3 Sampling and Measurement

Types of pollutant sampling and
Measurement and Monitoring
December 7, 2021 IST,JNTUH 1

• Sampling and measurement of air pollutants, generally
known as air quality monitoring, is an integral component
of any air pollution control programme.
• There are two quite different situations in which the air
quality measurement is undertaken.
• One of these is the ambient air quality measurement where
the pollutant levels in the ambient atmosphere are measured.
• The second type of measurement generally deals with the
pollutants emitted from a source such as smoke stack and is
known as stack sampling.
• Stack sampling provides information on the nature and
quantities of various pollutants that are emitted into the
atmosphere.
The recommended criteria for
siting the monitoring stations
•The site is dependent upon the use/purpose of the results of
the monitoring programs.
•The monitoring should be carried out with a purpose of
compliance of air quality standards.
•Monitoring must be able to evaluate impacts of new/existing
air pollution sources.
•Monitoring must be able to evaluate impacts of hazards due
to accidental release of chemicals.
•Monitoring data may be used for research purpose.

Ambient Air Sampling
• Probably the most important objective of any air sampling
exercise is to obtain a genuine and representative sample.
• In addition, the sampling should be carried out long enough
and at a rate that allows collection of an analytically
measurable sample.
• This is due to the fact that the concentrations of the
pollutants in the ambient air are likely to be extremely
small.
• There are both gaseous and particulate air pollutants whose
concentrations occur at levels below one milligram per
cubic metre of air.
• In some cases the pollutants collected by normal air
sampling methods may be reactive and this results in
changes after collection.
• For example, SO2 may be oxidised to SO3 and
carrying out the analysis for SO2 can be misleading in
the absence of precautions to prevent the oxidation.
• Usually, a reducing agent such as isopropanol is used
as a medium for collecting SO2, which inhibits the
formation of SO3.
• It is there fore, ideal and desirable to perform the
analysis on the unchanged atmosphere, if possible,
using continuous automatic analyzers.

Type of ambient monitoring
stations
Station type Description
Downtown pedestrian exposure station- In central business districts, in

congested areas, surrounding by buildings, many pedestrians, average traffic
Type A
flow > 10000 vehicles per day. Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height
2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground.
Downtown neighbor hood exposure stations- In central business districts but

not congested areas, less high rise buildings, average vehicles < 500 vehicles
Type B
per day. Typical locations like parks, malls, landscapes areas etc.
Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from the ground.

Residential population exposure station – In the midst of the
residential areas or sub-urban areas but not in central
Type C
business districts. The station should be more than 100 m
away from any street.
Mesoscale stations – At appropriate height to collect

meteorological and air quality data at upper elevation; main
Type D
purpose to collect the trend of data variations not human
exposure.
Non-urban stations – In remote non-urban areas, no traffic, no

industrial activity. Main purpose to monitor trend analysis.
Type E
Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from
the ground.
Specialized source survey stations – to determine the impact
on air quality at specified location by an air pollution source
Type F under scrutiny.
Location of station- 0.5 m from curve; height 2.5 to 3.5 m from
the ground.
Frequency of data collection
• Gaseous pollutants: continuous monitoring
• Particulates: once every three days

Air Sampling Setup
►---------------■----------------●--------
Sample Collector Flow Meter Pump
■----------------►---------------●--------
Flow Meter Sample Collector Pump

Number of stations
• Minimum number is three.
• The location is dependent upon the wind rose
diagram that gives predominant wind directions and
speed.
• One station must be at upstream of predominant
wind direction and other two must at downstream
pre dominant wind direction.
• More than three stations can also be established
depending upon the area of coverage.
Components of ambient air
sampling systems
• Four main components are:
• Inlet manifold
• Air mover
• collection medium
• flow measurement device
• Inlet manifold transports sampled pollutants from ambient air to
collection medium or analytical device in an unaltered condition. The
manifold should not be very long.
• Air mover provides force to create vacuum or lower pressure at the
end of sampling systems. They are pumps. The collection mediums
are liquid or solid sorbent or dissolving gases or filters or chamber for
air analysis (automatic instruments). The flow device like rotameters
measure the volume of air sampled.

Basic considerations for sampling
• Sample must be representative in terms of time, location,
and conditions to be studied.
• Sample must be large enough for accurate analysis.
• The sampling rate must be such as to provide maximum
efficiency of collection.
• Duration of sampling must accurately reflect the
fluctuations in pollution levels i.e. whether 1-hourly, 4-
hourly, 6-hourly, 8-hourly, 24-hourly sampling.
• Continuous sampling is preferred.
• Pollutants must not be altered or modified during collection

High-volume Filtration
• The high volume filtration method is popular for
measurement of the mass concentration of suspended
particulates smaller than 10 µm.
• In this method, a known volume of air is sucked by a high
speed blower through a fine filter and the increase in weight
due to the trapped particles is measured.
• The filter, usually made of fibrous or granular material,
provides a dense porous medium through which an air
stream must change direction in a random fashion, allowing
the entrained particles to impact on the filter material.

• (i) flow rate 600 m3/h
• (ii) chlorinated vinyl polychloride filters
(450 x450 mm2)
• Heterogeneity of elemental distributions:
• 15 % (Mn, Ti, Fe, Br, Zn) – 30 % (Ni, Cu)
3 subsamples (φ 2.5 cm) for EDXRF
analysis
• Pressed pellets for gamma spectrometry

Errors in sampling by HVS
• Particulates may be lost in sampling manifold – so
not too long or too twisted manifold must be used.
• If ’isokinetic’ conditioned are not maintained,
biased results may be obtained for particulate
matters.

Advantages of HVS
• High flow rate at low pressure drop
• High particulate storage capacity
• No moisture regain
• high collection efficiency
• Low coast
• Not appreciable increase in air flow resistance
• Filter is 99% efficient and can collect the particles as
fine as 0.3 µm
• Absorption principle is 99% efficient in collecting
the gases
Stack Monitoring: techniques &
instrumentation

Sampling
• The sample collected must be
representative in terms of time and
location.
The sample volume should be large

enough to permit accurate analysis.
The sampling rate must be such as to
provide maximum efficiency of
collection. The contaminants must
not be modified or altered in the
process of collection.

Air Emission Sampling
Conducting air emission

sampling at a stack.
Proper test facilities with
sampling hole and
standing platform fixture
are provided

Stack Sampling
• The major problem in stack sampling is of obtaining a
representative sample. If a representative sample is not
obtained then the concentration and composition of the
actual gas stream will be different, and serious errors would
result in the analysis.
• The important factors in obtaining a representative sample
are the selection of the sampling site and the number of
sampling points required.
• The sampling site should be located at least eight stack or
duct diameters downstream and two diameters upstream
from any source of flow disturbance such as bends, fittings,
or constrictions.

• In some stacks, it is not always possible to
ensure uniform flow, so concentration
patterns and, hence, multiple samples are
required to obtain a representative sample.
That is, the actual sampling must be
performed at a number of traverse points in
the stack.
• Two sets of traverse readings, 900 apart, are
taken in the same plane for circular stacks.
The number of traverse points required on
each of the two perpendiculars may be
estimated from the following table.

No. of stack diameters Min. no. of traverse
Location of flow disturbance points on each
Upstream Downstream diameter
8+ 2+ 6
7.3 1.8 8
6.7 1.7 10
6.0 1.5 12
5.3 1.3 14
4.7 1.2 16
4.0 1.0 18
3.3 0.8 20
2.6 0.6 22
2.0 0.5 24
Diagrammatic view of
stacksampling

Impingers
Impingers are glass bubble tubes
designed for the collection of airborne
particles into a liquid medium (Figure
1).
When using an air sampler, a known
volume of air bubbles is pumped
through the glass tube that contains a
liquid specified in the method.
The liquid is then analyzed to
determine airborne concentrations. Figure 1: Glass Impinger

Selection of sampling location
• The sampling point should be as far as possible from
any disturbing influence, such as elbows, bends,
transition pieces, baffles.
• The sampling point, wherever possible should be at
a distance of 5-10 diameters down-stream from any
obstruction and 3-5 diameters up-stream from
similar disturbance.

Size of sampling point
 The size of the sampling point may be made

in the range of 7-10 cm, in diameter.

Traverse points
• For the sample become Cross-section
representative, it should be area of stack No. of Points
collected at various points sq. m
across the stack.

• The number of traverse 0.2 4
points may be selected with

reference to Table 1.
0.2 to 2.5 12
• Table 1: Traverse Points
2.5 and above 20

In circular stacks, traverse points are located at the center of equal
annular areas across two perpendicular diameters as shown in Figure 2
Figure 2

In case of rectangular stacks, the area may be divided in to 12 to 25
equal areas and the centers for each area are fixed. (Figure 3)
Figure 3

• For rectangular stacks, the sampling site can
be located by calculating the equivalent
diameter according to the following
equation:
Deq =4xCross-sectional area of flow/Wetted perimeter

• The nozzle at the end of the probe is
normally sharp edged, pointing inward from
the outside edge and the traversing probe is
usually made of stainless steel with glass or
Teflon lining.
• For sampling hot gases whose temperatures
are above 4000c, these probes are provided
with a circulating coolant system to prevent
combustion of particulate materials inside
the probe and to prevent the temperatures
from exceeding the maximum allowable
temperatures of filtration materials.
Isokinetic conditions
Isokinetic conditions exist when the velocity in the stack ‘Vs’ equals
the velocity at the top of the probe nozzle ‘Vn’ at the sample point
(Figure 4).
Figure 4

Experimental analysis: Gaseous &
particulates; standards & limits

Principles of Sampling and
Analysis
• The components of an air pollution monitoring system
include the
-collection or sampling of pollutants both from the ambient
air and from specific sources,
-the analysis or measurement of the pollutant
concentrations, and
-the reporting and use of the information collected.
• Emissions data collected from point sources are used to
determine compliance with air pollution regulations,
determine the effectiveness of air pollution control
technology, evaluate production efficiencies, and support
scientific research.
• The EPA has established ambient air monitoring
methods for the criteria pollutants, as well as for
toxic organic (TO) compounds and inorganic (IO)
compounds.
• The methods specify precise procedures that must be
followed for any monitoring activity related to the
compliance provisions of the Clean Air Act.
• These procedures regulate sampling, analysis,
calibration of instruments, and calculation of
emissions.
• The concentration is expressed in terms of mass per
unit volume, usually micrograms per cubic meter
(µg/m3).
Particulate Monitoring
• Particulate monitoring is usually accomplished with manual
measurements and subsequent laboratory analysis.
• A particulate matter measurement uses gravimetric principles.
Gravimetric analysis refers to the quantitative chemical analysis of
weighing a sample, usually of a separated and dried precipitate.
• In this method, a filter-based high-volume sampler (a vacuum- type
device that draws air through a filter or absorbing substrate) retains
atmospheric pollutants for future laboratory weighing and chemical
analysis. Particles are trapped or collected on filters, and the filters are
weighed to determine the volume of the pollutant. The weight of the
filter with collected pollutants minus the weight of a clean filter gives
the amount of particulate matter in a given volume of air.
• Chemical analysis can be done by atomic absorption spectrometry
(AAS), atomic fluorescence spectrometry (AFS), inductively couple
plasma (ICP) spectroscopy, and X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
spectroscopy.

Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
(AAS)
AAS is a sensitive means for the quantitative determination of more than
60 metals or metalloid elements.
Principle: This technique operates by measuring energy changes in the
atomic state of the analyte. For example, AAS is used to measure lead in
particulate monitoring.

• Particles are collected by gravimetric methods in a Teflon (PTFE)
filter, lead is acid-extracted from the filter.
• The aqueous sample is vaporized and dissociates into its elements in
the gaseous state. The element being measured, in this case lead, is
aspirated into a flame or injected into a graphite furnace and atomized.
• A hollow cathode or electrode less discharge lamp for the element
being determined provides a source of that metal's particular
absorption wavelength.
• The atoms in the unionized or "ground" state absorb energy, become
excited, and advance to a higher energy level.
• A detector measures the amount of light absorbed by the element,
hence the number of atoms in the ground state in the flame or furnace.
• The data output from the spectrometer can be recorded on a strip chart
recorder or processed by computer.
• Determination of metal concentrations is performed from prepared
calibration curves or read directly from the instrument.

Gaseous pollutant monitoring
• Gaseous pollutant monitoring can be accomplished using various measurement
principles.
• Some of the most common techniques to analyze gaseous pollutants include
-Spectrophotometry,
-Chemiluminescence,
-Gas chromatography-flame ionization detector (GC-FID),
- Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and
- Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR).
• With all sampling and analysis procedures, the end result is quantitative data.
• The validity of the data depends on the accuracy and precision of the methods used
in generating the data.
• The primary quality control measure is calibration.
• Calibration checks the accuracy of a measurement by establishing the relationship
between the output of a measurement process and a known input.

Methods of Measuring and
Analyzing Air Pollutants
Variable
Method Principle
Measured
Particles are trapped or collected on filters, and the filters

Gravimetric PM10, PM2.5
are weighed to determine the volume of the pollutant.
more than 60
Atomic absorption metals or This technique operates by measuring energy changes in
spectrometry metalloid the atomic state of the analyte. Emitted radiation is a
(AAS) elements (e.g. function of atoms present in the sample.
Pb, Hg, Zn)
Measure the amount of light that a sample absorbs. The

Spectrophotometr
SO2, O3 amount of light absorbed indicates the amount of analyte
y
present in the sample.
Chemiluminescen Based upon the emission spectrum of an excited species

SO2, O3
ce that is formed in the course of a chemical reaction.

Gas
chromatography
Responds in proportion to number of carbon atoms
(GC) - flame VOC
in gas sample.
ionization
detector (FID)
Gas
chromatography Mass spectrometers use the difference in mass-to-
-mass VOC charge ratio (m/z) of ionized atoms or molecules to
spectrometry separate them from each other.
(GC-MS)
Fourier
Transform
CO, VOC, Sample absorbs infrared radiation and difference in
Infrared
CH4 absorption is measured.
Spectroscopy
(FTIR)

Spectrophotometry
•A spectrophotometer measures the amount of light that a sample
absorbs.
•The instrument operates by passing a beam of light through a sample
and measuring the intensity of light reaching a detector.
•Spectrophotometry commonly used to measure sulfur dioxide (SO2)
concentrations.
•The amount of light absorbed indicates the amount of sulfur dioxide
present in the sample.

Chemiluminescence
 An ambient air sample is mixed with excess ozone in a
special sample cell. A portion of the NO present is
converted to an activated NO2 which returns to a lower
energy state and in the process emits light. This
phenomenon is called chemiluminescence.

• Chemiluminescence methods for determining components
of gases originated with the need for highly sensitive means
for determining atmospheric pollutants such as ozone,
oxides of nitrogen, and sulfur compounds.
• The intensity of this light can be measured with a
photomultiplier tube and is proportional to the amount of
NO in the sample. A second reaction measures the total
oxides of nitrogen in the air sample and in turn, the
concentration of NO2 can be calculated.

Gas Chromatography (GC)
• Gas chromatography (GC) coupled with a flame ionization
detector (FID) is employed for qualitative identification and
quantitative determination of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) in air pollution monitoring.
• The GC, consists of a column, oven and detector. In the gas
chromatograph, a sample goes to the column, separates into
individual compounds and proceeds through the hydrogen
flame ionization detector.

• The flame in a flame ionization detector is produced by the
combustion of hydrogen and air.
• When a sample is introduced, hydrocarbons are combusted and
ionized, releasing electrons.
• A collector with a polarizing voltage located near the flame attracts
the free electrons, producing a current that is proportional to the
amount of hydrocarbons in the sample.
• The signal from the flame ionization detector is then amplified and
output to a display or external device.
• Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) instruments have
also been used for identification of volatile organic compounds. Mass
spectrometers use the difference in mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) of
ionized atoms or molecules to separate them from each other. Mass
spectrometry is useful for quantification of atoms or molecules and
also for determining chemical and structural information about
molecules.

Fourier Transform Infrared
Spectroscopy
• FTIR can detect and measure both
criteria pollutants and toxic
pollutants in ambient air
• FTIR can directly measure more
than 120 gaseous pollutants in the
ambient air, such as carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and
ozone.
• The technology is based on the
fact that every gas has its own
"fingerprint," or absorption
spectrum.
• FTIR can directly measure both
criteria pollutants and toxic
pollutants in the ambient air.

• The FTIR sensor monitors the entire infrared spectrum and reads the
different fingerprints of the gases present in the ambient air.
• Carbon monoxide is monitored continuously by analyzers that operate
on the infrared absorption principle.
• Ambient air is drawn into a sample chamber and a beam of infrared
light is passed through it.
• CO absorbs infrared radiation, and any decrease in the intensity of the
beam is due to the presence of CO molecules.
• This decrease is directly related to the concentration of CO in the air.
• A special detector measures the difference in the radiation between
this beam and a duplicate beam passing through a reference chamber
with no CO present.
• This difference in intensity is electronically translated into a reading
of the CO present in the ambient air, measured in parts per million.

Collection of Gaseous Air Pollutants
• Grab Sampling: In grab sampling the
sample is collected by filling an evacuated
flask or an inflatable bag.
• Plastic bags have been widely used for grab
sampling and for storage before analysis.
• Bag sampling is subject to losses caused by
moisture condensation or diffusion through
the walls of the bag. The losses can be
minimized by performing the analysis
immediately following collection.
• Grab samples may be taken using rigid wall
containers made from glass or stainless
steel. These containers are first evacuated
and then filled by allowing air to enter.
• Alternatively, a container may be filled with
water and then used as a collector simply by
draining away the water which is replaced
by the air sample.

Absorption in Liquids
• Absorption of gaseous pollutants into a liquid medium is probably the
most commonly employed method of collecting the samples.
• Absorption separates the desired pollutant from air either through
direct solubility in the absorbing medium or by chemical reaction.
• Probably the most widely used collector is the impinger. In the
impinger the gas stream is impinged at high velocity onto a flat
surface thus providing good contact between the gas and the liquid.
• The flat surface can be the bottom of the collector or a specially
designed plate.
• The common impingers are the Greenburg-Smith and the midget
types.
• These devices can handle sample flow rates of about 30 and 3 litres
per minute respectively.

Gas absorbing devices

Adsorption on Solids
• This method is based on the tendency of gases to be adsorbed on the
surface of solid materials.
• The sample air is passed through a packed coloumn containing a
finely divided solid adsorbent on whose surface the pollutants are
retained and concentrated.
• The most commonly used solid adsorbents are granular porous solids
such as activated charcoal and silica gel with very large surface area.
• After adsorption, the sample gases are desorbed for analysis. This
may be accomplished by heating the adsorbent to volatilize the
trapped material or by washing it with a liquid solvent.
• Analysis of the gases can be done in a number of ways. Most organic
vapors are analysed by Gas Chromatographic technique which
directly uses the adsorption principle.

Freeze-out Sampling
• In freeze-out sampling a series of cold traps, which
are maintained at progressively lower temperature,
are used to draw the air sample whereby the
pollutants are condensed.
• The traps are brought to the laboratory, the samples
are removed, and analysed by means of Gas
Chromatographic, infrared or ultaviolet
spectrophotometry, mass spectrometry, or by wet
chemical means.

Coolants used for freeze-out traps
Coolant Temp. attained (0C)
Ice-water 0
Ice-salt -21
Dry ice and acetone -79
Liquid air -147
Liquid oxygen -183
Liquid nitrogen -196
Collection of Particulate Pollutants
• Particulate pollutants in the atmosphere are grouped
generally into those that settle out due to the force of
gravity and those that remain suspended as aerosols.
• The first category, consisting of large particles of
size greater than 10 µm diameter, can be collected
using sedimentation techniques, while for the
second category containing particles of smaller size
more sophisticated techniques like filtration,
impingement and electrostatic and thermal
precipitation are used.
Sedimentation (Dustfall Jar)
• This is the simplest device used for sampling particles larger
than 10 µm in diameter.
• A typical collector consists of a plastic jar of about 20 to 35
cm height and 10 to 15 cm diameter at the base with a slight
inward tapering of the walls from top to bottom.
• A holder is provided to ensure safe and upright positioning
of the collector.
• The sample is deposited over a period of one month and the
material is dried and weighed.
• Usually, only water-insoluble dustfall is reported in mg/cm2
or in tons/km2.
Dustfall Collector
Plastic Jar

Micro-beam X-ray
Fluorescence

Experimental conditions
• Mo-anode X-ray tube (45 kV/40 mA) fitted
with tapered glass capillary (12 μm spot
size);
• Si/Li detector; Silicon drift detector;
• optical microscope coupled with CCD
• camera; sample stage; PC
• QXAS for spectrum fitting

National Ambient Air Quality
Standards
POLLUTANTS AVERAGE TIME CONCENTRATION
Annual average 60 µg/cubic m

sulphur dioxide (SO2)
24 hour 80 µg/cubic m
A.A 60 µg/cubic m
Oxides of Nitrogen (NO2)
24H 80 µg/cubic m
A.A 140µg/cubic m
Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)
24H 200µg/cubic m
A.A 0.75 µg/cubic m

Lead
24H 1.0 µg/cubic m
A.A 2.0 µg/cubic m

Carbon Monoxide
24H 84.0 µg/cubic m
A.A 60 µg/cubicm
Respirable Particulate Matter (RPM)
24H 100 µg/cubic m

NAAQS by USEPA 2006
Pollutant Primary Stds. Averaging Times Secondary Stds.
9 ppm (10 mg/cubic m) 8-hour(1) None
Carbon Monoxide
35 ppm (40 mg/cubic m) 1-hour(1) None
Lead 1.5 µg/cubic m Quarterly Average Same as Primary
Nitrogen Dioxide 0.053 ppm (100 µg/cubic m) Annual (Arithmetic Mean) Same as Primary
Revoked(2) Annual(2) (Arith. Mean)

Particulate Matter (PM10)
150 µg/cubic m 24-hour(3)
15.0 µg/cubic m Annual(4) (Arith. Mean) Same as Primary

Particulate Matter (PM2.5)
35 µg/cubic m 24-hour(5)
0.08 ppm 8-hour(6) Same as Primary

Ozone 1-hour(7) (Applies only in limited
0.12 ppm Same as Primary
areas)
0.03 ppm Annual (Arith. Mean) -------
Sulfur Oxides 0.14 ppm 24-hour(1) -------
------- 3-hour(1) 0.5 ppm (1300 µg/cubic m)

• (1)Not to be exceeded more than once per year.
(2)Due to a lack of evidence linking health problems
to long-term exposure to coarse particle pollution,
the agency revoked the annual PM10 standard in
2006 (effective December 17, 2006).
(3) Not to be exceeded more than once per year on
average over 3 years.
(4) To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the
weighted annual mean PM2.5 concentrations from
single or multiple community-oriented monitors
must not exceed 15.0 µg/cubic metre.

• (5) To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the 98th
percentile of 24-hour concentrations at each population-
oriented monitor within an area must not exceed 35
µg/cubic metre (effective December 17, 2006).
(6) To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the fourth-
highest daily maximum 8-hour average ozone
concentrations measured at each monitor within an area
over each year must not exceed 0.08 ppm.
(7) (a) The standard is attained when the expected number
of days per calendar year with maximum hourly average
concentrations above 0.12 ppm is < 1, as determined by
appendix H. (b) As of June 15, 2005 EPA revoked the 1-
hour ozone standard in all areas except the fourteen 8-hour
ozone nonattainment Early Action Compact (EAC) Areas.
WHO Air Quality Guidelines
Value
POLLUTANTS AVERAGE TIME AQG value
Particulate matter 10 µg/cubic metre

PM2.5 1 year 24 hour(99th percentile) 25 µg/cubic metre
1 year 24 hour(99th percentile) 20 µg/cubic metre
PM10 50 µg/cubic metre
Ozone, O3 8 hour, daily maximum 100 µg/cubic metre
40µg/cubic metre
Nitrogen dioxide, NO2 1 year 1 hour
200µg/cubic metre
20 µg/cubic metre
Sulfur dioxide, SO2 24 hour 10 minute
500 µg/cubic metre


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3 Sampling and Measurement

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Types of pollutant sampling and

Measurement and Monitoring

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Downtown pedestrian exposure station- In central business districts, in

Downtown neighbor hood exposure stations- In central business districts but

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Mesoscale stations – At appropriate height to collect

Non-urban stations – In remote non-urban areas, no traffic, no

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The sample volume should be large

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Conducting air emission

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 The size of the sampling point may be made

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across the stack.

points may be selected with

2.5 and above 20

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Deq =4xCross-sectional area of flow/Wetted perimeter

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Particles are trapped or collected on filters, and the filters

Measure the amount of light that a sample absorbs. The

Chemiluminescen Based upon the emission spectrum of an excited species

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Annual average 60 µg/cubic m