Metal

Casting
- by Kishore
09331A0396
Introduction:
Metal Casting is one of the oldest materials shaping methods known.
Casting means pouring molten metal into a mold with a cavity of the
shape to be made, and allowing it to solidify. When solidified, the
desired metal object is taken out from the mold either by breaking the
mold or taking the mold apart. The solidified object is called the
casting. By this process, intricate parts can be given strength and
rigidity frequently not obtainable by any other manufacturing process. 
The mold, into which the metal is poured, is made of some heat
resisting material. Sand is most often used as it resists the high
temperature of the molten metal. Permanent molds of metal can also be
used to cast products.
Foundry:
” Foundry or casting is the process of
producing metal/alloy component parts
of desired shapes by pouring the molten
metal/alloy into a prepared mould (of
that shape) and then allowing the
metal/alloy to cool and solidify. The
solidified piece of metal/alloy is known
as a CASTING”.
 Casting Terms:
1. Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top
or bottom, in which the mold is formed.
Depending upon the position of the flask in
the molding structure, it is referred to by various
names such as drag - lower molding flask, cope -
upper molding flask, cheek - intermediate
molding flask used in three piece molding.
2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be
made. The mold cavity is made with the help of
pattern.
3. Parting line: This is the dividing line between the
two molding flasks that makes up the mold.
4. Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand
and generally baked, which is used to create
openings and various shaped cavities in the
castings.
5. Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at
the top of the mold into which the molten metal
is poured.
6. Sprue: The passage through which the molten
metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the mold
cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of
metal into the mold.
7. Runner: The channel through which the molten
metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.
8. Gate: A channel through which the molten
metal enters the mold cavity.
9. Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the
cores inside the mold cavity to take care of its
own weight and overcome the
metallostatic force.
10. Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the
mold to feed the castings as it shrinks and
solidifies. Also known as feed head.
11. Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate
escape of air and gases.
Basic Features:
Pattern and Mould
◦ A pattern is made of wood or metal, is a replica of the
final product and is used for preparing mould cavity.
◦ Mould material should posses refractory characteristics
and with stand the pouring temperature.
◦ When the mold is used for single casting, it made of
sand and known as expendable mold.
◦ When the mold is used repeatedly for number of
castings and is made of metal or graphite are called
permanent mould.
◦ For making holes or hollow cavities inside a casting,
cores made of either sand or metal are used.
Melting and Pouring:
◦ Several types of furnaces are available for
melting metals and their selection depends on
the type of metal, the maximum temperature
required and the rate and the mode of molten
metal delivery.
◦ Before pouring provisions are made for the
escape of dissolved gases. The gating system
should be designed to minimize the turbulent
flow and erosion of mould cavity.The other
important factors are the pouring temperature
and the pouring rate.
Solidification and Cooling:
◦ The properties of the casting significantly
depends on the solidification time cooing
rate.
◦ Shrinkage of casting, during cooling of
solidified metal should not be restrained
by the mould material, otherwise internal
stresses may develop and form cracks in
casting.
◦ Proper care should be taken at the design
stage of casting so that shrinkage can
occur without casting defects.
Removal, Cleaning, Finishing and
Inspection:

◦ After the casting is removed from the mould it

is thoroughly cleaned and the excess material
usually along the parting line and the place
where the molten metal was poured, is
removed using a potable grinder.
◦ White light inspection, pressure test, magnetic
particle inspection, radiographic test,
ultrasonic inspection etc. are used
Schematic diagram of casting mould:
Steps involved in making a casting:
1. Make the pattern out of Wood , Metal or Plastic.
2. Prepare the necessary sand mixtures for mould and
core making.
3. Prepare the Mould and necessary Cores.
4. Melt the metal/alloy to be cast.
5. Pour the molten metal/alloy into mould and remove
the casting from the mould after the metal solidifies.
6. Clean and finish the casting.
7. Test and inspect the casting.
8. Remove the defects, if any.
9. Relieve the casting stresses by Heat Treatment.
10. Again inspect the casting.
11. The casting is ready for shipping.
Advantages of metal casting:
Casting is one of the most versatile manufacturing
process.
Casting provides the greatest freedom of design in
terms of shape, size and the product quantity.
Casting imparts uniform directional properties and
better vibration capacity to the cast parts.
Casting produces machinable parts.
Shapes difficult and uneconomic to obtain
otherwise may be achieved through casting process.
( Contd..)
A product may be cast as one piece, there by
eliminating the need of metal joining processes.
Very heavy and bulky parts which are otherwise
difficult to get fabricated may be cast.
Metals (like cast iron) dificult to be shaped by
other manufacturing processes may be cast.
Casting can be designed for equal distribution
of loads and for minimum stress concentration
in order to achieve more strength and increased
service life.
Casting process can be mechanised and usefully
employed for mass production of components.
Limitations of casting:
Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the
castings made by sand casting processes are a
limitation to this technique.
Many new casting processes have been developed
which can take into consideration the aspects of
dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
Some of these processes are die casting process,
investment casting process, vacuum-sealed
molding process, and shell molding process.
The metal casting process is a labor intensive
process
Applications of Casting:
 Transportation vehicles
 Turbine vanes
 Power generators
 Railway crossings
 Agricultural parts
 Aircraft jet engine parts
 Sanitary fittings
 Communication, Construction and Atomic
Energy applications, etc..
Different Sections in Foundry:
1) Pattern making
2) Sand mixing & preparation
3) Mould and core making
4) Mould assembly & handling
5) Melting
6) Pouring
7) Shaking out
8) Fettling & finishing
9) Heat treatment
10) Inspection & testing
Raw Materials for Foundry:
1) Metals and alloys.
2) Fuels (for melting metals).
3) Fluxes.
Metals and alloys commonly used in
Foundries:
1. Ferrous
2. Non-Ferrous
FERROUS:
a. Cast irons
b. Steels
NON-FERROUS:
c. Copper alloys
d. Aluminium alloys
e. Magnesium alloys
f. Zinc alloys
g. Nickel alloys
Fuels for Melting Metals:
1. Coal
2. Coke
3. Gas
4. Oil
5. electricity
 Fluxes:
 A flux is a low melting point material.
 When heated up, it melts and combines with
ash, viscous slags, sand, metallic oxides etc.,
and makes a fluid and easy flowing slag.
 This slag being lighter comes on to the
surface of the molten metal from where it can
be easily skimmed, tapped or removed before
pouring the metal into the mould.
 Slag protects molten metal from furnace
atmosphere.
Refractories:
o Refractories are heat resistant materials.
o They can withstand high temperatures without
being fused.
o Crucibles and furnace sides and bottoms
containing molten metal are made up of
refractories.
o These are used as ladles for pouring metal into
the mould.
o Refractories constitute furnace walls and roof
and thus minimize heat losses.
Core and core prints:
 Castings are often required to have holes, recesses, etc. of
various sizes and shapes.
 These impressions can be obtained by using cores.
 So where coring is required, provision should be made to
support the core inside the mold cavity.
 Core prints are used to serve this purpose.
 The core print is an added projection on the pattern and it
forms a seat in the mold on which the sand core rests during
pouring of the mold.
 The core print must be of adequate size and shape so that it
can support the weight of the core during the casting
operation.
 Depending upon the requirement a core can be placed
horizontal, vertical and can be hanged inside the mold cavity.
Pattern having core prints.
Pattern Making:
A Pattern is a model or the replica of the
object to be cast.
Except for the various allowances a
pattern exactly resembles the casting to be
made.
A pattern is required even if one object
has to be cast.
Functions of Patterns:
 A Pattern prepares a mould cavity for the
purpose of making a casting.
 A Pattern may contain projections known as
core prints if the casting requires a core and
need to be made hollow.
 Patterns properly made and having finished
and smooth surfaces reduce casting defects.
 Properly constructed patterns minimize
overall cost of the casting.
 Selection of Pattern Materials:
The following factors assist in selecting
proper pattern material:
No. of castings to be produced.
Dimensional accuracy & surface finish.
Shape, complexity and size of casting.
Casting design parameters.
Type of molding materials.
The chance of repeat orders.
Nature of molding process.
The pattern material should be:
1. Easily worked, shaped and joined.
2. Light in weight.
3. Strong, hard and durable.
4. Resistant to wear and abrasion .
5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical
reactions.
6. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by
variations in temperature and humidity.
7. Available at low cost.
Materials for making patterns:
a. Wood
b. Metal
c. Plastic
d. Plaster
e. Wax.
 1. Wood Patterns:
Advantages:
Inexpensive
Easily available in large quantities
Easy to fabricate
Light in weight
Thay can be repaired easily
Easy to obtain good surface finish
Limitations:
 Susceptible to shrinkage and swelling
 Possess poor wear resistance
 Abraded easily by sand action
 Obsorb moisture, consequently get wraped
 Cannot withstand rough handling
These are used where the no. of castings to be
produced is small and pattern size is large.
 2. Metal Patterns:
Advantages:
Do not absorb moisture
More stronger
Possess much longer life
Do not wrap, retain their shape
Greater resistance to abrasion
Accurate and smooth surface finish
Good machinability
Limitations:
 Expensive
 Not easily repaired
 Ferrous patterns get rusted
 Heavy weight
These are employed where large no. of
castings have to be produced from same patterns.
3. Plastic Patterns:
Advantages:
 Durable
 Provides a smooth surface
 Moisture resistant
 Does not involve any appreciable change in size or shape
 Light weight
 Good strength
 Wear and corrosion resistance
 Easy to make
 Abrasion resistance
 Good resistance to chemical attack
Limitations:
 Plastic patterns are Fragile
 These are may not work well when subject to conditions of severe
shock as in machine molding (jolting).
 4. Plaster Patterns:
Advantages:
 It can be easily worked by using wood working tools.
 Intricate shapes can be cast without any difficulty.
 It has high compressive strength.

 Plaster may be made out of Plaster of paris or

Gypsum cement.
 Plaster mixture is poured into a mould made by a
sweep pattern or a wooden master pattern, in order to
obtain a Plaster pattern.
5. Wax patterns:
Advantages:
Provide very good surface finish.
Impatr high accuracy to castings.
After being molded, the wax pattern is not taken out
of the mould like other patterns; rather the mould is
inverted and heated; the molten wax comes out and/or
is evaporated. Thus there is no chance of the mould
cavity getting damaged while removing the pattern.

 Wax patterns find applications in

Investment casting process.
Types of Patterns:
1. Single piece pattern.
2. Split piece pattern.
3. Loose piece pattern.
4. Match plate pattern.
5. Sweep pattern.
6. Gated pattern.
7. Skeleton pattern
8. Follow board pattern.
9. Cope and Drag pattern.
(a)Split pattern
(b) Follow-board
(c) Match Plate
(d) Loose-piece
(e) Sweep
(f) Skeleton
pattern
1. Single piece (solid) pattern:
Made from one piece and does not contain
loose pieces or joints.
Inexpensive.
Used for large size simple castings.
Pattern is accommodated either in the cope
or in the drag.
Examples:

1. Bodies of regular shapes.

2. stuffling box of steam engine.
Fig: Single piece pattern
 2. Split piece pattern:
Patterns of intricate shaped castings cannot be made in one
piece because of the inherent difficulties associated with the
molding operations (e.g. withdrawing pattern from mould).
The upper and the lower parts of the split piece patterns are
accommodated in the cope and drag portions of the mold
respectively.
Parting line of the pattern forms the parting line of the mould.
Dowel pins are used for keeping the alignment between the
two parts of the pattern.
Examples:

1. Hallow cylinder
2. Taps and water
stop cocks etc.,
Fig: split piece pattern
3.Loose piece pattern:
Certain patterns cannot be withdrawn once they are
embedded in the molding sand. Such patterns are
usually made with one or more loose pieces for
facilitating from the molding box and are known as
loose piece patterns.
Loose parts or pieces remain attached with the main
body of the pattern, with the help of dowel pins.
The main body of the pattern is drawn first from the
molding box and thereafter as soon as the loose
parts are removed, the result is the mold cavity.
4. Match plate pattern:
Itconsists of a match plate, on either side of which
each half of split patterns is fastened.
A no. of different sized and shaped patterns may be
mounted on one match plate.
The match plate with the help of locator holes can
be clamped with the drag.
After the cope and drag have been rammed with the
molding sand, the match plate pattern is removed
from in between the cope and drag.
Match plate patterns are normally used in machine
molding.
Fig: Match plate pattern
5. Sweep pattern:
A sweep pattern is just a form made on a wooden
board which sweeps the shape of the casting into the
sand all around the circumference. The sweep
pattern rotates about the post.
Once the mold is ready, Sweep pattern and the post
can be removed.
Sweep pattern avoids the necessity of making a full,
large circular and costly three-dimensional pattern.
Making a sweep pattern saves a lot of time and
labour as compared to making a full pattern.
A sweep pattern is preferred for producing large
casting of circular sections and symmetrical shapes.
6. Gated pattern:
The sections connecting different patterns serve
as runner and gates. This facilitates filling of the
mould with molten metal in a better manner and
at the same time eliminates the time and labour
otherwise consumed in cutting runners and gates.
A gated pattern can manufacture many casting at
one time and thus it is used in mass production
systems.
Gated patterns are employed for producing small
castings.
 castings

Gating system
7. Skeleton pattern:
A skeleton pattern is the skeleton of a desired shape
which may be S-bend pipe or a chute or something else.
The skeleton frame is mounted on a metal base
The skeleton is made from wooden strips, and is thus a
wooden work.
The skeleton pattern is filled with sand and is rammed.
A strickle (board) assists in giving the desired shape to
the sand and removes extra sand.
Skeleton patterns are employed for producing a few large
castings.
A skeleton pattern is very economical, because it
involves less material costs.
 8. Follow board pattern:
A follow board is a wooden board and is used for
supporting a pattern which is very thin and fragile
and which may give way and collapse under pressure
when the sand above the pattern is being rammed.
With the follow board support under the weak pattern,
the drag is rammed, and then the fallow board is with
drawn, The rammed drag is inverted, cope is mounted
on it and rammed. During this operation pattern
remains over the inverted drag and get support from
the rammed sand of the drag under it.
Follow boards are also used for casting master
patterns for many applications.
9. Cope and Drag patterns:
A cope and drag pattern is another form of split pattern.
Each half of the pattern is fixed to a separate
metal/wood plate.
Each half of the pattern(along the plate) is molded
separately in a separate molding box by an independent
molder or moulders.
The two moulds of each half of the pattern are finally
assembled and the mould is ready for pouring.
Cope and drag patterns are used for producing big
castings which as a whole cannot be conveniently
handled by one moulder alone.
Fig: Cope and drag pattern
 Pattern Allowances:
A pattern is larger in size as compared
to the final casting, because it carries certain
allowances due to metallurgical and
mechanical reasons for example, shrinkage
allowance is the result of metallurgical
phenomenon where as machining, draft,
distortion, shake and other allowances are
provided on the patterns because of mechanical
reasons.
Types of Pattern Allowances:
The various pattern allowances are:
1. shrinkage or contraction
allowance.
2. Machining or finish allowance.
3. Draft of tapper allowances.
4. Distortion or chamber allowance.
5. Shake or rapping allowance.
 1.Shrinkage Allowance:
All most all cast metals shrink or contract
volumetrically on cooling.

The metal shrinkage is of two types:

1. Liquid Shrinkage:
it refers to the reduction in volume when the metal
changes from liquid state to solid state at the solidus
temperature. To account for this shrinkage; riser, which feed
the liquid metal to the casting, are provided in the mold.
2. Solid Shrinkage:
it refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal
loses temperature in solid state. To account for this,
shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns.
 Almost all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically
after solidification and therefore the pattern to obtain a
particular sized casting is made oversize by an amount
equal to that of shrinkage or contraction.
 Different metals shrink at different rates because
shrinkage is the property of the cast metal/alloy.
 The metal shrinkage depends upon:
1. The cast metal or alloy.
2. Pouring temp. of the metal/alloy.
3. Casted dimensions(size).
4. Casting design aspects.
5. Molding conditions(i.e., mould materials and
molding methods employed)
Rate of Contraction of Various Metals :
Material Dimension Shrinkage allowance
(inch/ft)

Grey Cast Iron

Up to 2 feet 0.125
2 feet to 4 feet 0.105
over 4 feet 0.083

Cast Steel
Up to 2 feet 0.251
2 feet to 6 feet 0.191
over 6 feet 0.155

Aluminum
Up to 4 feet 0.155
4 feet to 6 feet 0.143
over 6 feet 0.125

Magnesium
Up to 4 feet 0.173
Over 4 feet 0.155
 2. Machining Allowance:
A Casting is given an allowance for machining, because:
i. Castings get oxidized in the mold and during heat treatment; scales
etc., thus formed need to be removed.
ii. It is the intended to remove surface roughness and other imperfections
from the castings.
iii. It is required to achieve exact casting dimensions.
iv. Surface finish is required on the casting.
How much extra metal or how much machining allowance should be
provided, depends on the factors listed below:
v. Nature of metals.
vi. Size and shape of casting.
vii. The type of machining operations to be employed for cleaning the
casting.
viii. Casting conditions.
ix. Molding process employed
 Machining Allowances of Various
Metals:
Metal Dimension (inch) Allowance (inch)

Up to 12 0.12
Cast iron 12 to 20 0.20
20 to 40 0.25

Up to 6 0.12
Cast steel 6 to 20 0.25
20 to 40 0.30

Up to 8 0.09
Non ferrous 8 to 12 0.12
12 to 40 0.16
 3. Draft or Taper Allowance:
 It is given to all surfaces perpendicular to parting line.
 Draft allowance is given so that the pattern can be
easily removed from the molding material tightly
packed around it with out damaging the mould cavity.
 The amount of taper depends upon:
i. Shape and size of pattern in the depth direction in
contact with the mould cavity.
ii. Moulding methods.
iii. Mould materials.
iv. Draft allowance is imparted on internal as well as
external surfaces; of course it is more on internal
surfaces.
 Table 2 : Draft Allowances of Various Metals:

Pattern material Height of the Draft angle Draft angle

given surface (External (Internal surface)
(inch) surface)

1 3.00 3.00
1 to 2 1.50 2.50
Wood 2 to 4 1.00 1.50
4 to 8 0.75 1.00
8 to 32 0.50 1.00

1 1.50 3.00
1 to 2 1.00 2.00
Metal and plastic 2 to 4 0.75 1.00
4 to 8 0.50 1.00
8 to 32 0.50 0.75
Fig: taper in design
4. Distortion or cambered allowance:
A casting will distort or wrap if :
i. It is of irregular shape,
ii. All it parts do not shrink uniformly i.e., some
parts shrinks while others are restricted from
during so,
iii. It is u or v-shape,
iv. The arms possess unequal thickness,
v. It has long, rangy arms as those of propeller strut
for the ship,
vi. It is a long flat casting,
vii. One portion of the casting cools at a faster rate as
compared to the other.
5. Shake allowance:
 A patter is shaken or rapped by striking the same with a
wooden piece from side to side. This is done so that the
pattern a little is loosened in the mold cavity and can be
easily removed.
 In turn, therefore, rapping enlarges the mould cavity
which results in a bigger sized casting.
 Hence, a –ve allowance is provided on the pattern i.e.,
the pattern dimensions are kept smaller in order to
compensate the enlargement of mould cavity due to
rapping.
 The magnitude of shake allowance can be reduced by
increasing the tapper.
Pattern Layout:
Steps involved:
 Get the working drawing of the part for which the
pattern is to be made.
 Make two views of the part drawing on a sheet,
using a shrink rule. A shrink rule is modified form
of an ordinary scale which has already taken care of
shrinkage allowance for a particular metal to be cast.
 Add machining allowances as per the requirements.
 Depending upon the method of molding, provide the
draft allowance.
Pattern Construction:
Study the pattern layout carefully and establish,
a. Location of parting surface.
b. No. of parts in which the pattern will be made.
 Using the various hand tools and pattern making
machines fabricate the different parts of the pattern.
 Inspect the pattern as regards the alignment of different
portions of the pattern and its dimensional accuracy.
 Fill wax in all the fillets in order to remove sharp
corners.
 Give a shellac coatings(3 coats) to pattern.
 impart suitable colors to the pattern for identification
purposes and for other informations.
 Pattern Colours:
Patterns are imparted certain colors and
shades in order to:
i. Identify quickly the main body of pattern
and different parts of the pattern.
ii. Indicate the type of the metal to be cast.
iii. Identify core prints, loose pieces, etc.,
iv. Visualise the surfaces to be machined, etc.
Moulding Materials
Major part of Moulding material in sand casting are
1. 70-85% silica sand (SiO2)
2. 10-12% bonding material e.g., clay cereal etc.
3. 3-6% water
Requirements of molding sand are:
(a) Refractoriness
(b) Cohesiveness
(c) Permeability
(d) Collapsibility
The performance of mould depends on following factors:
(e) Permeability
(f) Green strength
(g) Dry strength
Molding Material and Properties:
A large variety of molding materials is used
in foundries for manufacturing molds and
cores. They include molding sand, system
sand or backing sand, facing sand, parting
sand, and core sand. The choice of
molding materials is based on their
processing properties. The properties that
are generally required in molding
materials are:
1. Refractoriness:
It is the ability of the molding material to
with stand high temperatures (experienced
during pouring) with out
1. Fusion,
2. Cracking, buckling or scabbing,
3. Experiencing any major physical
change.
 Silica sand have high refractriness.
 2. Permeability:
During pouring and subsequent solidification of a
casting, a large amount of gases and steam is generated.
These gases are those that have been absorbed by the
metal during melting, air absorbed from the atmosphere
and the steam generated by the molding and core sand.
If these gases are not allowed to escape from the mold,
they would be entrapped inside the casting and cause
casting defects.
To overcome this problem the molding material must be
porous.
 Proper venting of the mold also helps in escaping the
gases that are generated inside the mold cavity.
3. Green Strength:
The molding sand that contains moisture is
termed as green sand.
The green sand particles must have the ability
to cling to each other to impart sufficient
strength to the mold.
The green sand must have enough strength so
that the constructed mold retains its shape.
Green strength helps in making and handling
the moulds.
4. Dry Strength:
A mould may either intentionally be dried, or a
green sand mould may lose its moisture and get
dried while waiting for getting poured or when it
comes in contact with molten metal being poured.
The sand thus dried must have dry strength to

1. Withstand erosive forces due to molten

metal,
2. Withstand pressure of molten metal,
3. Retain its exact shape,and
4. Withstand the metallostatic pressure of the
liquid material.
 5. Hot Strength:
As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand
would reach at a high temperature when the metal
in the mold is still in liquid state.
The strength of the sand that is required to hold
the shape of the cavity is called hot strength.
In the absence of adequate hot strength, the mold
may
1. enlarge
2. break, erode or
3. get cracked.
6. Collapsibility:
Collapsibility determines the readiness
with which the molding sand,
1. Automatically gets collapsed after
the casting solidifies, and
2. Breaks down in knock out and
cleaning operations.
If the mould or core does not collapse, it
may restrict free contraction of solidifying
metal and cause the same to tear or crack.
7. Flowability:
Itis the ability of the molding sand to get
compacted to a uniform density.
Flowability assists molding sand to flow
and pack all-around the pattern and take
up the required shape.
Flowability increases as clay and water
contents increase.
8. Adhesiveness:
It is the property of molding sand owing to
which, it
1. Sticks with the walls of molding
boxes,
2. Sticks with gaggers, and
3. Thus makes it possible to mold cope
and drag.
9. Fineness:
Finer sand mould resist metal
penetration and produce smooth casting
surfaces.
Fineness and permeability are in
conflict with each other and hence they
must be balanced for optimum results.
Molding Sand Composition:
The main ingredients of any molding sand
are:
 Base sand,
 Binder, and
 Moisture
1. Base Sand:
Silica sand is most commonly used base
sand.
Other base sands that are also used for
making mold are zircon sand, Chromite
sand, and olivine sand.
Silica sand is cheapest among all types of
base sand and it is easily available.
 2. Binder:
Binders are of many types such as:
1. Clay binders,
2. Organic binders and
3. Inorganic binders

Clay binders are most commonly used binding agents mixed

with the molding sands to provide the strength.

The most popular clay types are:

◦ Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O) and Bentonite
(Al2O3 4 SiO2 nH2O)
◦ Of the two the Bentonite can absorb more water which
increases its bonding power.
 3. Moisture:
Clay acquires its bonding action only in the
presence of the required amount of moisture.
When water is added to clay, it penetrates the
mixture and forms a microfilm, which coats the
surface of each flake of the clay.
The amount of water used should be properly
controlled.
This is because a part of the water, which coats
the surface of the clay flakes, helps in bonding,
while the remainder helps in improving the
plasticity.
 A Typical Composition of Molding
Sand:

Molding Sand Constituent Weight Percent

Silica sand 92

Clay (Sodium Bentonite) 8

Water 4
Effect of moisture, grain size and shape
on mould quality
Classification of casting Processes:
Casting processes can be classified into following FOUR
categories:
1. Conventional Molding Processes Green Sand Molding
a. Dry Sand Molding
b. Flask less Molding
2. Chemical Sand Molding Processes
c. Shell Molding
d. Sodium Silicate Molding
e. No-Bake Molding
3. Permanent Mold Processes
f. Gravity Die casting
g. Low and High Pressure Die Casting
4. Special Casting Processes
h. Lost Wax
i. Ceramics Shell Molding
j. Evaporative Pattern Casting
k. Vacuum Sealed Molding
l. Centrifugal Casting
1.Green Sand Molding:
Green sand is the most diversified molding method used in metal
casting operations. The process utilizes a mold made of compressed or
compacted moist sand. The term "green" denotes the presence of moisture
in the molding sand. The mold material consists of silica sand mixed with
a suitable bonding agent (usually clay) and moisture.
Advantages:
 Most metals can be cast by this method.
 Pattern costs and material costs are relatively low.
 No Limitation with respect to size of casting and type of
metal or alloy used
Disadvantages:
 Surface Finish of the castings obtained by this process
is not good and machining is often required to achieve
the finished product.
2.Dry Sand Molding:
When it is desired that the gas forming materials are lowered in the
molds, air-dried molds are sometimes preferred to green sand
molds. Two types of drying of molds are often required.
 Skin drying and
 Complete mold drying.
In skin drying a firm mold face is produced. Shakeout of the
mold is almost as good as that obtained with green sand
molding. The most common method of drying the refractory mold
coating uses hot air, gas or oil flame. Skin drying of the mold can
be accomplished with the aid of torches, directed at the mold
surface.
3.Shell Molding Process:
It is a process in which, the sand mixed with a thermosetting resin is allowed
to come in contact with a heated pattern plate (200 oC), this causes a skin
(Shell) of about 3.5 mm of sand/plastic mixture to adhere to the pattern..
Then the shell is removed from the pattern. The cope and drag shells are kept
in a flask with necessary backup material and the molten metal is poured into
the mold.
This process can produce complex parts with good surface finish 1.25 µm to
3.75 µm, and dimensional tolerance of 0.5 %.
A good surface finish and good size tolerance reduce the need for machining.
The process overall is quite cost effective due to reduced machining and
cleanup costs.
The materials that can be used with this process are cast irons, and aluminum
and copper alloys.
4.Sodium Silicate Molding Process
In this process, the refractory material is coated with a sodium
silicate-based binder. For molds, the sand mixture can be
compacted manually, jolted or squeezed around the pattern in the
flask.
After compaction, CO 2 gas is passed through the core or mold.
The CO 2 chemically reacts with the sodium silicate to cure, or
harden, the binder. This cured binder then holds the refractory in
place around the pattern. After curing, the pattern is withdrawn
from the mold.
The sodium silicate process is one of the most environmentally
acceptable of the chemical processes available.
The major disadvantage of the process is that the binder is very
hygroscopic and readily absorbs water, which causes a porosity
in the castings.. Also, because the binder creates such a hard,
rigid mold wall, shakeout and collapsibility characteristics can
slow down production.
 Some of the advantages of the process are:
 A hard, rigid core and mold are typical of the process,
which gives the casting good dimensional tolerances;
 good casting surface finishes are readily obtainable;
Cntd..
Review:
Foundry activities
2 types of moulding flask designs
Sand mold - opened
Sand mold - closed
Cooling curve for pure metal
Mixing moulding sand with binders & adhesives
Filling sand in moulding flasks
Melting furnace
Pouring molten liquid
Knock out
Heat treatment
Machining
final products of casting
Reference:
1. A text book of Production Technology Vol. I / O.P.
Khanna / Dhanpat Rai Publications
2. A text book of Production Technology (Manufacturing
Processes) / P. C. Sharma / S. Chand & Company Ltd
3. Manufacturing Technology (Second Edition) / P N
Rao / Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd
&
http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/
Thank you...