The Architect and Climate Change

THE ARCHITECT

AND CLIMATE
CHANGE
WRITTEN BY:

EBUKANSON, ANIETIE GABRIEL
NOVEMBER 2009
THE ARCHITECT AND CLIMATE CHANGE
EBUKANSON, A.G.

1.0 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... 3
1.1. WHAT IS CLIMATE? ........................................................................................................ 4
1.11. FACTORS THAT CONTROL CLIMATE ............................................................................... 5
1.12. EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON ARCHITECTURE ....................................................................... 7
1.2. CLIMATE DIVISIONS AND ARCHITECTURAL TYPOLOGY ................................................... 7
1.21. NATURAL EFFECTIVE PARAMETERS ON BUILDING .......................................................... 7
1.22. NATURAL FACTORS EFFECTIVE ON THE BUILDING DESIGNS IN MOUNTAINOUS AND
COLD CLIMATE ......................................................................................................................... 11
1.23. THE SPECIFICATIONS OF LOCAL ARCHITECTURE IN TROPICAL AREAS ........................... 15
1.24. SPECIFICATIONS OF ARCHITECTURE IN WARM AND DRY AREAS ................................... 17
2.0 CHAPTER TWO: CLIMATE CHANGE ....................................................................... 266
2.2. CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE .................................................................................... 266
3.0 CHAPTER THREE: SOLVING THE PROBLEMS OF CLIMATE CHANGE .......................... 37
3.1 RENEWABLE ENERGY ..................................................................................................... 37
3.11. MAIN SOURCES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY ..................................................................... 39
3.2 . SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE ....................................................................................... 43
3.21. PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE DESIGN ........................................................................... 44
3.22. METHODS FOR ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DESIGN ....................................................... 51
3.3. THE KYOTO PROTOCOL .................................................................................................. 66
4.0. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 68
5.0. BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................................. 70
6.0. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 772
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1.0 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Since the beginning of time, man has been affected by climate and its influence over the earth.
The first humans built shelters and lived in caves to protect themselves from the weather
elements. However, the first documentation of architectural design with climate interest dates
back to fourth century B.C. in Greece. The philosopher Vitruvius is quoted as saying, “We
must at the outset take note of the countries and climates in which buildings are built 1 . In
Rome, architects made note of the reduction of temperature created by the huge stonewalls
and their shadows. The walls were made of stuccoed brick and were typically twelve to
twenty feet wide which allowed for an extended area to be captured in the shadows of the
walls keeping the city cool during the midday hours 2 . The stuccoed walls are an example of
climate-responsive architecture, or architecture that is constructed and built with designs that
make use of the surrounding climate and its natural effects. With the help of new climate
technology, many developing countries, such as Algeria, are making use of climate-
responsive development and its benefits in helping to keep humans comfortable 3 .
Architectural works are often perceived as cultural and political symbols and as works of art.
Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements 4 .
The Architect plans, designs and reviews the construction of buildings and structures for the
use of people by the creative organization of materials and components with consideration to
mass, space, form, volume, texture, structure, light, shadow, materials, program, and
pragmatic elements such as cost, construction limitations and technology, to achieve an end
which is usually functional, economical, practical and often artistic. This distinguishes

1
Oktay, D. “Design with the climate in housing environments: an analysis in Northern Cyprus.”
Building and Environment (2002)
2
IBIDEM
3
Bensalem, R. “Climate-responsive Architecture”. (1995)
4
Le Corbusier. “Towards a New Architecture.” (1985)
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architecture from engineering design, which has as its primary object the creative
manipulation of materials and forms using mathematical and scientific principles. 5
Architecture is the art and science of designing buildings and other physical structures.
Architecture is both the process and the product of designing and constructing spaces that
reflect and functional, aesthetic and environmental considerations. Architecture requires the
use of materials, technology, textures, light, and shadow. As a process, architecture also
includes the pragmatic elements of design, such as planning, cost and construction 6 . A wider
definition may comprise all design activity from the macro-level (urban design, landscape
architecture) to the micro-level (construction details and furniture). In fact, architecture today
may refer to the activity of designing any kind of system.
As documentation produced by architects, typically drawings, plans and technical
specifications, architecture defines the structure and/or behavior of a building or any other
kind of system that is to be or has been constructed.
1.1. WHAT IS CLIMATE?
Climate is defined as an area's long-term weather patterns. Climate encompasses the statistics of
temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, atmospheric particle count and
numerous other meteorological elements in a given region over long periods of time. Climate
can be contrasted to weather, which is the present condition of these same elements over periods
up to two weeks. The simplest way to describe climate is to look at average temperature and
precipitation over time. Other useful elements for describing climate include the type and the
timing of precipitation, amount of sunshine, average wind speeds and directions, number of days
above freezing, weather extremes, and local geography 7 .

5
Le Corbusier. “Towards a New Architecture.” (1985)
6
Rowland, D and Howe, T.N.. Vitruvius. Ten Books on Architecture. (1999)
7
Thornthwaite, C. W. . "An Approach Toward a Rational Classification of Climate". Geographical
Review, (1948)
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Fig. 1 National Park Service
As elevation increases, the average temperature decreases. Above a certain elevation, low
temperatures make it impossible for trees to grow, as seen here on Washington's Mount
Rainier.
While it's fairly easy to describe a location's climate by examining weather data, a greater challenge is
figuring out why the climate of one place differs from that of another. To do so, you must consider all
the factors that work together to determine climate.
1.11. FACTORS THAT CONTROL CLIMATE
The climate of any particular place is influenced by a host of interacting factors. These
include latitude, elevation, nearby water, ocean currents, topography, vegetation, and
prevailing winds. The global climate system and any changes that occur within it also
influence local climate. Consider how each factor illustrated by the thumbnail images might
control climate at your location. 8

8
Maisonnave, E. “Climate Variability.” (2008)
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LATITUDE ELEVATION NEARBY OCEAN
Surface Climate zones WATER CURRENTS
temperatures vary coincide roughly Sea surface

Water
with latitude. with elevation temperatures
temperatures
ranges. affect land
indicate transfer of
temperatures.
heat energy by
currents.
TOPOGRAPHY VEGETATION PREVAILING
Local variations in Type of ground WINDS
elevation can cover and seasonal Winds deliver air
cause local changes affect masses with
variations in climate. specific properties.
climate.
While the weather can change in just a few hours, climate changes over longer timeframes. Climate
events, like El Nino, happen over several years, small-scale fluctuations happen over decades, and
larger climate changes happen over hundreds and thousands of years 9 . Today, climates are changing.
Our Earth is warming more quickly than it has in the past according to the research of scientists. Hot
summer days may be quite typical of climates in many regions of the world, but global warming is
causing Earth's average global temperature to increase. The amount of solar radiation, the chemistry of

9
Climate prediction.net. Modelling the climate. (2008)
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the atmosphere, clouds, and the biosphere all affect Earth's climate 10 .
1.12. EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON ARCHITECTURE
When human beings chose a particular as his dwelling place since many generations before, he began
constructing it. Then he encountered with various climates, therefore he tried to struggle with
environmental conditions, and create suitable internal spaces, and initiated different constructing
methods to adapt to the environment.
Because of different climates, there are different building systems. There are also valuable experiences
in the field of designing, building and choosing of materials for traditional buildings, aimed at
struggling with environment conditions 11 .
1.2. CLIMATE DIVISIONS AND ARCHITECTURAL TYPOLOGY
According to the architectural forms and structures in different areas, it seems that the variable
characteristics of different climates have affected on creation of the cities and also the architectural
formation of these areas. Therefore, the exact distinction of climate districts and also acquiring the
climate characteristics in different areas has very important role in suitable designing. We study native
architecture characteristics according to the four climate areas due to the relationship between climate
and architecture of each area and also the difference of climates that has created the changes, native
architecture of different areas and finally determination of architecture typology 12 .
1.21. NATURAL EFFECTIVE PARAMETERS ON BUILDING
The Sun
Due to the high rainfall in these areas, the roofs are made with high slope. The slope level with west-

10
Climate prediction.net. Modelling the climate. (2008)
11
Givoni, B. “Man, Climate and Architecture”. (1969).
12

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east direction gets lighter in summer in comparison with winter.
Surfaces with the slope toward south get more sun radiation in winter. In autumn and spring, the south
slope surfaces get 20% or more than the east and west slope surfaces. Surfaces with the slope towards
north receive the less sun radiation during the year 13 .
Wind
The way of blowing of the wind in an area is an important parameter for determining the building’s
direction.
In north humid areas of Caspian Sea beaches, sea and earth breezes are blowing. Their direction during
the day is from the sea towards the beach and during the night, it is from the beach to the sea while the
direction and the severe of the movement of these breezes are effected by pressure differences. In
summer when the Pressure in northern beaches of Iran is more than the pressure in central plateau , the
air moves from the area with high pressure i.e. from sea towards beaches; for this reason Mangil area
has hard northern winds during the whole summer.
Natural ventilation, with no except, is used in all the buildings of this area 14 . In general, all the buildings
have expanded and open plans and all of them have long and narrow geometric plans. For the main use
of the wind blowing to create natural ventilation, rooms are located in the buildings due to the blowing
of the wind. In the areas with high blow of the wind, all parts of the building towards the wind are
completely closed. Because of using the best of wind blowing and because of great water sources and
availability of water, the buildings are located non-concentrated and with big distances.
Rainfall
Because of high rainfall in these areas, the roofs are made with slope and mostly with high slopes
effecting the form of the buildings to keep the rooms safe from the rain, the extended - balconies are
made around the rooms. These spaces are used for working, resting and sometimes for storing

13
Heerwagen, D. Paassive and Active Environmental Controls”. (2004)
14
IBIDEM
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agricultural products during the most times of the year 15 .
Humidity
In high humidity beaches and the borders near the sea, the buildings are made on the wooden pedestals
to prevent the penetration of humidity inside the building but on the slopes of the mountains, with less
humidity, houses are built on the stone, soil 16 .
Different ways of the penetration of the humidity into the buildings
Humidity in the building is maybe as a result of some parameters as the penetration of rain into the wall
and the roof, or into the internal surfaces from the seams of the windows, and great humidity because of
the internal systems producing the humidity and penetration of water from walls and roof.
Choosing the material of the walls to prevent the penetration of humidity into the internal spaces
Materials such as brick, and usual concrete or light concrete and cement block are penetrable against
water and steam and when these materials are exposed to rain, distills will appear in them.
To prevent the penetration, it’s necessary to cover the outside surface of such walls with special and
good quality layers. It applies to the cement block too. Empty walls with masonry materials consist of
an external layer and an internal layer and surround a space between itself, if there is no connection
between these two layers, The internal air of the wall cuts the stream of humidity, therefore it prevents
the direct penetration and frequent penetration of rain from the external layer of wall to the internal
layer.
Filling the empty spaces between two layers with the materials strong against the heat, which are water
resistant, increases thermal strength of the wall and doesn't have a negative effect on the wall-strength
against rainfalls.

15
16
IBIDEM
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If the conductor layers are installed inside the wall to increase the thermal strength of the wall, all layers
must be uniform and with no steam to prevent the humidity penetration inside the wall 17 .
The best and useful wall that can meet all the problems of preventing the humidity inside the buildings
is a two-layer wall consists of heavy, thick and internal layer, which is penetrable having thermal
strength and an external non-penetrable cover. In the empty space between these two-layers, it must be
possible to create ventilation and also evacuation of the water result from humidity. Therefore this high
humidity only appears in the internal surface of external layer and doesn't hurt the main wall, or in other
words the internal layers.

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1.22. NATURAL FACTORS EFFECTIVE ON THE BUILDING DESIGNS IN
MOUNTAINOUS AND COLD CLIMATE
SUNSHINE
The form and the way of locating the building for the maximum use of the sun
In cold climate, the external layer of building must be insulated completely against transmission of
thermal conducts. Therefore, it's not good to absorb sun energy by opaque surfaces of the buildings.
The better solution is to use windows, sun light absorbents and also the form, location & the survey
of the building and location of installed windows are important too. Considering the line of the sun
movement in winter is very short and lower than the line of its movement during summer, less sun
energy will be absorbed in winter. The best solution for using the sun energy during winter is
allocating wall and main windows of building in the south part. In most cases rotating the building
through east south (about 15º) is better, and in order to make it use the most of the sun light before
noon than the sun light in the afternoon, and the absorption of the heat by the construction begins
earlier. For using the most of sunshine in cold mountainous areas, we must decrease allocating
opener to minimums in the north, west, and east directions. North, west and east elevations are not in
a good condition with a view to the blowing of the winter winds and for not being exposed to the sun
light during winter. Therefore, south elevation of building is the best place for installing building
openers.
When it's necessary to install windows on North, west and east walls, they would rather be smaller,
and some places have to be considered for them with the most usages 18 .
Effect of sun light on the roof structures
In these areas the roofs are flat, and horizontal surfaces and flat roofs during summer absorb the most of
direct sun light and the least during winter. It is even less than the amount of sunlight that the southeast
and west-south walls absorb in this season.

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The reason for choosing for the flat roof in these areas is to keep the snow on the roof as the heat
isolator.
Wind
The movement of the mass of the air, resulting from the air pressure differences, cannot be changed. But
the speed and Direction of wind movement that is blowing near the earth surface is controllable. As the
blowing of the wind in cold mountainous areas results from the Height Mountains in these areas, it is
prevented by different ways in these kinds of constructions.
Form and location of buildings to decrease the wind turbulence
Winter wind affects decreasing buildings' heat by increasing the penetration of outside air and also
increasing heat conduction from external surface of the building. In a building with a suitable insulation,
the effect of penetration of outside air in wasting energy is more than the effectiveness of heat
transmission. Therefore the best solution is to decrease the possible differences between two buildings
and to decrease air speed to be less in touch with external surface of building.
This method is based on using breeze stream in summer. The less important must be located where
winter wind blows. Doors, windows, and openers that are vulnerable against penetration of air streams
must be located in a place with the least air pressure. It’s cleared that before designing the building, the
direction that the winter winds blow from must be considered. By designing precincts and a correct
location of the building, we can decrease the surfaces exposed to the wind. In the areas where the
direction of winter wind blowing is constantly changing, the best solution is decreasing the roof slope
and the whole height of the building. This matter has led to the decrease the building strength against
the wind and relatively makes the air pass monstrously. In the areas where the wind is blowing from a
predictable direction, the strength of the building structure against the wind can be decreased due to the
way of allocating the building on the earth. A suitable geometric form with low strength against the
current of the air is possibly a form like a short dome. For the common buildings, taking little attention
and applying more skills about the height, slope of the roof, direction of building location or the
construction body touch the earth surface we can decrease the surfaces, exposed to the wind to the
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lowest limit. Compactness of the form in the plan is the first rule for decreasing the touch with the wind
current and the direction of the location is important as much. The round corners of the building
decrease the rising air pressure by conducting the air current around the construction.
Therefore, the surface of flat and uniform walls shows the lowest strength against air current and as a
result, the level of air pressure will remain at the least. Angling the building with the imagination that
the sharp edge of each corner causes the slipping of the load has an opposite result. Increasing the width
surface is resulting from angling the building against wind stream. And effect of the wind will be more
in such a way that the amount of tension forces and air pressure in the building will be more than they
were.
Breaker wind
For preventing winter winds into the building in cold areas, we must use breaker wind. A breaker wind
will divert the air stream to the above and create a calm and supported area. The largest part of this
supported area is next to the breaker and back of the wind. In this place, the further away from the back
part of the breaker wind, the more it will be placed against the wind until it receives the primary speed
of the wind. In the part that is in the stream of the wind, there is a breaker wind especially the same one
that is completely compressed and a small calm area.
If the breaker has pores, such as the trees raw, the above part, which is in the stream of the load will be
maintained against the wind. In the back part, such a breaker is a supported area against the wind and
will be smaller than the breaker and will be placed far from distance.
The kind of the breaker will affect the direction and the form of air stream and also the area of the
supported place. Creating the turning of the air stream in the above part of the breaker will cause
decreasing of function of such a breaker.
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The general principles of breaker designing
The vastness of the area supported against wind, is suit with the height of breaker. The higher the
barrier, the more is the length of the supported area. Additionally, the angle of the breeder proportion to
the wind direction is important. The more vertical breaker would have the most effect.
Effects of climate on the building facade in cold mountainous areas
In cold mountainous areas, windows are bigger than dry and hot area to make the best use of sun
energy. As the case was in humid and mild areas, in these areas, a terrace is constructed in front of the
windows to prevent entering of the rainfalls in to the house. Since dark colors absorb radiation more
than light colors, therefore materials of the building façade are mainly dark in this area.
Choosing building material according to cold mountainous climate
In order to keep the internal weather condition fixed in cold areas, the resistance of materials against
heat must increase. Additionally the west walls and also internal part of the building must be
constructed with some heavy materials. In the areas with severe coldness, heavy walls are necessary to
balance the heat. It is also necessary to use heat insulator to prevent heat transmission.
Generally speaking two main factors are considered while determining building materials: one is the
critical outside conditions and the other is the best temperature. First the most critical weather condition
would be recognized and then the best temperature would be determined. At the last stage the most
appropriate building materials will be chosen accordingly.
Effects of climate on the building formats in cold mountainous climate
The format of the building has an important effect on so many factors such as adjusting the building
condition and climate as well as moderating the transmission of the critical outside weather conditions
to the buildings. Therefore open format buildings or the formats in which the south-north frontage is
lengthier than the west-east frontage are not suitable. And it is better for the building to be more
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compressed in mountainous cold climate and their plan should be in foursquare shape. That way they
can resist the cold. The cubical two story buildings are the best kind for controlling the internal heat in
the building during winter.
Direction of building construction in mountainous cold climates
Since getting the most sunlight is necessary in cold mountainous climate, therefore buildings must
locate toward a direction so that they can receive the highest sun radiation. Thus the main facade of
building must be placed toward the south in order to create the best heat condition inside the building.
So the northern façade of buildings decreases to the minimum surface 19 .
1.23. THE SPECIFICATIONS OF LOCAL ARCHITECTURE IN TROPICAL AREAS
The principles applying to the architecture of tropical areas are so much similar to that of raw area.
1) The natural forces affecting on building design in tropical areas Sunlight
Due to high sun energy in this area, the most attempts are made to locate the buildings in the shadows.
In this area, wide and roofed verandas are used to prevent rain and provide a shadow on room walls,
too.
Wind
Natural air conditioning is not that much important because of the warmth and humidity of the weather
in the region. Therefore enough forecasts are not made to make drafty rooms.
Some big vents are installed in this climate in order to use chilly see breeze. Most of the buildings of the
area enjoy vents. Nonetheless in the further areas that are less influenced by sea breeze, the vents are
small and short, and there are no vents in many other areas.

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2) The effects of climate on buildings in tropical area
Skin wetness is one of the most important problems in the clement areas, which is due to the high
humidity of the weather. Therefore the summary of the principles that should be applied in humid and
clement climates are as follows:
- Installing influential and permanent air conditioning
- Protecting walls and windows against sunlight and rain penetration
- Preventing inside weather from warming in day
- Decreasing the warmth to the minimum amount at night
Big windows are very useful provided that they are protected against sunlight, rain penetration and
insect entry. It is because such openers not only increase natural conditioning but also lead to the
decrease of internal temperature at night and in the evening. The most appropriate height of the
windows is 5.5 to 1.5 meters from the ground. If higher distance is more suitable, it is better to use
horizontal windows with joint and upward openers so that it leads the wind to downward (the room).
It is almost necessary to set up windows netting in order to prevent insects' entry to the room. Of course
the netting reduces natural conditioning and wind stream inside the room. To reduce such a stream, the
netting is set up with some distance from the window and does not stick to the window.
The windows and big openers in humid areas should effectively be protected against sunlight. The
visors of the windows should protect the internal space not only against direct rays but also against
scattered rays that have a quite considerable amount in tropical climate. In some cases it is possible to
adjoin walls, windows, rain and sunlight protection by expanding the ceiling area. The method is mostly
essential in the areas with downpour and wind in which the wind directs the rain horizontally and causes
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rain penetration to splits and cracks 20 .
3) The selection of building materials according to tropical climate
Due to the lessening of temperature fluctuation in tropical climate, high heat resistant and materials
without heat capacity are the best ones.
4) The effects of climate on buildings in tropical area
The effects of sun radiation in east and west require the buildings to have a tense format and cubed
rectangle shape and locate at the east-west axis. This method is quite useful in making a stream inside
the house and lessening humidity. If the building is located in shadow, the plan could be open and
free 21 .
1.24. SPECIFICATIONS OF ARCHITECTURE IN WARM AND DRY AREAS
The local architecture in tropical area provides some problems as follows, for the people of the area for
which they look for some solutions:
-Burning sunlight and hot.
-High temperature in day and low temperature at night.
-Daily temperature fluctuation particularly in summer.
-Hot summers and cold winters.
-Dry weather, low rain and shortage of water.
-Dusty and hot storms and perhaps sandy.

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IBIDEM
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1) Natural forces effective on building design in dry and warm areas Sunlight
The sunshine is severe in this area and the energy of radiation increases for 700 to 800 kilocalorie per
hour in the barren area. The sky is cloudless most of the year. Since sun radiation scatters by contacting
aerosols or return toward sky by hitting clouds, the energy potential decreases while passing through
atmosphere. Of course the proportion of scattered to direct radiation depend on cloudy condition of
weather.
The total heat reaching the ground is so much less in cloudy days compared to sunny days in which heat
absorption is high. Nonetheless mist, fog and dust are generated in the afternoon and due to the
movement of air layers next to the earth. Slight humidity and cloudless sky lead to the increasing of
weather changes in the region. The ground temperature increases up to 70˚ centigrade in summer while
the temperature rapidly decreases at night and reaches to 15˚ centigrade or even less. Of course weather
fluctuation is less than this. Anyway the changes are within 20˚. The temperature reaches to 40 to 50˚
centigrade in a day and 15 to 25˚ centigrade at night.
The shaping and directing buildings' surface for reducing effects of sunlight
The sun radiation absorption by buildings' façade could be minimized by different means:
1. Shaping and directing the building according to the sun.
2. The height of the building facing sun.
3. Shape and slope of the roof.
Controlling the shadows in the façades, the shape of the plan, direction and height of the buildings could
reduce the heat transition.
The shape of the plan and orientation
By orienting the four sides of the buildings' toward four geographical directions (north, south, east and
west), the absorption of sun radiation could be decreased. The perspective of the plan should be selected
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in a way that heat absorption from northern and southern façade would be equal to heat absorption from
eastern and western sides in hottest season. The favorite perspective differs in latitudes.
The height of the building
The height of the building is influential on the absorption of sun radiation since height increase leads to
the increase in building façade consequently more area faces the sun. Since sun radiance is more on
horizontal surfaces than vertical surfaces, so it is better to decrease roof surface and increase walls'
surface.
Additionally providing shadows for walls is so much easier than providing shadows for the ceilings.
Generally speaking similar area buildings in southern area should be built higher than northern area in
order to control sun radiation. If insulator or conditioning and splashing water on the roof decrease heat
absorption, two-story building may enjoy more heat transition. It is because of the fact that two-story
buildings have more façade than one-story buildings. The proportion of ceiling to wall is more
important because of the significance of coldness in the building.
The shape and slope of the roof
The effects of sun radiation on the shape and slope of the roof depend on the radiation angle. When
radiation angle is high, all kind of similar area ceilings get equal heat.
If radiation angle is minor, more inclined roofs get higher heat. This is very important for east-west
towers. The lower roof layers are more important than roof shaping. The flat roofs are difficult to
condition while inclined roofs are easily conditioned. Chimneys can be used for this purpose. If roof
color is light or it is cooled by evaporation or if there is a suitable heat insulator underneath, the shape of
the roof will loose its significance 22 .
The quality of radiation surface
The amount of sun radiation on the surfaces locating in different directions varies. Anyway heat

22
Ritter, M. “Humid Subtropical Climate”. (2008).
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absorption on a surface not only depends on the direction but also on color, context (the degree of
luster) and also the speed of air stream throughout the area.
The amount of the heat conversely relates to the degree of color lightness and the speed of air stream.
Additionally the more coarse and rough the area, the more heat absorption.
The color of the surface is the most important factor affecting heat amount of a surface.
The effects of color on the amount of heat absorption on a surface
Before sunrise, the change of heat in external surface of a building in all directions is concordant with
the change of external air temperature. Then roof temperature is a few degrees less than outside
temperature due to the reflection of rays with high wavelength. But after sunrise and when sun is
directly shining from other surfaces, the temperature of external sides of the buildings increases in
conjunction with the heat absorption. A light surfaces absorbs less energy and therefore is not that
much hot. And the environment temperature mostly influences the heat. But when the color is dark, the
effect of sunlight on generated heat is more than the effect of environment heat.
Wind
Some flows of Atlas Ocean winds blowing from northwest produce dusty storms in east of Iran and
make the pebbles of Sarakhs, Torbat Jaam and Sabzevar move. Some part of the flow moves toward
Gonabad. It is known as Herat Wind and generates a lot of dust in the region. Other flows of Atlas
Ocean winds blow from Turkistan toward east of Iran and some part of Afghanistan. The speed of this
stream is so much in some parts of Iran. The wind is known as "Systan 120-day" wind. It passes from
Ghaenat and Ghonabad and goes toward Systan and then to Low-Pressure center in north India and
Pakistan and south Iran.
The mentioned wind is called "Lovar" in Systan and blows permanently during the summer and with
different speeds. The initial speed is 36 kilometer per hour and then increases to 70 to 90 and even 108
to 120 kilometers per hour. The suitable predictions of the location of alleys and streets in tropical
climate and directing them toward the wind, attracts the cold wind to the city and chills the city.
Planting trees should prevent the hot winds and sandy storms. Pines are a good way if planted together
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due to the green color. But tamarisks are the best choice. In some of Khorasan villages, windmills do the
same thing.
In tropical areas, the natural conditioning should be minimized because internal temperature increases
due to outside warm air entry to the inside area. During the day due to high wind speed, natural
conditioning is more. Inside temperature change occurs in the layers closer to the outside air. On the
other hand, body temperature could go down via vascular evaporation cause of humidity shortage.
Consequently there in no need for speedy air to achieve cool down via evaporation. The speed of 15
cen/sec could be enough for this purpose. The speed is generated because of heat difference and
penetration of outside air through windows’ fissures. There is no need for opening the windows.
During the evening and at night natural conditioning rapidly cools the inside area down because of
lower outside temperature. The necessity of air stream at night and in the evening, makes us to open the
windows. Nether buildings get a little dust and sand in dust and sand storms. It is because of the fact
that in the exaltations more than 15 meters, the amount of sand considerably decreases.
In contrast to clement and humid areas, attempts are made to prevent storm and entrance of outside air
through windows particularly in warm weather. Instead other arrangements such as vents are predicted
to cool the area. The veranda provides a half open space that can be used during summer.
Vent
Vents are one of the signs of dry and warm climate cities. Kashan and Yazd have examples of those.
Vents are usually located in an area so that they cool the house and terrace. Vents are mostly set up in
the most occupied rooms. The vent is set up in the middle of five-door-room or in the hall.
There is also a connection with the basement. The opening of the basement is wider under the basement.
The small air stream moves to the basement via the opening and pulls up by one or two suctions.
There are many of such vents in Yazd. Of course we can also witness houses that are cooled without
vents. That is a ventilator is set up in a four sides house. The ventilator not only sends air stream to the
house but also provides more lightening. There are one side, two-side, 3-side and 4-side vents
concerning the direction of the wind in different regions in the country. We can see one-side vents in
cities with the zephyr with define direction. Since the direction of the thunderstorm and cold wind are
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EBUKANSON, A.G.

opposite, when the thunderstorms blow behind the vents, they aspirate the wind inside.
In such closed assortment, which there is no airflow, air circulation is being done by the means of the
vent installed behind the terrace of the house, which intercommunicate with the terrace and in some
cases with inferior basement.
The process of the vent is on the basis of aspiration the fug inside the building blowing the frost out by
the use of reaction of it. If the wind smashes the walls of the vent’s inner ribs, it pulls down, but the
other rifts of it, which are backing the wind, direct the polluted air toward wind.
Shaping and directing building facade in order to maximize summer breeze:
The longest side the building should vertically lie on the direction of the zephyr in order to get the best
air conditioning. If the angle between the building and wind were more or less than 90˚, the
conditioning would be done better. Anyway wind direction diverts ninety-degree angle is suitable. If the
strongest winds` direction is not clear i.e. the wind is blowing from all sides, the building should be
designed so that air conditioning would be possible from both sides. The best plan is a square shape
building with some windows locating in the four sides.
When the direction of the strongest wind is clear, the shape and direction of the building should be in
away that air stream could pass through the building. Therefore L shape plans are not appropriate. Air
pressure is more in the façade of high building that are facing the wind, thus conditioning would rapidly
be done. Vertical positioning of the rooms facilitates air stream and leads to dual conditioning.
Increasing the height of buildings is a traditional way of getting the best conditioning 23 .
2-The effects of climate on the buildings’ façade in warm and dry areas
Natural air conditioning should be minimized during the day in warm and dry area, because warm air
entrance increase inside temperature. During the evening and at night, lowering of outside temperature
provides the best conditioning, and inside room temperature cools down.
Enough consideration should be given to the fact that conditioning efficiency does not relate to the size

23
Ritter, M. “Humid Subtropical Climate”. (2008).
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of windows. Heat absorption from windows could be minimized by coordinating location, shape and
opening method of windows. That is small size windows could contribute to useful conditioning.
Additionally, the shape and dust entry to the building should be considered.
Buildings locating on the underneath absorb less dust in thunderous areas, because the amount of dust
falls down in higher areas. Large verandas are located toward cool streams in warm and dry areas;
those verandas provide a favorite weather in the afternoon.
3-Selection of building material in conjunction with warm and dry climate
For many centuries, adobe and mud have been the main materials used for constructing buildings of
warm and dry area. The material is generated by mixing soil and water, and kneading it. Soil cement is
used in muddy and adobe rural buildings. The more the clay, the more the viscosity and cracks after
drying.
Soil cement is used as a cover. It is better to add some salt to the roofing mud to prevent rain
penetration. Salty mud paste slowly looses water and does not freeze in a few temperatures below zero.
This constructive material is easy to make and is used wisely. The light color of mud reflects the sun
heat. As a result the heat does not enter the building. The temperature difference between day and night
necessitates careful material selection. It is better to use light materials in construction of the parts of the
building mostly used at night. For the parts used in a day, heavy materials are the best choice.
4-The effects of climate on building format in dry and warm areas
The best format is the one in which the less amount of heat is lost during the winter and the most is
absorbed during the summer. Therefore there was a common idea that square shape building is the best
to keep the heat in winter and cool the house in summer. Square shape buildings are required to be
longer in winter season of warm and dry climate (toward east and west) but if summer is the most
dominate season, the square shape is the most suitable one. Some part of the building can act as a yard
that provides shadow. Trees can be planted there and a pool can be set up. That way the weather can be
cooled down by evaporation via tree, grass and pool. Veranda creates a half-opened space in terrace
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EBUKANSON, A.G.

which was used while sun raised up the opposite wall in summer afternoons. Ceiling of the veranda was
built two three steps higher than the surface of the yard. In this difference between yard and veranda,
basement vents located under the terrace were foreseen. Basement was usually located under veranda
and in-between Five-Door. This part was the most desirable space to take rest in warm afternoons of
summer.
Domed roofs
Domed roofs are always exposed to blowing breezes due to their pop up forms. This would cause
decrease of heat when sun shined on roof. During nights heat reflected from the roof would remove
faster. In Iran’s architecture problem of cooling the inner space was better solved with two-shielded
domed roof invention.
Isolation of the space between the two shields, made the internal shield cooler. This is more seen in
architecture of public places where transportation of people was more. Architects were always looking
for better solutions to keep cool in warmth of summers and cold of winters 24 .
From geometric point of view, the area of an over arch is approximately three times bigger than its base
area. So intensity of sunshine would be decreased on the round part. And the lower part of the domed
roof would attract even lesser temperature. On the other hand domed roof are always exposed to
blowing breezes and that is why summer heats would affect them less comparing to flat roofs. The
domed form is also suitable for exiting temperature during nights and helps cooling the area. It means
that the heat returned from frame of the building is also gone away.
Two-layer dome
Two-layer dome having different types acts as follows:
1- The space between two layers act as isolator and make the internal layer cooler against warmth of the

24
Correa, C. “Architecture in a Warm Climate.” (1982)
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EBUKANSON, A.G.

external layer attracted by sunshine.
2- Internal layer of the domed stalk particularly in tower domes connects together on top and prevents
splitting of column stalk in the basement of external layer due to horizontal drift pressure generating
from heavy external layer.
3- The space under the domed roof is harmonized by structure of internal layer while external layer
gives building a good look from outside 25 .

25

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2.0: CHAPTER TWO
CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather over periods of time that range from
decades to millions of years. It can be a change in the average weather or a change in the distribution of
weather events around an average (for example, greater or fewer extreme weather events). Climate
change may be limited to a specific region, or may occur across the whole Earth 26 .
Climate change is a natural process that causes global temperatures to fluctuate over a certain period.
Some people believe that unnatural factors are also causes of climate change. Theories that climate
fluctuations are occurring at concerning paces have sparked an increased desire to understand the
factors 27 .
In recent usage, especially in the context of environmental policy, climate change usually refers to
changes in modern climate
2.1. CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change may result from both natural and human causes. The major causes of climate change are
described in the following sections.
CO2 and Other Greenhouse Gas Variations
Human Activity and Greenhouse Gas
Ocean Circulation
Volcanic Eruptions
Solar Variations
Orbital Variations
Land Use Changes

26
Oliver, J.E. and Fairbridge, R.W.. “The Encyclopedia of Climatology”. (1987)
27
Pidwirny, M. "Causes of Climate Change". Fundamentals of Physical Geography, (2006)
26

EBUKANSON, A.G.

(1.) CO2 and Other Greenhouse Gas Variations
Many natural and human-made gases contribute to the greenhouse effect that warms the Earth's surface.
Water vapor (H2O) is the most important, followed by carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous
oxide (N2O), and the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used in air conditioners and many industrial
processes.
The increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration is likely the most significant cause of the current
warming. Other greenhouse gases along with other factors discussed in the following sections also
contribute.
This diagram shows the relative
importance of the major human-
produced greenhouse gases to current
warming. CO2 is the most important
followed in descending order by
methane, CFCs, ozone and nitrous
oxide.
Fig. 2: IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN-PRODUCED GREENHOUSE GASES
(2). Human Activity and Greenhouse Gas
The Industrial Revolution in the 19th century saw the large-scale use of fossil fuels for industrial
activities. These industries created jobs and over the years, people moved from rural areas to the cities.
This trend is continuing even today. More and more land that was covered with vegetation has been
cleared to make way for houses. Natural resources are being used extensively for construction,
industries, transport, and consumption. Consumerism (our increasing want for material things) has
increased by leaps and bounds, creating mountains of waste. Also, our population has increased to an
27

EBUKANSON, A.G.

incredible extent 28 .
All this has contributed to a rise in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Fossil fuels such as oil, coal and
natural gas supply most of the energy needed to run vehicles, generate electricity for industries,
households, etc. The energy sector is responsible for about ¾ of the carbon dioxide emissions, 1/5 of the
methane emissions and a large quantity of nitrous oxide. It also produces nitrogen oxides (NOx) and
carbon monoxide (CO) which are not greenhouse gases but do have an influence on the chemical cycles
in the atmosphere that produce or destroy greenhouse gases.
Greenhouse gases and their sources
Carbon dioxide is undoubtedly, the most important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Changes in land
use pattern, deforestation, land clearing, agriculture, and other activities have all led to a rise in the
emission of carbon dioxide.
Methane is another important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. About ¼ of all methane emissions are
said to come from domesticated animals such as dairy cows, goats, pigs, buffaloes, camels, horses, and
sheep. These animals produce methane during the cud-chewing process. Methane is also released from
rice or paddy fields that are flooded during the sowing and maturing periods. When soil is covered with
water it becomes anaerobic or lacking in oxygen. Under such conditions, methane-producing bacteria
and other organisms decompose organic matter in the soil to form methane. Nearly 90% of the paddy-
growing area in the world is found in Asia, as rice is the staple food there. China and India, between
them, have 80-90% of the world's rice-growing areas.
Methane is also emitted from landfills and other waste dumps. If the waste is put into an incinerator or
burnt in the open, carbon dioxide is emitted. Methane is also emitted during the process of oil drilling,
coal mining and also from leaking gas pipelines (due to accidents and poor maintenance of sites).
A large amount of nitrous oxide emission has been attributed to fertilizer application. This in turn

28
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EBUKANSON, A.G.

depends on the type of fertilizer that is used, how and when it is used and the methods of tilling that are
followed. Contributions are also made by leguminous plants, such as beans and pulses that add nitrogen
to the soil 29 .
This graph illustrates how thoroughly fossil fuels and CO2 emissions are integrated into American life.
Fig. 3: U.S. Greenhouse Gas
Emissions by Sector, 1997
In 1997, different sectors of the
U.S. economy emitted millions
of metric tons of carbon
dioxide. Industry was the
largest contributor, producing
610 million metric tons.
Transportation emitted 470
million metric tons, residential
300 million metric tons, and
commercial 280 million metric
tons. Agriculture was also a
contributor, with 120 million
metric tons of carbon dioxide
emitted.

29
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EBUKANSON, A.G.

Fig. 4: Contributions of Atmospheric Gases and Solar
Radiation to Warming
Scientists have estimated the contribution to warming made
by a range of gases, dust and solar radiation. They have a
high level of certainty that greenhouse gases contribute the
most to warming, with increases in CO2 as the greatest
contributor with about 1.4 watts/meter2 and methane, nitrous
oxide, and halocarbons making smaller contributions.
Scientists have a lower level of certainty about the
contributions of reductions in stratospheric ozone and
increases in tropospheric aerosols, which cool the Earth by
0.3 watts/meter2 and 0.9 watts/meter2 respectively. Solar
radiation may also contribute to warming but scientists have a
very low certainty about the level of this contribution.
(3). OCEAN CIRCULATION
The oceans are a major component of the climate system. They cover about 71% of the Earth and
absorb about twice as much of the sun's radiation as the atmosphere or the land surface.
Direct Effect of Oceans on Climate
The atmospheric circulation (winds) and ocean currents carry heat from the tropics toward the poles.
Many processes can alter these circulation patterns, changing the climate regionally or even over the
whole world.
Interactions between the ocean and atmosphere can also produce phenomena such as El Niño, which
tends to recur every two to six years. Changes in deep ocean circulation can produce longer-lived
climate variations that endure for decades to centuries. The ice age cycles may have been influenced by
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EBUKANSON, A.G.

changes in ocean circulation arising from changes in the Earth’s orbit around the Sun 30 .
Cold water sinks at the poles and
travels throughout the world's
oceans. It gradually warms,
becomes less dense and mixes to
the surface. It then moves back
towards the poles carrying heat
absorbed along the way. Then the
cycle continues. Without this
cycle the poles would be colder
and the equator would be warmer.
Fig. 5: OCEAN CIRCULATION
Effect Of Oceans On Greenhouse Gases
The oceans play an important role in determining the atmospheric concentration of CO2. CO2 gas in the
atmosphere and CO2 dissolved in the ocean surface reach a balance. Changes in ocean circulation,
chemistry, and biology have shifted this balance in the past. Such changes may affect climate by slowly
moving CO2 into or out of the atmosphere.
(4). VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
A volcanic eruption may send ash and sulfate gas high into the atmosphere. The sulfate may combine
with water to produce tiny droplets (aerosols) of sulfuric acid, which reflect sunlight back into space.
Large eruptions reach the middle stratosphere (19 miles or 30 kilometers high). At this altitude, the
aerosols can spread around the world.

30
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EBUKANSON, A.G.

A massive volcanic eruption can cool the Earth for one or two years. The 1982 El Chichon eruption and
the 1991 Pinatubo eruption caused the globally averaged surface temperature to cool less than 1°F.
A volcanic eruption may send ash
and sulfuric acid (SO2) into the
atmosphere, which increases
planetary reflectivity causing
atmospheric cooling. Over time
precipitation will remove these
aerosols from the atmosphere.
Volcanic eruptions can have a
worldwide impact.
Fig. 6: VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
(5). SOLAR RADIATION
The Sun is the source of energy for the Earth’s climate system. Although the Sun’s energy output
appears constant from an everyday point of view, small changes over an extended period of time can
lead to climate changes. Some scientists suspect that a portion of the warming in the first half of the
20th century was due to an increase in the output of solar energy.
Learning how the Sun changed before modern instruments were available is not easy, but it appears that
changes in the output of solar energy have been small over the last million years, and probably even
longer.
(6). ORBITAL VARIATIONS
Slow changes in the Earth’s orbit lead to small but climatically important changes in the strength of the
seasons over tens of thousands of years. Climate feedbacks amplify these small changes, thereby
32

EBUKANSON, A.G.

producing ice ages.
Eccentricity
Earth’s orbit oscillates very slightly between nearly circular and more elongated every 100,000 years.
This cycle is evident in the glacial/interglacial cycles of roughly the same period.
The Earth's orbital path varies in the
degree to which it is circular. This change
in its "eccentricity" varies between 0.00
and 0.06 on a 100,000 year cycle. When
the eccentricity equals 0.00 the orbital path
is circular and when it is 0.06 the orbital
path is slightly elliptical. The current value
is 0.0167.
Fig. 7: ORBITAL ECCENTRICITY
Tilt
The Earth spins around an axis that is tilted from perpendicular to the plane in which the Earth orbits the
Sun. This tilt causes the seasons. At the height of the Northern Hemisphere winter the North Pole is
tilted away from the Sun, while in the summer it is tilted toward the Sun. The angle of the tilt varies
between 22° and 24.5° on a cycle of 41,000 years. When the tilt angle is high, the polar regions receive
less solar radiation than normal in winter and more in summer.
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EBUKANSON, A.G.

The Earth is tilted from
perpendicular in its orientation to
the Sun. This tilt varies from 22°
to 24.5° on a 41,000 year cycle.
The current tilt is 23.3°.
Fig. 8: EARTH'S TILT
Wobble
There is a slow wobble in the Earth’s spin axis, which causes the peak of winter to occur at different
points along the Earth’s elliptical orbital path. This variation in the seasons occurs on an approximately
23,000-year cycle.
The Earth's axis of rotation wobbles like
a top on a 23,000 year cycle. This causes
the Earth's seasons to reach their
maximum at different distances from the
Sun due to the elliptical shape of the
Earth's orbit.
Fig. 9: WOBBLE OF THE EARTH'S SPIN AXIS
34

EBUKANSON, A.G.

(7). LANDUSE CHANGES
When humans transform land from forests to seasonal crops or from natural to urban environments, the
regional climate system is altered. For example, clear-cut hillsides are significantly warmer than forests.
Urban environments are also islands of heat produced by industry, homes, automobiles, and by asphalt’s
absorption of solar energy. Land use changes are not likely to have a large, direct effect on global
average temperature.
Changing uses of the land are also associated with changes in the usage and availability of water, as
well as the production of greenhouse gases. Deforestation can significantly increase the amount of
atmospheric CO2, which warms the planet.
Urban enviroments create islands of heat from
industry, buildings, automobiles, and the
absorption of solar energy by dark-colored
surfaces.
Fig. 10: LAND USE CHANGES
(8). HOW WE CONTRIBUTE EVERYDAY
All of us in our daily lives contribute our bit to this change in the climate. Give these points a good,
serious thought:
- Electricity is the main source of power in urban areas. All our gadgets run on electricity generated
mainly from thermal power plants. These thermal power plants are run on fossil fuels (mostly coal) and
are responsible for the emission of huge amounts of greenhouse gases and other pollutants.
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EBUKANSON, A.G.

- Cars, buses, and trucks are the principal ways by which goods and people are transported in most of
our cities. These are run mainly on petrol or diesel, both fossil fuels.
- We generate large quantities of waste in the form of plastics that remain in the environment for many
years and cause damage.
- We use a huge quantity of paper in our work at schools and in offices. Have we ever thought about the
number of trees that we use in a day?
- Timber is used in large quantities for construction of houses, which means that large areas of forest
have to be cut down.
- A growing population has meant more and more mouths to feed.
Because the land area available for agriculture is limited (and in fact, is actually shrinking as a result of
ecological degradation!), high-yielding varieties of crop are being grown to increase the agricultural
output from a given area of land. However, such high-yielding varieties of crops require large quantities
of fertilizers; and more fertilizer means more emissions of nitrous oxide, both from the field into which
it is put and the fertilizer industry that makes it. Pollution also results from the run-off of fertilizer into
water bodies 31 .

31
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3.0 CHAPTER FOUR
SOLVING THE PROBLEMS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
3.1 RENEWABLE ENERGY
Tackling climate change involves creating sustainable places. Construction and use of the built
environment currently accounts for around half of national carbon emissions. But there are planning,
design and management solutions to climate change, if we use design as a problem-solving process.
Renewable energy is energy generated from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and
geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished) 32 . In 2006, about 18% of global final
energy consumption came from renewables, with 13% coming from traditional biomass, such as wood-
burning. Hydroelectricity was the next largest renewable source, providing 3% of global energy
consumption and 15% of global electricity generation 33 .
No plan to substantially reduce greenhouse gas emissions can succeed through increases in energy
efficiency alone. Because economic growth continues to boost the demand for energy— more coal for
powering new factories, more oil for fueling new cars, more natural gas for heating new homes—carbon
emissions will keep climbing despite the introduction of more energy-efficient vehicles, buildings and
appliances. We are now in an era where the opportunities for renewable energy are unprecedented,
making this the ideal time to advance clean power for decades to come. But the endeavor will require a
long-term investment of scientific, economic and political resources. Policymakers and ordinary citizens
must demand action and challenge one another to hasten the transition 34 .
Although the renewable energy sector is growing rapidly, the climate change imperative dictates that we

32
Cohen, B. L. "Breeder reactors: A renewable energy source". (1983)
33
IBIDEM
34
Miller, G. T., Jr. “Living in the Environment: Principles, Connections, and Solutions”.
(2002).
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EBUKANSON, A.G.

begin the wholesale transformation of our energy system now, if we are to have any possibility of
avoiding the worst of dangerous climate change by keeping global mean temperature rise well below 2°
C above preindustrial levels.
In today’s world, there are many other reasons to support a massive uptake of renewable energy and to
move away from conventional fossil fuel and nuclear sources:
• Air pollution from the transport and power sectors has made our cities hazardous to our health,
particularly to our children’s;
• A distributed system of generation from a variety of renewable sources provides a much more robust
energy system much less susceptible to interruptions of supply;
• Relying on largely indigenous renewable sources of energy can protect local economies from the
massive economic disruptions caused by speculation-driven swings on global commodities markets;
• A dispersed system of renewable generating systems is much more physically secure from attack;
• As the growing renewable energy industry has demonstrated, the sector is a fast-growing supplier of
high quality jobs, much more so than the capital-intensive conventional energy sector. 35

35
Miller, G. T., Jr. “Living in the Environment: Principles, Connections, and Solutions”.
(2002).
38

EBUKANSON, A.G.

3.11. MAIN SOURCES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY
Wind power
Fig. 11: Vestas V80 wind turbines
Airflows can be used to run wind turbines. Modern wind turbines range from around 600 kW to 5 MW
of rated power, although turbines with rated output of 1.5–3 MW have become the most common for
commercial use; the power output of a turbine is a function of the cube of the wind speed, so as wind
speed increases, power output increases dramatically 36 .
Globally, the long-term technical potential of wind energy is believed to be five times total current
global energy production, or 40 times current electricity demand.
Wind power is renewable and produces no greenhouse gases during operation, such as carbon dioxide
and methane.

36
Cassedy, E. S., and Grossman, P.Z.. “Introduction to Energy: Resources, Technology,
and Society”.(1998).
39

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Water power
Energy in water (in the form of kinetic energy, temperature differences or salinity gradients) can be
harnessed and used. Since water is about 800 times denser than air, 37 even a slow flowing stream of
water, or moderate sea swell, can yield considerable amounts of energy.
Fig. 12: One of 3 Pelamis Wave Energy Converters in the harbor of Peniche, Portugal
There are many forms of water energy:
Hydroelectric energy is a term usually reserved for large-scale hydroelectric dams. Examples are the
Grand Coulee Dam in Washington State and the Akosombo Dam in Ghana.
Damless hydro systems derive kinetic energy from rivers and oceans without using a dam.
Ocean energy describes all the technologies to harness energy from the ocean and the sea:
Marine current power. Similar to tidal stream power, uses the kinetic energy of marine currents
Tidal power captures energy from the tides.
Wave power uses the energy in waves. Wave power machines usually take the form of floating or
neutrally buoyant structures which move relative to one another or to a fixed point.

37
and Society”. (1998).
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EBUKANSON, A.G.

Osmotic power or salinity gradient power, is the energy retrieved from the difference in the salt
concentration between seawater and river water. Reverse electrodialysis (PRO) is in the research and
testing phase.
Vortex power is generated by placing obstacles in rivers in order to cause the formation of vortices
which can then be tapped for energy.
Solar energy
Fig. 13: Monocrystalline solar cell
In this context, "solar energy" refers to energy that is collected from sunlight. Solar energy can be
applied in many ways, including to:
• Generate electricity using photovoltaic solar cells.
• Generate electricity using concentrating solar power.
• Generate electricity by heating trapped air which rotates turbines in a Solar updraft tower.
• Generate hydrogen using photoelectrochemical cells.
• Heat water or air for domestic hot water and space heating needs using solar-thermal panels.
• Heat buildings, directly, through passive solar building design.
• Heat foodstuffs, through solar ovens.
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EBUKANSON, A.G.

• Solar air conditioning 38
Biofuel
Plants use photosynthesis to grow and produce biomass. Also known as biomatter, biomass can be used
directly as fuel or to produce biofuels. Agriculturally produced biomass fuels, such as biodiesel, ethanol
and bagasse (often a by-product of sugar cane cultivation) can be burned in internal combustion engines
or boilers 39 . Typically biofuel is burned to release its stored chemical energy. Research into more
efficient methods of converting biofuels and other fuels into electricity utilizing fuel cells is an area of
very active work 40 .
Geothermal energy
Fig. 14: Krafla Geothermal Station in northeast Iceland
Geothermal energy is energy obtained by tapping the heat of the earth itself, both from kilometers deep
into the Earth's crust in some places of the globe or from some meters in geothermal heat pump in all
the places of the planet 41 . It is expensive to build a power station but operating costs are low resulting in
low energy costs for suitable sites. Ultimately, this energy derives from heat in the Earth's core.

38
and Society”. (1998).
39
Ristinen, R. A., and Kraushaar, J.J. “Energy and the Environment”. ( 1998)
40

41
Ristinen, R. A., and Kraushaar, J.J. “Energy and the Environment”. ( 1998)
42

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3.2. SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE
Sustainable architecture is a general term that describes environmentally-conscious design techniques
in the field of architecture. Sustainable architecture is framed by the larger discussion of sustainability
and the pressing economic and political issues of our world. In the broad context, sustainable
architecture seeks to minimize the negative environmental impact of buildings by enhancing efficiency
and moderation in the use of materials, energy, and development space. Most simply, the idea of
sustainability, or ecological design, is to ensure that our actions and decisions today do not inhibit the
opportunities of future generations. This term can be used to describe an energy and ecologically
conscious approach to the design of the built environment 42 .
This definition of sustainability does not specify the ethical roles of humans for their everlasting
existence on the planet. It also fails to embrace the value of all other constituents participating in the
global ecosystem. The need for finding long-terms solutions that warrant continuing human existence
and well-being is far more compelling than that of finding a proper terminology to describe the human
need. In this respect, the debate on the terms “green,” “sustainable,” or “ecological” architecture is not
terribly important.
Architecture is one of the most conspicuous forms of economic activity. A country’s economic
development will necessitate more factories, office buildings, and residential buildings 43 . For a
household, the growth of incomes will lead to a desire for a larger house with more expensive building
materials, furnishings and home appliances; more comfortable thermal conditions in interior spaces; and
a larger garden or yard. During a building’s existence, it affects the local and global environments via a
series of interconnected human activities and natural processes. At the early stage, site development and
construction influence indigenous ecological characteristics. Though temporary, the influx of
construction equipment and personnel onto a building site and process of construction itself disrupt the
local ecology. The procurement and manufacturing of materials impact the global environment. Once

42
43
Jong-Jin K. “Sustainable Architecture Module: Introduction to Sustainable Design”. (1998).
IBIDEM
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built, building operation inflicts long-lasting impact on the environment. For instance, the energy and
water used by its inhabitants produce toxic gases and sewage; the process of extracting, refining, and
transporting all the resources used in building operation and maintenance also have numerous effects on
the environment.
Architectural professionals have to accept the fact that as a society’s economic status improves, its
demand for architectural resources — land, buildings or building products, energy, and other resources
— will increase. This in turn increases the combined impact of architecture on the global ecosystem,
which is made up of inorganic elements, living organisms, and humans.
The goal of sustainable design is to find architectural solutions that guarantee the well-being and
coexistence of these three constituent groups.
3.21. PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE DESIGN
To educate architects to meet this goal of coexistence, we have developed a conceptual framework. The
three levels of the framework (Principles, Strategies, and Methods) correspond to the three objectives of
architectural environmental education: creating environmental awareness, explaining the building
ecosystem, and teaching how to design sustainable buildings. The overall conceptual diagram for
sustainable design is shown in Figure 15.
We propose three principles of sustainability in architecture. Economy of Resources is concerned with
the reduction, reuse, and recycling of the natural resources that are input to a building. Life Cycle
Design provides a methodology for analyzing the building process and its impact on the environment.
Humane Design focuses on the interactions between humans and the natural world. These principles
can provide a broad awareness of the environmental impact, both local and global, of architectural
consumption 44 .

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Fig. 15: Conceptual framework
for Sustainable Design and
Pollution Prevention in
Architecture.
Each of these principles embody a unique set of strategies. Studying these strategies leads students to
more thorough understanding of architecture’s interaction with the greater environment. This allows
them to further disaggregate and analyze specific methods architects can apply to reduce the
environmental impact of the buildings they design.
Fig. 16: The input and output streams of resource flow 45 .

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Principle 1: Economy of Resources
By economizing resources, the architect reduces the use of non-renewable resources in the construction
and operation of buildings. There is a continuous flow of resources, natural and manufactured, in and
out of a building. This flow begins with the production of building materials and continues throughout
the building’s life span to create an environment for sustaining human well-being and activities. After a
building’s useful life, it should turn into components for other buildings.
When examining a building, consider two streams of resource flow (see Figure 5). Upstream,
resources flow into the building as input to the building ecosystem. Downstream, resources flow out of
the building as output from the building ecosystem. In a long run, any resources entered into a building
ecosystem will eventually come out from it. This is the law of resource flow conservation. 46
For a given resource, its forms before entry to a building and after exit will be different. This
transformation from input to output is caused by the many mechanical processes or human interventions
rendered to the resources during their use in buildings. The input elements for the building ecosystem
are diverse with various forms, volumes and environmental implications.
The three strategies for the economy of resources principle are energy conservation, water
conservation, and material conservation. Each focuses on a particular resource necessary for building
construction and operation.
Energy Conservation
After construction, a building requires a constant flow of energy input during its operation. The
environmental impacts of energy consumption by buildings occur primarily away from the building site,
through mining or harvesting energy sources and generating power. The energy consumed by a building
in the process of heating, cooling, lighting, and equipment operation cannot be recovered. The type,
location, and magnitude of environmental impacts of energy consumptions in buildings differ depending

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on the type of energy delivered. Coal-fired electric power plants emit polluting gases such as SO2 , CO2
, CO, and NOx into the atmosphere. Nuclear power plants produce radioactive wastes, for which there is
currently no permanent management solution. Hydropower plants each require a dam and a reservoir
which can hold a large body of water; construction of dams results in discontinuance of river
ecosystems and the loss of habitats for animals and plants 47 .
Water Conservation
A building requires a large quantity of water for the purposes of drinking, cooking, washing and
cleaning, flushing toilets, irrigating plants, etc.. All of this water requires treatments and delivery, which
consume energy. The water that exits the building as sewage must also be treated.
Material Conservation
A range of building materials are brought onto building sites. The influx of building materials occurs
primarily during theconstruction stage. The waste generated by the construction and installation process
is significant. After construction, a low-level flow of materials continues in for maintenance,
replacement, and renovation activities. Consumer goods flow into the building to support human
activities. All of these materials are eventually output, either to be recycled or dumped in a landfill.
Principle 2: Life Cycle Design
The conventional model of the building life cycle is a linear process consisting of four major phases:
design; construction; operation and maintenance; and demolition (see Figure 6). The problem with this
model is that it is too narrowly defined: it does not address environmental issues (related to the
procurement and manufacturing of building materials) or waste management (reuse and recycling of
architectural resources).

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Fig. 17: Conventional model of the building life cycle 48 .
The second principle of sustainable architecture is life cycle design (LCD). This “cradle-to-grave”
approach recognizes environmental consequences of the entire life cycle of architectural resources, from
procurement to return to nature. LCD is based on the notion that a material transmigrates from one form
of useful life to another, with no end to its usefulness.
For the purpose of conceptual clarity, the life cycle of a building can be categorized into three phases:
pre-building, building, and post-building, as shown in Figure 7. These phases are connected, and the
boundaries between them are not obvious. The phases can be developed into LCD strategies that focus
on minimizing the environmental impact of a building. Analyzing the building processes in each of
these three phases provides a better understanding of how a building’s design, construction, operation,
and disposal affect the larger ecosystem 49 .
Fig. 18: The sustainable building life cycle.

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Pre-Building Phase
This phase includes site selection, building design, and building material processes, up to but not
including installation. Under the sustainable-design strategy, we examine the environmental
consequences of the structure’s design, orientation, impact on the landscape, and materials used. The
procurement of building materials impacts the environment: harvesting trees could result in
deforestation; mining mineral resources (iron for steel; bauxite for aluminum; sand, gravel, and
limestone for concrete) disturbs the natural environment; even the transport of these materials can be a
highly polluting activity, depending on their weight and distance from the site. The manufacturing of
building products also requires energy and creates environmental pollution: for example, a high level of
energy is required to manufacture steel or aluminum products.
Building Phase
This phase refers to the stage of a building’s life cycle when a building is physically being constructed
and operated. In the sustainable-design strategy, we examine the construction and operation processes
for ways to reduce the environmental impact of resource consumption; we also consider long-term
health effects of the building environment on its occupants.
Post-Building Phase
This phase begins when the useful life of a building has ended. In this stage, building materials become
resources for other buildings or waste to be returned to nature. The sustainable design strategy focuses
on reducing construction waste (which currently comprises 60% of the solid waste in landfills1) by
recycling and reusing buildings and building materials.
Site and Building Interactions
The LCD concept calls for consideration of the environmental consequences of buildings in all three
phases of the life cycle. Each phase of building life cycle is associated with two groups of ecological
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elements: site and building (see Figure 8). The principal domain of architectural design is in the
building phase, but sustainable building can be achieved by finding ways to minimize environmental
impacts during all three phases of building life cycle.
Fig. 19: Ecological elements of Site and Building associated with the building life-cycle phases.
Principle 3: Humane Design
Humane design is the third, and perhaps the most important, principle of sustainable design. While
economy of resources and life cycle design deal with efficiency and conservation, humane design is
concerned with the livability of all constituents of the global ecosystem, including plants and wildlife.
This principle arises from the humanitarian and altruistic goal of respecting the life and dignity of
fellow living organisms. Further examination reveals that this principle is deeply rooted in the need to
preserve the chain elements of the ecosystems that allow human survival.
In modern society, more than 70% of a person’s lifespan is spent indoors. An essential role of
architecture is to provide built environments that sustain occupants’ safety, health, physiological
comfort, psychological well-being, and productivity.
The following three strategies for humane design focus on enhancing the coexistence between buildings
and the greater environment, and between buildings and their occupants,
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Preservation of Natural Conditions
An architect should minimize the impact of a building on its local ecosystem (e.g., existing topography,
plants, wildlife).
Urban Design and Site Planning
Neighborhoods, cities, and entire geographic regions can benefit from cooperative planning to reduce
energy and water demands. The result can be a more pleasant urban environment, free of pollution and
welcoming to nature.
Human Comfort
As discussed previously, sustainable design need not preclude human comfort. Design should enhance
the work and home environments. This can improve productivity, reduce stress, and positively affect
health and well-being.
3.22. METHODS FOR ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DESIGN
The ultimate goal and challenge of sustainable design is to find win-win solutions that provide
quantitative, qualitative, physical, and psychological benefits to building users. There are many
possibilities for achieving this seemingly difficult goal. The three principles of sustainable design —
economy of resources, life cycle design, and humane design — provide a broad awareness of the
environment issues associated with architecture. The strategies within each principle focus on more
specific topics. These strategies are intended to foster an understanding of how a building interacts with
the internal, local, and global environments. This section discusses methods for applying sustainable
design to architecture 50 .

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Economy of Resources
Conserving energy, water, and materials can yield specific design methods that will improve the
sustainability of architecture (see Figure 8). These methods can be classified as two types.
1) Input-reduction methods reduce the flow of nonrenewable resources input to buildings. A
building’s resource demands are directly related its efficiency in utilizing resources.
2) 2) Output-management methods reduce environmental pollution by requiring a low level of
waste and proper waste management.
Energy Conservation
Energy conservation is an input-reduction method. The main goal is to reduce consumption of fossil
fuels. Buildings consume energy not only in their operation, for heating, lighting and cooling, but also
in their construction. The materials used in architecture must be harvested, processed, and transported to
the building site. Construction itself often requires large amounts of energy for processes ranging from
moving earth to welding 51 .
Energy-Conscious Urban Planning
Cities and neighborhoods that are energy-conscious are not planned around the automobile, but around
public transportation and pedestrian walkways. These cities have zoning laws favorable to mixed-use
developments, allowing people to live near their workplaces. Urban sprawl is avoided by encouraging
redevelopment of existing sites and the adaptive reuse of old buildings. Climatic conditions determine
orientation and clustering 52 . For example, a very cold or very hot and dry climate might require
buildings sharing walls to reduce exposed surface area; a hot, humid climate would require widely
spaced structures to maximize natural ventilation.

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Fig. 20: “Economy of Resources” methods of application.
Energy-Conscious Site Planning
Such planning allows the designer to maximize the use of natural resources on the site. In temperate
climates, open southern exposure will encourage passive solar heating; deciduous trees provide shade in
summer and solar heat gain in winter. Evergreens planted on the north of a building will protect it from
winter winds, improving its energy efficiency. Buildings can be located relative to water onsite to
provide natural cooling in summer.
Passive Heating and Cooling
Solar radiation incident on building surfaces is the most significant energy input to buildings. It
provides heat, light, and ultraviolet radiation necessary for photosynthesis. Historically, architects have
devised building forms that provide shading in summer and retain heat in winter. This basic requirement
is often overlooked in modern building design. Passive solar architecture offers design schemes to
control the flow of solar radiation using building structure, so that it may be utilized at a more desirable
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time of day.
Shading in summer, by plants or overhangs, prevents summer heat gain and the accompanying costs of
air-conditioning. The wind, or the flow of air, provides two major benefits: cooling and hygienic effects.
Prevailing winds have long been a major factor in urban design. For instance, proposals for Roman city
layouts were primarily based on the direction of prevailing winds.
Insulation
High-performance windows and wall insulation prevent both heat gain and loss. Reducing such heat
transfer reduces the building’s heating and cooling loads and thus its energy consumption. Reduced
heating and cooling loads require smaller HVAC equipment, and the initial investment need for the
equipment will be smaller.
Aside from these tangible benefits, high-performance windows and wall insulation create more
comfortable thermal environments. Due to the insulating properties of the materials, the surface
temperatures of windows and walls will be higher in the winter and lower in the summer. The
installation of smaller HVAC equipment reduces mechanical noise and increases sonic quality of the
indoor space.
Alternate Sources of Energy
Solar, wind, water, and geothermal energy systems are all commercially available to reduce or eliminate
the need for external energy sources. Electrical and heating requirements can be met by these systems,
or combination of systems, in all climates.
Day lighting
Building and window design that utilizes natural light will lead to conserving electrical lighting energy,
shaving peak electric loads, and reducing cooling energy consumptions. At the same time, daylighting
increases the luminous quality of indoor environments, enhancing the psychological wellbeing and
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productivity of indoor occupants. These qualitative benefits of daylighting can be far more significant
than its energy-savings potential.
Energy-Efficient Equipment & Appliances
After construction costs, a building’s greatest expense is the cost of operation. Operation costs can even
exceed construction costs over a building’s lifetime. Careful selection of high efficiency heating,
cooling, and ventilation systems becomes critical. The initial price of this equipment may be higher than
that of less efficient equipment, but this will be offset by future savings.
Choose Materials with Low Embodied Energy
Building materials vary with respect to how much energy is needed to produce them. The embodied
energy of a material attempts to measure the energy that goes into the entire life cycle of building
material. For instance, aluminium has a very high embodied energy because of the large amount of
electricity that must be used to manufacture it from mined bauxite ore; recycled aluminum requires far
less energy to refabricate. By choosing materials with low embodied energy, the overall environmental
impact of a building is reduced. Using local materials over imported materials of the same type will
save transportation energy.
Water Conservation
Methods for water conservation may reduce input, output, or both. This is because, conventionally, the
water that is supplied to a building and the water that leaves the building as sewage is all treated by
municipal water treatment plants. Therefore, a reduction in use also produces a reduction in waste.
Reuse Water Onsite
Water consumed in buildings can be classified as two types: graywater and sewage. Graywater is
produced by activities such as handwashing. While it is not of drinking-water quality, it does not need to
be treated as nearly as intensively as sewage. In fact, it can be recycled within a building, perhaps to
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irrigate ornamental plants or flush toilets. Well-planned plumbing systems facilitate such reuse.
Reduce Consumption
Water supply systems and fixtures can be selected to reduce consumption and waste. Low-flow faucets
and small toilet tanks are now required by code in many areas of the country. Vacuum-assisted and
biocomposting toilets further reduce water consumption. Biocomposting toilets, available on both
residential and commercial scales, treat sewage on site, eliminating the need for energy-intensive
municipal treatment. Indigenous landscaping — using plants native to the local ecosystem — will also
reduce water consumption. These plants will have adapted to the local rainfall levels, eliminating the
need for additional watering. Where watering is needed, the sprinkler heads should be carefully placed
and adjusted to avoid watering the sidewalk and street.
MATERIALS CONSERVATION
The production and consumption of building materials has diverse implications on the local and global
environments. Extraction, processing, manufacturing, and transporting building materials all cause
ecological damage to some extent 53 . There are input and output reduction methods for materials
conservation. As with water, some of these methods overlap.
Adapt Existing Buildings to New Uses
One of the most straightforward and effective methods for material conservation is to make use of the
resources that already exist in the form of buildings. Most buildings outlive the purpose for which they
were designed. Many, if not all, of these buildings can be converted to new uses at a lower cost than
brand-new construction.
Incorporate Reclaimed or Recycled Materials

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Buildings that have to be demolished should become the resources for new buildings. Many building
materials, such as wood, steel, and glass, are easily recycled into new materials. Some, like brick or
windows, can be used whole in the new structure. Furnishing, particularly office partition systems, are
also easily moved from one location to another.
Use Materials That Can Be Recycled
During the process of designing the building and selecting the building materials, look for ways to use
materials that can themselves be recycled. This preserves the energy embodied in their manufacture.
Size Buildings and Systems Properly
A building that is oversized for its designed purpose, or has oversized systems, will excessively
consume materials. When a building is too large or small for the number of people it must contain, its
heating, cooling, and ventilation systems, typically sized by square footage, will be inadequate or
inefficient. This method relates directly to the programming and design phases of the architectural
process. The client’s present and future space needs must be carefully studied to ensure that the
resulting building and systems are sized correctly.
Reuse Non-Conventional Products as Building Materials
Building materials from unconventional sources, such as recycled tires, pop bottles, and agricultural
waste, are readily available. These products reduce the need for new landfills and have a lower
embodied energy that the conventional materials they are designed to replace.
Consumer Goods
All consumer goods eventually lose their original usefulness. The “useful life” quantifies the time of
conversion from the useful stage to the loss of original usefulness stage. For instance, a daily newspaper
is useful only for one day, a phone book is useful for one year, and a dictionary might be useful for 10
years. The shorter the useful life of consumer goods, the greater the volume of useless goods will result.
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Consequently, more architectural considerations will be required for the recycling of short-life
consumer goods. The conventional term for consumer goods that have lost their original usefulness is
waste. But waste is or can be a resource for another use. Therefore, in lieu of waste, it is better to use the
term “recyclable materials.” One way buildings can encourage recycling is to incorporate facilities such
as on-site sorting bins.
The conventional term for consumer goods that have lost their original usefulness is waste. But waste is
or can be a resource for another use. Therefore, in lieu of waste, it is better to use the term “recyclable
materials.” 54 . One way buildings can encourage recycling is to incorporate facilities such as on-site
sorting bins.
LIFE CYCLE DESIGN
As discussed earlier, the Life Cycle Design principle embodies three strategies: pre-building, building,
and post-building. These strategies, in turn, can yield specific design methods
that will improve the sustainability of architecture. Figure 10 shows how each method relates to the
main strategies of Life Cycle Design. These methods focus mainly on reducing input. Consuming fewer
materials lessens the environmental impact of the associated manufacturing processes. This then reduces
the eventual output of the building ecosystem.
Pre-Building Phase
During the Pre-Building Phase, the design of a building and materials selected for it are examined for
their environmental impact. The selection of materials is particularly important at this stage: the impact
of materials processing can be global and have long-term consequences.

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Fig. 21: “Life Cycle Design” methods of application.
Use Materials Made From Renewable Resources
Renewable resources are those that can be grown or harvested at a rate that exceeds the rate of human
consumption. Using these materials is, by definition, sustainable. Materials made from nonrenewable
materials (petroleum, metals, etc.) are, ultimately, not sustainable, even if current supplies are adequate.
Using renewable materials wherever possible reduces the need for nonrenewable materials.
Use Materials Harvested or Extracted Without Causing Ecological Damage
Of the renewable materials available, not all can be obtained without significant environmental effects.
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Therefore, the architect must be aware of how various raw materials are harvested and understand the
local and global ramifications.
Use Recycled Materials
Using recycle materials reduces waste and saves scarce landfill space. Recycled materials also preserve
the embodied energy of their original form, which would otherwise be wasted. This also reduces the
consumption of materials made from virgin natural resources. Many building materials, particularly
steel, are easily recycled, eliminating the need for more mining and milling operations.
Use Materials with Long Life and Low Maintenance
Durable materials last longer and require less maintenance with harsh cleansers. This reduces the
consumption of raw materials needed to make replacements and the amount of landfill space taken by
discarded products. It also means occupants receive less exposure to irritating chemicals used in the
installation and maintenance of materials.
Building Phase
The methods associated with the Building Phase strategy are concerned with the environmental impact
of actual construction and operation processes.
Minimize Site Impact
Careful planning can minimize invasion of heavy equipment and the accompanying ecosystem damage
to the site. Excavations should not alter the flow of groundwater through the site. Finished structures
should respect site topology and existing drainage. Trees and vegetation should only be removed when
absolutely necessary for access. For sensitive sites, materials that can be hand-carried to the site reduce
the need for excessive road-building and heavy trucks.
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Employ Nontoxic Materials
The use of nontoxic materials is vital to the health of the building’s occupants, who typically spend
more than three-quarters of their time indoors. Adhesives used to make many common building
materials can outgas — release volatile organic compounds into the air — for years after the original
construction. Maintenance with nontoxic cleansers is also important, as the cleaners are often airborne
and stay within a building’s ventilation system for an extended period of time.
Post-Building Phase
During this phase, the architect examines the environmental consequences of structures that have
outlived their usefulness. At this point, there are three possibilities in a building’s future: reuse,
recycling of components, and disposal. Reuse and recycling allow a building to become a resource for
new buildings or consumer goods; disposal requires incineration or landfill dumping, contributing to an
already overburdened waste stream.
Reuse the Building
The embodied energy of a building is considerable. It includes not only the sum of energy embodied in
the materials, but also the energy that went into the building’s construction. If the building can be
adapted to new uses, this energy will be conserved. Where complete reuse of a building is not possible,
individual components can be selected for reuse — windows, doors, bricks, and interior fixtures are all
excellent candidates.
Recycle Materials
Recycling materials from a building can often be difficult due to the difficulty in separating different
substances from one another. Some materials, like glass and aluminum, must be scavenged from the
building by hand. Steel can easily be separated from rubble by magnets. Concrete can be crushed and
used as aggregate in new pours.
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Reuse Existing Buildings and Infrastructure
It has become common for new suburbs to move farther and farther from the core city as people search
for “space” and “nature.” Of course, the development of new suburbs from virgin woods or fertile
agricultural fields destroys the very qualities these suburbanites are seeking. Moreover, in addition to
the materials for new houses, new development requires massive investments in material for roads,
sewers, and the businesses that inevitability follow. Meanwhile, vacant land and abandoned structures in
the city, with its existing infrastructure, go unused, materials wasted.
HUMANE DESIGN
As described in the introduction, this principle embodies three strategies: preservation of natural
conditions, urban design and site planning, and design for human comfort 55 . These strategies, in turn,
yield specific design methods that will improve the sustainability of architecture. Figure 11 shows how
each method relates to the three strategies of Humane Design. These methods focus primarily on
improving the quality of life for humans and other species.
Preservation of Natural Conditions
Respect Topographical Contours
The existing contours of a site should be respected. Radical terraforming is not only expensive but
devastating to the site’s microclimate. Alteration of contours will affect how water drains and how wind
moves through a site.
Do Not Disturb the Water Table
Select sites and building designs that do not require excavation below the local water table. Placing a
large obstruction (the building) into the water table will disturb natural hydraulic process. If the water
table is exposed during construction, it will also become more susceptible to contamination from
polluted surface runoff.
Preserve Existing Flora and Fauna
Local wildlife and vegetation should be recognized as part of the building site. When treated as

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resources to be conserved rather than as obstacle to be overcome, native plants and animals will make
the finished building a more enjoyable space for human habitation.
Urban Design and Site Planning
The methods associated with the Urban Design and Site Planning strategy apply sustainability at a scale
larger than the individual building.
Integrate Design with Public Transportation
Sustainable architecture on an urban scale must be designed to promote public transportation.
Thousands of individual vehicles moving in and out of area with the daily commute create smog,
congest traffic, and require parking spaces.
Promote Mixed Use Development
Sustainable development encourages the mixing of residential, commercial, office and retail space.
People then have the option of living near where they work and shop. This provides a greater sense of
community than conventional suburbs. The potential for 24-hour activity also makes an area safer.
Design for Human Comfort
Provide Thermal, Visual, and Acoustic Comfort
People do not perform well in spaces that are too hot or too cold. Proper lighting, appropriate to each
task, is essential. Background noise from equipment or people can be distracting and damage occupants’
hearing. Acoustic and visual privacy also need to be considered.
Provide Visual Connection to Exterior
The light in the sky changes throughout the day, as the sun and clouds move across the sky. Humans all
have an internal clock that is synchronized to the cycle of day and night.
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From a psychological and physiological standpoint, windows and skylights are essential means of
keeping the body clock working properly,
Provide Operable Windows
Operable windows are necessary so that building occupants can have some degree of control over the
temperature and ventilation in their workspace.
Provide Fresh Clean Air
Fresh air through clean air ducts is vital to the well-being of building occupants. The benefits of fresh
air go beyond the need for oxygen. Continuous recirculation of interior air exposes people to
concentrated levels of bacteria and chemicals within the building.
Use Nontoxic, Non-Outgassing Materials
Long-term exposure to chemicals commonly used in building materials and cleaners can have a
detrimental effect on health.
Accommodate Persons with Differing Physical Abilities
One aspect of sustainable design is its longevity. Buildings that are durable and adaptable are more
sustainable than those that are not. This adaptability includes welcoming people of different ages and
physical conditions. The more people that can use a building, the longer the building’s useful life.
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Fig. 22: “Humane Design” methods of application.
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3.3. THE KYOTO PROTOCOL
The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC or FCCC), aimed at combating global warming 56 . The UNFCCC is an international
environmental treaty with the goal of achieving "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate
system." 57 .
The prevailing international scientific opinion on climate change is that human activities resulted in
substantial global warming from the mid-20th century, and that continued growth in greenhouse gas
concentrations caused by human-induced emissions would generate high risks of dangerous climate
change.
Objectives
Kyoto is intended to cut global emissions of greenhouse gases.
The objective is the stabilization and reconstruction of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere
at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.
Proponents also note that Kyoto is a first step as requirements to meet the UNFCCC will be modified
until the objective is met, as required by UNFCCC Article 4.2(d).
The five principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:
• commitments to reduce greenhouse gases that are legally binding for annex I countries, as well
as general commitments for all member countries;
• implementation to meet the Protocol objectives, to prepare policies and measures which reduce
greenhouse gases; increasing absorption of these gases (for example through geo-sequestration

56
European Commission. "The Kyoto protocol - A brief summary". (2007).
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and bio-sequestration) and use all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, clean
development mechanism and emissions trading; being rewarded with credits which allow more
greenhouse gas emissions at home;
• minimizing impacts on developing countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate
change;
• accounting, reporting and review to ensure the integrity of the Protocol;
• compliance by establishing a compliance committee to enforce commitment to the Protocol
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4.0. CONCLUSION
Architecture and climate have always been linked in a pattern of mutual influence. In its role as a
provider of shelter, architecture intentionally modifies the climate of an immediate area – and
traditionally, its design has been shaped by the stresses and opportunities inherent in the regional
climate. In modern times, this cycle of influence has been obscured, because technology and cheap fuel
have allowed architects the option of ignoring climatic cues. In the process, buildings and cities have
produced unintentional modifications to climate at different scales, from the local to the global. In
tandem with these trends, efforts have been made to better understand the dynamic interactions between
the built and natural environments, and to pursue paths for bringing them into balance. This research
traces some of the milestones in these cross-disciplinary efforts, and examines the directions in which
leading-edge research is headed.
Incorporating energy efficiency, renewable energy, and sustainable green design features into all
buildings has become a top priority in the climate change saga. In designing low-energy buildings, it is
important to appreciate that the underlying purpose of the building is neither to save—nor use—energy.
Rather, the building is there to serve the occupants and their activities. An understanding of building
occupancy and activities can lead to building designs that not only save energy and reduce costs, but
also improve occupant comfort and workplace performance. As such, low-energy building design is a
vital component of sustainable, green design.
Basic energy-saving techniques should be used to reduce building energy use.
• Siting and organizing the building configuration and massing to reduce loads.
• Reducing cooling loads by eliminating undesirable solar heat gain.
• Reducing heating loads by using desirable solar heat gain.
• Using natural light as a substitute for (or complement to) electrical lighting.
• Using natural ventilation whenever possible.
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• Using more efficient heating and cooling equipment to satisfy reduced loads.
• Using computerized building control systems.
Tackling climate change involves creating sustainable places. Construction and use of the built
environment currently accounts for around half of national carbon emissions. But there are planning,
design and management solutions to climate change, if we use design as a problem-solving process. It is
believed that sustainable design is an integral part of good design. No building, space or place can be
considered well designed if it does not contribute to environmental, social and economic sustainability.
Conversely, no building, space or place can be considered sustainable if it is not well designed.
Finally, some thoughts are offered on sustainable architecture in an age of dwindling resources and
questionable climatic stability.
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5.0. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bensalem, R. “Climate-responsive Architecture”. 1995: pp 8
Cassedy, E. S., and Grossman, P.Z.. “Introduction to Energy: Resources, Technology, and Society”.
2nd edition. (1998).
Climate prediction.net. Modelling the climate. (2008) pp 05-02.
Cohen, B. L. "Breeder reactors: A renewable energy source" . (1983-01). Pp 75–76
Correa, C. “Architecture in a Warm Climate.” (1982) pp 31-35.
European Commission. "The Kyoto protocol - A brief summary".
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/climat/kyoto.htm. (2007).
Evans,A and Steven,D. “An Institutional Architecture for Climate Change”. (March 2009). Pp 2,5,10.
Givoni, B. “Man, Climate and Architecture”. Amsterdam: Elseveir Publishing Company
Limited, (1969).
Hattam, J . "Obama Challenged on Climate During Turkey Trip". (8 April 2009).
“Sustainable design, climate change and the built environment”. (2007). Pp 1, 4
Heerwagen, D. Paassive and Active Environmental Controls”. (2004) pp 68-
69,72,75,85,124,158-170.
Jong-Jin K. “Sustainable Architecture Module: Introduction to Sustainable Design”. (1998). Pp 6-28.
Le Corbusier. “Towards a New Architecture.” Dover Publications (1985).pp 5,7
Maisonnave, E. “Climate Variability.” (2008) pp 05-02.
Miller, G. T., Jr. “Living in the Environment: Principles, Connections, and Solutions”. 12th edition.
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(2002).
Oliver, J.E. and Fairbridge, R.W.. “The Encyclopedia of Climatology”. Chapman & Hall, New York.
(1987). PP 15.
Oktay, D. “Design with the climate in housing environments: an analysis in Northern Cyprus.”
Building and Environment (2002): pp 1003-1012.
Pidwirny, M. "Causes of Climate Change". Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition (2006).
Ritter, M. “Humid Subtropical Climate”. (2008). Pp 03-06
Ristinen, R. A., and Kraushaar, J.J. “Energy and the Environment”. ( 1998). Pp 9, 11.
Rowland, D and Howe, T.N.. Vitruvius. Ten Books on Architecture. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge (1999) pp 33
Thornthwaite, C. W. . "An Approach Toward a Rational Classification of Climate". Geographical
Review, (1948). Pp 55-94,
71

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6.0. REFERENCES
Anderson, B. “The Fuel Savers: A Kit of Solar Ideas for Your Home, Apartment, or Business”. 2nd
edition. (1991).
Blue Planet Biomes. “Steppe Climate”. (2008)
Brooke, B. “Solar Energy”. (1992).
Building Science Corporation. “Houses That Work II: Hot-Humid Climate”. (26 October
2003) <http://www.buildingscience.com/housesthatwork/hothumid/default.htm>.
Encyclopædia Britannica. "Humid subtropical climate". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-53358/climate. (2008)
Evans, A. and Steven, D. “An Institutional Architecture for Climate Change”. (March 2009). Pp 2,5,10
Field, C.B. and Raupach, M. R. The Global Carbon Cycle: Integrating Humans, Climate, and the
Natural World. Island Press. (2004).
Goldenberg, J. “World Energy Assessment: Energy and the Challenge of Sustainability”. United
Nations, (2000).
Hattam, J . "Obama Challenged on Climate During Turkey Trip". (8 April 2009).
“Sustainable design, climate change and the built environment”. (2007). Pp 1, 4
Pimentel, D, and Pimentel, M. “Food, Energy, and Society”. ( 1996).
Ritter, M. “Subarctic Climate”. (2008)
Randolph, J and Masters, G.M. “Energy for Sustainability: Technology, Planning, Policy,” Island
Press, Washington, DC.(2008).
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1: NATIONAL PARK SERVICE
FIGURE 2: IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN-PRODUCED GREENHOUSE GASES
FIGURE 3: U.S. GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS BY SECTOR, 1997
FIGURE 4: CONTRIBUTIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC GASES AND SOLAR RADIATION
TO WARMING
FIGURE 5: OCEAN CIRCULATION
FIGURE 6: VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
FIGURE 7: ORBITAL ECCENTRICITY
FIGURE 8: EARTH'S TILT
FIGURE 9: WOBBLE OF THE EARTH'S SPIN AXIS
FIGURE 10: LAND USE CHANGES
FIGURE 11: VESTAS V80 WIND TURBINES
FIGURE 12: ONE OF 3 PELAMIS WAVE ENERGY CONVERTERS IN THE HARBOR
OF PENICHE, PORTUGAL
FIGURE 13: MONOCRYSTALLINE SOLAR CELL
FIGURE 15: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR SUSTAINABLE DESIGN AND
POLLUTION PREVENTION IN ARCHITECTURE.
FIGURE 16: THE INPUT AND OUTPUT STREAMS OF RESOURCE FLOW
73

EBUKANSON, A.G.

FIGURE 17: CONVENTIONAL MODEL OF THE BUILDING LIFE CYCLE
FIGURE 18: THE SUSTAINABLE BUILDING LIFE CYCLE.
FIGURE 19: ECOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF SITE AND BUILDING ASSOCIATED
WITH THE BUILDING LIFE-CYCLE PHASES.
FIGURE 20: “ECONOMY OF RESOURCES” METHODS OF APPLICATION.
FIGURE 21: “LIFE CYCLE DESIGN” METHODS OF APPLICATION.
FIGURE 22: “HUMANE DESIGN” METHODS OF APPLICATION.
74

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1.0 CHAPTER ONE

responsive development and its benefits in helping to keep humans comfortable 3 .

manipulation of materials and forms using mathematical and scientific principles. 5

may refer to the activity of designing any kind of system.

As documentation produced by architects, typically drawings, plans and technical

kind of system that is to be or has been constructed.

1.1. WHAT IS CLIMATE?

above freezing, weather extremes, and local geography 7 .

Fig. 1 National Park Service

the factors that work together to determine climate.

1.11. FACTORS THAT CONTROL CLIMATE

control climate at your location. 8

LATITUDE ELEVATION NEARBY OCEAN

Surface Climate zones WATER CURRENTS

temperatures vary coincide roughly Sea surface

TOPOGRAPHY VEGETATION PREVAILING

Local variations in Type of ground WINDS

elevation can cover and seasonal Winds deliver air

cause local changes affect masses with

variations in climate. specific properties.

1.12. EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON ARCHITECTURE

methods to adapt to the environment.

struggling with environment conditions 11 .

1.2. CLIMATE DIVISIONS AND ARCHITECTURAL TYPOLOGY

architecture of different areas and finally determination of architecture typology 12 .

1.21. NATURAL EFFECTIVE PARAMETERS ON BUILDING

east direction gets lighter in summer in comparison with winter.

north receive the less sun radiation during the year 13 .

has hard northern winds during the whole summer.

agricultural products during the most times of the year 15 .

humidity, houses are built on the stone, soil 16 .

Different ways of the penetration of the humidity into the buildings

words the internal layers.

1.22. NATURAL FACTORS EFFECTIVE ON THE BUILDING DESIGNS IN

MOUNTAINOUS AND COLD CLIMATE

Effect of sun light on the roof structures

and west-south walls absorb in this season.

prevented by different ways in these kinds of constructions.

Form and location of buildings to decrease the wind turbulence

that is completely compressed and a small calm area.

decreasing of function of such a breaker.

The general principles of breaker designing

Effects of climate on the building facade in cold mountainous areas

Choosing building material according to cold mountainous climate

appropriate building materials will be chosen accordingly.

Effects of climate on the building formats in cold mountainous climate

the building during winter.

Direction of building construction in mountainous cold climates

So the northern façade of buildings decreases to the minimum surface 19 .

1.23. THE SPECIFICATIONS OF LOCAL ARCHITECTURE IN TROPICAL AREAS

1) The natural forces affecting on building design in tropical areas Sunlight

2) The effects of climate on buildings in tropical area

clement climates are as follows:

- Installing influential and permanent air conditioning

- Protecting walls and windows against sunlight and rain penetration

- Preventing inside weather from warming in day

- Decreasing the warmth to the minimum amount at night

rain penetration to splits and cracks 20 .

3) The selection of building materials according to tropical climate

without heat capacity are the best ones.

4) The effects of climate on buildings in tropical area

1.24. SPECIFICATIONS OF ARCHITECTURE IN WARM AND DRY AREAS

which they look for some solutions:

-Burning sunlight and hot.