BY NADIA MUBASHIR KHAN

DISCOURSE
• Language in use, which is used to communicate and
is felt to be coherent is called discourse.
• Discourse can be defined as a stretch of language
consisting of several sentences which are perceived
as being related, not only in terms of ideas, but also
in terms of the jobs they perform.( function)
• Discourse is fundamentally concerned with the
relationship between language and the contexts of its
use.
• Discourse is a text forming device. It studies how
language can be made coherent and cohesive.
• The term Discourse applies to both spoken and
written language (literary and non-literary), in fact to
any sample of language used for any purpose.
Definition of Discourse
• ‘a continuous stretch of language larger than a
sentence, often constituting a coherent unit, such as
sermon, argument, joke or narrative.’ (Crystal:1992)
• Cook (1989) defines discourse as stretches of
language perceived to be meaningful, unified and
purposive.
• In the study of language, discourse often refers to the
speech patterns and usage of language, dialects, and
acceptable statements, within a community. It is a
subject of study in people who live in secluded areas
and share similar speech conventions.
• The term discourse is used to describe the
conversations and the meaning behind them by a
group of people who hold certain ideas in common.
Understanding Discourse
• Language helps us communicate. Communication
takes place with the help of symbols, signs, words or
body language.
• Language is a code or a system which has a lot of
signals being transmitted through a medium by a
sender to a receiver. This system is governed by a
set of rules.
• Along with the set of rules there are some social
features that govern the use of language. Context
and cultural influences also affect language in use.
• Discourse studies the relation between the form and
function of language.e.g Do I have something to
tell you?(!)
 • To understand discourse we must look at the distinction
that Ferdinand De Sassure made between langue and
parole
LANGUE PAROLE
the collective social usage of language. a set of produced
knowledge. The system statements. It is physical & can be used
that enables people to differently according to the situation.
speak. It is abstract.
• Based on this distinction we see that discourse includes the
usage of language by conveying messages based on the
abstract knowledge i.e. making langue as its frame work.
• Discourse may not always conform to grammatical rules .
• Discourse can be a grunt, a single expletive, a short
conversation, or a novel or a legal case.
DISCOURSE VS TEXT
• Discourse is how language is written or spoken?
What is the meaning of language? Which words to
emphasize?
• Discourse analyses the meaning of language. it
looks at language from a social and political
perspective. E.g. 1857, there are different points of
view of the same event. We choose our words and
language according to the genre( it is the mode or
the kind of discourse used for exchanging ideas).
• Text is a piece of naturally occurring spoken or
written discourse, identified for the purpose of
analysis. Text is language form. It is how language
ought to be written. Text consists of alphabets,
words, sentences etc.
Text vs Discourse
• The terms text and discourse are interchangeable.
• Some linguists are of the view that discourse is
language in action, while a text is the written record
of that interaction. So, discourse brings together the
language, the speaker/writer, and the context.
• Many linguists prefer to use the term text for all
recorded instances of language in use.
• We may refer to text as any written record of a
communicative event. ( oral or written)
• And refer to discourse as the interpretation of the
communicative event in a context.
Features of Textuality:Coherence & Cohesion
• Cohesion - grammatical relationship between parts of a
sentence essential for its interpretation;
• Coherence - the order of statements relates one
another by sense.
• The quality of being meaningful and unified is known as
coherence(everything fitting together well). It is a
necessary quality for communication.
• Coherence is not completely conveyed with or encoded
in the text. It also includes how people make sense of
what they read and write. They try to arrive at an
interpretation that is in line with their experience of the
way the world is.
• Coherence is constructed by the writer andre-
constructed by the user.
• Coherence is also a matter of social convention. It is
involved in our interpretation of all discourse.
Coherence
A: That’s the telephone
B: I’m in the bath
A: O.K.
• How do both the speakers manage to make sense of
what the other says?
• The 1st speaker makes a request for the 2nd speaker to perform
action.
• The 2nd speaker states reason why he cannot comply with the
request.
• The 1st speaker undertakes to perform the action.
• Thus language users must have a lot of knowledge of
how conversation works that is not
simply‘linguistic’knowledge.
• Coherent texts are sequences or utterances which seem
to ‘hang together”– as they contain text forming devices
e.g. words & phrases which enable speakers/writers to
establish relationships across sentences/boundaries &
help to tie sentences in a text together.
Cohesion
• Cohesion designates the "glue" which holds the
propositions of a text together. It refers to ties or
connections within texts. It is visible on the surface of
texts.
• Cohesion is established by grammatical relationship
within a text or sentence.
• It can be defined as the links that hold a text together
and give it meaning.
• Cohesive relationships within a text are set up where
the interpretation of some element in the discourse is
dependent on that of another.e.g. Wash and peel
six apples. Put them into the oven.
Cohesive Devices
• Formal links between sentences and between
clauses are known as cohesive devices.
• By and large five types of cohesive devices are
distinguished:
• Reference
• Substitution
• Ellipsis
• Conjunction
• Lexical Cohesion
Reference
• Reference: the use of words such as pronouns and
articles, which do not have meanings of their own if the
sentence they are in, is taken out of context and
presented in isolation. To infer their meaning the reader
has to refer them to something else that appears in the
text (Tom: "How do you like my new Mercedes Vito?" -
Marry: "It is a nice van, which I'm also thinking of
buying".).
• Sentences connect by means of two types of references:
• Anaphoric references– those that refer a reader/listener
‘backwards’ to a previously mentioned point in the
text.e.g. it, this.
• Cataphoric references– those that point the
reader/listener forward. E.g the man we’ve all been
waiting for, the one and only– Mr Sanders.
• Recurrence-- Direct repetition of elements in a text.
Substitution &Ellipsis
• Substitution: in order to avoid repeating the same
word several times in one paragraph it is replaced,
most often by one, do or so. So and do in its all
forms might also substitute whole phrases or clauses
(e.g. ‘Tom has created the best web directory. I
told you so long time ago".)
• Ellipsis: it is very similar to substitution, however, it
replaces a phrase by a gap. In other words, it is
omission of noun, verb, or a clause on the assumption
that it is understood from the linguistic context. E.g.
A: I like the green hat.
B: I prefer the blue.
• A: Have you been working?
B: Yes, I have (0).
Conjunction
• Conjunction: specifies the relationship between
clauses, or sentences. Most frequent relations of
sentences are: addition ( and, moreover e.g.
"Moreover, the chocolate fountains are not just
regular fountains, they are more like rivers full of
chocolate and sweets."), temporality ( afterwards,
next e.g. "He bought her perfume at a local perfume
shop and afterwards moved towards a jewellery
store."),causality ( because, since),and
Adversative --However, on the other hand.
Lexical Cohesion
• Lexical cohesion occurs when two words in a text are
semantically related. It denotes links between words
which carry meaning: verbs, nouns, adjectives.
• Two types of lexical cohesion are differentiated, namely:
reiteration and collocation.
• Reiteration adopts various forms, particularly synonymy,
repetition, hyponymy or antonymy.
• Collocation is the way in which certain words occur
together in one text but not in another. We can say that
the background knowledge of the reader/listener plays
an important role in understanding the text.e.g my
neighbour broke my fence. The scoundrel did it on
purpose. which is why it is easy to make out what will
follow the first item.
• E.g. guerilla warfare– freedom fighters or terrorists.
Context
• Context means the situation that gives rise to the
discourse. It can also said to include background
knowledge about a particular discourse or speech
event
• There are two types of context: linguistic context– the
language that accompanies the piece of text.
• Non-linguistic context--The topic, setting, channel,
message-form, purpose &the type of communicative
event are some important features of context ( Hymes 1964)
• Register also plays an important role in discourse.
Register imposes constraints at the linguistic level of
vocabulary and syntax.
• Genre constraints operate at the level of discourse
structures. E.g. writing a letter to a friend, or the
principal; letter or interview.
Schema/schemata
• Schema is a term used for a conventional
knowledge structure that exists in memory. A
number of such structures are called schemata.
• These are mental representations of typical
situations.
• These are used in the interpretations of what we
experience.
• This can be said to be the background knowledge
that we already have. E.g. a description of a visit to a
super market will no include details as many of us
will already have a schema for supermarkets, kings–
crown, seal etc. we have a schema for kings.
Spoken & Written Discourse
Spoken discourse
• Speech occurs at varying
speed, especially one that is
suitable for the speaker, even if
it may not be appropriate for the
listener and though a request for
repetition is possible, it is
difficult to imagine a
conversation in which every
sentence is to be rephrased.
• talking might be spontaneous
which results in mistakes,
repetition, sometimes less
coherent sentences where even
grunts, stutters or pauses might
be meaningful.
• The speaker usually knows the
listener, or listeners, which
enables him to adjust the
register.
Written discourse
• writing develops in space in that it
needs a means to carry the
information.
• The readers are often unknown, as
a result he cannot adjust to
readers' specific expectations.
• The writer is able to consider the
content of his work which makes it
more coherent, having complex
syntax.
• neat message organization,
division into paragraphs, layout are
of vital importance to make
comprehension easier. texts might
be read at different times and
places. the organization of tables,
formulas, or charts can be
portrayed only in written form
Spoken discourse
• As interlocutors are most often in face-to-face encounters
(unless using a phone) they take advantage of
extralinguistic signals as grimaces, gesticulation,
expressions such as 'here', 'now', or 'this' are used.
• Employment of nonsense vocabulary, slang and
contracted forms (we're, you've) is another feature of oral
discourse.
• Among other significant features of speech there are
rhythm, intonation, speed of uttering.
• What is more important, is the inability to conceal
mistakes made while speaking.
• An important feature of spoken discourse is turn-taking.
Patterns in a text
• All types of discourse are structured and patterned
which are hierarchical in nature.
• Broadly speaking the following patterns occur in a
text/discourse:
• General –specific Patterns: the subject of the
sentences will be related to the topic and the pattern
moves from general to specific.
• Cause-Consequence Patterns: these relationships
imply that A causes B or vice versa. E.g use of
because, so, as a result, show this pattern.
• Instrument-Purpose Patterns: Ideas of purpose
and achievement are linked. Phrases like in order to
show reason or purpose of an activity.
Patterns in Discourse
• Problem-Solution Patterns: some texts need or
have gained solutions. They follow the following
structure– SITUATION --- PROBLEM---SOLUTION---
EVALUATION
• Predictive Patterns: certain nouns called text nouns
refer to other parts of the text. E.g. situation, fact, move,
problem etc. they can also be used to predict what will
happen next in the text.
• Sets of Expectations: we have expectations of things
that we read/hear about, or that exist in certain
situations.
• We also have expectations about the order in which we
will find things. E.g. newspaper.
• Discourse is a highly politicized phenomenon.
• Studies of discourse investigate the relations between
language, structure and agency.
• Discourse is used as a term to describe the
conversations and the meaning behind them by a group
of people who hold certain ideas in common known as a
discourse community.
• Words within discourse can express different viewpoints.
The words couch potato has negative connotations.
Recap
• How is discourse a highly political
phenomenon?
• What is Discourse Analysis?
• What is Critical Discourse
Analysis?