Asset-Liability

Management in Banks

KAMAL K JINDAL
kamaljindal@hotmail.com
 Asset-Liability Management (ALM)
 Bankers make decisions every day about buying
and selling securities, about whether to make
particular loans, and about how to fund their
investment and lending activities.
 These decisions are partly based on the outlook of
interest rates. Further, bankers take into account
the composition of their assets and liabilities, as
well as the degree of risk they are willing to take.
 The process of making such decisions is known as
asset-liability management (ALM). The Asset
Liability Management Committee (ALCO) has the
overall responsibility for managing the sources and
uses of funds on the balance sheet and off-balance
sheet activities with respect to interest rate risk
and liquidity.
 ALM is generally viewed as short-term in nature,
with the aim of achieving near-term financial goals.
 Liquidity Risk Management
 The object of any ALM policy is ensuring
both profitability and liquidity.
 Usually a bank maintains profitability by
borrowing short and lending long.
 However, in order to ensure that a
potentially illiquid position is avoided,
maturity matching has to be ensured.
 A bank generally aims to eliminate the
liquidity risk while it only tries to manage
the interest rate risk. This is because
elimination of interest rate risk is not
profitable.
 Liquidity Risk Management
 In liquidity risk management, the focus is on the
liquidity position of the bank. The bank would
estimate its cash requirements and the cash
inflows and adjust these two to ensure a safe
level for its liquidity position.
 All deposits based on their maturity fall under the
categories: volatile funds, vulnerable funds and
stable funds.
 Volatile funds include those deposits which are
sure to be withdrawn during the period for which
the liquidity estimate is to be made. These
include short- term deposits. Float funds are also
treated as volatile deposits.
 Liquidity Risk Management
 Deposits which are likely to be withdrawn during the
planning tenure are categorized as vulnerable deposits.
For e.g., a bank would know which part of savings
deposits are stable and which portion is vulnerable.
 Finally, the residual deposits are stable deposits.
 Having obtained the consolidated / component-wise
working funds, the bank will now have to estimate the
average cash and bank balances that are to be
maintained. This average balance can be maintained as
a percentage to the total working funds. This average is
based on forecasts, and hence a safety margin should
also be ensured.
 Any balance beyond this range will necessitate
corrective action either by deploying the surplus funds
or by borrowing funds to meet the deficit. This
acceptance level is, however, a dynamic figure which
will change over time.
 ALM Implementation
 RBI has initiated an ALM framework in India
based on Gap Analysis.
 Based on the RBI model, banks can segregate
their assets and liabilities into various maturity
buckets and also identify those assets and
liabilities that are interest sensitive.
 While deciding about liquidity requirements, in
certain cases the RBI has only provided
benchmarks. Liquidity limits for the different
time buckets can be set by the particular bank
given its past experience of volatile and core
portion of savings/ current account deposits.
 Maturity Gap Method
 Initially the RBI has considered the traditional Gap
analysis as a suitable method. Later the banks should
move over to more sophisticated methods including
Duration Gap analysis and Simulation Models
 Each bank should set prudential limits on individual Gaps
with the approval of the Board / Management
Committee. The following time buckets are considered:
 1 to 14 days
 15 to 28 days
 29 days to 3 months
 Over 3 months to 6 months
 Over 6 months to 1 year
 Over 1 year to 3 years
 Over 3 years to 5 years
 Over 5 years
 Non-sensitive
 Liquidity Risk Management
 RBI has suggested maturity profiling in
terms of outflows and inflows while
arriving at liquidity prognosis.
 A Statement of Structural Liquidity may be
prepared by placing all cash inflows and
outflows in the maturity ladder. A
maturing liability will be a cash outflow
while a maturing asset will be a cash
inflow.
 Contingent liabilities also need to be taken
into account.
 Liquidity Risk Management
 According to the latest guidelines, the banks may
adopt a more granular approach to measurement of
liquidity risk by splitting the first time bucket (1-14
days at present) in the Statement of Structural
Liquidity into three time buckets viz. Next day , 2-7
days and 8-14 days.
 The net cumulative negative mismatches during the
next day, 2-7 days, 8-14 days and 15-28 days
buckets should not exceed 5 % ,10%, 15 % and 20
% of the cumulative cash outflows in the respective
time buckets in order to recognise the cumulative
impact on liquidity.
 The Statement of Structural Liquidity may be
compiled on best available data coverage, in due
consideration of non-availability of a fully networked
environment. Banks may, however, make concerted
and requisite efforts to ensure coverage of 100 per
cent data in a timely manner.
 Liquidity Risk Management
 Banks may undertake dynamic liquidity
management and should prepare the Statement of
Structural Liquidity on daily basis. The Statement of
Structural Liquidity, may, however, be reported to
RBI, once a month, as on the third Wednesday of
every month.
 Within each time bucket there could be mismatches
depending upon cash inflows and outflows. While
the mismatches up to one year would be relevant,
the main focus should be on the short term
mismatches, viz. 1-14 days and 15-28 days.
 Further, in order to enable banks to monitor their
short-term liquidity on a dynamic basis over a time
horizon from 1-90 days, banks may estimate their
short-term profiles on the basis of business
projections and other commitments for planning
purposes.
 A Typical Example: Liquidity Aspects
 Liquidity risk management prescriptions:
 The tenor profiles of the Bank’s assets and
liabilities are classified as under:
 Short-term: Maturities up to 6 months,
 Medium-term: Maturities in excess of six months
and up to five years
 Long-term:Maturities in excess of five years
 `Liquidity’ will be monitored by ALCO through
Balance Sheets as well as cash flow
approaches.The following key ratios will be used
to monitor stock levels.
 A Typical Example: Liquidity Aspects
 Liquidity Tolerance Limits: As per RBI guidelines,
the mismatch (negative gap) may not exceed
20% of cash outflows in each of the first two
buckets (1-14 days & 15 – 28 days)
 Limit for Cumulative Mismatch (Negative Gap) in
individual buckets: The cumulative mismatch
(cumulative negative gap) should not be more
than 25% of the cumulative inflows of the
respective bucket.
 The cumulative mismatch (negative gap) in `6
months to 1 year’ time bucket should not be
more than (-) 2% of the working funds.
 Some Key Liquidity Ratios
 Loan to deposit ratio = Performing loans
outstanding/ Deposit balances outstanding
 Incremental loan to deposit ratio = Incremental
loans to deposits during the period/ Incremental
deposit inflows during the same period
 Medium term funding ratio = Liabilities with maturity
over one year/ Assets with maturity over one year
 Cash flow coverage ratio = Projected cash inflow/
Projected cash outflow
 Liquid assets ratio = Liquid assets/ Short term
liabilities
 Contingent liabilities ratio = Contingent liabilities/
Total loans
A Typical Example: Prudential Ratios

Ratio Desired Level Level Level

Level/ March March March
Range 2001 2002 2003
Loans to Total Assets 45- 40% 38% 38.86
50% %
Loans to Core Deposits 55-60% 57% 58% 61.05
%
Liquid Assets to Total 15-20% 17% 17% 17.58
Assets %
Liquid Assets to 20-25% 21% 22% 22.30
Deposits %
Purchased Funds to Not 0.51% 0.35% 0.18%
Total Assets more
than 5%
 A Typical Example: Prudential Ratios
Ratio Desired Level Level
Level/ March March
Range 2002 2003
Long Term Assets Funding Not less 85% 92.36%
Through Long Term than 50%
Liabilities
Cash and Near Assets to Not more 4.58% 6.85%
Total Assets than 5%
High value deposits (> Not more 12.26% 8.99%
Rs.10cr) to Aggregate than 15%
Deposits
Off balance sheet exposures Not more 7.99%
to Gross Assets than 20%
Trading Book to Not more 0.76%
Investments than 5%
 Managing Interest Rate Risk
 Before the liberalisation of the financial markets in
1991, most of the interest rates were not subject to
regular changes, and hence ALM was not given
much importance. However, in recent years, there
has been a sea-change in approach.
 Today management of bank portfolios involves
managing both assets and liabilities.
 On balance sheet adjustment involves changing the
portfolio of assets and liabilities includes steps such
as adjusting the maturity, repricing, and payment
schedules. In addition, the bank could buy or sell
securitised assets.
 Off-Balance Sheet adjustments include changing the
interest position of a bank by using off-balance
sheet derivatives, such as interest rate swaps and
futures.
 Concept of Net Interest Income
Liabilities Assets
Equity 5– yr fixed rate loans @8%
10 mio 100 mio
30-day deposits@4% 90
mio
 The net interest income (NII) = Interest Income –
Total Totalmio = 4.4 mio
Interest Expense = (8 – 3.6)
100 mio 100 mio
 Net Interest Margin (NIM) = NII/ Earning Assets =
4.4/100 = 4.4%.
 If market rates of interest increase, the cost of short-
term borrowings will increase, and NII will decrease
as loans are at long –term fixed rates. On the other
hand, if market rates of interest decrease, then NII
will increase.
 The mix of all the assets and liabilities will decide the
net effect on NII.
 Maturity Gap Method
 The maturity gap method of ALM technique aims
to tackle the interest rate risk by highlighting the
gap that exists between the Risk Sensitive Assets
(RSAs) and Risk Sensitive Liabilities (RSLs), the
maturity periods of the same and the gap period.
The objective of this method is to stabilize/
improve the net interest income in the short run
over discrete periods of time called the gap
periods.
 The first step is to collect the gap periods, say
anywhere between one month to one year.
Having chosen the gap periods, all the RSAs and
RSLs are grouped into `maturity buckets’ based
on the maturity and the time until the first
possible repricing due to change in interest rates.
 Maturity Gap Method
 Rate Sensitive Gap (RSG) = RSAs – RSLs
 Also Gap Ratio or Interest Rate Sensitivity Ratio

= RSAs/ RSLs
 The gap so analysed can be used by the treasury
department to tackle the rising/ falling interest rate
structures.
 For example, when RSG is positive, the consequence
of a rate fluctuation is an increase in the net interest
income when the interest rates rise and a decrease
in the same when the rates fall. The opposite is true
when RSG is negative: the consequence of a rate
fluctuation is a decrease in the net interest income
when the interest rates rise and an increase in the
same when rates fall.
 Maturity Gap Method
 The process of maturity gap approach assesses the
impact of a percentage change in interest rates on
Net Interest Income (NII). The objective of an ALM
policy will be to maintain the NIM (net interest
margin) within certain limits by managing the risks.
 The following steps are therefore involved for a
bank:
 Assess the percentage change in NIM that is
acceptable to the bank
 Make a forecast for the quantum and direction of
the interest rate change
 Based on the above determine the gap level
(positive/ negative)
 GAP and Net Interest Margin Example
(Rs. In Crores) Bank A Bank B
Total Assets 1000 1000
RSAs 40 400
RSLs 20 200
GAP (RSAs – RSLs) 20 200
GAP ratio (RSAs/RSLs) 2 2
NII (assumed) 200 200
Decease in interest rate 2% 2%
Change in NII (GAP x -0.4 -4
Δr)
Note: In the above example, even though the asset size and
the GAP ratio are identical for both banks, it is evident that
Bank B assumes greater risk since its interest income will be
more volatile when interest rates change.
 Limitations of Maturity Gap Approach
 Depends upon accuracy of interest rate
forecasts – may not be correct
 While gap measurement is a comparatively
easy task, gap management is not.
 It assumes that change in interest rates
immediately affects the RSAs and RSLs by
the same quantum which is not always the
case in reality.
 Ignores the time value of money for the
cash flows while determining the gap
 ALM Strategies
 The size of the net interest income can be controlled
through defensive or aggressive ALM.
 The goal of defensive ALM is to insulate the NII from
changes in interest rates; that is, to prevent interest
rate changes from decreasing or increasing NII. In
contrast, aggressive ALM focuses on increasing NII
through altering the portfolio of the institution.
 The success of aggressive ALM depends on the
ability to forecast future interest rate changes.
However, if interest rate changes do not move the
way predicted, this strategy can lead to losses, and
hence risky.
 The focus of the defensive strategy is to insulate the
portfolio from interest rate changes, whether the
direction of the interest rate movement is upward or
downward, predictable or unpredictable.
 How much interest rate risk is
acceptable?
 One of the most difficult decisions that bank
managers face is determining the appropriate
degree of interest rate risk to assume.
 At one extreme, referred to as defensive interest
rate risk management, the bank would attempt to
structure its assets and liabilities in order to
eliminate interest rate risk. However, the
profitability of a bank that does not take some
interest risk would be inadequate.
 No one has perfect foresight with respect to
interest rates. However, high-risk strategies
combined with imperfect forecasts of interest rate
movements can result in disaster.
 Duration Gap Analysis
 The deficiencies of traditional gap analysis,
especially the focus on accounting income
rather than on equity, have encouraged a
search for alternative approaches to
measuring and managing the interest rate
exposure of a financial institution. One such
approach is duration gap analysis.
 “Duration” may be defined as the weighted
average time (measured in years) to receive
all cash flows from a financial instrument.
 Duration
 We could also say that a bond portfolio is
immunized from the interest rate risk if
the duration of the portfolio is equal to the
desired holding period.
 Finally, the duration of a portfolio will keep
changing with time. Hence, rebalancing of
the portfolio on an annual or as needed
basis will have to be carried out.
 Duration Gap
 The duration gap is the difference between
the durations of a bank’s assets and
liabilities. It is a measure of interest rate
sensitivity that helps to explain how changes
in interest rates affect the market value of a
bank’s assets and liabilities, and in turn, its
net worth.
 The net worth is the difference between
assets and liabilities, i.e. NW = A – L.
 By using duration, we can calculate the
theoretical effects of interest rate changes
on net worth: ΔNW = ΔA – ΔL, where Δ is
change in value.
 Measurement of Duration Gap
Balance Sheet Duration

Liabilities Rs. Mio Duration Assets Rs. Mio Duration

(Years) (Years)
CD, 1 year 600 1.00 Cash 100 0.00

Debenture 300 5.00 Business 400 1.25

s, 5 years loans
Total 900 2.33 Mortgag 500 7.00
Liabilities e loans
Equity 100

Total 1000 Total 1000 4.00

 Measurement of Duration Gap
 In the above case, duration has been
calculated for the assets and liabilities in the
following manner.
 It is assumed that CDs as well as Debentures
pay interest once only, at maturity.
 The duration of each of the assets and
liabilities is given. Cash has zero duration.
 Except for zero coupon securities where only
a single payment occurs, duration is always
less than maturity. The duration of the CDs
and Debentures are the same as their
maturities, because they are single payment
liabilities.
 Measurement of Duration Gap
 The duration gap (DGAP) is measured as follows:
DGAP = Da – WDL, where Da = Average duration of
assets, DL = Average duration of liabilities, and W =
Ratio of total liabilities to total assets.
 Thus, DGAP = 4.0 – (0.9)(2.33) = 4.00 – 2.10 = 1.90
yrs.
 Further, to arrive at an approximation for the expected
change in the market value of the equity relative to
total assets (TA):
 ΔNet Worth/ TA ≈ - DGAP[Δ i/(1+i)] or for Rs.
Change in net worth: Rs. Δnet worth ≈ - DGAP [Δ
i/(1+i)] x TA
 Suppose that current interest rates are 11% and are
expected to increase by 100 basis points. Then
% Δ Net Worth ≈ = (-1.90)(1/1.11) ≈ -1.70%
 In Rs. terms, Rs. Δ Net Worth ≈ (-1.90)(1/1.11) x TA
≈ -1.7% x Rs.1000 mio = - Rs.17 mio.
 Duration Gap Management
 If the duration gap is positive (i.e. the duration of
assets exceeds the duration of liabilities), then
increases in interest rates will reduce the value of net
worth, and decreases in interest rates will increase
the value the value of net worth.
 Conversely, if the duration gap is negative, with the
duration of assets less than the duration of liabilities,
rising interest rates will increase the value of net
worth, whereas falling interest rates will lead to a
reduction.
 If the institution is immunised from changes in
interest rates through a zero duration gap, changes
in the value of assets will be exactly offset by
changes in the value of liabilities.
Duration Gap, Interest Rates, and Changes
in Net Worth
Duration Gap Change in Change in Net
Interest Rates Worth
Positive Increase Decrease

Positive Decrease Increase

Negative Increase Increase

Negative Decrease Decrease

Zero Increase No change

Zero Decrease No change

 Duration Gap Management
 An aggressive interest rate risk management strategy
would alter the duration gap in anticipation of
changes in interest rates. For example, if interest
rates are expected to increase, management would
want to shift from a positive to a negative position. It
could do this by reducing the duration of assets
and/or increasing the duration of liabilities.
 The expectation of falling interest rates would
produce the opposite type of portfolio management
adjustments.
 Defensive interest rate risk management would seek
to keep the duration of assets equal to the duration
of liabilities, thereby maintaining a duration gap of
zero.
 Problems of Duration Gap Management
 Immunisation will be effective only if interest rates for all maturity
securities shift up or down by exactly the same amount (i.e. only
if the yield curve moves upward or downward by a constant
percentage amount). In fact, yield curves seldom move in this
way.
 In periods of rising interest rates, short term rates usually move
up more than long-term rates. Similarly, in periods of falling
interest rates short-term interest rates usually fall more than long
term rates.
 Further, the price changes that occur in the value of a financial
asset due to interest changes is only an approximation.
 Duration drift :
 Another issue is the problem of duration drift. For example, let us
presume that a financial institution finances a long term loan
(seven year duration) with a maximum of five- and ten-year
duration deposits.
 After say three years the duration of the liabilities has declined
more than duration of assets. This happens because maturities
were not matched initially even though durations were.
 ALM Implementation
 The consolidated data of the past, future projections,
macro-level trends and forecasts will have to be
generated at the corporate office.
 Detailed internal control systems have to be laid down
to ensure adherence to the policy framework.
Necessary hardware and software have to be in place.
 As banks become familiar with the techniques and
MIS improves, the banks are expected to move over
to more sophisticated and data intensive methods of
ALM.
 The end result should be a smooth integration of the
risk management process with the bank’s business
strategies.
 Simulation and ALM
 Banks in advanced countries have started using
simulation models that allow them to examine
alternative interest rate scenarios, and to stress-test
their portfolios.
 Many of the larger banks depend primarily on
simulations, and they set limits for their interest
rate exposure. For example, a bank may limit its
interest rate exposure to a 5 per cent change in net
interest income. Given this limit, it models the
balance sheet that will constrain it to that limit when
interest rate changes by, say 200 basis points.
 Stress testing reveals the effects on income and
capital of larger changes in interest rates. Stress
testing can be thought of as testing the implications
of a worst-case scenario.
 Recently EU stress testing of 91 banks in EU, 7
banks failed in the Test[ 5 in Spain, 1 I each in
Germany and Greece