CONTENTS

1. Introduction
2. Company profile
3. Solar power
1) Energy from Sun
2) Types of technologies
I. Solar heating system
II. Solar cooking
III. Solar lighting
IV. Photovoltaics
V. Solar thermal electric power plants
1. Power towers
2. Concentrating collector with Stirling/steam engine
3. Solar updraft tower
4. Energy tower
VI. Solar pond
VII. Solar chemical
3) Classification of solar power energy
i. Direct & Indirect
ii. Passive or active
iii. Concentrating or non-concentrating
4) Advantages & disadvantages
5) Development & deployment of solar power
4. Solar cell & photovoltaics
1) Three generations of development
2) History
3) Theory
i. Charge carrier separation
ii. p-n junction
iii. Connection to an external load
 4) Solar cell efficiency factors
i. Maximum power point
ii. Energy conversion efficiency
iii. Fill factor
iv. Quantum efficiency
v. Peak watt (or watt peak)
5) Light absorbing materials
i. Bulk
1. Silicon
a. Monocrystalline silicon (c-Si)
b. Poly- or multicrystalline silicon (poly-Si or mc-Si)
c. Ribbon Si
2. Thin films
a. CdTe
b. CIGS
c. CIS
d. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) multijunction
e. Light absorbing dyes
f. Organic/polymer solar cells
g. Silicon
5. PV fundamentals
1) Current PV technology
2) How PV cells work
3) PV cells, modules & arrays
4) Categorization of PV systems
i. Stand alone PV systems
ii. Grid tied PV systems
iii. Hybrid PV systems
5) How PV cells are made
6) Thin film photovoltaics
7) Categorization of commercially available modules based on the solar
cells used
i. Mono-crystalline cell modules
 ii. Multi-crystalline cell modules
iii. Amorphous silicon modules
iv. Concentrator cell modules
8) Types of arrays
i. Flat plate arrays
ii. Tracking arrays
1. Polar or single axis tracker
2. Dual axis tracker
iii. Mobile (portable) arrays
9) Pros & Cons of PV
6. Process flow diagrams of production utility of module line
7. Listing of problems & search for causes: the fishbone model; Ishikawa diagram
8. A brief review of process flow chart of production utility of cell line
9. Steps followed during project planning for setting up a solar module
manufacturing line*
10. Conclusionary remarks
11.References
Introduction
Photovoltaic (PV) is a technology that converts sunlight directly into
electricity. It was first observed in 1839 by the French scientist Becquerel
who detected that when light was directed onto one side of a simple battery
cell, the current generated could be increased. In the late 1950s, the space
program provided the impetus for the development of crystalline silicon solar
cells; the first commercial production of PV modules for terrestrial
applications began in 1953 with the introduction of automated PV production
plants.

Today, PV systems have an important use in areas remote from an

electricity grid where they provide power for water pumping, lighting,
vaccine refrigeration, electrified livestock fencing, telecommunications and
many other applications. With the global demand to reduce carbon dioxide
emissions, PV technology is also gaining popularity as a mainstream form of
electricity generation. Some tens of thousands of systems are currently in
use yet this number is insignificant compared to the vast potential that
exists for PV as an energy source.

Photovoltaic modules provide an independent, reliable electrical power

source at the point of use, making it particularly suited to remote locations.
PV systems are technically viable and, with the recent reduction in
production costs and increase in conversion efficiencies, can be economically
feasible for many applications.
Company profile

Moser Baer Photovoltaic

Moser Baer Photovoltaic incorporated in New Delhi, India is a subsidiary of Moser

Baer India Ltd that caters to the photovoltaic (PV) business.

The company operates in solar power generation business by manufacturing solar

cells and modules, and it is targeting an annual capacity of 80 MW in Phase I. The
initial project cost is estimated to be Rs 260 crore ($58 million), with Moser Baer
investing Rs 112 crore ($25 million) in the new venture.
About MBPV - Sunrise in the East

There is a new star rising on the solar power horizon. Moser Baer Photo Voltaic
Limited (MBPV), a wholly-owned subsidiary of Moser Baer India Limited, was set
up with the express purpose of spearheading our foray into the exciting new
technological universe of solar power and photovoltaics.
Vision

Touching every life across the globe through high technology products and
services.

Mission

 We will drive growth through our excellence in mass manufacturing.

 We will move up the value chain through rapid development of technology,

products and services.

 We will leverage our relationships, distribution, cost leadership and "can

do" attitude to become a global market leader in every business.

Value System

Teamwork
Thinking and working together across functional silos, hierarchies, businesses and
geographies. Cooperating and supporting each other towards common goals.

Integrity

Consistently behaving and taking decisions in an ethical, trustworthy and fair

manner in all spheres of life.

Passion
Missionary zeal coming out of one's heart to drive to the goal which gives one a
feeling of "do it with pride" and "love to be there". A feeling that encourages one
to dream & realize the dreams. Self commitment to give more than 100% &
create value.
Solar power scenario in India

India receives solar energy equivalent to over 5,000 trillion kWh per year. The
daily average solar energy incident over India varies from 4 -7 kWh per square
meter depending up on the location. Solar energy can be harnessed through two
routes, namely solar Photo Voltaic (PV) and solar thermal, by direct conversion to
electricity and heat energy respectively.

The utilization of solar energy in the country is regularly increasing; however, the
high initial cost of the solar energy systems is a barrier in its large-scale utilization.
The estimated unit cost of electricity from grid connected solar energy plant is
estimated to be around Rs. 12–15 per unit, which is very high compared to
electricity generated from conventional sources including thermal power and
other renewable energy sources such as wind, small hydro and biomass.

A total of 33 grid interactive solar photovoltaic power plants have been installed
in the country with financial assistance from the Ministry. These plants, with
aggregate capacity of 2.125 Megawatt peak are estimated to generate about 2.5
million units of electricity in a year.

Solar Power

Solar power is the technology of obtaining usable energy from the light of the sun

Applications of Solar Power

# Heating (hot water, building heat, cooking)

# Electricity generation (photovoltaics, heat engines)

# Desalination of seawater
Energy from the Sun

Global solar energy resources

# solar radiation reaches the Earth’s upper atmosphere at a rate of 1,366 watts
per square meter (W/m²)

# while travelling through atmosphere, 6% of the incoming solar radiation

(insolation) is reflected and 16% is absorbed resulting in a peak irradiance at the
equator of 1,020 W/m².

# Average atmospheric conditions (clouds, dust, pollution) reduce insolation by

20% through reflection and 3% through absorption.

# Photovoltaic panels convert about 15% of incident sunlight into electricity.

Global Dimming: - An effect of pollution that is allowing less sunlight to reach

the Earth’s surface.

Types of technologies

Solar design in Architecture

Solar design can be used to achieve comfortable temperature and light levels with
little or no additional energy.
Passive Solar: - It maximizes the entrance of sunlight in very cold conditions &
reduces it in hot weather.

Active solar:- uses additional devices such as pumps and fans to direct warm &
cool air or fluid.

Solar heating System

Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water. These systems may be used
to heat domestic hot water or for space heating. These systems are basically
composed of solar thermal collectors and a storage tank. The three basic
classifications of solar water heaters are:

 Active systems which use pumps to circulate water or a heat transfer fluid.
 Passive systems which circulate water or a heat transfer fluid by natural
circulation. These are also called thermosiphon systems.
 Batch systems using a tank directly heated by sunlight.
Trombe wall: is a passive solar heating and ventilation system consisting of an air
channel sandwiched between glazed windows and a sun-facing wall. Sunlight
heats the thermal mass during the day and drives natural circulation through
vents at the top and bottom of the wall. During the evening the trombe wall
radiates stored heat.

Transpired collector: is an active solar heating and ventilation system consisting

of a perforated sun-facing wall which acts as a solar thermal collector.

Solar cooking

A solar box cooker traps the Sun’s energy in an insulated box; such boxes have
been successfully used for cooking, pasteurization and fruit canning.
Solar Lighting
Solar lighting or daylighting is the use of natural light to provide illumination.
building orientation, exterior shading, sawtooth roofs, clerestory windows, light
shelves, skylights and light tubes are among the many daylighting features.

Daylight Saving Time (DST):- can be seen as a method of matching available

sunlight to the hours of the

Day in which it is most useful.

Photovoltaics
Solar Cells: - also referred to as photovoltaic cells, are devices or banks of devices
that use photovoltaic effect of semiconductors to generate electricity directly
from sunlight.

Solar thermal electric power plants

Solar thermal energy can be used to heat a heat exchanger to high temperature
and the heat used to produce electric power or for other industrial purposes.

Power towers
Power towers (also known as ‘central tower’ power plants or ‘heliostat’ power
plants (power towers)) use an array of flat, moveable mirrors (called heliostats) to
focus the sun’s rays upon a collector tower (the target). The high energy at this
point of concentrated sunlight is transferred to a substance that can store the
heat for later use.

Concentrating collector with Stirling/Steam engine.

Solar energy converted to heat in a concentrating collector can be used to boil
water into steam (as is done in nuclear and coal power plants) to drive a steam
engine or a sterling engine. The stirling engine is a type of heat engine which uses
a sealed working gas (i.e. a closed cycle) and does not require a power supply. The
concentrating collector can be a trough collector, parabolic collector, or power
tower.
Solar Updraft Tower
A solar updraft tower is a relatively low-tech solar thermal power plant where air
passes under a very large agricultural glass house (between 2 and 8 km in
diameter), is heated by the sun and channeled upwards towards a convection
tower. It then rises naturally and is used to drive turbines, which generate
electricity.

Energy Tower
An energy tower is driven by spraying water at the top of the tower; evaporation
of water causes a downdraft by cooling the air thereby increasing its density,
driving wind turbines at the bottom of the tower.

Solar Pond
The principle is to fill a pond with 3 layers of water.

1. A top layer with a low salt content

2. An intermediate insulating layer with a salt gradient, which sets up a
density gradient that prevents heat exchange by natural convection in
the water
3. A bottom layer has with a high salt content which reaches a
temperature approaching 90 degrees Celsius

The different densities in the layers because of their salt content prevent
convection currents developing which would normally transfer the heat to the
surface and then to the air above. The heat trapped in the salty bottom layer can
be used for different purposes, such as heating of buildings, industrial processes,
or generating electricity.

Solar Chemical
Solar chemical refers to a number of possible processes that harness solar energy
by absorbing sunlight in a chemical reaction in a way similar to photosynthesis in
plants but without using living organisms e.g. Photo electrolysis of water.
A promising approach is to use focused sunlight to provide the energy needed to
split water into its constituent hydrogen and oxygen in the presence of a metallic
catalyst such as zinc.

Classifications of Solar Power Energy

Direct or Indirect
 Direct solar power involves a single transformation of sunlight e.g.
photovoltaic cell
 Indirect involves multiple transformations of sunlight e.g.

Photosynthesisbiomass biofuels.

Passive or Active

Concentrating or Non-Concentrating
Concentrating solar power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors & tracking systems
to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam callable of producing high
temperatures and correspondingly high thermodynamic efficiencies.

Concentrating solar power systems vary in the way they track the sun and focus
light.

 Line focus/single axis

o A solar trough consists of a linear parabolic reflector which
concentrates light on a receiver positioned along the reflector’s focal
line. These systems use single-axis tracking to follow the sun.
 Point focus/Dual axis
o A power tower consists of an array of flat reflectors (heliostats)
which concentrate light on a central receiver located on a tower.
These systems use dual-axis tracking to follow the sun
 o A parabolic dish or dish/engine system consists of a stand-alone
parabolic reflector which concentrates light on a receiver positioned
at the reflector’s focal point.

Non-concentrating photovoltaic and solar thermal systems do not concentrate

sunlight. Flat-plate thermal and photovoltaic panels are representatives of this
technology.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Solar Power

 Total Solar Power available of the order of 122PW whereas total power
utilized by humanity is a mere 13TW
 Solar power is non polluting
 Little maintenance & operating cost
 Economically competitive
 It can be used to minimize power losses.

Disadvantages
 Limited power density
 Intermittent power supply
 D.C.—A.C. conversion results into an energy penalty of 4-12%.

Development & deployment of solar power

Deployment of solar power depends largely upon local conditions and
requirements.
Development of a practical solar powered car has been an engineering goal for
over twenty years. The center of this development is the World Solar Challenge, a
biannual solar powered car race over 3021 km through central Australia from
Darwin to Adelaide. The race’s stated objective is to promote research into solar-
powered cars.

Solar Cell & Photovoltaics

A solar cell (or a “photovoltaic” cell) is a semiconductor device that converts

photons from the sun (solar light) into electricity. In general a solar cell that
includes both solar and non-solar sources of light (such as photons from
incandescent bulbs) is termed as photovoltaic cell.

A solar cell needs to fulfill only two functions:

 Photo generation of charge carriers (electrons & holes) in a light absorbing

material
 Separation of charge carriers to conductive contact that will transmit
electricity.

Three generations of development

First
The first generation photovoltaic consists of a large area, single layer p-n junction
diode, which is capable of generating usable electrical energy from light sources
with the wavelengths of solar light. These cells are typically made using silicon
wafer.

Second generation:

The second generation of photovoltaic materials is based on use of thin-film

deposits of semiconductors. These devices were initially designed to be the
high-efficiency, multiple junction photovoltaic cells.
Third generation:

Third generation photovoltaics are very different from the other two, broadly
defined as semiconductor devices which do not rely on a traditional p-n junction
to separate photo generated charge carriers. These new devices include photo
electrochemical cells, Polymer Solar cells & nanocrystal solar cells

History
 1839 – Industrial Revolution – A.E. Becquerel discovered photoelectric
effect
 1883 – Charles Fritts invented first solar cell, coated with selenium(Se) with
gold junctions
 1941 – Russel Ohl invented the modern solar cell.
 15 May 1957 – Sputnik 3, first satellite to use solar arrays.

Theory
 When photons (hν) of light fall on a silicon wafer
o Either they pass through the wafer unaffected - Low energy
o Or can be reflected from surface
o Or are absorbed by Si – high energy
 Such photons either can produce heat (through lattice
vibrations) – called ‘phonons’
 Or generate electron-hole pairs.
Charge Carrier Separation
 Drift, driven by electrostatic field established across the device
 Diffusion of carriers from higher to lower carrier concentration.
 Drift is dominant in p-n junction while diffusion is dominant in 3rd
generation cells.

p-n junction
 In p-n junction contact area, diffusion occurs - of electrons from n- to p-
type & - of holes from p- to n-type. During diffusion, electrons & holes
recombine.

The effect of the electric field in a PV cell

 An electric field develops due to imbalance of charge on immediately either

side of the junction
 This electric field creates diode that promotes current to flow in only one
direction
Connection to an external load

Ohmic metal-semiconductor contacts are made to both the n-type and p-type
sides of the solar cell, and the electrodes connected to an external load. Electrons
that are created on the n-type side, or have been “collected by the junction and
swept onto the n-type side, may travel through the wire, power the load, and
continue through the wire until they reach the p-type semiconductor metal
contact. Here, they recombine with a hole that was either created as an electron-
hole pair on the p-type side of the solar cell, or swept across the junction from the
n-type side after being created there.

Solar Cell Efficiency Factors

Maximum Power Point
A solar cell may operate over a wide range of voltages (V) and currents (I). By
increasing the resistive load (voltage) in the cell from zero (indicating a short
circuit) to infinitely high values (indicating an open circuit) one can determine the
maximum power point.

Pm = Vm * Im

Where Pm = max. power Im = max. current

 Vm= max. voltage

Energy Conversion Efficiency

A solar cell’s energy conversion efficiency (η,”eta”), is the percentage of power

converted (from absorbed light to electrical energy ) and collected, when a
solar cell is connected to an electrical circuit
ECF = Pm/ (E * Ac)

Where E -> irradiance (W/m^2) Ac = Area

Thus, a 12% efficiency solar cell having 1m² of surface area in full sunlight at solar
noon at the equator during either the March or September equinox will produce
approximately 120 watts of peak power

Fill Factor
This is the ratio of the maximum power point divided by the open circuit voltage
(Voc) and the short circuit current (Isc):

FF = Pm/ (Voc * Isc) = (η×Ac×E)/ (Voc×Isc)

Where Voc = open circuit voltage

Isc = short circuit voltage

Quantum Efficiency
Quantum efficiency refers to the percentage of absorbed photons that produce
electron-hole pairs (or charge carriers)

Peak Watt (or watt peak)

Since solar cell output power depends on multiple factors, such as the sun’s
incidence angle, for comparison purposes between different cells and panels, the
peak watt (Wp) is used. It is output power under Standard Test Conditions (STC):

1) Solar Irradiance 1000W/m²

2) Solar reference spectrum (air mass) 1.5
3) Cell temperature of 25°C
Light – absorbing Materials
All solar cells require a light absorbing material contained within the cell structure
to absorb photons and generate electrons via the photovoltaic effect. The
materials used in solar cells tend to have the property of preferentially absorbing
the wavelengths of solar light that reach the earth surface; however, some solar
cells are optimized for light absorption beyond Earth’s atmosphere as well. Light
absorbing materials can often be used in multiple physical configurations to take
advantage of different light absorption and charge separation mechanisms. Many
currently available solar cells are configured as bulk materials that are
subsequently cur into wafers. Other materials are configured as thin films that
are deposited on supporting substrates, while a third group are used as quantum
dots (electron-confined nanoparticles) embedded in a supporting matrix in a
“bottom-up” approach.

Bulk
These bulk technologies are often referred to as wafer-based manufacturing. In
other words, in each of these approaches, self supporting wafers between 180 to
240 micrometers thick are processed and then soldered together to form a solar
cell module.

Silicon
By far, the most prevalent bulk material for solar cells is crystalline silicon
(abbreviated as a group as c-Si), also known as “solar grade silicon”.

1) Monocrystalline silicon (c-Si): Often made using the Czochralski process.

Single-crystal wafer cells tend to be expensive, and because they are cut
from cylindrical ingots, do not completely cover a square solar cell module
without a substantial waste of refined silicon.

2) Poly- or multicrystalline silicon (poly-Si or mc-Si): - made from cast

square ingots – large blocks of molten silicon carefully cooled and solidified.
These cells are less expensive to produce than single crystal cells but are
less efficient.
 3) Ribbon Si: - formed by drawing flat thin films from molten silicon and
having a multicrystalline structure. These cells have lower efficiencies
than poly-Si, but save on production costs due to a great reduction in
silicon waste, as this approach does not require sawing from ingots

Thin Films
The various thin Film technologies currently being developed reduce the amount
(or mass) of light absorbing material required in creating a solar cell. This can lead
to reduced processing costs from that of bulk materials (in the case of thin films)
but also tends to reduce energy conversion efficiency, although many multi-layer
thin films have efficiencies above those of bulk silicon wafers.

CdTe:

Cadmium Telluride is an efficient light absorbing material for thin-film solar cells.
Compared to other thin-film materials, CdTe is easier to deposit and more
suitable for large-scale production. Despite much discussion of the toxicity of
CdTe-based solar cells, this is the only technology (apart from amorphous silicon)
that can be delivered on a large scale.

CIGS:

CIGS are multi-layered thin-film composites. The abbreviation stands for Copper
Indium Gallium Selenide. Unlike the basic silicon solar cell, which can be modeled
as a simple p-n junction, these cells are best described by a more complex
heterojunction model. Efficiencies of around 30% can be obtained by using optics
to concentrate the incident light.

The use of Indium increases the bandgap of the CIGS layer, gallium is added to
replace as much indium as possible due to gallium’s relative ability to indium.

Selenium allows for better uniformity across the layer and so the number of
recombination sites in the fim is reduced which benefits the quantum efficiency
and thus the conversion efficiency.
CIS:

CIS is an abbreviation for general chalcogenide films of copper indium selenide

(CuInSe₂). While these films can achieve 11% efficiency, their manufacturing costs
are high at present but continuing work is leading to more cost-effective
production processes.

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) multijunction:

These multijunction cells consist of multiple thin films produced using molecular
beam epitaxy. A triple-junction cell, for example, may consist of the
semiconductors: GaAs, Ge, and GaInP₂. Each type of semiconductor will have
characteristic bandgap energy which loosely speaking, causes it to absorb light
most efficiently at a certain color, or more precisely, to absorb electromagnetic
radiation over a portion of the spectrum. The semiconductors are carefully
chosen to nearly absorb all of the solar spectrum, thus generating electricity from
as much of the solar energy as possible. GaAs multijunction devices are the most
efficient solar cells to date with 39% efficiency. Also the most expensive
(US$40/cm²)

Light absorbing dyes

Typically a Ruthenium metal organic dye (Ru-centered) used as a monolayer of
light absorbing material. The dye-sensitized solar cell depends on a mesoporous
layer of nanoparticulate titanium dioxide to greatly amplify the surface area (200-
300 m²/gram TiO₂, as compared to approximately 10m²/gram of flat singler
crystal). The photogenerated electrons from the light absorbing dye are passed
on to the n-type TiO₂, and the holes are passed to an electrolyte on the other side
of the dye. The circuit is completed by a redox couple in the electrolyte, which can
be liquid or solid. These types of cell allows a more flexible use of materials, and
typically are manufactured by screen printing, with the potential for lower
processing costs than those used for bulk solar cells. However, the dyes in these
cells also suffer from degradation under heat and UV light, and the cell casing is
difficult to seal due to the solvents used in assembly.
Organic/Polymer Solar Cells

Organic solar cells and polymer solar cells are built from thin films (typically 100
nm) of organic semiconductors such as polymers and small-molecule compounds
like polyphenylene vinylene, copper phthalocyanine (a blue green organic
pigment) and carbon fullerenes. Energy conversion efficiencies achieved to date
using conductive polymers are low at 4-5%.

Silicon
Silicon thin films are mainly deposited by Chemical vapor deposition (typically
plasma enhanced (PE-CVD)) from silane gas & hydrogen gas. Depending on the
deposition’s parameters, this can yield:

1) Amorphous silicon (a-Si or a-Si:H)

2) Protocrystalline silicon
3) Nanocrystalline silicon (nc-Si or nc-Si:H)

These types of silicon present dangling and twisted bonds, which results in deep
defects (energy levels in the band gap) as well as deformation of the valence and
conduction bands (band tails). The solar cells made from these materials tend to
have lower energy conversion efficiency than bulk silicon, but are also less
expensive to produce. The quantum efficiency of thin film solar cells is also lower
due to reduced number of collected charge carriers per incident photon.

Amorphous silicon has a higher bandgap (1.7 eV) than crystalline silicon (c-Si) (1.1
eV), which means it is more efficient to absorb the visible part of the solar
spectrum, but it fails to collect the infrared portion of the spectrum. As nc-Si has
about the same bandgap as c-Si, the two material can be combined in thin layers,
creating a layered cell called a tandem cell. The top cell in a-Si absorbs the visible
light and leaves the infrared part of the spectrum for the bottom cell in
nanocrystalline Si.
Photovoltaic Fundamentals

Current PV Technology
Groups of PV cells are electrically configured into modules & arrays, which can be
used to charge batteries, operate motors, & to power any number of electrical
loads

With the appropriate power conversion equipment, PV systems can produce

alternating current (AC) compatible with any conventional appliances, & can
operate in parallel with, & interconnected to, the utility grid.

How PV cells work

 These are composed of a thin wafer consisting of an ultra thin layer
of Phosphorous-doped (n-type) silicon on top of a thicker layer of
Boron-doped (p-type) silicon
 The performance are generally rated according to Standard Test
Conditions (STC)
 Regardless of size, a typical PV cell produces about 0.5-0.6V D.C.
under open circuit, no load conditions.
 Current (& power) output depends on efficiency & size, & is directly
proportional to intensity of sunlight.

PV Cells, Modules, & Arrays

 Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series and/or parallel

circuits to produce higher voltages,

 currents and power levels. PV modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in
an environmentally protective laminate.
 PV panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field
installable unit.
 A photovoltaic array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting of
any number of PV modules and panels.

Why Batteries Are Used In Some PV Systems?

Batteries are often used in PV systems for the purpose of storing energy produced
by the PV array during the day, and to supply it to electrical loads as needed
(during the night and periods of cloudy weather). Other reasons batteries are
used in PV systems are to operate the PV array near its maximum power point, to
power electrical loads at stable voltages, and to supply surge currents to electrical
loads and inverters.

The PV systems are divided in to three major categories

 Stand Alone PV Systems

 Grid tied PV Systems
 Hybrid PV Systems

Stand Alone PV Systems

"Stand-Alone" solar system is useful for complete independence from fossil

fuels and electric utility companies. The advantage to this type of system is
its ability to provide power away from the utility grid, and to create a
measure of self independence. A complete stand-alone home solar system
will typically have 2 inverters to supply the AC house current necessary to
power large loads such as air conditioners. Having a second inverter helps to
insure that power is available when one of the inverters eventually requires
servicing. These self contained systems need a sizable battery storage
capacity to provide electricity when solar power is unavailable due to
prolonged adverse weather conditions. A complete stand-alone solar system
will usually require at least 20 solar panels to keep the batteries at a safe
and proper state of charge. Typically this type of system is most cost
effective when the system is located away from the utility grid.
Grid Tied PV System

A "Grid-tie" solar system is useful for homes that are already connected to
the utility grid. The advantage of this type of system is the price reduction of
utility. The system has to be wired with an inverter that produces pure-sine-
wave AC electricity, which is necessary for connecting to the utility grid.
Another advantage to this type of system is the tax incentives and rebates
available from different state and local agencies. Owning a grid-tied system
in California qualifies you for the State Buy down program, drastically
reducing the overall system cost. Most of these systems typically do not
have the battery storage that allows for power when the utility fails. Grid-tie
system can be installed with battery backup power to keep critical loads
operating in the event of a power failure.

Hybrid PV System
The "Hybrid" - Solar Electric and Generator Combination provides a reliable
power source, and produces electricity even when the sun is not providing
solar power. These "hybrid" systems have the ability to charge the battery
bank and provide electricity when weather conditions are unfavorable for
solar power production. An advantage to this type of system is the reduction
of solar panels (PV array) necessary to supply power, which makes this
system an economical alternative to a larger "Stand-Alone" system. When
more power is needed than the solar panels are producing, a gasoline,
propane or diesel generator is activated. The generator will provide enough
power to overcome the difference between solar power available and the
electricity you require. This type of system is used for cabins, remote homes
and is a common system used to provide power for small medical facilities in
third world countries.
 General schematic of a residential PV system with battery storage

How PV Cells Are Made

 The process of fabricating PV cells begins with very pure semiconductor-
grade polysilicon – a material processed from quartz.
 The Polysilicon is then heated to melting temperature, trace amounts of
Boron are added to create p-type semiconductor.
 Next, an ingot, or block of silicon is formed.
 Individual wafers are then sliced from the ingots using wire saws and then
subjected to surface etching process

Basic structure of a generic silicon PV cell

  After the wafers are cleaned, they are placed in a phosphorous diffusion
furnace, creating a thin N-type semiconductor layer around the entire outer
surface of the cell
 Next, an anti-reflective coating is applied to the top surface of the cell, and
electrical contacts are imprinted on the top (negative) surface of the cell
 An aluminized conductive material is deposited on the back (positive)
surface of each cell, restoring the p-type properties of the back surface by
displacing the diffused phosphorous layer.
 Each cell is then electrically tested, sorted based on current output, and
electrically connected to other cells to form cell circuits for assembly in PV
modules.

Thin-Film Photovoltaics
 Thin-film photovoltaic modules are manufactured by depositing ultra-thin
layers of semiconductor material on a glass or thin stainless-steel
substrate in a vacuum chamber.
 Thin-film photovoltaic materials offer great promise for reducing the
materials requirements and manufacturing costs of PV modules and
systems.

Commercially available modules fall into following types based on the

solar cells used.
 Mono-crystalline cell modules. The highest cell efficiencies of around
15% are obtained with these modules. The cells are cut from a mono-
crystalline silicon crystal.
 A mono crystalline module

 Multi-crystalline cell modules. The cell manufacturing process is lower in

cost but cell efficiencies of only around 12% are achieved. A multi-
crystalline cell is cut from a cast ingot of multi-crystalline silicon and is
generally square in shape.

Multi crystalline cell modules

 Amorphous silicon modules. These are made from thin films of

amorphous silicon where efficiency is much lower (6-9%) but the
process uses less material.
 Thin film modules

 Concentrator cell modules. These modules are made up of

concentrator cells which have a small solar cell made up of silicon at
the centre and a semi circular glass area around it to focus the solar
rays at the centre of the cell. Where another glass piece is there to
reflect the insulations to the solar cell at the centre of the concentrator
cell.

Concentrator cell modules

The potential for cost reduction is greatest for this type and much work has
been carried out in recent years to develop amorphous silicon technology.
Unlike mono-crystalline and multi-crystalline cells, with amorphous silicon
there is some degradation of power over time.

An array can vary from one or two modules with an output of 10W or less, to
a vast bank of several kilowatts or even megawatts.
 Flat plate arrays, which are held fixed at a tilted angle and face towards
the equator, are most common. The angle of tilt should be
approximately equal to the angle of latitude for the site. A steeper
angle increases the output in winter; a shallower angle - more output
in summer. It should be at least 10 degrees to allow for rain runoff.
 Tracking arrays follow the path of the sun during the day and thus
theoretically capture more sun. However, the increased complexity
and cost of the equipment rarely makes it worthwhile.
 Types of trackers
 Polar or Single axis tracker: - Polar trackers have one axis aligned
close to the axis of rotation of the earth, hence the name polar.
So by definition it is clear that a single axis tracker moves in one
direction only which is from east to west. Polar trackers are
manually adjusted to compensate for the shift of the ecliptic
through the seasons. Adjustment is usually at least twice a year
at the equinoxes; once to establish a position for autumn and
winter, and a second adjustment for spring and summer. A
picture of polar tracker is given below.

 Dual Axis Trackers: - A dual axis tracker is a tracker which

have two axis of rotation. That is it moves in both the
dierctions from east to west and from north to south. These
trackers are mostly used for concentrator modules. This
tracker tracks the sun and makes the module to move in the
exact direction of the sun.The power consumption of this
tracker is more than that of a single axis tracker. But the
output of dual axis tracker is high than single axis tracker.
  Mobile (portable) arrays can be of use if the equipment being operated
is required in different locations such as with some lighting systems or
small irrigation pumping systems.

These cells and modules are brought together to form a array and by
bringing together a number of arrays a solar system is formed. So we can
conclude that cell, modules and array are the building blocks of the solar
system. And these solar systems are further divided in to different
categories which are discussed below.

Pros and Cons of PV

 Pros:- PV systems have no moving parts, are modular, easily expandable
and even transportable in some cases
 Energy independence and environmental compatibility are two attractive
features of PV systems.
 The fuel (sunlight) is free, and no noise or pollution is created from
operating PV systems.
 Cons:- At present, the high cost of PV modules and equipment (as
compared to conventional energy sources) is the primary limiting factor for
the technology.
 High surface area requirements and low electrical energy conversion
efficiencies are other disadvantages.

Process Flow Diagrams of various Machines used in

Production Utility of Module Line

1) Glass Washer: -
2) Foil Cutter: -
3) Stringer Machine: -
4) LAY UP: -

5) LAMINATOR: -
6) Edge Trimming & Framing: -

7) Sun Simulator: -

A
Listing of problems & search for causes: the fishbone
diagram; Ishikawa model

1) Formation of air bubbles during lamination

2) Cell breakage during soldering

3) Cell missing problem during picking of cells

4) Improper cell to cell gap

Solutions to problems & suggestions for improvement

  SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT

1) The filters of valve choke should be cleaned
The filters of vacuum pump should also be cleaned to provide
  sufficient vacuum
   
2) The Soldering head should be cleaned properly
  LAY-UP arm height should be adjusted to the right position
  Lay-UP arm Y-axis pick position should be adjusted
  Proper alignment & cleaning of soldering head should be done
   
3) Suction cups of pick up arm should be changed
  Vacuum level should be checked & adjusted
   
4) Conveyor belt should be adjusted properly
  Conveyor end roller can be adjusted
The vacuum pump filter should be cleaned in case of insufficient
  vacuum
  PLC can also be reset for adjustment of conveyor belt
If still the problem persists than the company engineer should be
  consulted

A brief review of manufacturing process of solar cells

 PROCESS DESCRIPTION PURPOSE
WAFER LOADER picks up solar wafers from magazines, to load raw p-type wafers in cell line
checks for any cracks,
  damages, & passes the cells for further  
processess.
ACID TEXTURIZATION prepares textured wafer surface by to minimize reflection of light
removing saw damage

P-DOPER deposits phosphoric acid droplets to deposit 'n' dopant for diffusion
uniformly on textured
  wafer  
DIFFUSION diffusion of phosphorous onto wafer to form PN junction
PSG ETCHING to remove the PSG (phosphate silica to prepare anti-reflection coating
glass) formed during surface
  diffusion  
PVD to deposit the SINx antireflection coating to increase absorption of light
on the wafer
SCREEN PRINTING-1 to print the AgAl busbar on the back to take out the electrical contact of
surface positive
    terminal from back side
SCREEN PRINTING-2 to print the Al (aluminium) paste to get to produce the electrical field to
Backsurface field reflect the
  (BSF) generated electrons for getting
higher efficiency
SCREEN PRINTING-3 to print the Ag (silver) busbars and grid to take out electrical contact of the
lines on the front side negative
  of the cell terminal from front side
FIRING FURNACE to dry burn organics, sinter metal to get good electrical ohmic contacts
& proper
    adhesion with wafer terminal
LASER EDGE to isolate front & back surface to avoid shorting of cell
ISOLATION
CELL SORTER to inspect the cell & measure its to categorize the cells according to its
electrical & visual electrical
  parameters & visual parameters

Steps of Project planning for setting up of solar module

manufacturing line
1) Project planning using schedules such as GANTT CHARTS
 A Gantt chart is a popular type of bar chart that illustrates a project schedule.
Gantt charts illustrate the start and finish dates of the terminal elements and
summary elements of a project. Terminal elements and summary elements
comprise the work breakdown structure of the project. Gantt charts can be used to
show current schedule status using percent-complete shadings and a vertical
"TODAY" line
2) Defining project scope

In project management, the scope of a project is the sum total of all of its products
and their requirements or features.[citation needed]
Sometimes the term scope is used to mean the totality of work needed to complete
a project.
In traditional project management, the tools to describe a project's scope
(product) are the product breakdown structure and product descriptions. The
primary tool to describe a project's scope (work) is the work breakdown
structure

3) Listing the durations for the various tasks necessary to complete the work

Duration of a project's terminal element is the number of calendar periods it takes

from the time the execution of element starts to the moment it is completed.
In project management a task is an activity that needs to be accomplished within a
defined period of time. An assignment is a task under the responsibility of an
assignee which should have a start and end date defined. One or more assignments
on a task puts the task under execution. Completion of all assignments on a specific
task should claim the task as completed. Tasks can be linked together to create
dependencies.
Work in project management is the amount of effort applied to produce a deliverable
or to accomplish a task (a terminal element).
This should not confused with duration.

4) Grouping the above into a work breakdown structure

 A work breakdown structure or WBS is a fundamental tool commonly used in
project management and systems engineering. It is a tree-like structure that permits
summing of subordinate costs for tasks, materials, etc., into their successively
higher level “parent” tasks, materials, etc. For each element of the work breakdown
structure, a description of the task to be performed is generated. [1] This technique
(sometimes called a System Breakdown Structure [2]) is used to define and organize
the total scope of a project.

5) Defining logical dependencies between tasks using an activity network

diagram that enables identification of the critical path

In a project network, a dependency is a link amongst a project's terminal

elements.
There are four kinds of dependencies with respect to ordering terminal elements (in
order of decreasing frequency of use):

1. Finish to start (FS)

 A FS B = B doesn't start before A is finished
 (Foundations dug) FS (Concrete poured)
2. Finish to finish (FF)
 A FF B = B doesn't finish before A is finished
 (Last chapter written) FF (Entire book written)
3. Start to start (SS).
 A SS B = B doesn't start before A starts
 (Project work started) SS (Project management activities started)
4. Start to finish (SF)
 A SF B = B doesn't finish before A starts
 (New shift started) SF (Previous shift finished)
There are three kinds of dependencies with respect to the reason for the existence
of dependency:

1. Causal (logical)
 It is impossible to edit a text before it is written
 It is illogical to pour concrete before you dig the foundations
 2. Resource constraints
 It is logically possible to paint four walls in a room simultaneously but
there is only one painter
3. Discretionary (preferential)
 I want to paint the living room before painting the dining room, although
I could do it the other way round, too
Activity network diagram
A project network is a graph (flow chart) depicting the sequence in which a
project's terminal elements are to be completed by showing terminal elements
and their dependencies.
In project management, a critical path is the sequence of project network
activities which add up to the longest overall duration. This determines the
shortest time possible to complete the project

6) Estimation of necessary resources & allocations of costs for each activity,

giving the total project cost.

Conclusionary Remarks
The future of solar power and photovoltaics is great for not only India but for the
whole world. With the ever increasing cost prices of petro based fuels, and the
possibility of complete depletion of non-conventional sources of energy looming
large, it has become indispensible for the mankind to look for the alternative
sources of energy.

Solar energy with its ever increasing vistas of providing unparalleled power almost
infinitely makes it a very promising enterprise.

Keeping this in mind, the project engineers and planners at Moser Baer
Photovoltaics are constantly trying to tap this situation for the maximum of their
interest. With constant Research & Development going on in various new
technologies such as thin films & concentrators, the company aims at providing
state-of-the-art technology at the most competitive prices.

Also the government should also provide subsidies on such technologies, and also
provide incentives to such companies which are doing considerable research in
this direction, so as to indigenize the above technologies so that they can become
easily accessible under the reach of common man. With the usage of which, the
common man can also contribute in the cleaning of environment and thus
provide our future generations with safe, clean and hygienic environment.