Alternator 240504 Ing

AKSA JENERATOR
SAN.A.Ş.
Training Departmant
ALTERNATOR TRAINING
Prepared By:
Mustafa KILIÇ
240505
Training Programme
Magnetism And Magnetic Induction
Alternating Current, AC
Frequency
Generator Voltage Regulations
Electric Formulas
Alternator types which we use
Alternator Parts And Internal Connection Diagrams
Operation Principle Of PMG & AREP
Starting Up
Parallel Operation Of Alternators
Maintenance
Defects And Remedies
Handling, Location, Transporting, Storage
2
Mustafa KILIÇ Training Dept.AKSA
What is the energy ?
Energy is the ability to do work.

Energy comes in many different forms ; heat,atomic,mechanical and electrical.
One form of energy may be changed to another form.
In a plant generating electricity, oil is burned to produce heat energy.The
energy heat is
used to change water into steam.The steam, in turn is used to drive a turbine
which produces a mechanical energy. This mechanical energy drives a generator
which converts the mechanical energy to electricity.
The electricity then can be transmitted and converted to other energy
forms.
3
Methods
Electricty can be produced by a variety of
methods.
A common method of producing electricity is
through a chemical reaction. A device that
produces electricity through a chemical reaction is
called a Battery.
A battery has a major disadvantage in that only a
small amount of electricity can be produced.
produced
Most industries require large amount of electricity.
To provide the electricity needed for industries ,
an electromagnetic generator is used.
4
Magnetism And Magnetic Induction-1
When a copper wire is moved
through a magnetic field or
magnet bar is moved
through copper wire, an
electric current will flow
wire A voltage
through the wire.
is induced by “cutting the
magnetic flux lines”. Now take a bar magnet and thrust the
magnet into the coil. The meter will
(Connect the ends of the coil deflect.
to a DC milliammeter or
galvanometer.)
5
The Generator consider a magnetic field
that is constant in its intensity. In this field
is a rotating coil. For simplicity,
simplicity this
diagram on the right shows it as a single-
turn loop. The ends of the coil are brought
out to a meter.
meter
Please note that this meter has red and blue
scale sections to show the change in
polarity of the current as the coil rotates.
The coil is rotated in the constant magnetic
field by mechanical means (in practice by
water power or by diesel power etc.).
6
When the plane of the loop is vertical between the jaws of this magnet, the loop
elements are moving parallel with the direction of the magnetic field. The loop is not
cutting any lines of force. So the meter will read zero.
zero
When the plane of the loop is horizontal,
horizontal the loop elements will be moving vertical in
the jaws of this magnet, a maximum cutting of the magnetic field. So the meter will
read maximum current.
current
7
As the loop rotates, the meter will read a current first in one direction, pass through zero, and then
show a current in the other direction, then back to zero - one full cycle.
(It is shown here by the red and blue readings on the meter .)
Consider the angle made by the plane of the loop with any vertical line on the diagram. This
angle is significant. When the plane of the loop is vertical in the diagram, the plane of the
loop is at zero degrees with a vertical line. When the plane of the loop is horizontal, this angle
is 90 degrees.
The output current indicated on the meter follows this angle change - a sinewave.
sinewave
8
At 30 degrees, the current will be sin30 = 0.5 of
the maximum, at 45 degrees, the current will
be sin45 = 0.707 of the maximum, at 60
degrees, 0.866, and so on.
The frequency of the wave is related to the
revolutions, one revolution produces one
cycle. One cycle in one second is a 1 Hz
signal.
The 50 Hz mains supply can be produced by
mechanical means, and examples are in
every powerhouse supplying the national
grid. Fifty cycles in one second (50 Hz) is
3000 revolutions in each minute.(2 pole)
Multi-polar machines are used in practice with
a slower rotation speed.
9
Alternating Current, AC
Most generators produce voltages and current in the form of

alternating current (AC). There are two reasons for this ;
AC is cheaper to produce and distribute
AC is more versatile than DC
Alternating current, AC, which is used for mains supply in most
countries,just as Turkey.(220V-50Hz)
10
Alternating Current, AC RMS - 1
In many countries, the AC
mains is about 220V, but this
voltage cannot be
measured as simply as DC. DC
In fact, a '220V AC supply
rises to approximately 310
V at the peak of its
oscillation. Furthermore,
since the voltage rises to a
peak in the opposite direction
alternately ( +310V and -
Actual Voltage (310V)
310V ) its average value is
0V. RMS Voltage (220V)
The form of AC described
right side is called single
phase
11
T
1
V RMS = ∫
2
V (t ) d (t )
T 0
Alternating Current, AC RMS – 2
The effective average voltage
produced by a generator is that which
would be produced by applying the
same driving power to a DC generator
of the same size.
It can be found by the simple
mathematical procedure of squaring
the peak value - since the square of a
negative number is a positive number,
this produces an all positive result
(green line ).
This value is known as the RMS
value and is what a voltmeter reads Actual Voltage
when measuring mains voltage. RMS Voltage
Don't get confused, the actual
electricity is the sine wave purple line,
the 220V AC RMS value is not a DC
value!
12
Three Phase Supply
1 3
The generators supply what is known
as three phase electricity.
This is a way of supplying three times
as much electricity along three wires as
can be supplied through two, without
having to increase the thickness of the
wires. Three phase electricity is usually
used in industry to drive motors and
other devices.
Generators have three coils equally 2
spaced around the rotating EXTERNAL
magnetic field, and each of these
produces a 50 Hz Ac supply which is
transmitted to a separate wire.
13
Advantages of AC over DC
The advantages of AC rather than DC power supply is
that the voltage can be stepped up or down using a
transformer, which have no moving parts and hence are
extremely efficient. This proves to be essential for power
distribution systems....
Also, AC electric motors are generally more efficient and more
reliable than similar DC motors
14
Three Phase Alternator-1
The three-phase alternator, as the name implies, has three

single-phase windings spaced such that the voltage induced
in any one phase is displaced by 120° from the other two.
15
Three Phase Alternator- 2
The voltage waveforms generated
across each phase are drawn on a
graph, phase-displaced 120° from
each other.
The three-phase alternator as shown
in this schematic is made up of
three single-phase alternators
whose generated voltages are out
of phase by 120°.
The three phases are independent
of each other.
* The rotor is omitted for simplicity.

16
Three Phase Alternators
Wye (Y) Connected
Rather than having six leads coming out of the three-
phase alternator,
alternator the same leads from each phase
may be connected together to form a wye (Y)
connection. It is called a wye connection because,
without the neutral, the windings appear as the letter
Y, in this case sideways or upside down.
The neutral connection is brought out to a terminal when a
single-phase load must be supplied.
Single-phase voltage is available from neutral to A,
neutral to B, and neutral to C. V f − f = 3 ×V f − N
In a three-phase, Y-connected alternator, the total voltage,
or line voltage, across any two of the three line leads is
the vector sum of the individual phase voltages. Each
V f − f = 3 × 220
line voltage is 1.73 times one of the phase
voltages. Because the windings form only one path for V f − f = 380V
current flow between phases, the line and phase
currents are the same (equal).
17
Three Phase Alternators
Delta ( ) Connected
A three-phase stator can also be connected
so that the phases are connected end-to-
end; it is now delta connected . (Delta
because it looks like the Greek letter
delta)
In the delta connection, line voltages are
equal to phase voltages, but each line
current is equal to 1.73 times the
phase current.
Both the wye and the delta connections are
used in alternators. I f − f = 3 × I L− N
Three phase alternators are much more
efficient than either two-phase or
single-phase alternators.
18
Rotating Armature-Alternators
The rotating armature-
alternator is essentially a
loop rotating through a
stationary magnetic
field cutting action of
the loop through the
magnetic field generates
ac in the loop.
This ac is removed from the
loop by means of slip rings
and applied to an external Old type alternators..
load.
19
Rotating - Field Alternators*
The rotating-field alternator has a
stationary armature and a
rotating field. High voltages
can be generated in the
armature and applied to the
load directly, without the
need of slip rings and
brushes.
brushes
The low dc voltage is applied to
the rotor field by means of slip
rings, but this does not
introduce any insulation
problems. Brushes
Exciter Voltage
20
Brushless Generators
A major problem associated
with generators that use slip
ring and brushes is that the
brushes wear out.
A brushless generator
overcomes this problem by
replacing the slip rings and
brushes with a small
generator on one end of the
rotor shaft. This small
generator is called an
EXCITER.
EXCITER
The exciter uses to produce Exciter
the DC voltage necessary for
the rotor.
21
The Importance Of Speed
Frequency and voltage depend directly on rotational
speed.This must be kept as constant as possible on
its nominal value no matter what the load
Drive-motor speed control system generally have a
small drop in speed between no-load and loaded
conditions
We therefore recommend setting no-load speed
3-4% above nominal speed (52 Hz) at engines
which has got mechanical govarnors systems.
22
Frequency-1
The output frequency of alternator voltage
depends upon the speed of rotation of the
rotor and the number of poles.
• The faster the speed, the higher the
frequency.
• The lower the speed, the lower the frequency.
• The more poles there are on the rotor, the
higher the frequency is for a given speed.
When a rotor has rotated through an angle such
that two adjacent rotor poles (a north and a
south pole) have passed one winding, the
voltage induced in that winding will have
varied through one complete cycle.
For a given frequency, the more pairs of poles
there are, the lower the speed of rotation.
23
Frequency-2 8 Pole
2 Pole
A two-pole generator must

rotate at four times the speed
of an eight-pole generator to
produce the same frequency
of generated voltage.
The frequency of any ac
generator in hertz (Hz),
which is the number of cycles
per second, is related to the
number of poles and the
speed of rotation, as
expressed by the equation
24
SINGLE-BEARING GENERATORS
Most small generators are the single-bearing type.
Single-bearing generators carry half of the generator
rotor weight, rotating unbalance, and electrical force on
the generator bearing and the other half is carried by
the engine’s rear crankshaft bearing. A flex plate
attaches to the engine flywheel and the generator rotor
input shaft.
Single-bearing generators ;
are generally compact and lighter than two-bearing generators
are well suited for portable generators or installations with a
sub-base.
A single bearing generator frame must be stiff enough to hold the
engine and generator in alignment and carry the weight of the
rotor on the rear bearing.
25
TWO-BEARING GENERATORS
Two-bearing generators carry the full weight of the
rotor with the front and rear generator bearings.
A torsional coupling is used to join the crankshaft to
the rotor input shaft.
Two-bearing generators are longer and more costly
than single-bearing generators and are typically used in
large generator sets on solid foundations.
In a two-bearing generator set, the engine can be
removed without disturbing the generator.
26
Generator Voltage Regulation-1
In an alternator, an alternating voltage is induced in the
armature windings when magnetic fields of alternating
polarity are passed across these windings.
The amount of voltage induced in the windings depends
mainly on three things:
• The number of conductors in series per winding,
• The speed (alternator rpm) at which the magnetic
field cuts the winding,
• The strength of the magnetic field.
Any of these three factors could be used to control the

amount of voltage induced in the alternator windings.
27
1. The number of windings, of course, is fixed when the
alternator is manufactured.
2. Also, if the output frequency is required to be of a constant
value, then the speed of the rotating field must be held
constant. This prevents the use of the alternator rpm as a
means of controlling the voltage output.
3. Thus, the only practical method for obtaining voltage
control is control the strength of the rotating magnetic field.
The strength of this electromagnetic field may be varied by
changing the amount of current flowing through the field coil.
This is accomplished by varying the amount of voltage applied
across the field coil..
28
When the load on a generator is changed, the terminal voltage varies. The
amount of variation depends on the design of the generator.
The voltage regulation of an alternator is the change of voltage from full load to
no load, expressed as a percentage of full-load volts, when the speed and
dc field current are held constant.
• Assume the no-load voltage of an • Remember, the lower the

alternator is 250 volts and the full- percent of regulation, the
load voltage is 220 volts. The better it is in most
percent of regulation is applications.
29
Since the output voltage of an AC generator varies considerably with
changes in load, some method must be employed to keep the terminal
voltage at a constant level.
On most generators, an auxiliary control device called a Voltage
Regulator is used to maintain a constant voltage output. If the output
voltage drops due to a load increase, the voltage regulator will automatically
increase the DC voltage to the rotor so that the output voltage will be
restored to its original value.
If the output voltage tries to increase, the voltage regulator will decrease
the voltage to the rotor and again restore the output to its original value.
The rotor’s field is controlled indirectly by varying the voltage to the exciter’s
field. Less current need be handled by the regulator in the exciter field than
in the main generator field.
30
The input to the regulator is connected to T7-T9 and the output of the
regulator in turn is connected to the exciter field assembly.
When the output voltage decreases, the regulator will sense the drop and
increase the voltage to the exciter field which causes more voltage to be
induced into the armature.
The increased voltage is rectified and applied to the rotor windings. Since the
rotor now has a larger voltage applied to it, a greater voltage is induced into
the stator and the output voltage is increased to its original value.
31
Voltage Regulator Types
which we use
Mecc Alte
SR 7 UVR 6
Stamford
SX 460 SX 440 SX 421 SA 465
S : Self excited
MX 341 MX 321 MA 325

M: Permanent Magnet Generator
Marathon
DVR 2000
32
GENERATOR EXCITATION
SYSTEMS
The generators excitation system plays
an important role to ensure trouble free
operation when used to power non
linear loads. There are three types of
excitation systems mainly used on
generators; ‘transformer controlled’,
‘self excited’ and ‘separately excited’ as
shown in figures.
33
Transformer Controlled
Transformer excited (TX) or series 5
The output current passes through the Laminated
primary of a Current Transformer. The

Rotating
steel stator
Exciter field rectifier
output of the Current Transformer’s

W indings
Fan
secondary winding is rectified and supplied

N
N
Case
Bearing
to the field winding.

N
The transformer is designed to provide the

S
Shaft for rotational
power input
generators required no-load output voltage

Exciter rotor S
W ound rotor
by using the Current Transformer’s Transformer
secondary winding as a choke.

control Electrical power output
As load is applied to the generator the Voltage Regulation to +/- 5%
Current Transformer’s secondary winding

produces increased excitation voltage,
*For Stamford Alternators
ensuring the stated voltage regulation is
maintained.
No electronics are used within this
open loop control system making it
suitable for use with small non linear
loads.
34
Circuit Diagram Of Transformer
Regulated Generators
35
Self Excited
Self excited (SX) or Series 4
The power source for the AVR is Exciter field
Rotating
rectifier
Laminated
steel stator
taken directly from the generator Windings

Fan
output terminals and therefore if Case
N
N
Bearing
there is any disturbance in the N
generator output voltage, the S

power input
thyristor in the AVR may interact
Exciter rotor
S
with the load controlled thyristors

Wound rotor
resulting in voltage instability. AVR

Electrical power output
This type of system is not

recommended for use with
non linear loads.
36
Exciter Construction And Operation
Exciter
The exciter consists of an
armature,field assembly and rectifier
assembly.
The field assembly is cylindrical in
shape and provides a statioanry
magnetic field.
The armature is located on one end of
the main rotor shaft and provides the
windings needed for magnetic
induction.
A three phase voltage is induced into
the armature when it is rotated in the
flux line created by the field assembly.
The three phase AC voltage is
converted to a DC voltage by the
rectifier assembly.
37
EXCITATION SYSTEM : SHUNT
POWER AND SENSING FROM

ALTERNATOR OUTPUT
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
38
Separately Excited (AREP –PMG)
The power to the AVR is supplied via a
PMG Excited (MX) or series 3
Permanent Magnet Generator mounted Rotating
Laminated
steel stator
outboard of the non drive end bearing, Exciter rotor
Exciter field rectifier
Windings
driven by the rotor shaft. Case N
N
Fan
This isolates the AVR power supply N

Bearing
from the generator output waveform N
and therefore provides constant PMG rotor

S S
undisturbed excitation power

power input
S
PMG stator
regardless of the load condition. Wound rotor
The only part of the AVR that is AVR

Electrical power output
subject to the voltage distortion is the
sensing circuit. Stamford alternators which are HC6-7 series,
To maintain close voltage are fitted with the PMG system.
regulation a sensing circuit Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG) Excited
incorporating an RMS comparitor – AVR Controlled Generators
circuit is recommended.
39
EXCITATION SYSTEM : AREP
40
EXCITATION SYSTEM : PMG
41
PMG Benefits-1
Provides a separate fixed source impedence power to AVR & exciter field that is
isolated from the generator output and is not influenced by external load
conditions.
AVR is fully protected against voltage transients caused by load switching devices
and by thyristor loads.
Provides positive voltage build up against all load conditions.
The isolated PMG power supply of the excitation system allows the generator to
meet low EMI / RFI suppression levels to meet MIL-STD.461C&VDE Class K
PMG provides a good frequency referance for detecting overspeed and to operate
starter motor control circuits during engine run-up.
Isolated PMG power circuit simplifies the AVR & improves reliability by eliminating
the need for ;
Separate build up components
EMI suppression components
Transient voltage protection components
42
PMG Benefits-2
PMG provides constant power to supply manual voltage control of the generator & to supply
overvoltage , overcurrent & over excitation protection circuits.
Provides full field forcing for good motor starting and is not influenced by the generator
voltage dip during transient load applications.
Provides excitation power to sustain short circuit current for fault clearance / discrimination
under all line-line and line-neutral faults.
SUSTAINED
VOLTAGE (V)
LOW OVERLOAD HIGH OVERLOAD - SHORT CIRCUIT
UN
SUSTAINED
VOLTAGE DIP
SHUNT
T
UN
SH
ARE
AR
E
P
P
PMG
LOAD %
100% 200% 300%
43
SHUNT or AREP or PMG ?
SITUATION
OVERLOAD OR SHORT CIRCUIT

ON THE INSTALLATION
AREP PMG AREP OR PMG

THE ALTERNATOR CONTROLS THE SITUATION
DURING 10 SECONDS
THE DEFFECT IS RELEASED
THE BREAKER TRIPS
- THE POWER SUPPLY IS MAINTAINED
SHUNT
SHUNT
THE ALTERNATOR DOES NOT HOLD
THE SITUATION
DESENERGIZING OF THE ALTERNATOR
- THE POWER SUPPLY IS CUTTEN
44
COMPARE CHART OF
EXCITATION SYSTEMS
SHUNT + PMG AREP SHUNT
High starting High starting High starting

capacity capacity capacity ( LS version)
Short-circuit Short-circuit Self protected

ADVANTAGES capability capability against short circuit
Intrinsic build-up No extra length No extra length
Extra No short- circuit

Specific winding capability
length
High number Low starting

Small added cost
of components capacity
DISADVANTAGES
Added cost Sensitive to

distorting loads if
thyristor controlled
45
SHUNT or AREP or PMG ?
AREP / PMG ADVANTAGES COMPARED WITH SHUNT
- THE SHORT CIRCUIT CAPABILITY THAT ENABLES A SELECTIVE PROTECTION
IN CASE OF OVERLOAD OR SHORT CIRCUIT ON AN INSTALLATION
WHEN TO CHOOSE AREP OR PMG ?

- WHOLE INSTALLATION WITH SEVERAL CIRCUITS
- POWER CUT FORBIDDEN
- HIGH RATE OF DISTORTING LOADS.
- STARTING OF A BIG MOTOR
MARINE, HOSPITALS, STAND-BY DUTY, STANDARDS IN SOME COUNTRIES.
- AREP MINIMUM LENGTH REQUIRED
-PMG EXISTING SHUNT MACHINE TO BE UPGRADED
WHEN TO CHOOSE SHUNT ?

- SINGLE CIRCUIT INSTALLATION
- POWER CUT ACCEPTABLE
- SELF PROTECTION OF THE ALTERNATOR.
46
Competitors Comparison
EXCITATION SYSTEMS
Leroy-Somer Newage Marathon
kW kW
PARTNER Range
SHUNT SHUNT MAGNA +

10 10
BC Range SHUNT
BC Range
20 20
SHUNT
SHUNT AREP
50 UC Range
50
MAGNA +
SHUNT
100 100
SHUNT
200 200
HC Range
SHUNT
500 AREP SHUNT
+
500
PMG
1000 HC Range 1000
SHUNT
AREP + MAGNA
2000 PMG MAX 2000
Built in short-circuit capacity
Optional short-circuit capacity
Short-circuit capacity not available
47
Voltage Unbalance
48
Transient Performance Of
Alternators-1
When a load is suddenly applied to an ac generator the voltage
will fall instantaneously to a level dependent upon the
amount of load applied.
The AVR will monitor this voltage dip and increase excitation
to restore voltage level to nearly the original value, within a
fraction of a second.
Similarly on load removal, there is a voltage overshoot and the
AVR reacts reducing the excitation.
49
Alternators-2
The diagram
illustrates
the factors
involved
during load
application
and
removal.
50
Transient
Transient Performance
Performance Of
Of
Alternators-3
Alternators-3
Transient Voltage Dip
The amount of transient voltage decrease due to the sudden application of a
specified load usually expressed as a percentage of the original voltage level.
Recovery Time
The length of time taken for the voltage level to recover to within 3% of the
original value.
Transient Voltage Overshoot
The amount of transient voltage increase due to the sudden removel of a
specified load usually expressed as a percentage of the original voltage level.
Steady Stage Regulation
A measure of the maximum permitted steady voltage changes over a wide
variety of machine conditions (includes machine hot to cold variations : no load
to full load applied, power factor 1.0 to 0.8 lag)
51
Alternators-4
In certain applications, a voltage dip better
than our standart may be required. ( for
example 10% voltage dip on application of
full load.)
The most effective way of achieving, this is
provide a bigger AC generator.
52
Alternators which we use
Stamford / England
Marathon / U.S.A.
Leroy-Somer / France
Mecc-Alte Spa / Italy
Sincro / Italy
53
Identification Of Leroy Somer
Alternators
The alternator is identified by means of a nameplate the frame. The
machine name is defined according to various criteria Example of
description for :
LSA 37 M5 J1/4
• LSA : Leroy Somer Alternator
M : Marine / C : Cogeneration / T : Telecommunications.
• 37 : machine type
• M5 : model
• J : field excitation system
(J : SHUNT)
• 1/4 : winding number / number of poles.
54
Identification Of Stamford
Alternators
55
Alternator Parts-1
Mecc-Alte MR1 160/2 , J609b
1. Grid 39. Protection screen

2. Terminal box LID 40. Fixing ring
5. Terminal board 65. Capacitor
8. Frame and stator 75. Rubber cup
9. Drive end bracket 107.Grid rubber cap
14. Rotor assy
15. Fan
17. Front bearing
19. Rear bearing
26. Diode
27. Varistor
29. Securing stud
56
Internal Connection Diagram-1
57
Alternator Parts-2
Mecc Alte ECO 37
NAME
NAME
1 real seal
23 electronic regulator
2 casing
24 auxiliary terminal board
3 grid
28 cover stay bolt
5 users terminal board
39 protection screen
7 rear cover
40 fixing ring
8 frame with stator
42 parallel device
9 front cover
59 coupling hub
9A front cover MD 35
60 disc plates
10 exciting stator
70 radio disturbs suppressor
11 rotating diode bridge
94 rear case
12 hub
95 termin.brd.side panel
13 exciting armature
96 termin.brd.front panel
14 rotor
97 termin.brd.rear panel
15 fan
98 regulator carrying panel
16 exterior flange bearing cover
99 disc blocking ring spacer
17 drive-end bearing
104 component-carryng panel
18 interior flange bearing cover
123 ring spacer
19 rear bearing
143 exciter stay bolt
20 terminal box
22 diode holder washer
58
Internal Connection Diagram-2
59
Stator Winding And Terminal Box
60
Rotor Construction
Rotor Construction in
alternators may be
either of two
types.
1. The salient-pole
rotor is used in
slower speed
alternators.
2. The turbine driven-
type is wound in a
manner to allow
high-speed use
without flying
apart.
61
Varistors (VDR’s)
Varistors (VDR’s) are a mix of carbon
materials that are a high resistance
until subjected to a high pressure
[Voltage].
They then becomes a low resistance
path to bleed away excessive pressure
by allowing lots of amps to
momentarily flow through the VDR,
which has become a momentary low
resistance path.
This means that the rating of the
device based on it only being asked
to conduct for VERY short period of
time and VERY intermittently. A
VDR that is continually 'clipping‘
excessive voltages will get hot and fail.
62
Varistors (VDR’s) - 2
So a VDR is carefully chosen to protect the diodes from being subjected
from a damaging level of Peak Inverse Voltage [PIV], which would otherwise
breakdown the diodes P-N junction, and so make it a non-rectifying short
circuit.
A load related situation that causes a transient over current, or
over voltage situation within the stator winding will by mutual
inductance generate a high voltage transient in the rotor winding,
which the VDR will attempt to eradicate by 'clipping', and so
safeguard the rotating diodes from a damaging level of PIV.
The additional mechanism that will compound the above-described situation
is when there is a sudden change of rotor angular position relative to the
stator.
This could be due to a large load step change, resulting in a large rotor
positional load angle change.
But the most common situation for this scenario is a sudden rotor positional
change resulting from a generator being paralleled at a phase angle greater
the recommended the displacement [ absolute max is +/- 10
electrical degrees] 63
So when Newage specify a VDR that will offer the required protection
for a rotating diode assembly the decision process takes into
account the Clamping Voltage, Voltage - Current curves, Maximum
Energy rating, and Power Dissipation, and then most importantly
Mechanical construction for its life on a spinning assembly.
The VDR energy absorption required on HC6 &7 requires a matched
pair of VDR's to be fitted to help with rotating diode assembly
centrifugal stresses and rotor balance considerations.
Note : It's imperative that if one VDR of a matched pair fails both are
changed for another matched pair, and in storage matched pairs are
never separated.
The VDR's used on the HC range are Z500PS single's on HC4&5,
and same device but matched pairs on HC6&7, each device has a
max energy of 420J, and a clamp V of 1420V @ 100A.
As the HC6 &7 machines have two such devices in parallel the energy
rating is doubled. The 1mA voltage is 800V.
64
Basic Fact....If a gen's VDR's are 'blowing' that gen is being subject to a
stressful, life-shortening, mode of operation, which may be the result of
poorly commissioned equipment, or badly trained operators.
Under a pole-slip, the relative sudden angular change between rotor and
stator will cause massive changes to the gen's internal E. Therefore large
changes to stator current levels, and the cumulative effect of both stator
ampere turns.
The pole slip angular change will induce into the rotor winding a high
voltage. This will promote VDR clipping...it's then the duration of the
clipping, driven by the duration of the most undesirable pole slipping, that
decide the ability of the VDR to survive or become sacrificial with duty role.
We don't want a generator to be subjected to pole slipping, and neither does
the genset operator.
If it happens it's negligence on the part of the operator, or gensets control
system, and to offer generators fitted with VDR's rated for such extreme
conditions would not be practicable.
65
Under fault conditions - overload - short circuit - the stator
current ampere turns, and rapid air gap flux changes in
the time zero Sub-transient time zone would no doubt
cause the VDR to become active.
From experience a single short circuit applied to a
generator will not in itself cause the VDR to fail.
But subject the gen to a sequence of overloads/faults
simulating a very poorly designed cascading protection
system, or a micro-interruption when in parallel with a
mains supply, and then the VDR self-destruct.
66
Radio Frequency Interference - RFI
1
Xc =
2 π fC
67
Over Temperature Protection
Devices
Bi-metal Contact
PTC Thermistor
PT 100 Thermal
Resistors
68
Parallel Device
69
Temperature Performance Of
Alternators -1
Losses in the copper windings are due to the flow of load
current througt the winding and the winding having electrical
resistance.
Those losses create heat and hence cause the winding and
insulation temperature to increase, which in turn means that the
winding resistance will also increase.
If excessive loads are applied, the insulation temperature may
increase beyond the temperature class normally specified, as in
the case of standby duty rating.
Continuously applied highly excessive loads will quickly lead to a
winding burn out.
70
Alternators -2
A.C. Generators are designed and insulated to
operate on full load within maximum permitted
temperature.It is the quantity of active material in
the machine (lamination steel and copper) that
primarily affects the temperature at which the
machine operates when on a specific load.
The insulation system must retain its properties over
this operating temperature range for the lifetime of
the machine.
71
Alternators -3
Insulation Class Of Material A E B F H
Maximum permissible 60 75 80 105 125
temperature rise (°C) based
on an ambient temperature of
40°C and the standart lifetime (simplified from BS 4999 Part 32)
period.
Insulation materials are assessed on their ability to retain their

insulation properties up to a maximum specified temperature for a
specified lifetime.
A usually accepted insulation lifetime is 100.000 hours of continuous
operation at the maximum permitted temperature specified.
72
Insulation Material Life
B sınıfı izalasyon tahmini ömrü

165
145
sıcaklık (°C)
125
105
85
65
0.57 1.21 2.25 4.25 8 15 29.2 42.5
yıl
A Class izolasyonlu bir makina 40 °C ortam sıcaklığında 40 °C sıcaklık artışında, en yüksek ısınan noktası; 40 + 40 +
15 = 95 °C olur. 95 °C sıcaklıkta tahmini ömür ortalama 29.2 yıldır. 10 °C sıcaklık artışında yukarıdaki ömür eğrisine
göre ortalama ömrü 15 yıla düşmektedir.
73
Altitude
Up to 1000 m (3300 ft) above sea level, the change in air density is
insufficient to radically alter the thermal transfer properties of the air.
Above 1000 m the effectiveness of the air is reduced sufficiently to
make de-rating necessary.
Standarts are agreed that to avoid overheating due to this reduction in
coolant effectiveness, machines operating at high altitudes must be de-
rated.
Unlike ambient temperature, the converse is not permitted. No greater
output is allowed from a machine operating at sea level to one
operating at 1000 m above sea level.
Altitude (m) Multiplier
1500 0,97
2000 0,94
2500 0,91
3000 0,88
3500 0,85
4000 0,82 (For stamford alternators)
74
Humidity
Humidity is a measure of the moisture content of the
air in which a machine is situated.
It is normally measured as “relative humidity” (rh)
where 100% rh is air fully moisture saturated. (i.e.
The point at which condensation occurs) and 0% rh
is air absolutely dry.
For successful operation in the high humidity levels
found in tropical regions, machines are said to be
“tropicalised”. This involves correct choice of the
insulation materials and careful assessment of the
impregnation varnish system and methods. (Anti-
condensation heaters can be used)
75
Performance Of Mecc-Alte
Alternators
76
Climate And Environment
Atmospheric contaminants such as gases and various chemicals
Salt water (sea) spray
Dust or sand laden atmospheres
Solar radiation and wind
Rainfall and icing
Certain accessories can be added to the generator to provide
adequate protection against particular problem climates and
environments.
Anti-Condensation heaters
Drip-Proof Louvres
Air Filters
77
Anti-Condensation Heaters-1
Condensation occurs due to the change of
water vapour into liquid.
The point at which this change occurs is
dependent upon actual water vapour
pressure and particularly upon temperature.
Consider a hot machine shut down at the
end of a day shift.
During the night the ambient temperature
can reduce quickly but the machine surface
temperature will reduce much more slowly.
At dawn the ambient temperature may rise
quickly, probably to a level greater than the
machine surface temperature which will
begin to rise towads ambient temperature
only slowly.
78
Anti-Condensation Heaters-2
Depending upon the actual water vapour pressure present in the local
atmosphere, condensation may occur in the machine at any time after
the ambient temperature exceeds the machine surface temperature.
If the water vapour pressure is near or at saturation then condensation
will occur during the rapid rise of ambient temprature at dawn.
Condensation or dew will form on all surfaces which are cooler than
ambient temperature.
To avoid this, anti condensation heaters can be fitted which will ensure
the winding temperature remains a few degrees above the ambient
temperature and hence no condensation will form.
Note that, the anti-condensation heaters should be on only when the
set is off, and they should be switched off whilst the set is in use.
They can be fitted to a machine at any time.
79
Protection Class
IP (Ingress Protection)
The International Protection code, sometimes called the Ingress
Protection code, classifies the protection given by an enclosure
against the touching of live parts, contact with moving parts and
protection against the ingress of solid bodies.
It additionally specifies protection against the harmful ingress of
liquids. Two (Sometimes 3) digits are used to describe its
protection rating, called the IP code.
IP XXX*
First number : Protection against foreign substances & contact
Second number : Protection against water
Third number : Stroke resistance
(* =according to French norms)
80
Symbols Of IP Protection
81
82
83
84
Air Filters
Some site condintions are such that the air may be
heavily laden with a very fine dust or sand, to an
extend where the air passages become blocked.
If moisture is also present then the dust may become
saturated and so accelerate the insulation
breakdown.
Under these conditions we strongly recommend the
fitting of inlet air filters.
The sizing of these is important to avoid airflow
restrictions and advice should be sought from the
factory or the machine purchased complete with the
necessary air filters.
85
Drip-Proof Louvres
The standart machine is drip-proof,
vertical drips of water cannot enter
the machine.
Should the machine be used on uneven
terrain then protection against water
drops up to 60°C from the vertical
can be provided by fitting drip-proof
louvres.
These louvres can be fitted at any time.
A deration of the generator output
(normally 5%) may be necessary.
Our alternators standart which is
protection against water drops is IP
21-23
IP chart
86
Generator Ratings - kVA
Generator ratings are dependent on
the amount of current they are
capable of providing at full output
voltage; this rating is expressed as
the product of the voltage times the
current.
A 10-volt alternator capable of
supplying 10 amperes of current
would be rated at 100 volt-amperes.
Larger alternators are rated in kilovolt-
amperes. (kVA)
87
Electrical Components
Resistors
Conductors&Wires are material that has a low
resistance
Insulator are materials that have few free
electrons so that their resistance is very high.
Some common insulators are glass, rubber and
ceramics.
Inductors are coil of wire that opposes a change in
current. Inductors are used in motors to create
magnetic fields needed for rotation.
Capacitors consist of two metal plates separated by
an insulator.A capacitor opposes a change in voltage.
88
DC Power
Power is the rate at which electrical energy is
delivered to or used by an electrical device or circuit.
The unit of electrical power is the WATT (W).
The power used by an electrical component or circuit
is equal to the voltage times the current.
P=VxI
P : Power in watts
V : Voltage in volts
I : Current in amperes
89
P : True Power ( Watt)
Inductance and resistance characteristics are both present in
industrial motors which consist of many coils of wire.
The coils cause current to lag voltage as in an inductor and
because of coil length, the motor also has resistance.
AC generator is used to provide power to a motor. The resistor is
the only component that comsumes power.
The power used by a resistor is called True Power.
True power is measured in watts and can be calculated by the
formula ;
V = I×R
2
V
P =V ×I = I ×R = 2
(Watt)
R
90
S : Apparent Power ( VA)
The inductor does not use any true power. However, to the
generator, the inductor “appears” to be consuming power
because there is an opposition to current (inductive reactance)
and voltage drop across it.
To the generator, power is apparently used by the inductor.The
total power used by the inductor and resistor is called
appropriately. Apparent Power.
Apparent power is measured in Volt-Amperes (VA) to distinguish
it from true power.Apparent power for an inductive circuit can
be found by multiplying the total current by the applied voltage;
S = V A × I t (Volt - Amperes)
91
Power Factor
The efficiency of an inductive circuit is dependent on the ratio of
true power to apparent power.
The ratio of true power to apparent power is called the “Power
Factor (PF)”. The PF can be determined by the ;
Q (VAr)
P
) PF = Cos ϕ =
A
(V S
S
ϕ
P (W)
92
AC Power
V (t ) = Vm × Cos (ωt )
•V(t) : Instantaneous
I (t ) = I m × Cos (ωt − ϕ ) voltage (Vm=Vpeak)
•I(t) : Instantaneous
P (t ) = Vm × I m × Cos (ωt ) × Cos (ωt − ϕ ) current (Im=Ipeak)
•P(t) : Instantaneous
P = V × I × Cos ϕ power (watt)
•V : Vrms
S =V ×I •I : I rms
•P :Real power
Recall that rms (root mean square) values are the ϕ
• : Phase angle
“effective” values of voltage and current that AC voltmeter between voltage and
and ammeters measure. current
93
Electric Formulas
Single Phase Circuits
S =V ×I VA
P = V × I × Cos ϕ Watt Q (VAr)
Q = V × I × Sin ϕ VAr )
A
(V
Three Phase Circuits S

S = 3 ×U f−f ×I VA
ϕ
P (W)
P= 3 ×U f−f × I × Cos ϕ Watt
Q= 3 ×U f−f × I × Sin ϕ VAr
94
Example-1
We will calculate full load current for 5 kVA
Gen-Set at the CosØ=0,8 and CosØ=1.
S = 5kVA
A )
Q (kVAr) (k
V S =V ×I
S
P = S × Cosϕ
ϕ
P (kW)
95
Example-2
Firstly we should calculate the active power output of
Gen-Set.
So..
P = S × Cos ϕ ⇒ P = 5 × 0 ,8 ⇒ P = 4 kW
Now..We can calculate full load current..
For Cos ϕ = 0,8 ;

P = V × I × Cos ϕ
P 4000
I= ⇒I= ⇒ I = 21, 27 Amper
V × Cos ϕ 235 × 0,8
96
Example-3
P = 4 kW ..
For Cosϕ = 1 ;
P = V × I × Cosϕ
P 4000
I= ⇒I = ⇒ I = 17,02 Amper
V × Cosϕ 235×1
97
Starting And Stopping Operations
IMPORTANT :
When the system is set to
work for the first time, which
has to be done at a reduced
speed, the operator shall
check that no anomalous
noises can be detected. If an
anomalous noise is detected,
stop the system immediately
and improve the mechanical
coupling.
THE STARTING, RUNNING AND STOPPING OPERATIONS MUST BE CARRIED OUT BY SKILLED PERSON-NEL WHO HAVE
READ AND UNDER-STOOD THE SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS AT THE BEGINNING OF THIS MANUAL.
98
Starting Up - Electrical Checks
Inspect also
that the machine to power supply interconnection is made according to
the drawing. Make sure before start that terminal nuts are properly
tightened.
that the terminal links correspond to diagram
that the control panel protection equipment is correctly set
for separately fitted regulator, that the connections between alternator
and panel correspond to wiring diagram,
that there is no short-circvuit due to fautly connections either LL. or L.N
between the terminals of the alternator and the power switch or breaker
(this part of the circuit is not protected by the breaker)
99
Starting Up - Mechanical Checks
Before starting up
check that all foot and flange bolts are tightened
make sure that the cooling air circulates freely around and
through the machine,
check that all louvres, guards, etc .... are correctly fitted
for single bearing alternators the discs are fastened to the
coupling hub with bolts
for two bearing alternators that coupling is correct also.
100
Windings Connection
To reconnect from a star to delta
connection (for ex. from 400V to
230V), modify the linking
arrangements on the output terminal
board.It is not necessary to adjust the
voltage regulator.
The alternator must always be earthed
by sufficiently rated cable, using one
of the inside or outside terminals.
After completing output connections
ensure that the terminal box cover is
securely in place.
101
Measurement of resistance of stator
windings
STATOR
Unscrew the top cover
Disconnect capacitors
leads in order to read
auxiliary winding
resistance
Disconnect leads from
terminal plate in order to
read main winding
resistances.
102
Measurement of resistance of
various windings
Unscrew the top cover
Remove the bracket
Unsolder diode leads in order to read
resistances of each winding
103
Checking The Diodes
104
Checking The Capacitors
Unscrew
Unscrew toptop cover
cover
Disconnect
Disconnect capacitor
capacitor
(s)
(s) leads
leads and
and connect
connect
capacitor
capacitor (s)
(s) to
to aa
220/240
220/240 VV mains
mains with
with
aa switch
switch and
and aa
ammeter
ammeter to to read
read the
the
current
current
70 micro F = 45 ohm
45 * 4.8 = 216 Vac Mustafa KILIÇ Training Dept.AKSA
105
Checking the Windings and Rotating
Diodes Using Separate Excitation-1
During this procedure, make sure that the
alternator is disconnected from any external
load and inspect the terminal box to check
that the connections are fully tightened.
Stop the unit, disconnect and isolate the
AVR wires.
There are two ways of creating an
assembly with separate excitation.
106
Assembly A
Connect a 12 V
battery in series
with a rheostat of
approximately 50
ohms - 300 W and
a diode on both
field wires (5+) and
(6-).
107
Assembly B
Connect a "Variac" variable
power supply and a diode
bridge on both exciter
field wires (5+) and (6-).
Both these systems should
have characteristics
which are compatible
with the machine field
excitation power (see the
nameplate).
108
3) Run the unit at its rated speed.
4) Gradually increase the exciter field current by
adjusting the rheostat or the variac and measure the
output voltages on L1- L2 - L3, checking the
excitation voltage and current at no load and on load
(see the machine nameplate or ask for the factory test report).
When the output voltage is at its rated value and
balanced within 1 % for the rated excitation level,
the machine is in good working order.
The fault therefore comes from the AVR or its
associated wiring (ie. sensing, auxiliary windings).
109
Before The Maintenance
Before any cleaning, lubrication or
maintenance operation, ensure that the
genarator is stationary and
disconnected from the power supply
The people in charge of the handling
must always wear work gloves and
safety shoes
Do not operate the generator with
protective covers, access covers or
terminal box covers removed.
Disable engine starting circuits before
carrying out maintenance.
110
Maintenance
Cooling circuit
It is recommended to check that the cooling air circulation is not
restricted.
Bearings
The bearings are sealed for life
Maximum grease life : 20 000 hours (Apx. 40.000 hours) or 3 years
Temperature rise of ball bearings :

Periodically check that the temperature of the bearings does not
exceed 50°C above ambient temperature.If higher, it is
necessary to stop the machine to proceed to a general
inspection.
111
Handling
The generously-sized
lifting rings are for
handling the
alternator alone.
They must not be
used to lift the
genset.
Choose a lifting
system which
respects the
positionning of the
rings.
112
Location
Ensure that the ambient temperature in the room where the
alternator is placed cannot exceed 40°C for standard power
ratings (for temperatures above 40°C, apply a derating
coefficient).
Fresh air, free from damp and dust, must be able to circulate
freely around the air input louvres on the opposite side from
the coupling. It is essential to prevent not only the recycling of
hot air from the machine or engine, but also exhaust fumes.
113
Storage
Prior to commissioning, machines
should be stored :
Away from humidity : in conditions of
relative humidity of more than 90%, the
machine insulation can drop very rapidly, to
just above zero at around 100%; monitor
the state of the anti-rust protection on
unpainted parts.
For storage over an extended period, the
machine can be placed in a sealed
enclosure (heatshrunk plastic for example)
with dehydrating sachets inside, away from
significant and frequent variations in
temperature to avoid the risk of
condensation during storage.
114
Long Down time
In order to avoid such troubles, it is recommended to
fit anti condensation heaters and to run the machine
periodically.
During the long down time, the anti condensation
heaters must operate full time.
If the area is affected by vibration, try to reduce the
effect of these vibrations by placing the generator on
a damper support (rubber disc or similar) and turn
the rotor a fraction of a turn once a fortnight to avoid
marking the bearing rings.
115
Transporting
Alternators will be packed for
shipment in a manner suitable to
their mode of transport and final
destination.
Prior to handling goods, please
ensure that lifting equipment is of
sufficient capacity. Under lifting
conditions machinery should be
elevated to a minimal distance from
the ground.
When lifting or moving goods by
forklift apparatus, care should be
taken to ensure that forks are
correctly positioned to prevent
slipping or falling of pallet or crate.
116
Cleaning And Lubrication
NEVER USE LIQUIDS OR WATER.
DO NOT CLEAN THE INSIDE ELECTRIC
COMPONENTS WITH COMPRESSED
AIR,BECAUSE THIS MAY CAUSE SHORT
CIRCUITS OR OTHER ANOMALIES.
117
Mecc Alte ECO 37
ALTERNATOR DOES NOT EXCITE

Substitute fuse.
Increase speed by 15%.
For an instant apply on “+” and “ -” of the electronic regulator a 12 V battery
voltage with a 30 Ω resistor in series, respecting the polarities.
Check PMG terminals on AVR P2,P3,P4.
These should be balanced and within 170-180 volts for 50 Hz
generators.
If these are unbalanced, check the PMG stator resistance between
output leads.These should be balanced and within ±10% of 2.3 ohm.
If resistances are unbalanced and/or incorrect,the PMG stator must be
replaced.
If the voltage are balanced but low and the PMG stator winding
resistances are correct,the PMG rotor must be replaced.
118
AFTER BEING EXCITED
ALTERNATOR DOES NOT EXCITE
Check connection cables as per attached
drawings.
119
LOW VOLTAGE AT NO LOAD
Reset voltage potentiometer.
Check speed.
Check windings.
120
HIGH VOLTAGE AT NO LOAD
Substitute regulator.
121
AT LOAD CONDITIONS, VOLTAGE LOWER
THAN RATED VALUE
Current too high, power factor lower than 0.8, speed lower than
4% of rated speed.
Engine speed is low
Check “UFRO” setting
If these are correct, check rectifier diodes,surge suppressor and
the main excitation windings (Measure each section resistance-
values should be balanced and within ±10% of the value given
resistance charts.
122
AT LOAD CONDITIONS, VOLTAGE
HIGHER THAN RATED VOLTAGE
123
UNSTABLE VOLTAGE
Check uniformity of rotation.
Regulate stability of regulator by acting on
“STAB.” potentiometer.
124
Adjusting Of “STAB” Potentiometer
Gen. Unbalanced
Voltage
Critical
Good
Slow
No Load Full Load
125
Abnormal noises
The generation of abnormal noises and vibrations may result
from wear and tear of the ball bearings. It is better to proceed to
their replacement so as to avoid any risk of seizure which could
seriously damage the alternator.
In the case of single bearing machines, the abnormal noise may
also be caused by misalignment.
Both single phase alternators and three phase alternators
supplying unbalanced loads are more noisy and have more
vibrations than three phase machines with balanced loads.
The same for three phase generator connected in dog -
leg,even with 3 phase balanced loads.
126
Troubleshooting For Alternators
which are regulated by Condensers-1
Alternator excitation failure
Low speed
Faulty condenser
Faulty windings
High No-Load Voltage

Speed too high
Condenser with high capacity
127
Low No-Load Voltage
Speed to low
Faulty rotary diodes
Breakdown in windings
Condenser with low capacity
U2
U1
128
Proper no-load but low loaded voltage
Low loaded speed
Load too big
Rotary diodes short-circuited
Proper no-load but high loaded voltage
High loaded (only for AR1)
High speed in load condition (for MR1 and
MR2)
129
Unstable voltage
Loose contacts
Uneven rotation
Noisy generator
Broken bearings
Poor coupling
130
Parallel Operation Of Alternators-1
Alternators are connected in parallel to
increase the output capacity of a system
beyond that of a single unit serve as
additional reserve power for expected
demands, or permit shutting down one
machine and cutting in a standby machine
without interrupting power distribution.
131
When alternators are of sufficient size, and are operating
at different frequencies and terminal voltages, severel
damage may result if they are suddenly connected to
each other through a common bus.
To avoid this, the machines must be synchronized as
closely as possible before connecting them together.
This may be accomplished by connecting one generator
to the bus (referred to as bus generator), and then
synchronizing the other (incoming generator) to it before
closing the incoming generator's main power contactor.
132
The generators are synchronized when the following
conditions are set:
Equal terminal voltages. This is obtained by adjustment
of the incoming generator's field strength.
Equal frequency. This is obtained by adjustment of the
incoming generator's prime-mover speed.
Phase voltages in proper phase relation.
At this point, it is enough for you to know that the above
must be accomplished to prevent damage to the
machines.
133
Motor Starting Loads
Direct-on-Line (D.O.L.) Starting
In this case the full line voltage is switched directly to the
motor terminals. The motor winding normally is connected
delta. The maximum starting torque is available with this
method, but a very high starting current is required.
134
• Direct-on-Line (D.O.L.) Starting
• Assume
Ac generator overload capability 2.5 p.u.
Motor starting current 6.0 p.u.
Motor efficiency 0.9 p.u.
kW genr. = 2,67 kWm

Ratio S = 2,67
135
Auto Transformer Starting
The basic idea is that a low line voltage is tapped off the auto
transformer and fed to the motor on start.
As motor speeds up, the tap position is changed in any number of
steps, increasing the line voltage until the full line voltage is directly
across the motor terminals.
Commonly used taps are 65% and 80% of full line voltage.
136
Auto Transformer Starting
Assume
Tap Position 65 % 80 % 100 %
Reduction in line starting voltage 35% 20% 0%
Value Of ratio S is 1,12 1,71 2,67
137
• Star – Delta Starting
• This system required that all ends of the 3 phase motor are brought to terminals.
• Throught two contactors or a changeover switch, the windings are initially
connected in “star”, then usually after a preset time delay or when the motor has
run up to a steady speed, the windings are reconnected into delta.
• This is the normal running condition at full line volts. This means that ;
• The starting voltage is reduced to 1/1.73 of VL since VL=1.73xV l-n
• Starting current is also reduced to 1/1.73 of the D.O.L. Value I
• Starting kVA is reduced to 1/3 of the D.O.L. kVA
• Starting torque is reduced to 1/3 of the D.O.L. Value
138
• Star-Delta Starting
• Assume
kW genr. = 6/(3x2,5x0,9) kWm
Ratio S = 0,889
The AC generator would be unable to supply the motor with its

full load continuously rated steady state power.
In other word, values of S less than 1.0 are not practical.
139
Power Factor Correction-1
The addition of the power factor correction bank
can reduce the size of ac generator required to
supply these loads under steady state conditions.
The major problem with power factor correction
banks is that, when all other loads are switched
off, the power factor correction banks normally
remain connected.
This presents a purely zero power factor leading
load to the ac generator and as such we have
already recommended “refer to factory”.
One effect of having a comparatively large bank
connected to an ac generator is for the terminal
voltage of ac generator to rise dramatically.
dramatically
140
Power Factor Correction-2
Voltages in excess of 500 V have been recorded from
a nominal 415 V machine in such cases.
However, as a general guide, providing the capacitor
bank rating is not greater than about 10% of the ac
generator rating, then no real problems of this nature
should be encountered.
141
Non – Linear Loads
Non linear loads such as semi-conductor
thyristor/rectifier loads generate harmonics in
their current waveform which in turn leads to
harmonic distortion of the supply voltage
waveform.
Depending upon degree of harmonic voltage
waveform distortion, this may lead to either
instability of the generators excitation system
or to the control system of the loads applied
to the generator.
142
Introduction Into Non-Linear Loads
A non linear load is a load that draws a non sinusoidal current
from the electrical supply due to the inclusion of phase
controlled power devices (usually thyristors) within its design.
The firing of these thyristors results in notches in the power
supply voltage waveform therefore distorting the waveform
shape.
The output of the thyristor system is a series of phase angled
controlled, half wave pulses, the number of pulses dependant
upon the number of thyristors.
Therefore non linear loads are generally described by the
number of pulses.
For instance in a three phase, fully controlled, full-wave bridge
circuit there are six thyristors providing six conduction periods,
therefore a six pulse system.
143
Connection Of NLL’s to Mains and
Generators
When a non linear load is connected to the
mains, irrespective of the amount of current
distortion, the voltage waveform is barely
distorted due to the low source impedance of
the mains supply.
When these types of loads are connected to a
generator, the higher source impedance,
results in higher voltage waveform distortion.
The resulting voltage waveform is then of a
complex shape.
144
Which harmonics would be present
in a specific system ?
The following formula provides a theoretical idea of which
harmonics would be present in a specific system;
n = kp ± 1
n = harmonic order.
k = an integer , 1,2,3, etc.
p = the pulse number.
For example a six pulse system would contain multiples of 6 ± 1,

therefore 5th & 7th, 11th & 13th, 17th & 19th, etc. harmonics. Each
harmonic will be a percentage of the fundamental, i.e. if the
fundamental is 100% the 3rd harmonic will be in the order of 33%,
the 5th 20%, etc. From this we can calculate typical current
distortion values for different pulse combinations (see table 1).
145
Typical Current Distortion Levels
HARMONIC CONTENT %
Pulse number 2 6 12
1st Harmonic 100% 100% 100%
2nd - - -
3rd 33% - -
4th - - -
5th 20% 20% -
6th - - -
7th 14.3% 14.3% -
8th - - -
9th 11.1% - -
10th - - -
11th 9.1% 9.1% 9.1%
12th - - -
13th 7.7% 7.7% 7.7%
14th - - -
15th 6.7% - -
16th - - -
17th 5.9% 5.9% -
18th - - -
19th 5.3% 5.3% -
20th - - -
Total Harmonic Content 45% 30% 14% Table 1
146
Harmonic Problems
Incorrect operation of electronic equipment
as most electronic equipment requires an accurate voltage waveform in order to provide referencing signals for
their control circuits. Harmonics distort the voltage waveform by increasing or decreasing the magnitude, mis-
shaping the waveform or by causing zero volt crossings.
Noise and vibration

within electric motors as the presence of harmonics create torque pulsations.
Capacitor failures
which result from higher than designed frequencies causing more than designed current to flow through
capacitors.
Increased temperature rises

within machines and transformers as the I2R losses are increased due to the extra, non load supporting harmonic
currents resulting in higher operating temperatures. The insulation is stressed by the voltage harmonics. The
two situations combine and can reduce equipment life.
Interference
to other equipment can result from the presence of harmonics due to radiated and conducted high frequency
signals.
147
Types Of Non Linear Loads
UPS systems,
Uninterruptible Power Supplies, which are becoming increasingly popular as more equipment is tending to be
very sensitive to power disturbances. UPS systems basically consist of a converter, batteries and an inverter.
The mains input to the UPS is converted to dc which is then used to charge the batteries and supply the
inverter. The inverter then inverts the dc to a sinusoidal ac output. In the event of a mains failure, the
batteries supply the inverter for a fixed period or until an ac supply is restored.
Variable speed drives,

these drives contain converters and inverters and are used for speed control of ac motors.
Soft start systems,

are an electronic method of reducing the high start currents encountered during motor starting. A pedestal
voltage is set and applied to the motor, this voltage is then gradually ramped up to full voltage. These
systems are usually bypassed once the motor has reached full speed/full voltage.
Switchmode power supplies,

are electronic power supplies often found in computers and certain small battery chargers. These units contain capacitors and the
current distortion levels can be quite high (in the order of 55%).
Telecom equipment
consists of rectifier assemblies for battery charging and directly powering certain dc loads.
148
Harmonic Filters
Harmonic filters can be utilised in order to reduce the amount of
current distortion created by the load.
These filters usually incorporate capacitance and inductance. If a filter
is fitted to a system, then often it is the first load applied to the
generator.
The active power will be zero and the generator will supply reactive,
leading power factor current to the filter. When generators supply
leading power factor loads a situation can occur where the generator
begins to self-excite.
In order to prevent this condition the amount of leading kVAr applied
to the generator needs careful consideration.
In order to establish the maximum kVAr that can be applied to the
generator, reference must be made to the machines operating chart.
This operating chart provides a guide as to the derating factors that
must be applied for different operating power factors.
149
Operating Chart Of Generators
175kVAr=0,35*500
Pf. 0 (Lead)
150
GENERATOR SIZING
GUIDELINES - 1
The amount of voltage distortion is subject to the amount of
current distortion and the generators source impedance.
When determining the source impedance of a generator we can
assume an inductance and resistance in series with a voltage
source.
The resistance values can be neglected as they are very small,
leaving just the inductance (reactance) in series with the
voltage source.
As a generator is a dynamic system, any sudden load changes
are subject to an initial value of reactance named the
subtransient reactance (X”d).
This subtransient reactance is therefore used as a measure of
source impedance .
151
GENERATOR SIZING
GUIDELINES - 2
If the amount of current distortion produced by the
load is fixed, the only method of reducing the voltage
distortion is to lower the generators subtransient
reactance.
This can only be achieved on existing machines by
increasing the operating flux level (voltage) but
obviously remaining within the designed parameters.
When considering a generator for such equipment
the options are oversizing the generator or using a
special winding designed to operate at a higher flux
level.
152
GENERATOR SIZING
GUIDELINES - 3
A value of the voltage distortion due to each harmonic can be
calculated using the following formula;
Vn = I n X”d p.u.
Vn - Harmonic voltage.
I - Harmonic current.
n - Harmonic number.
X”d - Subtransient reactance.
For example, a 7th harmonic current equal to 0.1p.u. rated current

passed by a machine having a mean subtransient reactance of
0.12p.u. will produce a 7th harmonic voltage of 0.084p.u. (8.4% of
rated voltage).
153
GENERATOR SIZING
GUIDELINES - 4
Required Value of Subtransient Reactance
in order to limit Voltage distortion.
10
Subtransient Reactance (%) 9
8
7
12 Pulse
6 6 Pulse
2 Pulse
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Voltage Distortion (%)
The total harmonic voltage distortion can therefore be established by performing this calculation for every
harmonic current present in the system and then taking the square root of the sum of each individual
harmonic squared.
By using the above method it is possible to estimate the required level typical values of subtransient
reactance (X”d) required to achieve required level of voltage distortion.
From this we can see that in order to limit the voltage distortion to 10%, when supplying a 6 pulse load with
30% current distortion, a generator is required with a subtransient reactance of 3.5%.
154
GENERATOR SIZING
GUIDELINES - 5
The reactance values will be provided as a percentage or a per
unit (p.u.) value relating to a specific base.
These reactance values can then be re-calculated to provide the
values specific to the expected maximum rated kVA of the non
linear load to be supplied.
This re-calculation is based on a proportional relationship, ie, (load
kVA/kVA at which reactances provided) x reactance value (p.u.).
The reactance values given will be provided at a base voltage, and
therefore adjustment may be required in order to obtain the
values at the system operating voltage.
The reactances relate to the generator’s operating ‘flux level’, and
vary as a square of the voltage ratio, i.e. (base voltage/operating
voltage)2 x base subtransient reactance.
155
When sizing of non-linear loads the
following information is required ;
1. Number of system pulses, i.e. 6 or 12.
1. 6 pulse - 30%
2. 2 pulse - 45%
2. Are harmonic distortion filters fitted?
3. Maximum level of voltage distortion acceptable to electrical
system.Typical acceptable level of voltage distortion figures:
1. UPS Systems 10%
2. Inverter Drives 15%
3. Soft starters 20%
4. Rectifiers 20%
4. Supply voltage and frequency.
5. Operating power factor and efficiency.
6. Due to the extra heat produced by the harmonics as referred to
earlier, it is usual to limit the rating of the proposed generator to a
class ‘F’ temperature rise.
156
Conclution Of Non-Linear Loads
The best solution is to try to restrict the amount of current
distortion produced by the load. This is slowly being enforced
upon the manufacturers of equipment by EMC legislation.
If the amount of voltage distortion is reduced by simply
increasing the size of generator just to reduce the source
impedance, operating efficiencies are decreased and the
harmonic currents will still be present in the system, therefore
increasing cable size unnecessarily.
However as current legislation is continuing to regulate the
amount of ‘pollution’ produced by non linear loads, it will soon
be possible to handle non linear loads as standard loads.
157
Worked Examples For NLL
The most common question regarding the use of generators for
powering non linear loads is the suitability of existing generators
for supplying newly installed thyristor controlled equipment.
The following worked examples are offered as guidance for the
points previously discussed.
It should be noted that subtransient reactance values do not
follow a set pattern of either always being the same or in fact
being lower for larger generators.
The chosen two examples show typical values of subtransient
reactance with the larger, higher rated generator having the
higher subtransient reactance value at its class ‘H’ rated kVA.
This situation often occurs when comparing the largest core
length of a small frame size with a short core length of a larger
frame size.
158
Worked Example-1
1. A 175kVA UPS is to be powered by a 415V,
3ph, 50Hz generator. The UPS is six pulse
with 30% current distortion. Calculate the
expected voltage distortion when powered by
either of the following generators;
A) 1000kVA generator with a subtransient
reactance of 14% at rated kVA, 415V.
B) 850kVA generator with a subtransient
reactance of 0.10p.u. at a base of 800kVA at
400V.
159
Worked Example
Figure 1
Required Value of Subtransient Reactance
in order to limit Voltage distortion.
10
9
Subtransient Reactance (%)
8
7
12 Pulse
6 6 Pulse
2 Pulse
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Voltage Distortion (%)
160
Worked Example-11
Note :
The ratings quoted for UPS systems are usually
the output kVA. Therefore the operating
efficiency, typically 95%, and the extra power
required for charging the batteries, usually
25%, needs to be taken into account to
establish the maximum input kVA.
Input kVA = 175kVA x 1.25 = 230kVA.

0.95
161
Worked Example-12
Generator A :
X”d of 14% (0.14p.u.) is quoted at a base kVA of
1000kVA and therefore it is necessary to re-
calculate for the UPS load of 230kVA,
230kVA x 14% = 3.22% (0.0322p.u.)

1000kVA
From the graph in figure 1, with a subtransient

reactance, X”d, of 3.22% the voltage distortion will
be in the order of 9%.
162
Worked Example-13
Generator B :
X”d at 800kVA = 0.10p.u. (10%), therefore X”d at 230kVA,
230kVA x 10% = 2.88% (0.0288p.u.)

800kVA
This reactance is given at a voltage of 400V and therefore also needs

re-calculating for 415V,
2
400 x 2.88% = 2.68% (0.0268p.u.)
415
From the graph in figure 1, with a subtransient reactance, of 2.68%

the voltage distortion will be in the order of 7.5%.
163
Worked Example-2
2. A 800kVA, 415V, 3ph, 50Hz generator with a subtransient reactance of 12%
is to be used to run a 250hp motor. The motor is to be started by the
use of an electronic soft start system. The soft start system is 12 pulse
with 14% current distortion. Calculate the level of voltage distortion
during the starting of the motor when the start kVA is limited to
a) 1.5 times and
b) 2 times run kVA.
Assuming the motor is approximately 92% efficient and has an operating

power factor of 0.8, input kVA;
250 x 0.746 = 253kVA

0.92 x 0.8
164
Worked Example-21
a) 1.5 times,
Start kVA = 1.5 x 253kVA = 380kVA
X”d = 12% (0.12p.u.) at 800kVA, therefore X”d at 380kVA,
380kVA x 12% = 5.7% (0.057p.u.)

800kVA
From the graph in figure 1, with a subtransient reactance of 5.7% the

voltage distortion will be in the order of 4.6%.
165
Worked Example-22
b) 2 times,
Start kVA = 2 x 253kVA = 506kVA
X”d = 12% (0.12p.u.) at 800kVA, therefore X”d at 506kVA,
506kVA x 12% = 7.6% (0.076p.u.)

800kVA
From the graph in figure 1, with a subtransient reactance of 7.6% the

voltage distortion will be in the order of 6.2%.
166

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AKSA JENERATOR

Energy is the ability to do work.

 Most generators produce voltages and current in the form of

The three-phase alternator, as the name implies, has three

* The rotor is omitted for simplicity.

A two-pole generator must

Any of these three factors could be used to control the

• Assume the no-load voltage of an • Remember, the lower the

 MX 341 MX 321 MA 325

primary of a Current Transformer. The

output of the Current Transformer’s

secondary winding is rectified and supplied

to the field winding.

The transformer is designed to provide the

generators required no-load output voltage

by using the Current Transformer’s Transformer

secondary winding as a choke.

 As load is applied to the generator the Voltage Regulation to +/- 5%

Current Transformer’s secondary winding

taken directly from the generator Windings

there is any disturbance in the N

generator output voltage, the S

with the load controlled thyristors

resulting in voltage instability. AVR

 This type of system is not

POWER AND SENSING FROM

 This isolates the AVR power supply N

from the generator output waveform N

and therefore provides constant PMG rotor

undisturbed excitation power

regardless of the load condition. Wound rotor

 The only part of the AVR that is AVR

OVERLOAD OR SHORT CIRCUIT

AREP PMG AREP OR PMG

- THE POWER SUPPLY IS MAINTAINED

- THE POWER SUPPLY IS CUTTEN

High starting High starting High starting

Short-circuit Short-circuit Self protected

Intrinsic build-up No extra length No extra length

Extra No short- circuit

High number Low starting

Added cost Sensitive to

WHEN TO CHOOSE AREP OR PMG ?

WHEN TO CHOOSE SHUNT ?

SHUNT SHUNT MAGNA +

Built in short-circuit capacity

Optional short-circuit capacity

Short-circuit capacity not available

 Mecc-Alte Spa / Italy

1. Grid 39. Protection screen

 Insulation materials are assessed on their ability to retain their

B sınıfı izalasyon tahmini ömrü

For Cos ϕ = 0,8 ;

assembly with separate excitation.

Temperature rise of ball bearings :

 ALTERNATOR DOES NOT EXCITE

No Load Full Load

 High No-Load Voltage

 kW genr. = 2,67 kWm

Tap Position 65 % 80 % 100 %

Reduction in line starting voltage 35% 20% 0%

Value Of ratio S is 1,12 1,71 2,67

The AC generator would be unable to supply the motor with its

Most generators produce voltages and current in the form of

MX 341 MX 321 MA 325

As load is applied to the generator the Voltage Regulation to +/- 5%

This type of system is not

This isolates the AVR power supply N

The only part of the AVR that is AVR

Mecc-Alte Spa / Italy

Insulation materials are assessed on their ability to retain their

ALTERNATOR DOES NOT EXCITE

High No-Load Voltage

kW genr. = 2,67 kWm

Noise and vibration

Increased temperature rises

Variable speed drives,

Soft start systems,

Switchmode power supplies,

For example, a 7th harmonic current equal to 0.1p.u. rated current