Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1
Outline
Petroleum systems
Geologic principles and geologic time
Rock and minerals, rock cycle, reservoir
properties
Hydrocarbon origin, migration and accumulation
Sedimentary environments; stratigraphic traps
Plate tectonics, structural geology
Structural traps
Geophysical methods
Importance to Schlumberger
2
Petroleum System
A Petroleum System requires timely convergence
of certain geologic factors and geologic events.
These Include:
Seal or cap rock
Reservoir rock
Migration
Mature source rock
3
Cross Section Of A Petroleum System
(Foreland Basin Example)
Geographic Extent of Petroleum System
Extent of Play
R Reservoir
Stratigraphic
Extent of
Petroleum
Overburden Rock
System Essential
Sedimentary
Seal or Cap[Rock
Basin Fill
Elements
of
Reservoir Rock
Petroleum
Active System Source Rock
Source Rock
Underburden Rock
Petroleum Reservoir (R)
Basement Rock
Fold-and-Thrust Belt Top Oil Window
(arrows indicate relative fault motion)
Top Gas Window
5
Cross-Cutting Relationships
K
J
I
H
G
Angular Unconformity
C
E
F
D Igneous
B
Dike
Sill
ous
e
Ign A
6
Mechanical
Layers:
1. Lithosphere
2. Asthenosphere
3. Mesosphere
7
Geologic Time Chart
Eon Era Period Epoch
Quaternary
period
0 Quaternary Recent
0 0 Pleistocene
Billions of years ago
Cenozoic Era
1
Mesozoic
100 Cretaceous 20 Miocene
(Precambrian)
Tertiary
period
Cryptozoic
2 150 Jurassic 30 Oligocene
200 Triassic 40
Eocene
3
250 Permian 50
4 300 Pennsylvanian
60 Paleocene
Mississippian
4.6 350
Paleozoic
Devonian
400
Silurian
450 Ordovician
500
550 Cambrian
600
8
Rocks
9
Classification of Rocks
IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
Rock-forming Source of
material
Recrystallization due to
Crystallization Sedimentation, burial
heat, pressure, or
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
chemically active fluids
10
The Rock Cycle
Magma
Co
g So oling
in (Cr lidi
ys fic a
t
el
tal at
nd
iza
i o n)
n
ti o
Metamorphic Heat and Pressure Igneous
Rock Rock
We
ath
orphism)
And Dep
eri
T ransportaritng,
an ng, T
ure
And
Weat he
d D ra
ep nsp
Press
osi ort
Heat
tion atio
m
o
n,
s
a
i
t
t
ion
(Me
i on
Weathering,
Transportation
Sedimentary and Deposition
Rock Sediment
Ceme
ntation and
Compaction
(Lithification)
11
Igneous Rocks
Comprise 95% of the Earth's crust.
Originated from the solidification of molten material
from deep inside the Earth.
There are two types:
•Volcanic - glassy in texture due to fast cooling.
•Plutonic - slow-cooling, crystalline rocks.
12
Igneous Rocks and
Reservoirs
Igneous rocks can be part of reservoirs.
Fractured granites form reservoirs in some parts of the world.
Volcanic tuffs are mixed with sand in some reservoirs.
Examples are
• Marble - formed from limestone
• Hornfels - from shale or tuff
• Gneiss - similar to granite but formed by metamorphosis
Field Example:
1. Point Arguello - Monterey Formation is actually layers of fractured Chert and Shale. Oil is in the fractures
2. Long Beach, Calif. - Many SS producers on an Anticline above fractured Metamorphic basement rock
3. Austin, TX eastward - Lava flows of Basalt (Serpentine) from Volcanoes in ancient Gulf of Mexico 14
Sedimentary Rocks
These are the most important for the oil industry as it contains
most of the source rocks and cap rocks and a majority of the
reservoirs.
Sedimentary rocks come from the debris of older rocks and are
split into two categories
Clastic and Non-clastic.
• Clastic rocks - formed from the materials of older rocks by the
actions of erosion, transportation and deposition.
• Non-clastic rocks - from chemical or biological origin and then
deposition.
15
Rock Classification
Clastics
Rock type Particle diameter
Conglomerate Pebbles 2 - 64mm
Sandstone Sand .06 - 2mm
Siltstone Silt .004 - .06mm or 4 to 65 microns
Shale Clay < .004mm or 4 microns
Non-Clastics
Rock type Composition
Limestone CaCO3
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
Salt NaCl
Anhydrite CaSO4
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
Coal Carbon
16
Sedimentary Rock Types
• Relative abundance
Sandstone
and conglomerate
~11%
Limestone and
dolomite
~13%
Siltstone, mud
and shale
~75%
17
Depositional Environments
The depositional environment can be
Shallow or deep water.
Marine (sea) and lake or continental.
This environment determines many of the reservoir
characteristics
18
Depositional Environments
Continental deposits are usually dunes.
A shallow marine environment has a lot of turbulence hence varied grain
sizes. It can also have carbonate and evaporite formation.
A deep marine environment produces fine sediments.
19
Depositional Environments
The depositional characteristics of the rocks lead to some
of their properties and the reservoir property.
• The reservoir rock type clastic or non-clastic.
• The type of porosity (especially in carbonates) is determined
by the environment plus subsequent events.
The structure of a reservoir can also be determined by
deposition; a river, a delta, a reef etc.
This can also lead to permeability and producibility of
these properties are often changed by further events.
20
Clastic Reservoirs
Consolidated and unconsolidate sands
Porosity
• Determined mainly by the packing and mixing of grains.
Permeability
• Determined mainly by grain size and packing, connectivity
and shale content.
21
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Breccia Conglomerate
Sandstone Shale
22
Average Detrital Mineral Composition of
Shale and Sandstone
Mineral Composition Shale (%) Sandstone (%)
Clay Minerals 60 5
Quartz 30 65
Feldspar 4 10-15
Carbonate 3 <1
23
Clastic Rocks
Clastic rocks are sands, silts and shales.
The difference is in the size of the grains.
24
Sedimentation
25
Sedimentation
Sedimentary muds become sedimentary rocks.
• Calcareous muds become limestone.
• Sands become sandstone.
Grains in the matrix and the fluids reacting to
create new minerals changing the matrix and
porosity. Fluids can also change creating a
new set of minerals.
This whole process is called Diagenesis.
26
Clastic Sedimentary Environments
Environment Agent Of Transportation
Sediments
Deposition
27
Depositional Environment - Delta
Sediments are transported to the basins by rivers.
A common depositional environment is the delta where the river empties into the sea.
A good example of this is the Mississippi (Miocene and Oligocene sands)
28
Rivers
Example
Alluvial sedimentation
30
Sandstone Composition
Framework Grains
Qtz
Quartz
Qtz
Quartz
Qtz
Qtz
Qtz
Quartz
Ankerite
31
Porosity in Sandstone
Pore
Throat Pores Provide the
Volume to Contain
Hydrocarbon Fluids
32
Effects of Clays on Reservoir
Quality
100
10
10
1
1
0.1
0.1
0.01 0.01
2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 18
Porosity (%)
(modified from Kugler and McHugh, 1990)
33
Carbonate Reservoirs
Carbonates (limestone and dolomite) normally have a very
irregular structure.
Porosity:
• Determined by the type of shells, etc. and by depositional
and post-depositional events (fracturing, leaching, etc.).
Permeability:
• Determined by deposition and post-deposition events,
fractures.
34
Carbonate types
Chalk is a special form of limestone (CaCO3) and is
formed from the skeletons of small creatures
(cocoliths).
35
Depositional Environment
Carbonates
36
Diagenesis
The environment can also involve subsequent alterations of the rock
such as:
• Chemical changes.
• Diagenesis is the chemical alteration of a rock after burial. An example is the
replacement of some of the calcium atoms in limestone by magnesium to form
dolomite.
37
Hydrocarbon Generation,
Migration, and Accumulation
38
Source Rocks
Hydrocarbon originates from minute organisms in seas and
lakes. When they die, they sink to the bottom where they form
organic-rich "muds" in fine sediments.
These "muds" are in a reducing environment or "kitchen", which
strips oxygen from the sediments leaving hydrogen and carbon.
The sediments are compacted to form organic-rich rocks with
very low permeability.
The hydrocarbon can migrate very slowly to nearby porous
rocks, displacing the original formation water.
39
Hydrocarbon Migration
Vitrinite
A nonfluorescent type of organic material
in petroleum source rocks derived
primarily from woody material.
Reflected-Light Micrograph
of Coal
41
Interpretation of Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
(based on early oil window maturity)
Hydrocarbon
TOC in Shale TOC in Carbonates
Generation
(wt. %) (wt. %)
Potential
Poor 0.0-0.5 0.0-0.2
43
Sedimentary Basin and
Stress Fields
Fault Types Basin Geometries
Foreland Basin
(Compressive Stress)
Thrust fault
Pull-apart Basin
(Lateral Stress)
Wrench fault
44
Structural Features
45
Folded Structures
Anticline Syncline
46
Fold Terminology
N
b
m
Li
Li
m
b
m
b
L i
Anticline
Youngest
Syncline rock
Oldest rock
Modified from xxx)
47
Faults
Upth
ult
ow
Dow
Do
Sc
n
ar
w
row
nth
n
p
thro
row
n
wn
n
48
Faulting (normal faults)
Photograph by XXX
49
Strike Slip Fault
(Left Lateral)
ke
Dip Angle
ri
St
Fault Plane
50
Heterogeneity
51
Geologic Reservoir Heterogeneity
52
Scales of Geological Reservoir Heterogeneity
Interwell
Well Area Well
Determined
Field Wide
From Well Logs,
Seismic Lines, 100's
Statistical m
Modeling,
etc.
1-10 km
Interwell
Reservoir 10's
Sandstone m
100's m
1-10's
Well-Bore
10-100's
m
10-100's mm
m
Unaided Eye
Hand Lens or
Petrographic or Binocular Microscope
Scanning Electron
Microscope (modified from Weber, 1986)
53
Hydrocarbon Traps
Structural traps
Stratigraphic traps
Combination traps
54
Traps General
Sea Oil/Water
l
Contact
Oil
Fracture Basement Fold Trap
Salt
Salt Diapir
Oil
Dome
59
Petroleum Exploration-
Geophysical Methods
Gravity methods
Magnetic surveys
Seismic surveys
60
Principle of Gravity Surveys
Uncorrected
Gravity
+1 Gravity
-1 Value (mgal)
Corrected Gravity -2
-3
(Bouguer Anomaly)
Meter
Salt
Clastics 2.1 gm/cm3
2.4 gm/cm3
61
Principle of Magnetic Surveys
Sedimentary Basin
Basement
+
Magnetization
Measured
-
(from xxx, 19xx)
62
Seismic Surveys
The seismic tools commonly used in the oil
and gas industry are 2-D and 3-D seismic
data
Seismic data are used to:
– Define and map structural folds and faults
– Identify stratigraphic variations and map sedimentary
facies
– Infer the presence of hydrocarbons
63
Pre-Drilling Knowledge
Exploration
Structural information obtained from surface seismic data.
Rough geological information can be provided by nearby
wells or outcrops.
Approximate depths estimated from surface seismic data.
64
Marine Acquisition System
Boat
Sea Surface
Source
(Airguns) Cable with hydrophones
Incident
waves Reflected
waves
Sea bed
Sedimentary Layers
65
Crossline 470 (East)
N S
Seal (unconformity)
Reservoirs
Source
66
Applications of Seismic Data
67
Channels
Seismic
Amplitude
Map
of a
Horizon
3-D Seismic data
define reservoir-
quality,channel-fill
sand deposits
69
Exercises:
Petroleum Geology
70
Exercise 1
1. Oil forms at lower temperatures than gas. T_____ F ______
2. The law of (original horizontality, uniformitarianism, superposition) states that, in a normal
sedimentary sequence, younger layers occur on top of older layers.
3. The largest division of geologic time is the (era, eon, period, epoch).
4. Hydrocarbons are most abundant in (metamorphic, igneous, sedimentary) rocks.
5. The most abundant sedimentary rock type is shale. T____ F ______
6. Name 3 clay minerals common in sandstone reservoirs
A. _____________________ B.____________________ C. ____________________
7. Clastic rocks are formed from the materials of older rocks by the actions of erosion,
transportation and __________________.
8. Clastic rocks are sedimentary. T___ F____
9. Name two non-clastic sedimentary rocks. A.______________ B.________________
10. Alluvial, desert, delta, beach and shallow shelf sediment make the best reservoirs
T_______ F_______
71
Exercise 2
1. 1. Diagenesis is the chemical alteration of a rock after burial. T___ F ___
2. (Magnesium, Iron, or Sulfate) must be in the formation water in order to convert
limestone to dolomite.
3. Limestone is (CaCO3 or Ca(CO3)2).
4. Dolomite is MgCaCO3 or MgCa(CO3)2.
5. Reef deposits are classified as (clastic, carbonate) sedimentary rocks.
6. The source rock must contain (organic material, coal, methane).
7. Fault and anticline traps occur only in gas wells. T___ F___
8. The oil water contact can be observed using seismic T___ F___
9. (Historical, structural, tectonic) geology addresses the occurrence and origin of
smaller scale deformational features, such as folds and faults, that may be
involved in hydrocarbon migration or which may form structural hydrocarbon traps.
10. Good quality sandstone reservoirs normally contain ~ (1-10 or 25-30% silt and
clay).
72
Exercise 3
N
4 3 4
Well
4
3
2
1
a b
Well
c d
73
Exercise 4
1. Hydrocarbons reservoirs are normally in (igneous, metamorphic,
sedimentary) rocks.
2. Fluorescence of drill cuttings or core indicates (oil, gas, water) is
present.
3. Reservoir traps are (very impermeable, highly permeable).
3. What are 2 uses of seismic data in petroleum exploration and
development?
1. ________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________
4. In inclined reservoir rocks, what is the significance of a “flat spot”
in seismic sections?
5. What is a 4-D seismic evaluation?
74