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This document is thought to be of continued interest to the scientific community.

It is a literature survey drafted in 1992, but remained unpublished because of laboratory closure. Other
related articles D Grant, WF Long & FB Williamson which were published at the time of writing are
listed at web.abdn.ac.uk/~bch118/publications2003march.doc,

The Structure of Water and Hydrates- Its Importance to Biology


D. Grant, Department of Molecular & Cell Biology
Marischal College
University of Aberdeen
Aberdeen AB9 1AS Scotland , UK
(Drafted by D.G. in 1991, transferred to modern electronic format 18/4/08)

Water is, by far, the most abundant molecular component of


biological cells and, it may be argued, it’s a pre-requisite for life
is a likely requirement for pre-biotic evolution (Stillinger 1980).
Those polymeric systems which have the ability to form a range
of highly hydrated gels such as amorphous silicas may have
been critical components of such evolution (Grant et al. 1992).

Water structure and water activity and their alteration by


physiologically-active substances may therefore have a
fundamental importance to biological function; a corollary to
this is that those agents which have a special influence upon
water structure may also be active physiologically. Thus
physiological metal ions, nucleotides and biopolymers such as
glycosaminoglycans, proteins and polyamines inter alia are
expected to have important effects on water structure.
Alteration of water structure associated with
glycosaminoglycans has also been suggested (Grant et al. 1985,
1992a) to be implicated in cellular transformation in cancer and
during cell division in mitosis and to be involved in cellular
adherence (Grant et al 1985, Curtis et al. 1988, Grant et al.
1992b) including in the mechanism of cellular adherence to
substrates (Curtis et al, 1989) as indicated by a dependence of
adherence of BHK cells on growth surface hydroxyl group
spacing.

Anti-inflammatory drugs were suggested (Warner 1973) to


possess key functional groups positioned in such a way as to
interlock with the crystal structure of ice as is the case with
hydrocortisone, aspirin, indomethacin , flufenisal and naproxen;
water molecules in cell membranes were also believed to be
similarly ordered.

The discontinuity in water associated molecules detectable by


near i.r. spectroscopy at near 37C (Luck, 1964) may suggest that
this is common homo-isothermal temperature is used by many
species allowing advantage to be taken by them of a rapid
change in water structure in this temperature region perhaps
finding use for this in anti-microbial defence.

Biopolymers, including nucleic acids, proteins and


glycosaminglycans are highly hydrated ; such coordinated
water molecules may be important for stabilising conformations
and for the modulation of the reactivity of these molecules. In
the cases of the glycosaminoglycans, the anionic groups display
different water binding tendencies, that of the -SO3- group being
especially high (cf. Zundel & Murr, 1969; Atkins, 1974).
Hydrating water molecules may be highly mobile, rapid
reorientation typically being about an order of magnitude slower
than the corresponding process in bulk water (Piculell, 1985).
Organic solvent water mixtures contain water monomer dimer,
timer or tetramer and in some cases where water could bind to
phosphoryl groups, high polymer equilibria involving water ;
organic solvents with a single base site were believed to stabilise
a cyclic water trimer (cf. Johnson et al, 1967). The unusual
behaviour of water towards non-polar solutes and non-polar side
groups attached to biopolymers has long been recognised
(Stillinger, 1980) and termed “the hydrophobic bond”. Typical
non-polar solutes which can induce hydrophobic bonding are the
noble gases and hydrocarbons; none of these molecules can
hydrogen-bond to water and all are sparingly soluble in water
but dissolved in water they cause water “structure making”
between the water molecules by reorganising the random
hydrogen-bonding network of liquid water; computer modelling
shows that insertion of inert space-filling entities in liquid water
causes the hydrogen bond network to rearrange to form a local
clatharate-like, imperfect-convex-cage; another aspect of the
hydrophobic interaction concerns the orientation preference of
water molecules next to a non-polar solute - the water
molecules tend to straddle the inert solute, pointing two or three
tetrahedral directions tangential to the surface of the occupied
space and forming water cluster polyhedra like those present in
supercooled water (Stillinger, 1980). Pairs of non-polar solutes
in water experience an entropy-driven net attraction for one
another (part of the origin of the hydrophobic bond) which may
determine the native conformation of biopolymers. For water at
around room temperature and below, it has been demonstrated
by computer simulation (Geiger et al, 1979; Stillinger, 1980)
that the liquid lies above the “critical percolation threshold” for
hydrogen-bonding; i.e. any macroscopic sample of the liquid
will inevitably will have un-interrupted hydrogen-bond paths
running in all directions, spanning the entire volume of the
sample, being analogous to a gel point. These network
pathways, which are random, but with a local preference for
tetrahedral geometry, but containing a large proportion of
strained and broken bonds, provide natural routes for rapid
transport of H+ and OH- (a proton hole) ions by a directed
sequence of exchange hops; the strained hydrogen-bonds
appear to be more reactive and to be important kinetically
(Stillinger, 1980). Studies of supercooled water by Angell et al.
(1980) suggested that an anomaly occurs at –45C which is
somewhat below the experimental limit of supercooling
attainable easily, but this indicates the working of a structural
order-disorder phenomenon in the hydrogen-bonded network of
supercooled water; it was thought that the unusual properties of
supercooled water were mainly caused by the concentration and
spatial distribution of the relatively unstrained and hence bulky
hydrogen-bond polyhedra embedded within and linked to the
random network, possibly including an octameric unit similar to
that which occurs in hexagonal ice. These polyhedra were
thought to share edges without the introduction of mutual strain,
consequently they are able to link up with one another more
readily than a strained and an unstrained polyhedron can, so that
the ideal unstrained structures find it advantageous to clump
together. At temperatures close to 0C the infrequent unstrained
polyhedra can form a dilute “gas” dispersed throughout the
predominantly strained and defective network, but as the
temperature declines, the polyhedra become more and more
frequent since they incorporate stronger hydrogen-bonds, the
cluster sizes evidently diverge as the T approaches –45C.
Study of the OH-stretching region of the Raman spectrum of
aqueous solutions provides a sensitive method of detecting of
structure –breaking and structure making effects of solutions
when compared to pure water. The 3650cm-1 region of the
spectrum of liquid water is considered to be due to non-
hydrogen-bonded OH oscillators and the region near 3250cm-1
to OH oscillators vibrating in phase and involved in a fully
hydrogen-bonded tetrahedral assembly of five H2O molecules.
Loss of intensity in this region is observed for aqueous sugar
solutions relative to pure water, indicating a decreases in the the
concentration of OH oscillators involved in such an in-plane
motion. ClO4- which does not form H-bonds, has an opposite
effect to sugars on the water structure (Walrafen & Fischer,
1986); ClO4- efficiently breaks up water structure as confirmed
by the increase in the intensity of the absorption due to dangling
OH oscillations at 3570cm-1.
Luck (1966) studied fundamental, combination and overtone
vibrations of water molecules in clusters and estimated the
proportion of free OH groups as a function of temperature up to
the critical point. The results suggested that the extent of the
hydrogen-bonding systems in the neighbourhood of the melting
point amounted to several hundred H2O molecules. The υ 1 of
H2O in monomer, dimer, trimer, tetramer and polymer was
suggested to be 3725, 3700, 3545, 3510, 33980 and 3355cm-1
respectively. The angular dependence of the shift caused by
hydrogen-bonding in the H2O, H-O fundamental vibration
frequency was also reported by Luck. Free OH, in un-bonded
H2O absorbs at 8748cm-1, free OH in H2O molecules with one
free OH group, OH group in a hydrogen-bond in a cyclic double
bridge between two H2O molecules having bond angle of 109o.

Water bridges may interlink basic amino acids resides with


heparin (Grant et al, 1991) and have relevance for
glycosaminoglycan-protein binding, particularly in a pericellular
environment.

It should be noted that water has a number of unusual properties


with anomalies in practically every single one of its physical
properties; e.g. it increases in volume on freezing, it has a
density maximum at 4C, an isothermal compressibility
minimum at 46C, has a high dielectric constant, anomalously
high melting, boiling and critical temperatures, shows increasing
liquid fluidity with increasing pressure, the heat of melting is
only 13% of the sublimation energy of the solid and has a high
mobility for transport of H+ and OH- ions (Stillinger, 1980) and
has a highly anomalous surface tension, attributable to a highly
preferential internal orientation of the hydrogen bonds (Bernal,
1965). It might have been expected on comparison with H2S
that water would have been a gas at room temperature; indeed
H2S, on account of its greater molecular weight, might have
been expected to have a more coherent structure.

A consideration of complex dimensionality of the crystalline


state as discussed by Bernal suggests that while liquid water
possess a lower degree of order than allowed for in traditional
crystallography, the structure of water may, however, be
conceived as having crystallinity in the sense that liquid water is
a state of ordered matter, demonstrating a gradation between the
three-dimensional crystalline state and the liquid state which
under ideally limiting conditions would exhibit a no-
dimensional-order (exemplified by liquid mercury); biological
membranes also possess a type of crystallinity less than three
dimensional in this case they contain two-dimensional crystal-
like order. Water molecule aggregates, evidently up to several
100A in size, might also be considered to be a branch of
colloidal science (Bernal, 1965) cf., also Stillinger’s (1980)
discussion of supercooled water. The sort of order apparent in “
amorphous” silicates, e.g., as suggested by 29Si nmr spectra of
sodium silicate and possibly capable of nucleating similar
ordered “amorphous” particles (Grant et al. 1992) may be in
some way analogous to the type of ordered structures present in
liquid water. When units have low symmetry, whether
intrinsically or by random movement, or made random by
relatively rapid structure alterations, it is impossibly to obtain
regular three-dimension arrangements over time scales required
for diffraction measurements of crystallinity (Bernal, 1965);
the possibility of nucleation of low-order crystal aggregate
structures in liquid water, should be considered; particular
nucleating agents might have the property of nucleating slightly
different distribution of water aggregates, at least on a short
enough time scale which retain physiological activities;
convincing experimental methods for the detection of such
possibilities have evidently yet to be developed. Possible nmr
evidence for water aggregates similar to those in amorphous
silicates (detectable by high resolution 29Si nmr) comes form the
coalesced proton average nmr spectrum of water molecules in
hydrocarbon mixtures which showed different chemical shifts
and peak widths for water aggregates composed of in differently
shaped micelles containing different quantities of stabilising oil
and surfactant molecules (Shah & Hamlin, 1971).

Long-range, thermodynamically metastable, but with long term


stability quasi-periodic order is exhibited by quasicrystals with
crystallographically-forbidden symmetries (cf. Fujiwara &
Ogawa, 1990). New theories of crystallinity of which the five-
fold rotational symmetry may be but one facet, may have some
relevance for random assemblage of low order aggregates of
crystallite-like water structures.

Benveniste (cf Davenas et al. 1988) suggested the existence of


“ghost”, putative water-memory-structures in very dilute
aqueous solutions of physiologically active agents by using
immunological methods (the procedure employed in these
experiments has, however been vigorously criticized).
The numerous crystalline polymorphs of solid water, at least
nine in number, include some that form at elevated pressure
(Stillinger,1980) seem to lend weight to possibilities that liquid
water could contain perhaps under different stimuli, a variety of
different low order metastable crystalline structures which might
nevertheless be capable of different physiological interactions.

The properties of water depend on how far the hydrogen is form


the oxygen, i.e., the acidity of the medium. At low pH the
hydrogen moves out from the oxygen as far as 1.05A; at high
pHs it moves to 0.85A, in neutral water it is at 0.96A (Bernal,
1965).

The results of quantum mechanical studies lend support to a


notion, that of Frank and Wen (1957) and Frank (1958), that
hydrogen bonding in water is “cooperative” (Stillinger, 1980);
the hydrogen bonds mutually reinforce each other, encouraging
chains of hydrogen-bonds to form.
A calculated hydrogen-bond pair occurrence potential as a
function of pair potential at different temperatures indicates an
invariant point at –4kcal/mol , suggesting that a thermally
activation bond breakage occurs which transfers pairs across this
invariant point as the temperature rises (Stillinger, 1980).

Water is known to possess unusual proton transfer properties


which are of importance to its chemistry. The symmetrical
hydrogen-bonded H5O2+ and H5O2+(H2O)4 studied by ab initio
calculations by Muniz et al (1985) suggested that the energy
minimum of the former cation in which the proton is located
midway between the two hydrogen atoms is broken down by
solvation into two minima corresponding to structures with un-
symmetric hydrogen-bonds. When considering an adiabatic
transfer model, solvation parameters were suggested to take part
in the reaction coordinate of the proton-transfer model, the
inversion of solvation distances produces spontaneous proton
transfer, the proton adjusting its position to the changes in
solvation. Given that there is an unsymmetrical contracted
hydration shell around the H3O+ unit, and an expanded one
around the H2O part of the cation, the symmetry of the energetic
profile was suggested to be destroyed if solvent relaxation was
not allowed, this being supposed to prevent proton tunnelling
from taking place; in order for this to occur, the symmetry of
the energy profile had to be re-established by means of solvent
movement to make the hydration shells around the two water
molecules between which the proton is transferred, identical.

Ling (1973) has stressed the role of “ structured” water in


cellular phenomena, e.g. on the permeability properties of
natural membranes which are extremely permeable to water
molecules in disagreement with a hydrocarbon solubility theory
of permeability. A possible model for the water permeability
was considered to be cellulose acetate film, where gaps between
the cellulose acetate fibres are filled with water channels in
which the water occurs as a polarised multilayer structure (cf.
Anon. 1973).
High and low density forms of liquid water can be shown to
exist in
cellulose acetate and in gels (Wiggins, 1995); the low density
form of water exists at weakly hydrogen-bonding or
hydrophobic surfaces; both high and low density forms can
coexist in polyelectrolyte solutions as well as in gels. The
formation of different kinds of water can explain the
hydrophobic interaction, the attractive hydration force and the
mechanisms of the high and low temperature denaturation of
proteins.

Such structural water channels in polysaccharide gels and


effects of cations on them, may be probed by X-ray diffraction
analysis of oriented hydrated fibres (Arnott, 1989). Similar
studies carried out with glycosaminoglycans (Atkins, 1974)
showed that the conformation of the polysaccharide and the
degree of hydration may be dependent on the cations present.
Aspects of such hydrated gel structures are relevant to an
understanding of biological tissue both multi-cellular extra-
cellular and cytosolic. The arrays of microtubules which are
arranged in parallel arrays in axon, cilia, mitotic spindle and
other cellular formations participate in many cellular processes,
including directed division, exitability etc., and show a
dependence on the electric events occurring at the level of the
cell surface or cytoplasmic organelles, naturally occurring fields
in the range 20-500mV/cm have been implicated (Jaffe &
Nucitelli, 1977). Microtubules were found to align in parallel
arrays and may be involved in the mechanism of the action of
electromagnetic fields on some bio-molecular processes
(Vassilev et al. 1982).

The Hofmeister series ranks the potency of aqueous soloutions


of ions for the denaturation of proteins. The molecular origin of
the series is not known but it is believed to be related to the
water structuring ability of the ions.

Geometric molecular structure of water & related


(e.g. the Frank &Wen, Bernal & Fowler and Pauling Models)
The detailed molecular structure of water is as outline above is
essentially unknown; one suggested model of liquid water is
that flickering clusters (Frank & Wen, 1957) in which
individual molecular aggregates are held together by hydrogen-
bonds continually rearranging, the precise arrangements and rate
of interchange can be conceived as being alterable by solutes.
The presence of water molecule aggregates of a quartz-like
structure was proposed for liquid water by Bernal & Fowler
(1933) based on the known crystalline ice structures, and 46
molecule aggregate of poly-pentagonal dodecahedral structures,
by Pauling (1959); these structures were based on atomic radial
distribution curves determined by X-ray diffraction, there is a
problem of accomodating various fixed structures of aggregates
to the density, dispersion of dielectric constant and the known
structure of ice, which has several forms).

Leyendekkers (1985) explained the anomalies in the heat


capacities and acoustic characteristics of water in terms of un-
bonded and singly bonded water molecules attached to
aggregates, the transitions of these special water molecule
environments probably were the critical factor underlying the
anomalous properties of water and an activation mechanism of
an equilibrium involving their rearrangements governing gas
phase transition of “the second kind”.
The experimental values of un-bonded water molecules used in
these calculations (for H2O) at different temperature and
pressure was reported by Luck (1980) from the near i.r. (NIR)
spectrum of water. Luck (e.g.1975) reported the i.r. spectra of
H2O in the temperature region from -50C to 400C showing that
H2O , as well as CH3OH and C2H5OH , possessed less non-H-
bonded OH groups than most theories of liquids claimed. An
exact interpretation of the i.r. spectra was not possible, but the
model of the structure of liquid water which was adopted had
flickering clusters possessing fissure planes consisting of free
OH groups dividing groups with closed H-bonds in ice-like
structures. The smaller proton mobility in liquid water in
comparison with that in ice had to conform with the presence of
large clusters. The mobility of the cluster surfaces was believed
to determine mobility in the liquid state.

Long range order


The origin of this order was far form clear and its spatial extent
is a matter for controversy (Franks 1979). The degree of
orientation of water on extended surfaces varies considerably.
Near the surface, up to 10-20A distant, water is believed to be
bound in the form of ice. Beyond that, up to 100A or so, the
water is less tightly bonded and is able to accommodate ions,
though with restricted possibilities of movement. This is about
the limit to which the structure of water itself is liable to be
affected by hydrophilic surfaces. However beyond that there is
an influence exerted thought water for quite great distances,
measured up to 4000A but probably further (cf. a colloidal sol,
long range force, cf. the co-acervate phenomenon (Bernal,
1965).

Bernal hypothesised that in other than very primitive cells, there


was an almost complete lack of spherical organelles; water in
contact with the rough side of the endoplasmic reticulum and the
cristae of the mitochondria was more viscous being in a partly
gel-like state than water on the smooth side named by him the
endolymph) which was seen to communicate with the
extracellular water, even when the membrane is continuous, by
a process of forming and separating of small globules of liquid
(micro-pinocytosis). No part of the cell except that in the
interior of vesicles was at a distance of more than a few hundred
A from some other part of the membrane and consequently a
force should always act between them producing interacted
water molecules.

The rate-determining processes in crystallization from aqueous


solutions of Ca salts such as CaCO3, are likely to involve water
molecules in the transition states of the rate determining
reactions, since these ions are hydrated in solution but become
dehydrated in the insoluble salt crystalline forms. CaCO3 exists
in many forms, the nucleation of which demonstrated the
“non-genetic inheritance of form” as was ponted out by
Lima de Faria (1986) this may provide a clue about the
fundamental processes inherent in both crystal and cells about
which, e g. for the molecular mechanism of crystallization and
nucleation, little is known, but which if understood, might shed
further light on the still less understood biological non-genetic
determined processes. Of these, aspects of water structuring
may be involved in the control of crystallization from aqueous
solution.
Modulated r.f./microwave fields modify calcium binding at cell
surfaces and modulate a host of calcium dependent intracellular
enzyme mechanisms which regulate the flow of intracellular
messages (protein kinases), cell metabolites and cell growth;
the use of imposed fields might reveal the essential importance
of biological organization at the atomic rather than the
molecular level and in physical rather than chemical terms; with
coherent states between adjacent molecular electric charges and
enormous co-operativity in energy release by very weak triggers
as the physical essence of living matter (Adey, 1988).

Nucleation of ice crystal formation is more directly involved


with ice nucleation bacterial Erwina ananas, which was
increased with increasing supercooling and required the
presence of a water glass interface; the nucleation was inhibited
by sugar (Watanabe & Arai , 1987).

Silica is formed of joined tetrahedra in a similar fashion to


joined hydrogen-bonded water tetrahedra; this appears to allow
silica gels and water structures to be mutually accommodating.
Similar considerations apply to sugars and polysaccharides cf.,
the water structuring properties of glycosaminolycan-rich
extracellular space and to such materials as polyacrylamide gels;
phase transitions occur in these latter materials, considered
(Tanaka et al. 1982) to be as a consequence of change in the
balance between three classes of forces which contribute to the
osmotic pressure in the gel viz., 1) rubber elasticity, 2) polymer-
polymer affinity and 3) the hydrogen ion pressure (Tanaka et al.
1982); drastic changes in the state of a gel can be brought about
by small changes in the external conditions (e.g. temperature,
pH, ionic conditions or solvent). Gels share mathematics with
other critical processes (chaotic processes-the possibility that at
least some biological control mechanisms may straddle potential
chaotic systems of such water-rich gel systems might be worth
considering, e.g. the effect of small changes in ionic [e.g. Ca2+]
concentrations); in the gels fluctuations create local variations
in the density of the polymer networks so that small
aggregations of polymer are constantly forming and
disintegrating ; a divergence of scattered light occurs at the
critical point where the polymer network becomes infinitely
compressible; this can be considered in terms of phase
transitions and critical phenomena.
The Rees (1968) hypothesis of polysaccharide gels gives an
equivalent model of a similar phenomenon where the points
involving the cooperative association of long regions of m
polymer chains occur, so that sol-gel transformation may
involve a conformational change (Bryce et al. 1974). Various
gel-like mixtures (electro-rheological [ER] fluids ) may contain
e.g. silica, water and polyelectrolytes (however although
systems without water have been described particularly good ER
systems contain water) which exhibit applied-voltage-dependent
gel formation, have been formulated by empirical methods
(Webb, 1990). ER fluids are able to convert rapidly
(millisecond) and repeatedly between a fluid and a solid when
an electric field is applied or removed (of interest for
mechanism (such as clutches etc. in robotic systems). It seems
possible that alteration of gelation by modulation of
hydrogen-bonding arrangements in H2O polyhedra or related
hydrogen-bonded clusters, is the basis of the mechanism of
action of these fluids; lack of understanding of the molecular
origin of these phenomena has, however, apparently severely
limited the development of ER fluids for engineering use.

Vibrational spectroscopy, especially near i.r. spectroscopy, gives


insight into water structure (cf Luck, loc cit; Symons, 1989).
Whilst the band positions observed are known to correspond to
combination and overtone bands, the causes of relative
intensities in the near i.r. are less understood. There is an
apparent lack of any direct correlation between hydrogen-bond
strength and water structure from consideration of i.r. spectra of
H2O and D2O (Bonner & Curry, 1970). Consideration of the
expected effects of hydrogen-bonding, however, seems to
suggest more complex than-hitherto-appreciated aspects of
water structures, cf. the much greater than expected observed
difference between the n.m.r. signals of 18O(-H2O) compared
with 16O-(-H2O) when observed for water which is hydrogen-
bonded to organic molecules (Pinchas & Meshulam, 1970).

The enthalpies and entropies of transfer of non-electrolytes and


individual ions from H2O to D2O show linear correlation
(compensation effect). These results were interpreted as
indicating that “ there seems to be a wide variety of
perturbations of liquid water which evoke the same type of
response in water”. Even for relatively strong aqueous
solutions there is evidence for structural arrangements
characteristic of the bulk structure of water which are unaffected
by the presence of the solute, even in rather high concentrations
of electrolytes (Drost-Hansen, 1971).
The factors giving rise to entropy-enthalpy change correlations
as well as the detailed structure of water have not been
established , but it is evident that such knowledge, if achieved,
might aid a fuller understanding of fundamental biological
processes.

Plasma membrane lipid head groups are hydrated and this is


believed to be involved in their phase transitional behaviour.
This phenomenon can be studied in a water-tetradecane solvent
system (Rand et al. 1990) where inverse hexagonal phases
containing cylindrical water cores can be detected.
It was necessary to take into account two modes of interaction
between lipid polar groups and molecules, one mode of
interaction being of a “ normal” solvation (solvent affinity type,
due to hydrogen bonding of the solute with water) and the other
(a mode of interaction resulting from the geometrical properties
of lipid bilayers when large amounts of water molecules are
taken up by them [“non-local” solvation] which was thought to
arise when a spontaneous curvature of the lipid mono-layers
creates a free-energy minimum in a type of geometry which is
able to create voids or low-density regions in the liquid
crystalline structure, voids that are filled with compatible water.
Without enough water the hydrophilic cores of the hexagonal II
phase was considered to shrink; without enough alkane, the
inverse hexagonal phase often simply ceased to exist; curvature
energy was evidently important for membrane hydration in the
above situations.

Crystal deposition diseases of the joints are age-dependent and


may be related to parallel age-dependent changes in the joint
glycosaminoglycans; highly hydrated joint proteoglycans
secreted by chondrocytes occur adjacent to a calcified
(hydroxyapatite) zone interlocking with bone, the
glycosaminoglycans are predominantly chondritin-6-0-sulphate
and keratan sulphate arranged like a bottle –brush on a protein
core (cf. Dieppe & Calvert, 1983).
Such sulphated polysacharides may be capable of producing
both hydrophobic and hydrophilic forces at interfaces.
Sequences of hydrophilic and hydropobic regions may also
occur in heparan sulphate (more hydrophobic NAc-rich regions
occur in blocks).

Studies of adsorbed double-chained quaternary ammonium salt


on mica indicated that hydrophobic forces are strong and long-
ranged. Similar hydophobic processes may also play a key role
in
biological self-assembly processes. Long-range forces reflect
interactions due to surface-induced water structure and are 10 to
100 times stronger than the van der Waals forces that would
operate in the absence of any surface-induced order in water.
The situation is in direct contrast with that observed for
hydophilic bilayers where the forces have been indicated to be
short range (Pashley et al. 1985).

Electric fields, e.g., generated by Ca2+, can influence the proton


potentials of C-OH…-O-P…HOP bonds (Schioberg & Zundel,
1976) as well as by their degree of hydration (Carmona &
Garcia-Ramos, 1985) and thereby possibly also affect water
structures.

Bulk diamagnetic susceptibility differences may occur between


water spheres, cylinders and lamellae, producing difference in
the n.m.r. spectra as well as characteristic electrical and
birefringence effects (Shah & Hamlin, 1971).

References

Adey T (1988) Nature 333, 401

Amost LA (1982) In “Electron Microscopy of Proteins” (Ed. JR


Haris, Vol III pp 207-250, Academic New York

Angel CA in “Water, a comprehensive treatise” Ed F Franks,


Plenum, New York, 1980, cf. Stillinger (1980)

Anon (1973) New Scientist 20 September p 670, cf. also ibid.,


59, p. 378

Arnott S (1973) Roy Soc Chem Carbohydrate Groups Spring


Meeing Cranfiedl p. 29-31

Atkins EDT et al. (19731,) Polymer 15 263-271

Bernal JD (1959) in “Hydrogen bonding, Proc Symp Ljubliana


1959 Ed Hadzi D & Thompson HW, Pergamon Press London,
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Bernal JD (1965) Symp Soc Exptl Biol 19 17-32

Bernal JD & Fowler RH (1933) J Chem Phys 1, 515-

Bonner OR Curry JD (1970) Infrared Physics 10 91-94


Bryce TA McKinnon AA Morris ER Rees DA Thom D
(1974)
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Curtis ASG et al. (1986) J Cell Sci 86 9-24(1983) j Cell Biol 97


1500-1506
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Davenas E et al. (1988) Nature 333 816-818

Dieppe P Calvert P (1983) “Crystals and Joint Disease”


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Frank HS (1958) Proc Roy Soc Lond Ser A 247 481-

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