Composition
Framework Grains

Qtz
Quartz

Qtz
Quartz

Qtz
Qtz

Qtz
Quartz
Ankerite

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Porosity in Sandstone

Pore
Throat Pores Provide the
Volume to Contain
Hydrocarbon Fluids

Pore Throats Restrict


Fluid Flow

Scanning Electron Micrograph


Norphlet Formation, Offshore Alabama, USA

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Effects of Clays on Reservoir
Quality

Authigenic Illite Authigenic Chlorite


100 1000
Permeability (md)

100
10

10
1
1

0.1
0.1

0.01 0.01
2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 18
Porosity (%)
(modified from Kugler and McHugh, 1990)
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Carbonate Reservoirs
 Carbonates (limestone and dolomite) normally have a very
irregular structure.

 Porosity:
• Determined by the type of shells, etc. and by depositional
and post-depositional events (fracturing, leaching, etc.).

 Permeability:
• Determined by deposition and post-deposition events,
fractures.

 Fractures can be very important in carbonate reservoirs.

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Carbonate types
 Chalk is a special form of limestone (CaCO3) and is
formed from the skeletons of small creatures
(cocoliths).

 Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) is formed by the replacement


of some of the calcium by a lesser volume of
magnesium in limestone by magnesium. Magnesium
is smaller than calcium, hence the matrix becomes
smaller and more porosity is created.

 Evaporites such as Salt (NaCl) and Anhydrite


(CaSO4) can also form in these environments.

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Depositional Environment
Carbonates

 Carbonates are formed in shallow seas containing features such as:


• Reefs.
• Lagoons.
• Shore-bars.

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Diagenesis
 The environment can also involve subsequent alterations of the rock
such as:
• Chemical changes.
• Diagenesis is the chemical alteration of a rock after burial. An example is the
replacement of some of the calcium atoms in limestone by magnesium to form
dolomite.

• Mechanical changes - fracturing in a tectonically-active region.

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Hydrocarbon Generation,
Migration, and Accumulation

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Source Rocks
 Hydrocarbon originates from minute organisms in seas and
lakes. When they die, they sink to the bottom where they form
organic-rich "muds" in fine sediments.
 These "muds" are in a reducing environment or "kitchen", which
strips oxygen from the sediments leaving hydrogen and carbon.
 The sediments are compacted to form organic-rich rocks with
very low permeability.
 The hydrocarbon can migrate very slowly to nearby porous
rocks, displacing the original formation water.

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Hydrocarbon Migration

Hydrocarbon migration takes place in two stages:


Primary migration - from the source rock to a porous rock.

This is a complex process and not fully understood.

It is probably limited to a few hundred metres.

Secondary migration - along the porous rock to the trap.

This occurs by buoyancy, capillary pressure and hydrodynamics


through a continuous water-filled pore system.
It can take place over large distances.
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Organic Matter in Sedimentary Rocks
Kerogen
Disseminated Organic Matter in
Sedimentary Rocks That is Insoluble
in Oxidizing Acids, Bases, and
Vitrinite Organic Solvents.

Vitrinite
A nonfluorescent type of organic material
in petroleum source rocks derived
primarily from woody material.

The reflectivity of vitrinite is one of the


best indicators of coal rank and thermal
maturity of petroleum source rock.

Reflected-Light Micrograph
of Coal
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Interpretation of Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
(based on early oil window maturity)
Hydrocarbon
TOC in Shale TOC in Carbonates
Generation
(wt. %) (wt. %)
Potential
Poor 0.0-0.5 0.0-0.2

Fair 0.5-1.0 0.2-0.5

Good 1.0-2.0 0.5-1.0

Very Good 2.0-5.0 1.0-2.0

Excellent >5.0 >2.0


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Plate Tectonics
and
Structural Geology

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Sedimentary Basin and
Stress Fields
Fault Types Basin Geometries

Rift Related Basin


(Extensional Stress)
Normal fault
Sedimentary Fill

Foreland Basin
(Compressive Stress)

Thrust fault

Pull-apart Basin
(Lateral Stress)

Wrench fault

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Structural Features

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Folded Structures

Anticline Syncline

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Fold Terminology
N

b
m
Li
Li
m

b
m
b

L i

Anticline

Youngest
Syncline rock
Oldest rock
Modified from xxx)

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Faults

Normal Fault Reverse Fault


Strike direction Strike direction
Up Fault scarp
thr
Fa

Upth
ult

ow

Dow
Do

Sc

n
ar
w

row
nth

n
p

thro
row

n
wn
n

Key bed F.W. Dip


F.W. angle
H.W. H.W.
Dip angle
Fault plane Fault plane

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Faulting (normal faults)

Example Kabab Canyon, Utah

Photograph by XXX

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Strike Slip Fault
(Left Lateral)

ke
Dip Angle
ri
St

Fault Plane
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Heterogeneity

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Geologic Reservoir Heterogeneity

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Scales of Geological Reservoir Heterogeneity
Interwell
Well Area Well
Determined

Field Wide
From Well Logs,
Seismic Lines, 100's
Statistical m
Modeling,
etc.
1-10 km
Interwell

Reservoir 10's
Sandstone m

100's m

1-10's
Well-Bore

10-100's
m
10-100's mm
m
Unaided Eye
Hand Lens or
Petrographic or Binocular Microscope
Scanning Electron
Microscope (modified from Weber, 1986)
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Hydrocarbon Traps

 Structural traps

 Stratigraphic traps

 Combination traps

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Traps General

Ghawar Oilfield - Saudi Arabia- Ls - 145 mi x 13 mi wide x260 ft


produces 11,000 b/d total 82B bbls
Gasharan Oilfield - Iran - Ls - 6000ft. Net pay total 8.5 B bbls 55
Structural Hydrocarbon Traps
Gas
Shale Oil Oil/Gas Closure
Trap
Contact

Sea Oil/Water
l
Contact
Oil
Fracture Basement Fold Trap

Salt
Salt Diapir
Oil
Dome

(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)


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Fault Traps
 Faults occur when the rock shears due to stresses. Reservoirs
often form in these fault zones.
 A porous and permeable layer may trap fluids due to its location
alongside an impermeable fault or its juxtaposition alongside an
impermeable bed.
 Faults are found in conjunction with other structures such as
anticlines, domes and salt domes.

Drag Faults - Wyoming,


most Rocky Mountains
Normal Faults - Nigeria,
Hibenia (E. Canada), Vicksburg
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Trends (Victoria, TX)
Stratigraphic Traps
Michigan - Belle River Mills
Devonian reefs (Barriers and Atolls) -
Alberta CA. (Leduc & Redwater)
Midland Basin &Delaware Basin of
West TX - Barrier Reefs

Point Bars - Powder River Basin, WY, Clinton SS in Western Ok,


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Petroleum Exploration:
Geophysical Application to
Petroleum Geology

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Petroleum Exploration-
Geophysical Methods

 Gravity methods

 Magnetic surveys

 Seismic surveys

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Principle of Gravity Surveys
Uncorrected
Gravity

+1 Gravity
-1 Value (mgal)
Corrected Gravity -2
-3
(Bouguer Anomaly)

Meter

Salt
Clastics 2.1 gm/cm3
2.4 gm/cm3

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Principle of Magnetic Surveys

Sedimentary Basin

Basement

+
Magnetization
Measured
-
(from xxx, 19xx)
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Seismic Surveys
 The seismic tools commonly used in the oil
and gas industry are 2-D and 3-D seismic
data
 Seismic data are used to:
– Define and map structural folds and faults
– Identify stratigraphic variations and map sedimentary
facies
– Infer the presence of hydrocarbons

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Pre-Drilling Knowledge
Exploration
 Structural information obtained from surface seismic data.
 Rough geological information can be provided by nearby
wells or outcrops.
 Approximate depths estimated from surface seismic data.

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Marine Acquisition System
Boat
Sea Surface

Source
(Airguns) Cable with hydrophones

Incident
waves Reflected
waves

Sea bed

Sedimentary Layers

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Crossline 470 (East)

N S

Seal (unconformity)
Reservoirs

Source

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Applications of Seismic Data

 Make a structural model of the reservoir


 Delineate and map reservoir-quality rocks
 Establish gas/water contacts

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Channels
Seismic
Amplitude
Map
of a
Horizon
3-D Seismic data
define reservoir-
quality,channel-fill
sand deposits

Modified from Brown, 1996 68


4-D Seismic Surveys
 The “4” in 4-D seismic is time
 A 4-D survey means that at least two 3-D seismic
surveys have been made at different times over
the same field
 Reflection character (attributes) change through
time
 These changes result from migration of the water
contact in the reservoir

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Exercises:
Petroleum Geology

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Exercise 1
1. Oil forms at lower temperatures than gas. T_____ F ______
2. The law of (original horizontality, uniformitarianism, superposition) states that, in a normal
sedimentary sequence, younger layers occur on top of older layers.
3. The largest division of geologic time is the (era, eon, period, epoch).
4. Hydrocarbons are most abundant in (metamorphic, igneous, sedimentary) rocks.
5. The most abundant sedimentary rock type is shale. T____ F ______
6. Name 3 clay minerals common in sandstone reservoirs
A. _____________________ B.____________________ C. ____________________
7. Clastic rocks are formed from the materials of older rocks by the actions of erosion,
transportation and __________________.
8. Clastic rocks are sedimentary. T___ F____
9. Name two non-clastic sedimentary rocks. A.______________ B.________________
10. Alluvial, desert, delta, beach and shallow shelf sediment make the best reservoirs
T_______ F_______

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Exercise 2
1. 1. Diagenesis is the chemical alteration of a rock after burial. T___ F ___
2. (Magnesium, Iron, or Sulfate) must be in the formation water in order to convert
limestone to dolomite.
3. Limestone is (CaCO3 or Ca(CO3)2).
4. Dolomite is MgCaCO3 or MgCa(CO3)2.
5. Reef deposits are classified as (clastic, carbonate) sedimentary rocks.
6. The source rock must contain (organic material, coal, methane).
7. Fault and anticline traps occur only in gas wells. T___ F___
8. The oil water contact can be observed using seismic T___ F___
9. (Historical, structural, tectonic) geology addresses the occurrence and origin of
smaller scale deformational features, such as folds and faults, that may be
involved in hydrocarbon migration or which may form structural hydrocarbon traps.
10. Good quality sandstone reservoirs normally contain ~ (1-10 or 25-30% silt and
clay).

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Exercise 3
N
4 3 4
Well
4
3
2
1
a b

Well

c d

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Exercise 4
1. Hydrocarbons reservoirs are normally in (igneous, metamorphic,
sedimentary) rocks.
2. Fluorescence of drill cuttings or core indicates (oil, gas, water) is
present.
3. Reservoir traps are (very impermeable, highly permeable).
3. What are 2 uses of seismic data in petroleum exploration and
development?
1. ________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________
4. In inclined reservoir rocks, what is the significance of a “flat spot”
in seismic sections?
5. What is a 4-D seismic evaluation?

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