Foreword

This book, "Electrical Installation Guide according

to IEC International Standards", which is compiled
and printed in English by Schneider Electric,
facilitates utilization of the IEC 60364 series of
international standards concerned with safety,
guarding, control, performance and protection of
circuits, together with fundamentals and rules of
electrical installation design. Moreover,
the book contains topics of extreme importance
that cover wide fields of electric power systems
and their installations in different facilities. This
renders the book a useful reference to each
engineer and specialist in the field and an easy
guide to such international standards and their
application.

SASO, in recognition of the guide's important and

comprehensive electric installation content, has
translated it into Arabic to enable researchers and
specialists to benefit from it in Arabic, if they
desire.

In its capacity as the body entrusted with issuing

and approving Saudi standards, SASO attaches
particular importance to verification of safety in
electrical installation in buildings. SASO is also
acting assiduously to complete work on the
national regulations of electrical installation
based upon IEC 60364 series of international
standards which are adopted as Saudi standards.
In view of the divergence of the items of such
standards and the many technical options
offered, issuing an application guide to these
standards is extremely useful. To this effect, the
Saudi national regulations of electrical
installation in buildings will be used.
The guide being introduced here, will be
an important reference for "the electrical
installation guide according to Saudi standards"
as part of the Saudi national regulations of
electrical installation in buildings.

Dr. Khaled Y. Al-Khalaf

Vice Chairman, Board of Directors
and Director General, SASO
contents

A
A. contents A1

B. general - installed power

1. methodology B1

2. rules and statutory regulations B3

2.1 definition of voltage ranges B3
table B1
standard voltages between 100 V and 1000 V (IEC 38-1983) B3
table B2
standard voltages above 1 kV and not exceeding 35 kV (IEC 38-1983) B3
2.2 regulations B4
2.3 standards B4
2.4 quality and safety of an electrical installation B5
2.5 initial testing of an installation B6
2.6 periodic check-testing of an installation B6
table B3
frequency of check-tests commonly recommended for an electrical installation B6
2.7 conformity (with standards and specifications) of equipment
used in the installation B7

3. motor, heating and lighting loads B8

3.1 induction motors B8
table B4
power and current values for typical induction motors B9
3.2 direct-current motors B10
table B6
progressive starters with voltage ramp B10
table B7
progressive starters with current limitation B10
3.3 resistive-type heating appliances and incandescent lamps
(conventional or halogen) B11
table B8
current demands of resistive heating and incandescent lighting (conventional or halogen)
appliances B11
3.4 fluorescent lamps and related equipment B11
table B10
current demands and power consumption of commonly-dimensioned fluorescent
lighting tubes (at 220 V/240 V - 50 Hz) B12
table B11
current demands and power consumption of compact fluorescent lamps
(at 220 V/240 V - 50 Hz) B12
3.5 discharge lamps B13
table B12
current demands of discharge lamps B13

4. power loading of an installation B14

4.1 installed power (kW) B14
4.2 installed apparent power (kVA) B15
table B13
estimation of installed apparent power B15
4.3 estimation of actual maximum kVA demand B16
table B14
simultaneity factors in an apartment block B16
table B16
factor of simultaneity for distribution boards (IEC 439) B17
table B17
factor of simultaneity according to circuit function B17
4.4 example of application of factors ku and ks B17
table B18
an example in estimating the maximum predicted loading of an installation
(the factor values used are for demonstration purposes only) B17

contents - A1
 contents (continued)

A
B. general - installed power (continued)
4. power loading of an installation (continued)
4.5 diversity factor B18
4.6 choice of transformer rating B18
table B19
IEC-standardized kVA ratings of HV/LV 3-phase distribution transformers
and corresponding nominal full-load current values B18
4.7 choice of power-supply sources B19

C. HV/LV distribution substations

1. supply of power at high voltage C1
1.1 power-supply characteristics of high voltage distribution networks C1
table C1
relating nominal system voltages with corresponding rated system voltages
(r.m.s. values) C2
table C2
switchgear rated insulation levels C3
table C3A
transformers rated insulation levels in series I (based on current practice other than
in the United States of America and some other countries) C3
table C3B
transformers rated insulation levels in series II (based on current practice in the United
States of America and some other countries) C4
table C4
standard short-circuit current-breaking ratings extracted from table X IEC 56 C4
1.2 different HV service connections C11
1.3 some operational aspects of HV distribution networks C13

2. consumers HV substations C15

2.1 procedures for the establishment of a new substation C15

3. substation protection schemes C17

3.1 protection against electric shocks and overvoltages C17
3.2 electrical protection C22
table C18
power limits of transformers with a maximum primary current not exceeding 45 A C25
table C19
rated current (A) of HV fuses for transformer protection according to IEC 282-1 C26
table C20
3-phase short-circuit currents of typical distribution transformers C27
3.3 protection against thermal effects C31
3.4 interlocks and conditioned manœuvres C31

4. the consumer substation with LV metering C34

4.1 general C34
4.2 choice of panels C36
table C27
standard short-circuit MVA and current ratings at different levels of nominal voltage C37
4.3 choice of HV switchgear panel for a transformer circuit C38
4.4 choice of HV/LV transformer C38
table C31
categories of dielectric fluids C41
table C32
safety measures recommended in electrical installations using dielectric liquids
of classes 01, K1, K2 or K3 C42

5. a consumer substation with HV metering C44

5.1 general C44
5.2 choice of panels C46
5.3 parallel operation of transformers C48

6. constitution of HV/LV distribution substations C49

6.1 different types of substation C49
6.2 indoor substations equipped with metal-enclosed switchgear C49
6.3 outdoor substations C52
A2 - contents
 A
7. appendix 1␣ : example in coordination of the
characteristics of an HV switch-fuse combination
protecting an HV/LV transformer App C1-1
7.1 transfert current and take-over current App C1-2
7.2 types of faults involved in the transfer region App C1-3

8. appendix 2␣ : ground-surface potential gradients

due to earth-fault currents App C2-1

9. appendix 3␣ : vector diagram of ferro-resonance

at 50Hz (or 60 Hz) App C3-1

D. low-voltage service connections

1. low-voltage public distribution networks D1
1.1 low-voltage consumers D1
table D1
survey of electricity supplies in various countries around the world. D1
table D2 D6
1.2 LV distribution networks D7
1.3 the consumer-service connection D10
1.4 quality of supply voltage D13

2. tariffs and metering D14

E. power factor improvement and harmonic filtering

1. power factor improvement E1
1.1 the nature of reactive energy E1
1.2 plant and appliances requiring reactive current E2
1.3 the power factor E2
1.4 tan ϕ E3
1.5 practical measurement of power factor E4
1.6 practical values of power factor E4
table E5
example in the calculation of active and reactive power E4
table E7
values of cos ϕ and tan ϕ for commonly-used plant and equipment E4

2. why improve the power factor? E5

2.1 reduction in the cost of electricity E5
2.2 technical/economic optimization E5
table E8
multiplying factor for cable size as a function of cos ϕ E5

3. how to improve the power factor E6

3.1 theoretical principles E6
3.2 by using what equipment? E7
3.3 the choice between a fixed or automatically-regulated bank
of capacitors E8

4. where to install correction capacitors E9

4.1 global compensation E9
4.2 compensation by sector E9
4.3 individual compensation E10

contents - A3
 contents (continued)

A
E. power factor improvement and harmonic filtering (continued)
5. how to decide the optimum level of compensation E11
5.1 general method E11
5.2 simplified method E11
table E17
kvar to be installed per kW of load, to improve the power factor of an installation E12
5.3 method based on the avoidance of tariff penalties E13
5.4 method based on reduction of declared maximum apparent
power (kVA) E13

6. compensation at the terminals of a transformer E14

6.1 compensation to increase the available active power output E14
table E20
active-power capability of fully-loaded transformers, when supplying loads at different
values of power factor E14
6.2 compensation of reactive energy absorbed by the transformer E15
table E24
reactive power consumption of distribution transformers with 20 kV primary windings E16

7. compensation at the terminals of an induction motor E17

7.1 connection of a capacitor bank and protection settings E17
table E26
reduction factor for overcurrent protection after compensation E17
7.2 how self-excitation of an induction motor can be avoided E18
table E28
maximum kvar of P.F. correction applicable to motor terminals without risk
of self-excitation E19

8. example of an installation before and after

power-factor correction E20

9. the effect of harmonics on the rating of a capacitor

bank E21
9.1 problems arising from power-system harmonics E21
9.2 possible solutions E21
9.3 choosing the optimum solution E22
table E30
choice of solutions for limiting harmonics associated with a LV capacitor bank E22
9.4 possible effects of power-factor-correction capacitors
on the power-supply system E23

10. implementation of capacitor banks E24

10.1 capacitor elements E24
10.2 choice of protection, control devices, and connecting cables E25

11. appendix 1␣ : elementary harmonic filters App E3-1

12. appendix 2␣ : harmonic suppression reactor

for a single (power factor correction)
capacitor bank App E4-1

F. distribution within a low-voltage installation

1. general F1
1.1 the principal schemes of LV distribution F1
1.2 the main LV distribution board F4
1.3 transition from IT to TN F4

A4 - contents
 A
2. essential services standby supplies F5
2.1 continuity of electric-power supply F5
2.2 quality of electric-power supply F6
table F10
assumed levels of transient overvoltage possible at different points of a typical
installation F8
table F12
typical levels of impulse withstand voltage of industrial circuit breakers labelled
Uimp = 8 kV F8
table F18
compatibility levels for installation materials F13

3. safety and emergency-services installations,

and standby power supplies F15
3.1 safety installations F15
3.2 standby reserve-power supplies F15
3.3 choice and characteristics of reserve-power supplies F16
table F21
table showing the choice of reserve-power supply types according to application
requirements and acceptable supply-interruption times F16
3.4 choice and characteristics of different sources F17
table F22
table of characteristics of different sources F17
3.5 local generating sets F18

4. earthing schemes F19

4.1 earthing connections F19
table F25
list of exposed-conductive-parts and extraneous-conductive-parts F20
4.2 definition of standardized earthing schemes F21
4.3 earthing schemes characteristics F23
4.4.1 choice criteria F29
4.4.2 comparison for each criterion F30
4.5 choice of earthing method - implementation F31
4.6 installation and measurements of earth electrodes F32
table F47
resistivity (Ω-m) for different kinds of terrain F33
table F48
mean values of resistivity (Ω-m) for an approximate estimation of an earth-electrode
resistance with respect to zero-potential earth F33

5. distribution boards F36

5.1 types of distribution board F36
5.2 the technologies of functional distribution boards F37
5.3 standards F38
5.4 centralized control F38

6. distributors F39
6.1 description and choice F39
6.2 conduits, conductors and cables F41
table F60
selection of wiring systems F41
table F61
erection of wiring systems F41
table F62
some examples of installation methods F43
table F63
designation code for conduits according to the most recent IEC publications F44
table F64
designation of conductors and cables according to CENELEC code for harmonized
cables F45
table F66
commonly used conductors and cables F46

contents - A5
 contents (continued)

A
F. distribution within a low-voltage installation (continued)
7. external influences F47
7.1 classification F47
table F67
concise list of important external influences (taken from Appendix A of IEC 364-3) F48
7.2 protection by enclosures: IP code F49

G. protection against electric shocks

1. general G1
1.1 electric shock G1
1.2 direct and indirect contact G1

2. protection against direct contact G2

2.1 measures of protection against direct contact G2
2.2 additional measure of protection against direct contact G3

3. protection against indirect contact G4

3.1 measure of protection by automatic disconnection of the supply G4
table G8
maximum safe duration of the assumed values of touch voltage in conditions where
UL = 50 V G4
table G9
maximum safe duration of the assumed values of touch voltage in conditions where
UL = 25 V G4
3.2 automatic disconnection for a TT-earthed installation G5
table G11
maximum operating times of RCCBs (IEC 1008) G6
3.3 automatic disconnection for a TN-earthed installation G6
table G13
maximum disconnection times specified for TN earthing schemes (IEC 364-4-41) G7
3.4 automatic disconnection on a second earth fault in an IT-earthed
system G8
table G18
maximum disconnection times specified for an IT-earthed installation (IEC 364-4-41) G9
3.5 measures of protection against direct or indirect contact
without circuit disconnection G10

4. implementation of the TT system G13

4.1 protective measures G13
table G26
the upper limit of resistance for an installation earthing electrode which must not be
exceeded, for given sensitivity levels of RCDs at UL voltage limits of 50 V and 25 V G13
4.2 types of RCD G14
4.3 coordination of differential protective devices G15

5. implementation of the TN system G18

5.1 preliminary conditions G18
5.2 protection against indirect contact G18
table G42
correction factor to apply to the lengths given in tables G43 to G46 for TN systems G20
table G43
maximum circuit lengths for different sizes of conductor and
instantaneous-tripping-current settings for general-purpose circuit breakers G20
table G44
maximum circuit lengths for different sizes of conductor and rated currents for type B
circuit breakers G20
table G45
maximum circuit lengths for different conductor sizes and for rated currents of circuit
breakers of type C G21
table G46
maximum circuit lengths for different conductor sizes and for rated currents of circuit
breakers of type D or MA Merlin Gerin G21
5.3 high-sensitivity RCDs G22
5.4 protection in high fire-risk locations G22
5.5 when the fault-current-loop impedance is particularly high G23
A6 - contents
 A
6. implementation of the IT system G24
6.1 preliminary conditions G24
table G53
essential functions in IT schemes G24
6.2 protection against indirect contact G25
table G59
correction factors, for IT-earthed systems, to apply to the circuit lengths given
in tables G43 to G46 G28
6.3 high-sensitivity RCDs G29
6.4 in areas of high fire-risk G29
6.5 when the fault-current-loop impedance is particularly high G30

7. residual current differential devices (RCDs) G31

7.1 description G31
7.2 application of RCDs G31
table G70
electromagnetic compatibility withstand-level tests for RCDs G32
table G72
means of reducing the ratio I∆n/lph (max.) G33
7.3 choice of characteristics of a residual-current circuit breaker
(RCCB - IEC 1008) G34
table G74
typical manufacturers coordination table for RCCBs, circuit breakers, and fuses G34

H. the protection of circuits and the switchgear

H1. the protection of circuits
1. general H1-1
1.1 methodology and definitions H1-1
table H1-1
logigram for the selection of cable size and protective-device rating for a given circuit H1-1
1.2 overcurrent protection principles H1-3
1.3 practical values for a protection scheme H1-4
1.4 location of protective devices H1-5
table H1-7
general rules and exceptions concerning the location of protective devices H1-5
1.5 cables in parallel H1-5
1.6 worked example of cable calculations H1-6
table H1-9
calculations carried out with ECODIAL software (Merlin Gerin) H1-8
table H1-10
example of short-circuit current evaluation H1-9

2. practical method for determining the smallest

allowable cross-sectional-area of circuit conductors H1-10
2.1 general H1-10
table H1-11
logigram for the determination of minimum conductor size for a circuit H1-10
2.2 determination of conductor size for unburied circuits H1-10
table H1-12
code-letter reference, depending on type of conductor and method of installation H1-10
table H1-13
factor K1 according to method of circuit installation (for further examples refer
to IEC 364-5-52 table 52H) H1-11
table H1-14
correction factor K2 for a group of conductors in a single layer H1-11
table H1-15
correction factor K3 for ambient temperature other than 30 °C H1-12
table H1-17
case of an unburied circuit: determination of the minimum cable size (c.s.a.), derived
from the code letter; conductor material; insulation material and the fictitious current I'z H1-13

contents - A7
 contents (continued)

A
H. the protection of circuits and the switchgear (continued)
H1. the protection of circuits (continued)
2. practical method for determining the smallest
allowable cross-sectional-area of circuit conductors (continued)
2.3 determination of conductor size for buried circuits H1-14
table H1-19
correction factor K4 related to the method of installation H1-14
table H1-20
correction factor K5 for the grouping of several circuits in one layer H1-14
table H1-21
correction factor K6 for the nature of the soil H1-15
table H1-22
correction factor K7 for soil temperatures different than 20 °C H1-15
table H1-24
case of a buried circuit: minimum c.s.a. in terms of type of conductor; type of insulation;
and value of fictitious current I'z (I'z = Iz) H1-15
K

3. determination of voltage drop H1-17

3.1 maximum voltage-drop limit H1-17
table H1-26
maximum voltage-drop limits H1-17
3.2 calculation of voltage drops in steady load conditions H1-18
table H1-28
voltage-drop formulae H1-18
table H1-29
phase-to-phase voltage drop ∆U for a circuit, in volts per ampere per km H1-18

4. short-circuit current calculations H1-20

4.1 short-circuit current at the secondary terminals of a HV/LV
distribution transformer H1-20
table H1-32
typical values of Usc for different kVA ratings of transformers with HV windings i 20 kV H1-20
table H1-33
Isc at the LV terminals of 3-phase HV/LV transformers supplied from a HV system
with a 3-phase fault level of 500 MVA, or 250 MVA H1-20
4.2 3-phase short-circuit current (Isc) at any point within
a LV installation H1-21
table H1-36
the impedance of the HV network referred to the LV side of the HV/LV transformer H1-21
table H1-37
resistance, reactance and impedance values for typical distribution transformers
with HV windings i 20 kV H1-22
table H1-38
recapitulation table of impedances for different parts of a power-supply system H1-23
table H1-39
example of short-circuit current calculations for a LV installation supplied at 400 V
(nominal) from a 1,000 kVA HV/LV transformer H1-23
4.3 Isc at the receiving end of a feeder in terms of the Isc
at its sending end H1-23
table H1-40
Isc at a point downstream, in terms of a known upstream fault-current value
and the length and c.s.a. of the intervening conductors, in a 230/400 V 3-phase system H1-24
4.4 short-circuit current supplied by an alternator or an inverter H1-25

5. particular cases of short-circuit current H1-26

5.1 calculation of minimum levels of short-circuit current H1-26
table H1-49
maximum circuit lengths in metres for copper conductors (for aluminium, the lengths
must be multiplied by 0.62) H1-28
table H1-50
maximum length of copper-conductored circuits in metres protected by B-type
circuit breakers H1-29
table H1-51
maximum length of copper-conductored circuits in metres protected by C-type
circuit breakers H1-29
table H1-52
maximum length of copper-conductored circuits in metres protected by D-type
circuit breakers H1-29
table H1-53
correction factors to apply to lengths obtained from tables H1-49 to H1-52 H1-30
A8 - contents
 A
5.2 verification of the withstand capabilities of cables
under short-circuit conditions H1-31
table H1-54
value of the constant k2 H1-31
table H1-55
maximum allowable thermal stress for cables (expressed in amperes2 x seconds x 106) H1-31

6. protective earthing conductors (PE) H1-32

6.1 connection and choice H1-32
table H1-59
choice of protective conductors (PE) H1-33
6.2 conductor dimensioning H1-33
table H1-60
minimum c.s.a.'s for PE conductors and earthing conductors
(to the installation earth electrode) H1-34
table H1-61
k factor values for LV PE conductors, commonly used in national standards
and complying with IEC 724 H1-34
6.3 protective conductor between the HV/LV transformer
and the main general distribution board (MGDB) H1-35
table H1-63
c.s.a. of PE conductor between the HV/LV transformer and the MGDB, in terms of transformer
ratings and fault-clearance times used in France H1-35
6.4 equipotential conductor H1-35

7. the neutral conductor H1-36

7.1 dimensioning the neutral conductor H1-36

7.2 protection of the neutral conductor H1-36

table H1-65
table of protection schemes for neutral conductors in different earthing systems H1-37

H2. the switchgear

1. the basic functions of LV switchgear H2-1
table H2-1
basic functions of LV switchgear H2-1
1.1 electrical protection H2-1
1.2 isolation H2-1
table H2-2
peak value of impulse voltage according to normal service voltage of test specimen H2-2
1.3 switchgear control H2-2

2. the switchgear and fusegear H2-4

2.1 elementary switching devices H2-4
table H2-7
utilization categories of LV a.c. switches according to IEC 947-3 H2-5
table H2-8
factor "n" used for peak-to-rms value (IEC 947-part 1) H2-5
table H2-13
zones of fusing and non-fusing for LV types gG and gM class fuses
(IEC 269-1 and 269-2-1) H2-7
2.2 combined switchgear elements H2-9

3. choice of switchgear H2-11

3.1 tabulated functional capabilities H2-11
table H2-19
functions fulfilled by different items of switchgear H2-11
3.2 switchgear selection H2-11

contents - A9
 contents (continued)

A
H2. the switchgear (continued)
4. circuit breakers H2-12
table H2-20
functions performed by a circuit breaker/disconnector H2-12
4.1 standards and descriptions H2-12
4.2 fundamental characteristics of a circuit breaker H2-15
table H2-28
tripping-current ranges of overload and short-circuit protective devices
for LV circuit breakers H2-16
table H2-31
Icu related to power factor (cos ϕ) of fault-current circuit (IEC 947-2) H2-17
4.3 other characteristics of a circuit breaker H2-18
table H2-34
relation between rated breaking capacity Icu and rated making capacity Icm at different
power-factor values of short-circuit current, as standardized in IEC 947-2 H2-19
4.4 selection of a circuit breaker H2-20
table H2-38
examples of tables for the determination of derating/uprating factors to apply to CBs
with uncompensated thermal tripping units, according to temperature H2-21
table H2-40
different tripping units, instantaneous or short-time delayed H2-23
table H2-43
maximum values of short-circuit current to be interrupted by main and principal
circuit breakers (CBM and CBP respectively), for several transformers in parallel H2-25
4.5 coordination between circuit breakers H2-27
table H2-45
example of cascading possibilities on a 230/400 V or 240/415 V 3-phase installation H2-28
table H2-49
summary of methods and components used in order to achieve discriminative tripping H2-29
4.6 discrimination HV/LV in a consumer's substation H2-32

J. particular supply sources and loads

1. protection of circuits supplied by an alternator J1
1.1 an alternator on short-circuit J1
1.2 protection of essential services circuits supplied in emergencies
from an alternator J4
1.3 choice of tripping units J5
1.4 methods of approximate calculation J6
table J1-7
procedure for the calculation of 3-phase short-circuit current J6
table J1-8
procedure for the calculation of 1-phase to neutral short-circuit current J7

1.5 the protection of standby and mobile a.c. generating sets J9

2. inverters and UPS

(Uninterruptible Power Supply units) J10
2.1 what is an inverter? J10
2.2 types of UPS system J10
table J2-4
examples of different possibilities and applications of inverters, in decontamination of supplies
and in UPS schemes J11
2.3 standards J11
2.4 choice of a UPS system J12
2.5 UPS systems and their environment J14
2.6 putting into service and technology of UPS systems J15
2.7 earthing schemes J17

A10 - contents
 A
2.8 choice of main-supply and circuit cables, and cables for the battery
connection J20
table J2-21
voltage drop in % of 324 V d.c. for a copper-cored cable J21
table J2-22
currents and c.s.a. of copper-cored cables feeding the rectifier, and supplying the load
for UPS system Maxipac (cable lengths < 100 m) J21
table J2-23
currents and c.s.a. of copper-cored cables feeding the rectifier, and supplying the load
for UPS system EPS 2000 (cable lengths < 100 m). Battery cable data are also included J21
table J2-24
input, output and battery currents for UPS system EPS 5000 (Merlin Gerin) J22
2.9 choice of protection schemes J23

2.10 complementary equipments J24

3. protection of LV/LV transformers J25

3.1 transformer-energizing in-rush current J25
3.2 protection for the supply circuit of a LV/LV transformer J25
3.3 typical electrical characteristics of LV/LV 50 Hz transformers J26
table J3-5
typical electrical characteristics of LV/LV 50 Hz transformers J26
3.4 protection of transformers with characteristics as tabled in J3-5
above, using Merlin Gerin circuit breakers J26
table J3-6
protection of 3-phase LV/LV transformers with 400 V primary windings J26
table J3-7
protection of 3-phase LV/LV transformers with 230 V primary windings J27
table J3-8
protection of 1-phase LV/LV transformers with 400 V primary windings J27
table J3-9
protection of 1-phase LV/LV transformers with 230 V primary windings J28

4. lighting circuits J29

4.1 service continuity J29
4.2 lamps and accessories (luminaires) J30
table J4-1
analysis of disturbances in fluorescent-lighting circuits J30
4.3 the circuit and its protection J31

4.4 determination of the rated current of the circuit breaker J31

table J4-2
protective circuit breaker ratings for incandescent lamps and resistive-type heating
circuits J31
table J4-3
maximum limit of rated current per outgoing lighting circuit, for high-pressure discharge
lamps J32
table J4-4
current ratings of circuit breakers related to the number of fluorescent luminaires to be
protected J32
4.5 choice of control-switching devices J33
table J4-5
types of remote control J33
4.6 protection of ELV lighting circuits J34

4.7 supply sources for emergency lighting J35

5. asynchronous motors J36

5.1 protective and control functions required J36
table J5-2
commonly-used types of LV motor-supply circuits J37

5.2 standards J38

5.3 basic protection schemes: circuit breaker / contactor / thermal relay J38
table J5-4
utilization categories for contactors (IEC 947-4) J39
5.4 preventive or limitative protection J41

contents - A11
 contents (continued)

A
J. particular supply sources and loads (continued)
5. asynchronous motors (continued)
5.5 maximum rating of motors installed for consumers supplied at LV J43
table J5-12
maximum permitted values of starting current for direct-on-line LV motors (230/400 V) J43
table J5-13
maximum permitted power ratings for LV direct-on-line-starting motors J43
5.6 reactive-energy compensation (power-factor correction) J43

6. protection of direct-current installations J44

6.1 short-circuit currents J44
6.2 characteristics of faults due to insulation failure, and of protective
switchgear J45
table J6-4
characteristics of protective switchgear according to type of d.c. system earthing J45

6.3 choice of protective device J45

table J6-5
choice of d.c. circuit breakers manufactured by Merlin Gerin J46
6.4 examples J46

6.5 protection of persons J47

7. Appendix␣ : Short-circuit characteristics

of an alternator App J1-1

L. domestic and similar premises and special locations

1. domestic and similar premises L1
1.1 general L1
1.2 distribution-board components L2
1.3 protection of persons L4
1.4 circuits L6
table L1-9
recommended minimum number of lighting and power points in domestic premises L6
table L1-11
c.s.a. of conductors and current rating of the protective devices in domestic
installations (the c.s.a. of aluminium conductors are shown in brackets) L7

2. bathrooms and showers L8

2.1 classification of zones L8
2.2 equipotential bonding L10
2.3 requirements prescribed for each zone L10

3. recommendations applicable to special installations

and locations L11

A12 - contents
1. methodology
the study of an electrical installation
by means of this guide requires the
reading of the entire text in the order
in which the chapters are presented.
B
listing of power demands
The study of a proposed electrical installation corresponding chapter
necessitates an adequate understanding of B - general - installed power
all governing rules and regulations.
A knowledge of the operating modes of
power-consuming appliances, i.e. "loads"
(steady-state demand, starting conditions,
non-simultaneous operation, etc.) together
with the location and magnitude of each load
shown on a building plan, allow a listing of
power demands to be compiled. The list will
include the total power of the loads installed
as well as an estimation of the actual loads to
be supplied, as deduced from the operating
modes.
From these data the power required from
the supply source and (where appropriate)
the number of sources necessary for an
adequate supply to the installation, are
readily obtained.
Local information regarding tariff structures is
also required to permit the best choice of
connection arrangement to the power-supply
network, e.g. at high voltage or low voltage.
service connection
This connection can be made at:
c High Voltage: C - HV/LV distribution substations
a consumer-type substation will then have to
be studied, built and equipped. This
substation may be an outdoor or indoor
installation conforming to relevant standards
and regulations (the low-voltage section may
be studied separately if necessary). Metering
at high-voltage or low-voltage is possible in
this case
c Low Voltage: D - low-voltage service connections
the installation will be connected to the local
power network and will (necessarily) be
metered according to LV tariffs.
reactive energy
The compensation of reactive energy within E - power factor improvement
electrical installations normally concerns only
power factor improvement, and is carried out
locally, globally or as a combination of both
methods.
LV distribution
The whole of the installation distribution F - distribution within a low-voltage
network is studied as a complete system. installation
The number and characteristics of standby
emergency-supply sources are defined.
Earth-bonding connections and neutral-
earthing arrangements are chosen according
to local regulations, constraints related to the
power-supply, and to the nature of the
installation loads.
The hardware components of distribution,
together with distribution boards and
cableways, are determined from building
plans and from the location and grouping of
loads.
The kinds of location, and activities practised
in them, can affect their level of resistance to
external influences.
protection against electric shock
The system of earthing (TT, IT or TN) having G - protection against electric shock
been previously determined, it remains, in
order to achieve protection of persons against
the hazards of direct and indirect contact, to
choose an appropriate scheme of protection.
general - installed power - B1
 1. methodology (continued)

B
circuits and switchgear
Each circuit is then studied in detail.
From the rated currents of the loads; the level
of short-circuit current; and the type of
protective device, the cross-sectional area of
circuit conductors can be determined, taking
into account the nature of the cableways and
their influence on the current rating of
conductors.
Before adopting the conductor size indicated H1 - the protection of circuits
above, the following requirements must be
satisfied:
c the voltage drop complies with the relevant
standard,
c motor starting is satisfactory,
c protection against electric shock is assured.
The short-circuit current Isc is then
determined, and the Isc thermal and electro-
dynamic withstand capability of the circuit is
checked.
These calculations may indicate that a
different conductor size than that originally
chosen is necessary.
The performance required by the switchgear H2 - the switchgear
will determine its type and characteristics.
The use of cascading techniques and the
discriminative operation of fuses and tripping
of circuit breakers are examined.

particular supply sources

and loads
Particular items of plant and equipment are J - particular supply sources and loads
studied:
c specific sources such as alternators or
inverters,
c specific loads with special characteristics,
such as induction motors, lighting circuits or
LV/LV transformers, or
c specific systems, such as direct-current
networks.

domestic and similar premises

and special locations
Certain premises and locations are subject to L - domestic and similar premises and special
particularly strict regulations: the most locations
common example being domestic dwellings.

Ecodial 2.2 software

Ecodial 2.2 software* provides a complete conception and design package for LV installations, in
accordance with IEC standards and recommendations.
The following features are included:
c construction of one-line diagrams,
c calculation of short-circuit currents,
c calculation of voltage drops,
c optimization of cable sizes,
c required ratings of switchgear and fusegear,
c discrimination of protective devices,
c recommendations for cascading schemes,
c verification of the protection of persons,
c comprehensive print-out of the foregoing calculated design data.
* Ecodial 2.2 is a Merlin Gerin product and is available in French and English versions.

B2 - general - installed power

2. rules and statutory regulations

B
Low-voltage installations are governed by a
number of regulatory and advisory texts,
which may be classified as follows:
c statutory regulations (decrees, factory acts,
etc.),
c codes of practice, regulations issued by
professional institutions, job specifications,
c national and international standards for
installations,
c national and international standards for
products.

2.1 definition of voltage ranges

IEC voltage standards and
recommendations
three phase, four wire or three wire systems single phase, three wire systems
nominal voltage (V) nominal voltage (V)
- 120/240
230/400(1) -
277/480(2) -
400/690(1) -
1000 -
table B1: standard voltages between 100 V and 1000 V (IEC 38-1983).
1) The nominal voltage of existing 220/380 V and 240/415 V systems shall evolve towards the recommended value of
230/400 V. The transition period should be as short as possible, and should not exceed 20 years after the issue of this IEC
publication. During this period, as a first step, the electricity supply authorities of countries having 220/380 V systems should
bring the voltage within the range 230/400 V +6% -10% and those of countries having 240/415 V systems should bring the
voltage within the range 230/400 V +10% -6%. At the end of this transition period the tolerance of 230/400 V ±10% should have
been achieved; after this the reduction of this range will be considered. All the above considerations apply also to the present
380/660 V value with respect to the recommended value 400/690 V.
2) Not to be utilized together with 230/400 V or 400/690 V.

50 Hz and 60 Hz systems 60 Hz systems

series I series II (North American practice)
highest voltage nominal system highest voltage nominal system
for equipment (kV) voltage (kV) for equipment (kV) voltage (kV)
3.6(1) 3.3(1) 3((1) 4.40(1) 4.16(1)
7.2(1) 6.6(1) 6(1) - -
12 11 10 - -
- - - 13.2(2) 12.47(2)
- - - 13.97(2) 13.2(2)
- - - 14.52(1) 13.8(1)
(17.5) - (15) - -
24 22 20 - -
- - - 26.4(2) 24.94(2)
36(3) 33(3) - - -
- - - 36.5(2) 34.5(2)
40.5(3) - 35(3) - -
table B2: standard voltages above 1 kV and not exceeding 35 kV (IEC 38-1983).
* These systems are generally three-wire systems unless otherwise indicated. The values indicated are voltages between
phases.
The values indicated in parentheses should be considered as non-preferred values. It is recommended that these values should
not be used for new systems to be constructed in future.
1) These values should not be used for public distribution systems.
2) These systems are generally four-wire systems.
3) The unification of these values is under consideration.

general - installed power - B3

 2. rules and statutory regulations (continued)

B
2.2 regulations
In most countries, electrical installations shall
comply with more than one set of regulations,
issued by National Authorities or by
recognised private bodies. It is essential to
take into account these local constraints
before starting the design.

2.3 standards
This Guide is based on relevant IEC
standards, in particular IEC 364. IEC 364 has
been established by medical and engineering
experts of all countries in the world
comparing their experience at an international
level. Currently, the safety principles of
IEC 364 and 479-1 are the fundamentals of
most electrical standards in the world.
IEC - 38 Standard voltages
IEC - 56 High-voltage alternating-current circuit breakers
IEC - 76-2 Power transformer - Part 2: Temperature rise
IEC - 76-3 Power transformer - Part 3: Insulation levels and dielectric tests
IEC - 129 Alternating current disconnectors and earthing switches
IEC - 146 General requirements and line commutated converters
IEC - 146-4 General requirements and line commutated converters - Part 4: Method
of specifying the performance and test requirements of uninterruptible power
systems
IEC - 265-1 High-voltage switches - Part 1: High-voltage switches for rated voltages above
1 kV and less than 52 kV
IEC - 269-1 Low-voltage fuses - Part 1: General requirements
IEC - 269-3 Low-voltage fuses - Part 3: Supplementary requirements for fuses for use by
unskilled persons (fuses mainly for household and similar applications)
IEC - 282-1 High-voltage fuses - Part 1: Current limiting fuses
IEC - 287 Calculation of the continuous current rating of cables (100% load factor)
IEC - 298 AC metal-enclosed switchgear and controlgear for rated voltages above 1kV
and up to and including 52 kV
IEC - 364 Electrical installations of buildings
IEC - 364-3 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 3: Assessment of general
characteristics
IEC - 364-4-41 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 4: Protection of safety - Section 41:
Protection against electrical shock
IEC - 364-4-42 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 4: Protection of safety - Section 42:
Protection against thermal effects
IEC - 364-4-43 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 4: Protection of safety - Section 43:
Protection against overcurrent
IEC - 364-4-47 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 4: Application of protective measures
for safety - Section 47: Measures of protection against electrical shock
IEC - 364-5-51 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 5: Selection and erection of electrical
equipment - Section 51: Common rules
IEC - 364-5-52 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 5: Selection and erection of electrical
equipment - Section 52: Wiring systems
IEC - 364-5-53 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 5: Selection and erection of electrical
equipment - Section 53: Switchgear and controlgear
IEC - 364-6 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 6: Verification
IEC - 364-7-701 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 7: Requirements for special
installations or locations - Section 701: Electrical installations in bathrooms
IEC - 364-7-706 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 7: Requirements for special
installations or locations - Section 706: Restrictive conductive locations
IEC - 364-7-710 Electrical installations of buildings - Part 7: Requirements for special
installations or locations - Section 710: Installation in exhibitions, shows, stands
and funfairs
IEC - 420 High-voltage alternating current switch-fuse combinations
IEC - 439-1 Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - Part 1: Types-tested
and partially type-tested assemblies
IEC - 439-2 Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - Part 2: Particular
requirements for busbar trunking systems (busways)
IEC - 439-3 Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - Part 3: Particular
requirements for low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies intended
to be installed in places where unskilled persons have access for their use -
Distribution boards
IEC - 446 Identification of conductors by colours or numerals
IEC - 479-1 Effects of current on human beings and livestock - Part 1: General aspects
IEC - 479-2 Effects of current on human beings and livestock - Part 2: Special aspects
IEC - 529 Degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP code)
IEC - 644 Specification for high-voltage fuse-links for motor circuit applications

B4 - general - installed power

 B
IEC - 664 Insulation coordination for equipment within low-voltage systems
IEC - 694 Common clauses for high-voltage switchgear and controlgear standards
IEC - 724 Guide to the short-circuit temperature limits of electrical cables with a rated
voltage not exceeding 0.6/1.0 kV
IEC - 742 Isolation transformer and safety isolation transformer. Requirements
IEC - 755 General requirements for residual current operated protective devices
IEC - 787 Application guide for selection for fuse-links of high-voltage fuses for
transformer circuit application
IEC - 831-1 Shunt power capacitors of the self-healing type for a.c. systems having a rated
voltage up to and including 660 V. - Part 1: General - Performance, testing
and rating - Safety requirements - Guide for installation and operation

2.4 quality and safety of an electrical installation

Only by
c the initial checking of the conformity of the
electrical installation,
c the verification of the conformity of electrical
equipment,
c and periodic checking
can the permanent safety of persons and
security of supply to equipment be achieved.

general - installed power - B5

 2. rules and statutory regulations (continued)

B
2.5 initial testing of an installation
Before a power-supply authority will connect These tests and checks are basic (but not
an installation to its supply network, strict exhaustive) to the majority of installations,
pre-commissioning electrical tests and visual while numerous other tests and rules are
inspections by the authority, or by its included in the regulations to cover particular
appointed agent, must be satisfied. cases, for example: TN-, TT- or IT-earthed
These tests are made according to local installations, installations based on class 2
(governmental and/or institutional) insulation, SELV circuits, and special
regulations, which may differ slightly from one locations, etc.
country to another. The principles of all such The aim of this guide is to draw attention to
regulations however, are common, and are the particular features of different types of
based on the observance of rigorous safety installation, and to indicate the essential rules
rules in the design and realization of the to be observed in order to achieve a
installation. satisfactory level of quality, which will ensure
IEC 364 and related standards included in safe and trouble-free performance. The
this guide are based on an international methods recommended in this guide,
consensus for such tests, intended to cover modified if necessary to comply with any
all the safety measures and approved possible variation imposed by a local supply
installation practices normally required for authority, are intended to satisfy all pre-
domestic, commercial and (the majority of) commissioning test and inspection
industrial buildings. Many industries however requirements.
have additional regulations related to a
particular product (petroleum, coal, natural
gas, etc.). Such additional requirements are
beyond the scope of this guide.
The pre-commissioning electrical tests and
visual-inspection checks for installations in
buildings include, typically, all of the following:
c insulation tests of all cable and wiring
conductors of the fixed installation, between
phases and between phases and earth,
c continuity and conductivity tests of
protective, equipotential and earth-bonding
conductors,
c resistance tests of earthing electrodes with
respect to remote earth,
c allowable number of socket-outlets per
circuit check,
c cross-sectional-area check of all
conductors for adequacy at the short-circuit
levels prevailing, taking account of the
associated protective devices, materials and
installation conditions (in air, conduit, etc.),
c verification that all exposed- and
extraneous metallic parts are properly
earthed (where appropriate),
c check of clearance distances in bathrooms,
etc.

2.6 periodic check-testing of an installation

In many countries, all industrial and
commercial-building installations, together
with installations in buildings used for public
gatherings, must be re-tested periodically by
authorized agents.
Table B3 shows the frequency of testing
commonly prescribed according to the kind of
installation concerned.

installations which require c locations at which a risk of degradation, annually

the protection of employees
installations in buildings
used for public gatherings,
where protection against
the risks of fire and panic
are required
residential
table B3: frequency of check-tests commonly recommended for an electrical installation.
fire or explosion exists
c temporary installations at worksites
c locations at which HV installations exist
c restrictive conducting locations where mobile
equipment is used
other cases every 3 years
according to the type of establishment
and its capacity for receiving the public,
the re-testing period will vary from one
to three years
according to local regulations

B6 - general - installed power


2.7 conformity (with standards and specifications) of equipment used in the installation
conformity of equipment with the
relevant standards can be attested in
several ways.
the standards define several
methods of quality assurance which
correspond to different situations
rather than to different levels of
quality.
B
attestation of conformity
The conformity of equipment with the relevant
standards can be attested:
c by an official conformity mark granted by
the standards organization concerned, or
c by a certificate of conformity issued by a
laboratory, or
c by a declaration of conformity from the
manufacturer.
declaration of conformity
In cases where the equipment in question is
to be used by qualified or experienced
persons, the declaration of conformity
provided by the manufacturer (included in the
technical documentation) together with a
conformity mark on the equipment
concerned, are generally recognized as a
valid attestation. Where the competence of
the manufacturer is in doubt, a certificate of
conformity can be obtained from an
independent accredited laboratory.
mark of conformity
Conformity marks are inscribed on
appliances and equipment which are
generally used by technically inexperienced
persons (for example, domestic appliances)
and for whom the standards have been
established which permit the attribution, by
the standardization authority, of a mark of
conformity (commonly referred to as a
conformity mark).
certification of Quality
Assurance
A laboratory for testing samples cannot certify
the conformity of an entire production run:
these tests are called type tests. In some
tests for conformity to standards, the samples
are destroyed (tests on fuses, for example).
Only the manufacturer can certify that the
fabricated products have, in fact, the
characteristics stated.
Quality assurance certification is intended to
complete the initial declaration or certification
of conformity.
As proof that all the necessary measures
have been taken for assuring the quality of
production, the manufacturer obtains
certification of the quality control system
which monitors the fabrication of the product
concerned. These certificates are issued by
organizations specializing in quality control,
and are based on the international standard
ISO 9000, the equivalent European standard
being EN 29000.
These standards define three model systems
of quality assurance control corresponding to
different situations rather than to different
levels of quality:
c model 3 defines assurance of quality by
inspection and checking of final products,
c model 2 includes, in addition to checking of
the final product, verification of the
manufacturing process. This method applies,
for example, to the manufacture of fuses
where performance characteristics cannot be
checked without destroying the fuse,
c model 1 corresponds to model 2, but with
the additional requirement that the quality of
the design process must be rigorously
scrutinized; for example, where it is not
intended to fabricate and test a prototype
(case of a custom-built product made to
specification).
general - installed power - B7
 3. motor, heating and lighting loads

B
an examination of the actual
apparent-power demands of different
loads: a necessary preliminary step
in the design of a LV installation.
The examination of actual values of
apparent-power required by each load
enables the establishment of:
c a declared power demand which
determines the contract for the supply of
energy,
c the rating of the HV/LV transformer, where
applicable (allowing for expected increases in
load),
c levels of load current at each distribution
board.

3.1 induction motors

the nominal power in kW (Pn) of a
motor indicates its rated equivalent
mechanical power output.
The apparent power in kVA (Pa)
supplied to the motor is a function of
the output, the motor efficiency and
the power factor.
Pa = Pn
η cos ϕ
current demand
The full-load current Ia supplied to the motor
is given by the following formulae:
Pn x 1,000
3-phase motor: Ia =
ex U x η x cos ϕ
1-phase motor: Ia = Pn x 1,000
U x η x cos ϕ
where
Ia: current demand (in amps)
Pn: nominal power (in kW of active power)
U: voltage between phases for 3-phase
motors and voltage between the terminals for
single-phase motors (in volts). A single-phase
motor may be connected phase-to-neutral or
phase-to-phase.
η: per-unit efficiency, i.e. output kW
input kW
cos ϕ: power factor, i.e. kW input
kVA input

motor-starting current
Starting current (Id) for 3-phase induction
motors, according to motor type, will be:
c for direct-on-line starting of squirrel-cage
motors:
v Id = 4.2 to 9 In for 2-pole motors
v Id = 4.2 to 7 In for motors with more than
2 poles (mean value = 6 In), where
In = nominal full-load current of the motor,
c for wound-rotor motors (with slip-rings), and
for D.C. motors:
Id depends on the value of starting
resistances in the rotor circuits:
Id = 1.5 to 3 In (mean value = 2.5 In).
c for induction motors controlled by speed-
changing variable-frequency devices (for
example: Altivar Telemecanique), assume
that the control device has the effect of
increasing the power (kW) supplied to the
circuit motor (i.e. device plus) by 10%.

it is generally advantageous for compensation of reactive-power

technical and financial reasons to
reduce the current supplied to
induction motors. This can be
achieved by using capacitors without
affecting the power output of the
motors.
(kvar) supplied to induction
motors
The application of this principle to the
operation of induction motors is generally
referred to as "power-factor improvement" or
"power-factor correction".
As discussed in chapter E, the apparent-
power (kVA) supplied to an induction motor
can be significantly reduced by the use of
shunt-connected capacitors.
Reduction of input kVA means a
corresponding reduction of input current
(since the voltage remains constant).
Compensation of reactive-power is
particularly advised for motors that operate
for long periods at reduced power.
As noted above cos ϕ = kW input so that a
kVA input
reduction in kVA input will increase (i.e.
improve) the value of cos ϕ.
The current supplied to the motor, after
power-factor correction, is given by:
Ia x cos ϕ
cos ϕ'
where cos ϕ is the power factor before
compensation and cos ϕ' is the power factor
after compensation, Ia being the original
current.

table of typical values

Table B4 shows, as a function of the rated
nominal power of motors, the current
supplied to them at different voltage levels
under normal uncompensated conditions,
and the same motors under the same
conditions, but compensated to operate at a
power factor of 0.93 (tan ϕ = 0.4).
These values are averages and will differ to
some extent according to the type of motor
and the manufacturer concerned.
B8 - general - installed power
Note: the rated voltages of certain loads
listed in table B4 are still based on 220/380 V.
The international standard is now (since
1983) 230/400 V.
To convert the current values indicated for a
given motor rating in the 220 V and 380 V
columns to the currents taken by 230 V and
400 V motors of the same rating, multiply by
a factor of 0.95.
 B
3.1 induction motors (continued)
without compensation with compensation
nominal η cos ϕ Pa current at different voltages cos ϕ capa- Pa current at different voltages
power at Pn 1-PH 3-PH at Pn citor 1-PH 3-PH
Pn 220 V 220 V 380 V 440 V 500 V 660 V rating 220 V 220 V 380 V 440 V 500 V 660 V
kW HP % kVA A A A A A A kvar kVA A A A A A A
0.37 0.5 64 0.73 0.79 3.6 1.8 1.03 0.99 0.91 0.6 0.93 0.31 0.62 2.8 1.4 0.8 0.77 0.71 0.47
0.55 0.75 68 0.75 1.1 4.7 2.75 1.6 1.36 1.21 0.9 0.93 0.39 0.87 3.8 2.2 1.3 1.1 1 0.72
0.75 1 72 0.75 1.4 6 3.5 2 1.68 1.5 1.1 0.93 0.48 1.1 4.8 2.8 1.6 1.3 1.2 0.88
1.1 1.5 75 0.79 1.9 8.5 4.4 2.6 2.37 2 1.5 0.93 0.53 1.6 7.2 3.7 2.2 2 1.7 1.3
1.5 2 78 0.80 2.4 12 6.1 3.5 3.06 2.6 2 0.93 0.67 2.1 10.3 5.2 3 2.6 2.2 1.7
2.2 3 79 0.80 3.5 16 8.7 5 4.42 3.8 2.8 0.93 0.99 3 13.7 7.5 4.3 3.8 3.3 2.4
3 4 81 0.80 4.6 21 11.5 6.6 5.77 5 3.8 0.93 1.31 4 18 9.9 5.7 5 4.3 3.3
3.7 5 82 0.80 5.6 25 13.5 7.7 7.1 5.9 4.4 0.93 1.59 4.8 22 11.6 6.6 6.1 5.1 3.8
4 5.5 82 0.80 6.1 26 14.5 8.5 7.9 6.5 4.9 0.93 1.74 5.2 22 12.5 7.3 6.8 5.6 4.2
5.5 7.5 84 0.83 7.9 35 20 11.5 10.4 9 6.6 0.93 1.80 7 31 17.8 10.3 9.3 8 5.9
7.5 10 85 0.83 10.6 47 27 15.5 13.7 12 8.9 0.93 2.44 9.5 42 24 13.8 12.2 10.7 7.9
9 12 86 0.85 12.3 - 32 18.5 16.9 13.9 10.6 0.93 2.4 11.3 - 29 16.9 15.4 12.7 9.7
10 13.5 86 0.85 13.7 - 35 20 17.9 15 11.5 0.93 2.6 12.5 - 32 18 16.4 13.7 10.5
11 15 87 0.86 14.7 - 39 22 20.1 18.4 14 0.93 2.50 13.6 - 36 20 19 17 13
15 20 88 0.86 19.8 - 52 30 26.5 23 17.3 0.93 3.37 18.3 - 48 28 25 21 16
18.5 25 89 0.86 24.2 - 64 37 32.8 28.5 21.3 0.93 4.12 22.4 - 59 34 30 26 20
22 30 89 0.86 28.7 - 75 44 39 33 25.4 0.93 4.89 26.6 - 69 41 36 31 23
25 35 89 0.86 33 - 85 52 45.3 39.4 30.3 0.93 5.57 30 - 79 48 42 36 28
30 40 89 0.86 39 - 103 60 51.5 45 34.6 0.93 6.68 36 - 95 55 48 42 32
33 45 90 0.86 43 - 113 68 58 50 39 0.93 7.25 39 - 104 63 54 46 36
37 50 90 0.86 48 - 126 72 64 55 42 0.93 8.12 44 - 117 67 59 51 39
40 54 91 0.86 51 - 134 79 67 60 44 0.93 8.72 47 - 124 73 62 55 41
45 60 91 0.86 57 - 150 85 76 65 49 0.93 9.71 53 - 139 79 70 60 45
51 70 91 0.86 65 - 170 98 83 75 57 0.93 11.10 60 - 157 91 77 69 53
55 75 92 0.86 70 - 182 105 90 80 61 0.93 11.89 64 - 168 97 83 74 56
59 80 92 0.87 74 - 195 112 97 85 66 0.93 10.98 69 - 182 105 91 80 62
63 85 92 0.87 79 - 203 117 109 89 69 0.93 11.66 74 - 190 109 102 83 65
75 100 92 0.87 94 - 240 138 125 105 82 0.93 13.89 88 - 225 129 117 98 77
80 110 92 0.87 100 - 260 147 131 112 86 0.93 14.92 93 - 243 138 123 105 80
90 125 92 0.87 112 - 295 170 146 129 98 0.93 16.80 105 - 276 159 137 121 92
100 136 92 0.87 125 - 325 188 162 143 107 0.93 18.69 117 - 304 176 152 134 100
110 150 93 0.87 136 - 356 205 178 156 118 0.93 20.24 127 - 333 192 167 146 110
129 175 93 0.87 159 - 420 242 209 184 135 0.93 23.84 149 - 393 226 196 172 126
132 180 94 0.87 161 - 425 245 215 187 140 0.93 24 151 - 398 229 201 175 131
140 190 94 0.87 171 - 450 260 227 200 145 0.93 25.55 160 - 421 243 212 187 136
147 200 94 0.87 180 - 472 273 236 207 152 0.93 26.75 168 - 442 255 221 194 142
150 205 94 0.87 183 - 483 280 246 210 159 0.93 27.26 172 - 452 262 230 196 149
160 220 94 0.87 196 - 520 300 256 220 170 0.93 29.15 183 - 486 281 239 206 159
180 245 94 0.87 220 - 578 333 289 254 190 0.93 32.76 206 - 541 312 270 238 178
185 250 94 0.87 226 - 595 342 295 263 200 0.93 33.79 212 - 557 320 276 246 187
200 270 94 0.88 242 - 626 370 321 281 215 0.93 30.78 229 - 592 350 304 266 203
220 300 94 0.88 266 - 700 408 353 310 235 0.93 33.81 252 - 662 386 334 293 222
250 340 94 0.88 302 - 800 460 401 360 274 0.93 38.44 286 - 757 435 379 341 259
257 350 94 0.88 311 - 826 475 412 365 280 0.93 39.45 294 - 782 449 390 345 265
280 380 95 0.88 335 - 900 510 450 400 305 0.93 42.63 317 - 852 483 426 378 289
295 400 95 0.88 353 - 948 546 473 416 320 0.93 44.80 334 - 897 517 448 394 303
300 410 95 0.88 359 - 980 565 481 420 325 0.93 45.66 339 - 927 535 455 397 306
315 430 95 0.88 377 - 990 584 505 445 337 0.93 47.98 356 - 937 553 478 421 319
335 450 95 0.88 401 - 1100 620 518 472 365 0.93 51 379 - 1041 587 490 447 336
355 480 95 0.88 425 - 1150 636 549 500 370 0.93 54 402 - 1088 602 519 473 350
375 500 95 0.88 449 - 1180 670 575 527 395 0.93 57.1 424 - 1117 634 544 499 374
400 545 95 0.88 478 - 1250 710 611 540 410 0.93 60.84 453 - 1183 672 578 511 388
425 580 95 0.88 508 - 1330 760 650 574 445 0.93 64.60 481 - 1258 719 615 543 420
445 600 95 0.88 532 - 1400 790 680 595 455 0.93 67.63 504 - 1325 748 643 563 431
450 610 95 0.88 538 - 1410 800 690 608 460 0.93 68.50 509 - 1334 757 653 575 435
475 645 95 0.88 568 - 1490 850 730 645 485 0.93 70.40 538 - 1410 804 691 610 459
500 680 95 0.88 598 - 1570 900 780 680 515 0.93 72.26 566 - 1486 852 738 643 487
530 720 95 0.88 634 - 1660 950 825 720 545 0.93 80.64 600 - 1571 899 781 681 516
560 760 95 0.88 670 - 1760 1000 870 760 575 0.93 85.12 634 - 1665 946 823 719 544
600 810 95 0.88 718 - 1880 1090 920 830 630 0.93 91.33 679 - 1779 1031 871 785 596
630 855 95 0.88 754 - 1980 1100 965 850 645 0.93 95.81 713 - 1874 1041 913 804 610
670 910 95 0.88 801 - 2100 1200 1020 910 690 0.93 101.88 758 - 1987 1135 965 861 653
710 965 95 0.88 849 - - 1260 1075 960 725 0.93 107.95 804 - - 1192 1017 908 686
750 1020 95 0.88 897 - - 1350 1160 1020 770 0.93 114 849 - - 1277 1098 965 729
800 1090 95 0.88 957 - - 1450 1250 1100 830 0.93 121.68 905 - - 1372 1183 1041 785
900 1220 95 0.88 1076 - - 1610 1390 1220 925 0.93 136.86 1019 - - 1523 1315 1154 875
1100 1500 95 0.88 1316 - - 1980 1700 1500 1140 0.93 167.35 1245 - - 1874 1609 1419 1079

table B4: power and current values for typical induction motors.
Reminder: some columns refer to 220 and 380 V motors. for 230 V and 400 V motors is 0.95, as noted on the
The international (IEC 38) standard of 230/400 V has been previous page.
in force since 1983. The conversion factor for current values

general - installed power - B9

 3. motor, heating and lighting loads (continued)

B
3.2. direct-current motors
D.C. motors are mainly used for specific
applications which require very high torques
and/or variable speed control (for example
machine tools and crushers, etc.).
Power to these motors is provided via speed-
control converters, fed from 230/400 V
3-phase a.c. sources; for example, Rectivar 4
(Telemecanique).
The operating principle of the converter does
not allow heavy overloading. The speed
controller, the supply line and the protection
are therefore based on the duty cycle of the
motor (e.g. frequent starting-current peaks)
rather than on the steady-state full-load
current.
For powers i 40 kW, this solution is
progressively replaced with a speed-
changing variable-frequency device and an
asynchronous motor. It is still used for
gradual starters and/or retarders.
Im

M
V power-supply network

In

fig. B5: diagram of a low-power speed controller.

motor maximum power motor GRADIVAR catalogue number weight
220 V 380 V 415 V 440 V (60 Hz) In Ith kg
kW kW kW kW A A
1.5 3 3.3 - 7 10 VR2-SA2121 1.95
- - - 3.5 7 10 VR2-SA2123 1.95
4 5.5 6 - 12 20 VR2-SA2171 3.10
- - - 6.5 12 20 VR2-SA2173 3.10
5.5 7.5 8 - 16 30 VR2-SA2211 4.90
- - - 8.5 16 30 VR2-SA2213 4.90
11 18.5 20 - 37 60 VR2-SA2281 5.30
- - - 21.5 37 60 VR2-SA2283 5.30
18.5 30 33 - 60 100 VR2-SA2361 5.30
- - - 35 60 100 VR2-SA2363 5.30
22 37 40 - 72 130 VR2-SA2401 5.40
- - - 42 72 130 VR2-SA2403 5.40
- 55 60 - 105 200 VR2-SA2441 10.00
- - - 63 105 200 VR2-SA2443 10.00
table B6: progressive starters with voltage ramp.

motor maximum power motor GRADIVAR catalogue number weight

220 V 380 V 415 V 440 V (60 Hz) In Ith kg
kW kW kW kW A A
4 5.5 6 - 12 20 VR2-SA3171 3.30
- - - 6.5 12 20 VR2-SA3173 3.30
5.5 7.5 8 - 16 30 VR2-SA3211 5.10
- - - 8.5 16 30 VR2-SA3213 5.10
11 18.5 20 - 37 60 VR2-SA3281 5.50
- - - 21.5 37 60 VR2-SA3283 5.50
18.5 30 33 - 60 100 VR2-SA3361 5.50
- - - 35 60 100 VR2-SA3363 5.50
22 37 40 - 72 130 VR2-SA3401 5.60
- - - 42 72 130 VR2-SA3403 5.60
- 55 60 - 105 200 VR2-SA3441 11.00
- - - 63 105 200 VR2-SA3443 11.00
- 75 80 - 140 350 VR2-SA3481 45.00
- - - 90 140 350 VR2-SA3483 45.00
- 132 140 - 245 530 VR2-SA3521 45.00
- - - 147 245 530 VR2-SA3523 45.00
table B7: progressive starters with current limitation.

B10 - general - installed power

 B
3.3. resistive-type heating appliances and incandescent lamps (conventional or halogen)
The power consumed by a heating appliance For an incandescent lamp, the use of
the power consumed by a heating
or an incandescent lamp is equal to the halogen gas allows a more concentrated light
appliance or an incandescent lamp is nominal power Pn quoted by the source. The light output is superior and the
equal to the nominal power Pn manufacturer (i.e. cos ø = 1). life of the lamp is doubled.
quoted by the manufacturer The currents are given by: Note: at the instant of switching on, the cold
(i.e. cos ø = 1). c 3-phase case: filament gives rise to a very brief but intense
Ia = Pn* peak of current.
ex U
the currents are given by: c 1-phase case: * Ia in amps; U in volts. Pn is in watts. If Pn is
c 3-phase case: Ia = Pn* in kW, then multiply the equation by 1,000.
U
Ia = Pn* where U is the voltage between the terminals
ex U of the equipment.
c 1-phase case:
nominal current demand
Ia = Pn* power 1-phase 1-phase 3-phase 3-phase
U
kW 127 V 230 V 230 V 400 V
where U is the voltage between the
0.1 0.79 0.43 0.25 0.14
terminals of the equipment. 0.2 1.58 0.87 0.50 0.29
0.5 3.94 2.17 1.26 0.72
1 7.9 4.35 2.51 1.44
1.5 11.8 6.52 3.77 2.17
2 15.8 8.70 5.02 2.89
2.5 19.7 10.9 6.28 3.61
3 23.6 13 7.53 4.33
3.5 27.6 15.2 8.72 5.05
4 31.5 17.4 10 5.77
4.5 35.4 19.6 11.3 6.5
5 39.4 21.7 12.6 7.22
6 47.2 26.1 15.1 8.66
7 55.1 30.4 17.6 10.1
8 63 34.8 20.1 11.5
9 71 39.1 22.6 13
10 79 43.5 25.1 14.4
table B8: current demands of resistive heating and incandescent lighting (conventional or
halogen) appliances.

3.4. fluorescent lamps and related equipment

the power in watts indicated on the
tube of a fluorescent lamp does not
include the power dissipated in the
ballast.
the current is given by:
Pballast + Pn
Ia =
U x cos ø
If no power-loss value is indicated for
the ballast, a figure of 25% of Pn may
be used.
standard tubular fluorescent
lamps
The power Pn (watts) indicated on the tube of
a fluorescent lamp does not include the
power dissipated in the ballast.
The current taken by the complete circuit is
given by:
Ia = Pballast + Pn
U x cos ø
where U = the voltage applied to the lamp,
complete with its related equipment.
with (unless otherwise indicated):
c cos ø = 0.6 with no power factor (PF)
correction* capacitor,
c cos ø = 0.86 with PF correction* (single or
twin tubes),
c cos ø = 0.96 for electronic ballast.
If no power-loss value is indicated for the
ballast, a figure of 25% of Pn may be used.
Table B8 gives these values for different
arrangements of ballast.
* "Power-factor correction" is often referred to as
"compensation" in discharge-lighting-tube terminology.

general - installed power - B11

 3. motor, heating and lighting loads (continued)

B
3.4. fluorescent lamps and related equipment (continued)
arrangement of tube power current (A) at 220V/240 V tube
lamps, starters power consumed PF not PF electronic length
and ballasts (W) (1) (W) corrected corrected ballast (cm)
single tube with starter 18 27 0.37 0.19 60
36 45 0.43 0.24 120
58 69 0.67 0.37 150
single tube without 20 33 0.41 0.21 60
starter (2) with 40 54 0.45 0.26 120
external starting strip 65 81 0.80 0.41 150
twin tubes with starter 2 x 18 55 0.27 60
2 x 36 90 0.46 120
2 x 58 138 0.72 150
twin tubes without starter 2 x 40 108 0.49 120
single tube with 32 36 0.16 120
high frequency ballast 50 56 0.25 150
cos ø = 0.96
twin tubes with high- 2 x 32 72 0.33 120
frequency ballast 2 x 50 112 0.50 150
cos ø = 0.96
(1) Power in watts marked on tube.
(2) Used exclusively during maintenance operations.

table B10: current demands and power consumption of commonly-dimensioned

fluorescent lighting tubes (at 220 V/240 V - 50 Hz).

compact fluorescent tubes

Compact fluorescent tubes have the same
characteristics of economy and long life as
classical tubes.
They are commonly used in public places
which are permanently illuminated (for
example: corridors, hallways, bars, etc.) and
can be mounted in situations otherwise
illuminated by incandescent lamps.
type of lamp lamp power current at
power consumed 220/240 V
(W) (A)
globe lamps with 9 9 0.090
integral ballast 13 13 0.115
cos ø = 0.5 (1) 18 18 0.160
25 25 0.205
electronic lamps 9 9 0.070
cos ø = 0.95 (1) 11 11 0.090
15 15 0.135
20 20 0.155
lamps with type 5 10 0.185
starter single 7 11 0.175
only "U" form 9 13 0.170
incorporated cos ø ≈ 0.35 11 15 0.155
(no ballast) type 10 15 0.190
double 13 18 0.165
"U" form 18 23 0.220
cos ø ≈ 0.45 26 31 0.315
(1) Cos ø is approximately 0.95 (the zero values of V and I are almost in phase) but the power factor is 0.5 due to the
impulsive form of the current, the peak of which occurs "late" in each half cycle.
table B11: current demands and power consumption of compact fluorescent lamps
(at 220 V/240 V - 50 Hz).

B12 - general - installed power


3.5. discharge lamps
the power in watts indicated on the
tube of a discharge lamp does not
include the power dissipated in the
ballast.
B
These lamps depend on the luminous
electrical discharge through a gas or vapour
of a metallic compound, which is contained in
a hermetically-sealed transparent envelope at
a pre-determined pressure.
These lamps have a long start-up time,
during which the current Ia is greater than the
nominal current In. Power and current
demands are given for different types of lamp
in table B12 (typical average values which
may differ slightly from one manufacturer to
another).
The power in watts indicated on the tube of a
discharge lamp does not include the power
dissipated in the ballast.

table B12 gives the current taken by type of power current In(A) starting luminous average utilization
a complete unit, including all lamp demand PF not PF Ia/In period efficiency life of
(W) at corrected corrected lumens lamp
associated ancillary equipment. (W) 230V 400V 230V 400V 230V 400V (mins) (per watt) (h)
high-pressure sodium vapour lamps
50 60 0.76 0.3 1.4 4 to 6 80 to 120 9000 - lighting of
70 80 1 0.45 to 1.6 large halls
100 115 1.2 0.65 - outdoor
150 168 1.8 0.85 spaces
250 274 3 1.4 - public
lighting
400 431 4.4 2.2
1000 1055 10.45 4.9
low-pressure sodium vapour lamps
standard lamp
18 26.5 0.14 1.1 7 to 15 100 to 200 8000 to - lighting of
35 43.5 0.62 0.24 to 1.3 12000 autoroutes
55 72 0.34 - security
lighting, station
90 112 0.84 0.50 platform,
135 159 0.73 stockage areas
180 216 0.98
economy lamps
26 34.5 0.45 0.17 1.1 7 to 15 100 to 200 8000 to - new types
36 46.5 0.22 to 1.3 12000 more
66 80.5 0.39 efficient
same
91 105.5 0.49 utilization
131 154 0.69
mercury vapour + metal halide (also called metaliodide)
70 80.5 1 0.40 1.7 3 to 5 70 to 90 6000 - lighting of
150 172 1.80 0.88 6000 very large
250 276 2.10 1.35 6000 areas by
projectors (for
400 425 3.40 2.15 6000 example:sports
1000 1046 8.25 5.30 6000 stadiums, etc)
2000 2092 2052 16.50 8.60 10.50 6 2000
mercury vapour + fluorescent substance (fluorescent bulb)
50 57 0.6 0.30 1.7 3 to 6 40 to 60 8000 to - workshops
80 90 0.8 0.45 to 2 12000 with very high
125 141 1.15 0.70 ceilings (halls,
hangars)
250 268 2.15 1.35 - outdoor
400 421 3.25 2.15 lighting
700 731 5.4 3.85 - low light
1000 1046 8.25 5.30 output (1)
2000 2140 2080 15 11 6.1
(1) replaced by sodium vapour lamps.
Note: these lamps are sensitive to voltage dips. They extinguish if the voltage falls to less than 50% of their nominal voltage, and
will not re-ignite before cooling for approximately 4 minutes.
Note: Sodium vapour low-pressure lamps have a light-output efficiency which is superior to that of all other sources. However,
use of these lamps is restricted by the fact that the yellow-orange colour emitted makes colour recognition practically impossible.
table B12: current demands of discharge lamps.

general - installed power - B13

 4. power* loading of an installation

B
In order to design an installation, the actual
maximum load demand likely to be imposed
on the power-supply system must be
assessed.
To base the design simply on the arithmetic
sum of all the loads existing in the installation
would be extravagantly uneconomical, and
bad engineering practice.
The aim of this chapter is to show how all
existing and projected loads can be assigned
various factors to account for diversity (non-
simultaneous operation of all appliances of a
given group) and utilization (e.g. an electric
motor is not generally operated at its full-load
capability, etc.). The values given are based
on experience and on records taken from
actual installations. In addition to providing
basic installation-design data on individual
circuits, the results will provide a global value
for the installation, from which the
requirements of a supply system (distribution
network, HV/LV transformer, or generating
set) can be specified.
*power: the word "power" in the title has
been used in a general sense, covering
active power (kW) apparent power (kVA) and
reactive power (kvar). Where the word power
is used without further qualification in the rest
of the text, it means active power (kW).
The magnitude of the load is adequately
specified by two quantities, viz:
c power,
c apparent power.
power
The ratio = power factor
apparent power

4.1 installed power (kW)

the installed power is the sum of the
nominal powers of all power-
consuming devices in the installation.
This is not the power to be actually
supplied in practice.
Most electrical appliances and equipments
are marked to indicate their nominal power
rating (Pn).
The installed power is the sum of the nominal
powers of all power-consuming devices in the
installation. This is not the power to be
actually supplied in practice.
This is the case for electric motors, where the
power rating refers to the output power at its
driving shaft. The input power consumption
will evidently be greater (See 3.1).
Fluorescent and discharge lamps associated
with stabilizing ballasts, are other cases in
which the nominal power indicated on the
lamp is less than the power consumed by the
lamp and its ballast (See 3.4).
Methods of assessing the actual power
consumption of motors and lighting
appliances are given in Section 3 of this
Chapter.
The power demand (kW) is necessary to
choose the rated power of a generating set or
battery, and where the requirements of a
prime mover have to be considered.
For a power supply from a LV public-supply
network, or through a HV/LV transformer, the
significant quantity is the apparent power in
kVA.

B14 - general - installed power


4.2 installed apparent power (kVA)
the installed apparent power is
commonly assumed to be the
arithmetical sum of the kVA of
individual loads. The maximum
estimated kVA to be supplied
however is not equal to the total
installed kVA.
B
The installed apparent power is commonly From this value, the full-load current
assumed to be the arithmetical sum of the Ia (amps)* taken by the load will be:
kVA of individual loads. The maximum Pa 103 for single phase-to-neutral
c Ia =
estimated kVA to be supplied however is not V connected load
equal to the total installed kVA.
c Ia =
Pa 103
for three-phase balanced load
The apparent-power demand of a load (which ex U
might be a single appliance) is obtained from where: V = phase-to-neutral voltage (volts)
its nominal power rating (corrected if U = phase-to-phase voltage (volts)
necessary, as noted above for motors, etc.) It may be noted that, strictly speaking, the
and the application of the following total kVA of apparent power is not the
coefficients: arithmetical sum of the calculated kVA ratings
output kW of individual loads (unless all loads are at the
η = the per-unit efficiency =
input kW same power factor).
kW It is common practice however, to make a
cos ø = the power factor =
kVA simple arithmetical summation, the result of
The apparent-power kVA demand of the load which will give a kVA value that exceeds the
Pn true value by an acceptable "design margin".
Pa =
η x cos ø
* For greater precision, account must be
taken of the factor of maximum utilization as
explained below in 4-3.
When some or all of the load characteristics generally too small to be expressed in kVA or
are not known, the values shown in table B13 kW). The estimates for lighting loads are
may be used to give a very approximate based on floor areas of 500 sq-metres.
estimate of VA demands (individual loads are
fluorescent lighting (corrected to cos ø = 0.86)
type of application estimated (VA/m2) average lighting
fluorescent tube level
with industrial reflector (1) (lux = Im/m2)
roads and highways 7 150
stockage areas, intermittent work
heavy-duty works: fabrication and 14 300
assembly of very large work pieces
day-to-day work: 24 500
office work
fine work: 41 800
drawing offices
high-precision assembly workshops
power circuits
type of application estimated (VA/m2)
pumping station compressed air 3 to 6
ventilation of premises 23
electrical convection heaters:
private houses 115 to 146
flats and apartments 90
offices 25
dispatching workshop 50
assembly workshop 70
machine shop 300
painting workshop 350
heat-treatment plant 700
(1) example: 65 W tube (ballast not included), flux 5,100 lumens (lm), luminous efficiency of the tube = 78.5 lm/W.
table B13: estimation of installed apparent power.
general - installed power - B15
 4. power* loading of an installation (continued)
B
4.3 estimation of actual maximum kVA demand
all individual loads are not
necessarily operating at full rated
nominal power nor necessarily at the
same time. Factors ku and ks allow
the determination of the maximum
power and apparent-power demands
actually required to dimension the
installation.
B16 - general - installed power
All individual loads are not necessarily
operating at full rated nominal power nor
necessarily at the same time. Factors ku and
ks allow the determination of the maximum
power and apparent-power demands actually
required to dimension the installation.
factor of maximum utilization (ku)
In normal operating conditions the power In an industrial installation this factor may be
consumption of a load is sometimes less than estimated on an average at 0.75 for motors.
that indicated as its nominal power rating, a For incandescent-lighting loads, the factor
fairly common occurrence that justifies the always equals 1.
application of an utilization factor (ku) in the For socket-outlet circuits, the factors depend
estimation of realistic values. entirely on the type of appliances being
This factor must be applied to each individual supplied from the sockets concerned.
load, with particular attention to electric
motors, which are very rarely operated at full
load.
factor of simultaneity (ks)
It is a matter of common experience that the number of down- factor of
simultaneous operation of all installed loads stream consumers simultaneity (ks)
of a given installation never occurs in 2 to 4 1
practice, i.e. there is always some degree of 5 to 9 0.78
diversity and this fact is taken into account for
10 to 14 0.63
estimating purposes by the use of a
simultaneity factor (ks). 15 to 19 0.53
The factor ks is applied to each group of 20 to 24 0.49
loads (e.g. being supplied from a distribution 25 to 29 0.46
or sub-distribution board). 30 to 34 0.44
The determination of these factors is the 35 to 39 0.42
responsibility of the designer, since it requires 40 to 49 0.41
a detailed knowledge of the installation and 50 and more 0.40
the conditions in which the individual circuits
are to be exploited. For this reason, it is not table B14: simultaneity factors in an
possible to give precise values for general apartment block.
application.
Factor of simultaneity for an apartment
4th 6 consumers
block floor 36 kVA
0.78
Some typical values for this case are given in
table B14, and are applicable to domestic
consumers supplied at 230/400 V (3-phase 3rd 4 consumers
4-wires). In the case of consumers using floor 0.63
24 kVA
electrical heat-storage units for space
heating, a factor of 0.8 is recommended,
regardless of the number of consumers. 2nd 5 consumers
floor 0.53
30 kVA
Example:
5 storeys apartment building with
25 consumers, each having 6 kVA of installed
1st
load. floor
6 consumers 0.49
36 kVA
The total installed load for the building
= 36 + 24 + 30 + 36 + 24 = 150 kVA
The apparent-power supply required for the ground 4 consumers
building = 150 x 0.46 = 69 kVA floor 24 kVA 0.46
From table B 14, it is possible to determine
the magnitude of currents in different sections
of the common main feeder supplying all
floors. For vertical rising mains fed at ground
level, the cross-sectional area of the fig. B15: application of the factor of
conductors can evidently be progressively simultaneity (ks) to an apartment block of
reduced from the lower floors towards the 5 storeys.
upper floors.
These changes of conductor size are
conventionally spaced by at least 3-floor
intervals.
In the example, the current entering the rising
main at ground level is
150 x 0.46 x 103
= 100 A
400 x e
The current entering the third floor is:
(36+24) x 0.63 x 103
= 55 A
400 x e
 B
Factor of simultaneity for distribution Factor of simultaneity according
boards to circuit function
Table B16 shows hypothetical values of ks for ks factors which may be used for circuits
a distribution board supplying a number of supplying commonly-occurring loads, are
circuits for which there is no indication of the shown in table B17.
manner in which the total load divides
between them. circuit function factor of
If the circuits are mainly for lighting loads, it is simultaneity (ks)
prudent to adopt ks values close to unity. lighting 1
heating and air
number of factor of conditioning 1
circuits simultaneity (ks) socket-outlets 0.1 to 0.2 (1)
assemblies entirely tested lifts and catering hoists (2)
2 and 3 0.9 - for the most powerful
4 and 5 0.8 motor 1
6 to 9 0.7 - for the second most
10 and more 0.6 powerful motor 0.75
assemblies partially tested - for all other motors 0.60
in every case choose 1.0 (1) In certain cases, notably in industrial installations, this
table B16: factor of simultaneity for factor can be higher.
(2) The current to take into consideration is equal to the
distribution boards (IEC 439). nominal current of the motor, increased by a third of its
starting current.
table B17: factor of simultaneity according
to circuit function.

4.4 example of application of factors ku and ks

an example in the estimation of
actual maximum kVA demands at all
levels of an installation, from each
load position to the point of supply.
In this example, the total installed apparent kVA x 103
I=
power is 126.6 kVA, which corresponds to an Ue
actual (estimated) maximum value at the LV where kVA is the actual maximum 3-phase
terminals of the HV/LV transformer of 65 kVA apparent-power value shown on the diagram
only. for the circuit concerned, and U is the phase-
Note: in order to select cable sizes for the to-phase voltage (in volts).
distribution circuits of an installation, the
current I (in amps) through a circuit is
determined from the equation
level 1 level 2 level 3

utilization apparent- utilization apparent- simultaneity apparent- simultaneity apparent- simultaneity apparent-
power (Pa) factor power demand factor power demand factor power demand factor power demand
kVA max. max. kVA kVA kVA kVA
workshop A lathe n°1 5 0.8 4 distribution
box
n°2 5 0.8 4
n°3 5 0,8 4 power
circuit
0.75 14.4 workshop
n°4 5 0.8 4 A
distribution
pedestal- n°1 2 0.8 1.6 board
drill main
n°2 2 0.8 1.6 0,9 18.9
socket- general
5 socket- outlets distribution
outlets 10/16 A 18 1 18 0.2 3,6 lighting board
circuit MGDB
30 fluorescent 3 1 3 1 3
lamps
power
circuit LV/HV
workshop B compressor 15 0.8 12 1 12 socket- workshop
B 65
3 socket- 10/16 A 10.6 1 10.6 0.4
outlets
4,3 lighting distribution 15.6 0.9
outlets circuit
board
10 fluorescent 1 1 1 1 1 0.9
lamps
workshop C ventilation n°1 2,5 1 2.5 distribution workshop
fan box C
n°2 2,5 1 2.5 power distribution
circuit
1 35 board
oven n°1 15 1 15
0.9 37.8
n°2 15 1 15
socket-
5 socket- outlets
outlets 10/16 A 18 1 18 0.28 5 lighting
circuit
20 fluorescent 2 1 2 1 2
lamps

table B18: an example in estimating the maximum predicted loading of an installation (the factor values used are for demonstration purposes
only).

general - installed power - B17

 4. power loading of an installation (continued)

B
4.5 diversity factor
The term DIVERSITY FACTOR, as defined
in IEC standards, is identical to the factor of
simultaneity (ks) used in this guide, as
described in 4.3. In some English-speaking
countries however (at the time of writing)
DIVERSITY FACTOR is the inverse of ks i.e.
it is always u 1.

4.6 choice of transformer rating

When an installation is to be supplied directly
from a HV/LV transformer and the maximum
apparent-power loading of the installation has
been determined, a suitable rating for the
transformer can be decided, taking due
account of the following considerations:
c the possibility of improving the power factor
of the installation (see chapter E),
c anticipated extensions to the installation,
c installation constraints (temperature...)
standard transformer ratings.

In (A)
voltage (at no load) 400 V 420 V 433 V 480 V
rated power (kVA)
50 72 69 67 60
100 144 137 133 120
160 231 220 213 192
250 361 344 333 301
315 455 433 420 379
400 577 550 533 481
500 722 687 667 601
630 909 866 840 758
800 1155 1100 1067 962
1000 1443 1375 1333 1203
1250 1804 1718 1667 1504
1600 2309 2199 2133 1925
2000 2887 2749 2667 2406
2500 3608 3437 3333 3007
table B19: IEC-standardized kVA ratings of HV/LV 3-phase distribution transformers and
corresponding nominal full-load current values.

The nominal full-load current In on the LV Simplified equation for 400 V (3-phase load)
side of a 3-phase transformer is given by: In = kVA x 1.4
Pa 103 The IEC standard for power transformers is
In = where
Ue IEC 76.
* as given on the transformer-rating
Pa = kVA rating of the transformer
nameplate. For table B19 the no-load voltage
U = phase-to-phase voltage at no-load* (in
used is 420 V for the nominal 400 V winding.
volts)
In is in amperes.
For a single-phase transformer:
3
In = Pa 10 where
V
V = voltage between LV terminals at no-load*
(in volts).

B18 - general - installed power


4.7 choice of power-supply sources
The study developed in F2 on the importance
of maintaining a continuous supply raises the
question of the use of standby-power plant.
The choice and characteristics of these
alternative sources are described in F3-3.
For the main source of supply the choice is
generally between a connection to the HV or
the LV network of the public power-supply
authority.
In practice, connection to a HV source may
be necessary where the load exceeds (or
is planned eventually to exceed) a certain
level - generally of the order of 250 kVA, or if
the quality of service required is greater than
that normally available from a LV network.
Moreover, if the installation is likely to cause
disturbance to neighbouring consumers,
when connected to a LV network, the supply
authorities may propose a HV service.
Supplies at HV can have certain advantages:
in fact, a HV consumer:
c is not disturbed by other consumers, which
could be the case at LV,
c is free to choose any type of LV earthing
system,
c has a wider choice of economic tariffs,
c can accept very large increases in load.
B
It should be noted, however, that:
c the consumer is the proprietor of the HV/LV
substation and, in some countries, he must
build and equip it at his own expense. The
power authority can, in certain circumstances,
participate in the investment, at the level of
the HV line for example,
c a part of the connection costs can, for
instance, often be recovered if a second
consumer is connected to the HV line within a
certain time following the original consumer's
own connection,
c the consumer has access only to the LV
part of the installation, access to the HV part
being reserved to the supply-authority
personnel (meter reading, operational
manœuvres, etc.). However, in certain
countries, the HV protective circuit breaker
(or fused load-break switch) can be operated
by the consumer,
c the type and location of the substation are
agreed between the consumer and the
supply authority.
general - installed power - B19
1. supply of power at high voltage

At present there is no international agreement
on precise limits to define “High” voltage.
Voltage levels which are designated as “high”
in some countries are referred to as
“medium” in others.
In this chapter, distribution networks which
operate at voltages of 1,000 V or less are
referred to as Low-Voltage systems, while
systems of power distribution which require
C
one stage of stepdown voltage
transformation, in order to feed into low-
voltage networks, will be referred to as High-
Voltage systems.
For economic and technical reasons the
upper nominal voltage limit of high-voltage
distribution systems, as defined above,
seldom exceeds 36.5 kV.

1.1 power-supply characteristics of high voltage distribution networks

the main features which characterize
a power-supply system include:
c the nominal voltage and related
insulation levels,
c the short-circuit current,
c the rated normal current of items of
plant and equipment,
c the method of earthing.
Note: All voltages and currents are
r.m.s. values, unless otherwise
stated.
in this document, the word “nominal”
voltage is used for the network and
the word “rated” voltage is used for
the equipment.
nominal voltage and related
insulation levels
The nominal voltage of a system or of an
equipment is defined in IEC 38 as “the
voltage by which a system or equipment is
designated and to which certain operating
characteristics are referred”. Closely related
to the nominal voltage is the “highest voltage
for equipment” which concerns the level of
insulation at normal working frequency, and
to which other characteristics may be referred
in relevant equipment recommendations.
The “highest voltage for equipment” is
defined in IEC 38 as:
“the maximum value of voltage for which the
equipment may be used, that occurs under
normal operating conditions at any time and
at any point on the system. It excludes
voltage transients, such as those due to
system switching, and temporary voltage
variations”.

Notes:
1.- The highest voltage for equipment is
indicated for nominal system voltages higher
than 1,000 V only. It is understood that,
particularly for certain nominal system
voltages, normal operation of equipment
cannot be ensured up to this highest voltage
for equipment, having regard to voltage
sensitive characteristics such as losses of
capacitors, magnetizing current of
transformers, etc.
In such cases, the relevant recommendations
must specify the limit to which the normal
operation of this equipment can be ensured.
2.- It is understood that the equipment to be
used in systems having nominal voltage not
exceeding 1,000 V should be specified with
reference to the nominal system voltage only,
both for operation and for insulation.
3.- The definition for “highest voltage for
equipment” given in IEC 38 is identical to that
given in IEC 694 for “rated voltage”.
IEC 694 concerns switchgear for nominal
voltages exceeding 1,000 V.

HV/LV distribution substations - C1

 1. supply of power at high voltage (continued)

C
1.1 power-supply characteristics of high voltage distribution networks (continued)
The following Table C1, taken from IEC 38, Notes:
lists the most-commonly used standard levels 1 - It is recommended that in any one country
of high-voltage distribution, and relates the the ratio between two adjacent nominal
nominal voltages to corresponding standard voltages should be not less than two.
values of “Highest Voltage for Equipment”. 2 - In a normal system of Series I, the highest
Two series of highest voltages for equipment voltage and the lowest voltage do not differ
are given below, one for 50 Hz and 60 Hz by more than approximately ± 10% from the
systems (Series I), the other for 60 Hz nominal voltage of the system. In a normal
systems (Series II - North American practice). system of Series II, the highest voltage does
It is recommended that only one of these not differ by more than + 5% and the lowest
series should be used in any one country. voltage by more than - 10% from the nominal
It is also recommended that only one of the voltage of the system.
two series of nominal voltages given for
Series I should be used in any one country.
These systems are generally three-wire
systems unless otherwise indicated. The
values shown are voltages between phases.
The values indicated in parentheses should
be considered as non-preferred values. It is
recommended that these values should not
be used for new systems to be constructed in
future.

series I series II
highest voltage nominal system highest voltage nominal system
for equipement voltage for equipment voltage
(kV) (kV) (kV) (kV)
3.6 (1) 3.3 (1) 3 (1) 4.40 (1) 4.16 (1)
7.2 (1) 6.6 (1) 6 (1) - -
12 11 10 - -
- - - 13.2 (2) 12.47 (2)
- - - 13.97 (2) 13.2 (2)
- - - 14.52 (1) 13.8 (1)
(17.5) - (15) - -
24 22 20 - -
- - - 26.4 (2) 24.94 (2)
36 (3) 33 (3) - - -
- - - 36.5 (2) 34.5 (2)
40.5 (3) - 35 (3) - -
1) These values should not be used for public distribution systems.
2) These systems are generally four-wire systems.
3) The unification of these values is under consideration.
table C1: relating nominal system voltages with corresponding rated system voltages
(r.m.s. values).
In order to ensure adequate protection of
equipment against abnormally-high short-
term power-frequency overvoltages, and
transient overvoltages caused by lightning,
switching, and system fault conditions, etc.
all HV equipment must be specified to have
appropriate Rated Insulation Levels.

Switchgear
Table C2 shown below, is extracted from
IEC 694 and lists standard values of
“withstand” voltage requirements. The choice
between List 1 and List 2 values of table C2
depends on the degree of exposure to
lightning and switching overvoltages*, the
type of neutral earthing, and the type of
overvoltage protection devices, etc. (for
further guidance reference should be made to
IEC 71).
* This means basically that List 1 generally applies to
switchgear to be used on underground-cable systems while
List 2 is chosen for switchgear to be used on overhead-line
systems.

C2 - HV/LV distribution substations

 C
Based on current practice in most European
and several other countries

rated rated lightning impulse withstand voltage rated I min power-

voltage (peak value) frequency withstand
U list 1 list 2 voltage (r.m.s. value)
(r.m.s. to earth, across the to earth, across the to earth, across the
value) between poles isolating between poles isolating between poles isolating
and across distance and across distance and across distance
open open open
switching switching switching
device device device
(kV) (kV) (kV) (kV) (kV) (kV) (kV)
3.6 20 23 40 46 10 12
7.2 40 46 60 70 20 23
12 60 70 75 85 28 32
17.5 75 85 95 110 38 45
24 95 110 125 145 50 60
36 145 165 170 195 70 80
52 - - 250 290 95 110
72.5 - - 325 375 140 160
Note: The withstand voltage values “across the isolating distance” are valid only for the switching
devices where the clearance between open contacts is designed to meet safety requirements
specified for disconnectors (isolators).
table C2: switchgear rated insulation levels.
It should be noted that, at the voltage levels
in question, no switching overvoltage ratings
are mentioned. This is because overvoltages
due to switching transients are less severe at
these voltage levels than those due to
lightning.
Transformers
The two tables C3A and C3B shown below
have been extracted from IEC 76-3, and refer
to the current practices in countries other
than those of North America (Series I) and to
those of North America and some other
countries (Series II).
The significance of list 1 and list 2 in Series I
is the same as that for the switchgear table,
i.e. the choice depends on the degree of
exposure to lightning, etc.

highest voltage rated short duration rated lightning impulse

for equipment Um power frequency withstand voltage
(r.m.s.) withstand voltage (peak)
(r.m.s.) list 1 list 2
(kV) (kV) (kV) (kV)
i 1.1 3 - -
3.6 10 20 40
7.2 20 40 60
12 28 60 75
17.5 38 75 95
24 50 95 125
36 70 145 170
52 95 250
72.5 140 325
table C3A: transformers rated insulation levels in series I (based on current practice other
than in the United States of America and some other countries).

HV/LV distribution substations - C3

 1. supply of power at high voltage (continued)

C
1.1 power-supply characteristics of high voltage distribution networks (continued)
highest voltage rated short duration rated lightning impulse
for equipment Um power frequency withstand voltage
(r.m.s.) withstand voltage (peak)
(r.m.s.) distribution other
transformers transformers
(kV) (kV) (kV) (kV)
4.40 19 60 75
13.20
13.97
14.52
26.4
} 34

50
95 110

150
36.5 70 200
72.5 140 350
table C3B: transformers rated insulation levels in series II (based on current practice in
the United States of America and some other countries).
Other components
It is evident that the insulation performance of
other HV components associated with these
major items, e.g. porcelain or glass
insulators, HV cables, instrument
transformers, etc. must be compatible with
that of the switchgear and transformers noted
above. Test schedules for these items are
given in appropriate IEC publications.

the national standards of any
particular country are normally
rationalized to include one or two
levels only of voltage, current, and
fault-levels, etc.
General note
The IEC standards are intended for world-
wide application and consequently embrace
an extensive range of voltage and current
levels.
These reflect the diverse practices adopted in
countries of different meteorologic,
geographic and economic constraints.
The national standards of any particular
country are normally rationalized to include
one or two levels only of voltage, current, and
fault-levels, etc.

a circuit breaker (or fuse switch, over short-circuit current

a limited voltage range) is the only
form of switchgear capable of safely
breaking the very high levels of
current associated with short-circuit
faults occurring on a power system.
A circuit breaker (or fuse switch, over a
limited voltage range) is the only form of
switchgear capable of safely breaking the
very high levels of current associated with
short-circuit faults occurring on a power
system.
Standard values of circuit breaker short-
circuit current-breaking capability are
normally given in kilo-amps.
These values refer to a 3-phase short-circuit
condition, and are expressed as the average
of the r.m.s. values of the a.c. component of
current in each of the three phases.

Short-circuit current-breaking ratings

For circuit breakers in the rated voltage
ranges being considered in this chapter,
IEC 56 gives standard short-circuit current-
breaking ratings as follows.

kV 3.6 7.2 12 17.5 24 36 52

kA 8 8 8 8 8 8
(r.m.s.) 10 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5
16 16 16 16 16 16 20
25 25 25 25 25 25
40 40 40 40 40 40
50
table C4: standard short-circuit current-breaking ratings extracted from table X IEC 56.

C4 - HV/LV distribution substations


Where the installation of a circuit breaker is
electrically remote from a power source, it is
only necessary to check that the power factor
of the faulty circuit is not less than 0.07 and
that the minimum operating time of protective
relaying is not less than a half cycle of the
power-supply frequency (i.e. 10 ms at 50 Hz).
In the great majority of cases, these
conditions will be satisfied in a conventional
HV distribution network.
In such circumstances, it is then only
necessary to ensure that the IEC-rated short-
circuit current-breaking capability of the circuit
breaker exceeds the r.m.s. value of 3-phase
short-circuit current at the point of installation.
Where circuit breakers are to be installed
close to generating plant, the a.c. component
of short-circuit current will diminish rapidly
from its initial value (i.e. the a.c. decrement)
and the power factor of the fault circuit may
be less than 0.07. Such a case would need
further investigation along the lines indicated
in IEC 56, since the result could lead to an
absence of current zeros for several initial
cycles*.
Maximum peak of current
Another aspect of short-circuit current
stresses that may be imposed on the
component parts of a power system,
concerns the maximum possible peak of
current which can occur if a circuit breaker is
closed on to a dead circuit which is short-
circuited.
For such a possibility, circuit breakers have a
short-circuit current-making rating, expressed
in kA of peak current. The numerical value of
this rating is 2.5 times the short-circuit
current-breaking rating of the circuit breaker.
Explanation
The value 2.5 is derived as follows: short-
circuit current is normally highly inductive so
that at least two of the phases will contain a
transient d.c. component. In the worst
possible case, the value of the d.c.
component in one of the phases will be equal
I
A
E
C A’
IMC
IDC
B X
E’
AA'
= envelope of current-wave
BB’
BX = normal zero line
CC’ = displacement of current-wave zero-
line at any instant
DD’ = r.m.s. value of the a.c. component of
current at any instant, measured from
CC’
EE’ = instant of contact separation (initiation
of the arc)
fig. C5: determination of short-circuit making and breaking currents, and of percentage
d.c. component.
C
to the peak value of the a.c. component,
producing the so-called “doubling effect”.
However, the d.c. transient diminishes rapidly
from the instant of fault, while the peak
current occurs a half cycle after that instant.
Allowance is made for the diminution in the
d.c. component by reducing the doubling
factor (2) to a value of 1.8.
In IEC 56 this reduction is based on an
inductive d.c. time constant value which is
representative of average HV distribution
systems.
The peak current value is therefore
rIrms x 1.8 = 2.54 Irms which is rounded off
for standardization purposes to 2.5 Irms.
The form of the fully-offset short-circuit
current is shown in figure C5, reproduced
from IEC 56.
Note:
When a short-circuit (s.c.) occurs on a power
system, all electric motors act for a very brief
period (1-2 cycles) as generators, and feed
current (typically 50 % - 80 % of the motor-
starting current) into the fault. This is due to
the collapsing magnetic flux in each motor
and is generally significant only for the first
power-frequency cycle from the moment of
s.c.
For the latter reason, apart from very
exceptional cases, it is not necessary to take
account of its effect on the s.c. current-
breaking rating of a circuit breaker (CB).
It cannot be neglected however, in the case
of s.c. current-making rating.
If there are large concentrations of motors
near the point of installation of a CB, the s.c.
current-making level will be greater than
2.5 times the s.c. current-breaking level at the
same location.
In order to ensure an adequate s.c. current-
making capacity, therefore, a CB having an
oversized s.c. current-breaking capacity is
necessary in such circumstances.
* A "natural" current zero is essential for the correct
functioning of a CB, unless especially designed for the
purpose.
IAC D’
C’
B’
IMC = making current = (A-C) 1.8 where A
and C are measured at t = 0
IAC = peak value of a.c. component of
current at instant EE’
IAC = r.m.s. value of the a.c. component
r of current at instant EE’
IDC = d.c. component of current at instant
EE’
IDC x 100 = percentage value of the d.c.
IAC component
HV/LV distribution substations - C5
 1. supply of power at high voltage (continued)
C
1.1 power-supply characteristics of high voltage distribution networks (continued)
the short-circuit current level of a HV
distribution system is frequently
limited by design techniques to a pre-
determined maximum value typically
in the range of 12.5 kA to 25 kA.
All HV equipments connected to the
system must be capable of
withstanding, without damage, the
thermal and mechanical stresses of
the maximum short-circuit current for
1 second, or in particular cases
(depending on equipment
specifications) for 3 seconds.
the most common normal current
rating for general-purpose HV
distribution switchgear is 400 A.
C6 - HV/LV distribution substations
In such a case, a CB having a s.c. current-
breaking rating sufficiently high to ensure an
adequate s.c. current-making performance
must be installed.
The short-circuit current level of a HV
distribution system is frequently limited by
design techniques to a pre-determined
maximum value typically in the range of
12.5 kA to 25 kA.
All HV equipments connected to the system
must be capable of withstanding, without
damage, the thermal and mechanical
stresses of the maximum short-circuit current
for 1 second, or in particular cases
(depending on equipment specifications) for
3 seconds.
Rated normal current The IEC recommends that the normal-current
The rated normal current is defined as “the rating value, assigned to the combination by
r.m.s. value of the current which can be the manufacturer, be one of the “R10” series
carried continuously at rated frequency with a of (ISO) preferred numbers, viz: 10, 12.5, 16,
temperature rise not exceeding that specified 20, 25, 31.5, 40, 50, 63, 80 with multiples (or
by the relevant product standard”. sub-multiples) of 10 as required.
The rated normal current requirements for In such a scheme, the load-break switch
switchgear are decided at the substation must be suitably rated to trip automatically,
design stage. e.g. by relays, at low fault-current levels
The most common normal current rating for which must cover (by an appropriate margin)
general-purpose HV distribution switchgear is the rated minimum breaking current of the HV
400 A. fuses. In this way, high values of fault current
In industrial areas and high-load-density which are beyond the breaking capability of
urban districts, circuits rated at 630 A are the load-break switch will be cleared by the
sometimes required, while at bulk-supply fuses, while low fault-current values, that
substations which feed into HV networks, cannot be correctly broken by the fuses, will
800 A; 1,250 A; 1,600 A; 2,500 A and 4,000 A be cleared by the relay-operated load-break
circuit breakers are listed in IEC 56 as switch.
standard ratings for incoming-transformer Appendix C1 gives further information on this
circuits, bus-section and bus-coupler CBs, arrangement, as applied to HV switch-fuse
etc. combination units.
At HV/LV substations which include one (or
more) transformer(s) with a normal primary
current of less than 45 A, a HV switch
associated with a set of 3 fuses (or a
combination switch-fuse) is generally used to
control and protect the transformer, as a more
economic alternative to a CB.
There are no IEC-recommended normal-
current rating tables for the combination in
these cases. The actual rating will be given
by the switch-fuse manufacturer, according to
the fuse characteristics, and details of the
transformer, such as:
c normal current at HV,
c permissible overcurrent and its duration,
c max. peak and duration of the transformer
energization inrush magnetizing current,
c off-circuit tapping-switch position, etc. as
shown in the example given in Appendix A of
IEC 420, and summarized in Appendix C1 of
this guide.

earth faults on high-voltage systems
can produce dangerous voltage
levels on LV installations. LV
consumers (and substation operating
personnel) can be safeguarded
against this danger by:
c restricting the magnitude of HV
earth-fault currents,
c reducing the substation earthing
resistance to the lowest possible
value,
c creating equipotential conditions at
the substation and at the consumer's
installation.
Influence of the ambient temperature and
altitude on the rated current
Normal-current ratings are assigned to all
current-carrying electrical appliances, and
upper limits are decided by the acceptable
temperature rise caused by the I2R (watts)
dissipated in the conductors, (where I = r.m.s.
current in amperes and R = the resistance of
the conductor in ohms), together with the
heat produced by magnetic-hysteresis and
eddy-current losses in motors, transformers,
etc. and dielectric losses in cables and
capacitors, where appropriate.
The temperature rise above the ambient
temperature will depend mainly on the rate at
which the heat is removed. For example,
large currents can be passed through electric
motor windings without causing them to
overheat, simply because a cooling fan fixed
to the shaft of the motor removes the heat at
the same rate as it is produced, and so the
temperature reaches a stable value below
that which could damage the insulation and
earthing connections
Earth faults on high-voltage systems can
produce dangerous voltage levels on LV
installations. LV consumers (and substation
operating personnel) can be safeguarded
against this danger by:
c restricting the magnitude of HV earth-fault
currents,
c reducing the substation earthing resistance
to the lowest possible value,
c creating equipotential conditions at the
substation and at the consumer's installation.
Earthing and equipment-bonding earth
connections require careful consideration,
particularly regarding safety of the LV
consumer during the occurrence of a short-
circuit to earth on the HV system.
Earth electrodes
In general, it is preferable, where physically
possible, to separate the electrode provided
for earthing exposed conductive parts of HV
equipment from the electrode intended for
earthing the LV neutral conductor. This is
commonly practised in rural systems where
the LV neutral-conductor earth electrode is
installed at one or two spans of LV
distribution line away from the substation.
In most cases, the limited space available in
urban substations precludes this practice, i.e.
there is no possibility of separating a HV
electrode sufficiently from a LV electrode to
avoid the transference of (possibly
dangerous) voltages to the LV system.
Earth-fault current
Earth-fault current levels at high voltage are
generally (unless deliberately restricted)
comparable to those of a 3-phase short-
circuit.
Such currents passing through an earth
electrode will raise its voltage to a high value
with respect to “remote earth” (the earth
surrounding the electrode will be raised to a
high potential; “remote earth” is at zero
potential).
For example, 10,000 A of earth-fault current
passing through an electrode with an
(unusually low) resistance of 0.5 ohms will
raise its voltage to 5,000 V.
Providing that all exposed metal in the
substation is “bonded” (connected together)
and then connected to the earth electrode,
C
result in a burnt-out motor.
Oil- and/or air-cooled transformers are among
the most widely known examples of such
“forced-cooling” techniques.
The normal-current values recommended by
IEC are based on ambient-air temperatures
common to temperate climates at altitudes
not exceeding 1,000 metres, so that items
which depend on natural cooling by radiation
and air-convection will overheat if operated at
rated normal current in a tropical climate and/
or at altitudes exceeding 1,000 metres. In
such cases, the equipment has to be derated,
i.e. be assigned a lower value of normal-
current rating according to IEC 76-2.
In the case of force-cooled transformers it is
generally sufficient to provide sun shields,
and increase the oil-cooling radiator surfaces,
the amount of cooling oil, the power of the
circulating-oil pumps, and the size of the air-
circulating fans, to maintain the original IEC
rating.
and the electrode is in the form of (or is
connected to) a grid of conductors under the
floor of the substation, then there is no
danger to personnel, since this arrangement
forms an equipotential “cage” in which all
conductive material, including personnel, is
raised to the same potential.
Transferred potential
A danger exists however from the problem
known as Transferred Potential. It will be
seen in figure C6 that the neutral point of the
LV winding of the HV/LV transformer is also
connected to the common substation earth
electrode, so that the neutral conductor, the
LV phase windings and all phase conductors
are also raised to the electrode potential.
Low-voltage distribution cables leaving the
substation will transfer this potential to
consumers installations. It may be noted that
there will be no LV insulation failure between
phases or from phase to neutral since they
are all at the same potential. It is probable,
however, that the insulation between phase
and earth of a cable or some part of an
installation would fail.
Solutions
A first step in minimizing the obvious dangers
of transferred potentials is to reduce the
magnitude of HV earth-fault currents. This is
commonly achieved by earthing the HV
system through resistors or reactors at the
star points of selected transformers*, located
at bulk-supply substations.
A relatively high transferred potential cannot
be entirely avoided by this means, however,
and so the following strategy has been
adopted in some countries.
The equipotential earthing installation at a
consumer's premises represents a remote
earth, i.e. at zero potential. However, if this
earthing installation were to be connected by
a low-impedance conductor to the earth-
electrode at the substation, then the
equipotential conditions existing in the
substation would also exist at the consumer's
installation.
* the others being unearthed. A particular case of earth-fault
current limitation, namely, by means of a Petersen coil, is
discussed at the end of Sub-clause 3.2.
HV/LV distribution substations - C7
 1. supply of power at high voltage (continued)

C
1.1 power-supply characteristics of high voltage distribution networks (continued)
HV LV
1

N
fault

If
consumer

If V=IfRs

Rs

fig. C6: transferred potential.

Low-impedance interconnection
This low-impedance interconnection is
achieved simply by connecting the neutral
conductor to the consumer's equipotential
installation, and the result is recognized as
the TN system of earthing (IEC 364-3) as
shown in diagram A of figure C7.
The TN system is generally associated with a
Protective Multiple Earthing (PME) scheme,
in which the neutral conductor is earthed at
intervals along its length (every 3rd or 4th
pole on a LV overhead-line distributor) and at
each consumer's service position.
It can be seen that the network of neutral
conductors radiating from a substation, each
of which is earthed at regular intervals,
constitutes, together with the substation
earthing, a very effective low-resistance earth
electrode.
The combination of restricted earth-fault
currents, equipotential installations and low-
resistance substation earthing, results in
greatly reduced levels of overvoltage and
limited stressing of phase-to-earth insulation
during the type of HV earth-fault situation
described above.

Limitation of the HV earth-fault current

and earth resistance of the substation
Another widely-used system of earthing is
shown in diagram C of figure C7. It will be
seen that in the TT system, the consumer's
earthing installation (being isolated from that
of the substation) constitutes a remote earth.
This means that, although the transferred
potential will not stress the phase-to-phase
insulation of the consumer's equipment, the
phase-to-earth insulation of all three phases
will be subjected to overvoltage.
The strategy in this case, is to:
c restrict the value of HV earth-fault currents,
as previously discussed,
c reduce the resistance of the substation
earth electrode, such that the standard value
of 5-second withstand-voltage-to-earth for LV
equipment and appliances will not be
exceeded.

C8 - HV/LV distribution substations

 C
HV LV HV LV cases A and B
1 1
No particular resistance value for Rs is
2 2 imposed in these cases.

3 3

N N

TN(R) IT(R)

A RS B

HV LV HV LV cases C and D Uw - Uo
Rs i Im
1 1

2 2
3 3
N N
IT(N)
TT(N)
Where
Uw = the rated normal-frequency withstand
voltage for low-voltage equipment at
consumer installations
Uo = phase to neutral voltage at consumer's
installations
Im = maximum value of HV earth-fault current

RS RS
C D

HV LV HV LV cases E and F Uws - U

Rs i Im
1 1

2 2
3 3
N N
IT(S)
TT(S)
RS RN RS RN
E F
In cases E and F the LV protective conductors (bonding exposed conductive parts)
in the substation are earthed via the substation earth electrode, and it is therefore the substation
LV equipment (only) that could be subjected to overvoltage.
Where
Uws = the normal-frequency withstand
voltage for low-voltage equipments in
the substation (since the exposed
conductive parts of these equipments
are earthed via Rs)
U = phase to neutral voltage at the substation
for the TT(s) system, but the phase-to-
phase voltage for the IT(s) system
Im = maximum value of HV earth-fault current

Notes:
(R) signifies that the HV and LV exposed conductive parts at the substation and those at the consumer's installations, together with the LV neutral
point of the transformer, are all earthed via the substation electrode system.
(N) signifies that the HV and LV exposed conductive parts at the substation, together with the LV neutral point of the transformer are earthed via the
substation electrode system.
(S) signifies that the LV neutral point of the transformer is separately earthed outside of the area of influence of the substation earth electrode.
Uw and Uws are commonly given the (IEC 644) value 1.5 Uo + 750 V, where Uo is the nominal phase-to-neutral voltage of the LV system concerned.
fig. C7: maximum earthing resistance Rs at a HV/LV substation to ensure safety during a short-circuit to earth fault on the high-voltage
equipment for different systems of earthing.

HV/LV distribution substations - C9

 1. supply of power at high voltage (continued)
C
1.1 power-supply characteristics of high voltage distribution networks (continued)
Practical values adopted by one national
electrical power-supply authority, on its 20 kV
distribution systems, are as follows:
c maximum earth-fault current on overhead-
line distribution systems, or mixed (O/H line
and U/G cable) systems, is 300 A,
c maximum earth-fault current on
underground systems is 1,000 A.
The formula required to determine the
maximum value of earthing resistance Rs at
the substation, to ensure that the LV
withstand voltage will not be exceeded, is:
Uw - Uo
Rs = in ohms
Im
(see cases C and D in figure C7).
Where
Uw = the lowest standard value (in volts) of
short-term (5 s) withstand voltage
for the consumer's installation and
appliances
= 1.5 Uo + 750 V (IEC 644 (1991))
Uo = phase to neutral voltage (in volts) at the
consumer's LV service position
Im = maximum earth-fault current on the HV
system (in amps).
A third form of system earthing referred to as
the “IT” system in IEC 364 is commonly used
where continuity of supply is essential, e.g. in
hospitals, continuous-process manufacturing,
etc.
The principle depends on taking a supply
from an unearthed source, usually a
transformer, the secondary winding of which
is unearthed, or earthed through a high
impedance (u 1,000 ohms).
In these cases, an insulation failure to earth
in the low-voltage circuits supplied from the
secondary windings will result in zero or
negligible fault-current flow, which can be
allowed to persist until it is convenient to
shut-down the affected circuit to carry out
repair work.
Diagrams B, D and F of figure C7 show IT
systems in which resistors (of approximately
1,000 ohms) are included in the neutral-
earthing lead.
If however, these resistors were removed, so
that the system is unearthed, the following
notes apply.
Diagram B. All phase wires and the neutral
conductor are “floating” with respect to earth,
to which they are “connected” via the
(normally very high) insulation resistances
and (very small) capacitances between the
live conductors and earthed metal (conduits,
etc.).
C10 - HV/LV distribution substations
Assuming perfect insulation, all LV phase and
neutral conductors will be raised by
electrostatic induction to a potential
approaching that of the equipotential
conductors.
In practice, it is more likely, because of the
numerous earth-leakage paths of all live
conductors in a number of installations acting
in parallel, that the system will behave
similarly to the case where a neutral earthing
resistor is present, i.e. all conductors will be
raised to the potential of the substation earth.
In these cases, the overvoltage stresses on
the LV insulation are small or non-existent.
Diagrams D and F. In these cases, the high
potential of the substation (S/S) earthing
system acts on the isolated LV phase and
neutral conductors:
c through the capacitance between the LV
windings of the transformer and the
transformer tank,
c through capacitance between the
equipotential conductors in the S/S and
the cores of LV distribution cables leaving
the S/S,
c through current leakage paths in the
insulation, in each case.
At positions outside the area of influence of
the S/S earthing, system capacitances exist
between the conductors and earth at zero
potential (capacitances between cores are
irrelevant - all cores being raised to the same
potential).
The result is essentially a capacitive voltage
divider, where each “capacitor” is shunted by
(leakage path) resistances.
In general, LV cable and installation wiring
capacitances to earth are much larger, and
the insulation resistances to earth are much
smaller than those of the corresponding
parameters at the S/S, so that most of the
voltage stresses appear at the substation
between the transformer tank and the LV
winding.
The rise in potential at consumers’
installations is not likely therefore to be a
problem where the HV earth-fault current
level is restricted as previously mentioned.
All IT-earthed transformers, whether the
neutral point is isolated or earthed through a
high impedance, are routinely provided with
an overvoltage limiting device which will
automatically connect the neutral point
directly to earth if an overvoltage condition
approaches the insulation-withstand level of
the LV system.
In addition to the possibilities mentioned
above, several other ways in which these
overvoltages can occur are described in
Clause 3.1.
 C
This kind of earth-fault is very rare, and when
it does occur is quickly detected and cleared
by the automatic tripping of a circuit breaker
in a properly designed and constructed
installation.
Safety in situations of elevated potentials
depends entirely on the provision of properly
arranged equipotential areas, the basis of
which is generally in the form of a wide-
meshed grid of interconnected bare copper
conductors connected to vertically-driven
copper-clad* steel rods.
The equipotential criterion to be respected is
that which is mentioned in Chapter G dealing
with protection against electric shock by
indirect contact, namely: that the potential
between any two exposed metal parts which
can be touched simultaneously by any parts
of the body must never, under any
circumstances, exceed 50 V in dry
conditions, or 25 V in wet conditions.
Special care should be taken at the
boundaries of equipotential areas to avoid
steep potential gradients on the surface of the
ground which give rise to dangerous “step
potentials”.
This question is closely related to the safe
earthing of boundary fences and is further
discussed in Sub-clause 3.1 and in
Appendix C2.
* Copper is cathodic to most other metals and therefore
resists corrosion.

1.2 different HV service connections

According to the type of high-voltage network,
the following supply arrangements are
commonly adopted.

single-line service overhead line

The substation is supplied by a single circuit
tee-off from a HV distributor (cable or line).
In general, the HV service is connected into a
panel containing a load-break/isolating switch
with series protective fuses and earthing
switches, as shown in figure C8.
In some countries a pole-mounted
transformer with no HV switchgear or fuses
(at the pole) constitutes the “substation”. Up
to transformer ratings of 160 kVA this type of
HV service is very common in rural areas.
Protection and switching devices are remote
from the transformer, and generally control a
main overhead-line, from which a number of
these elementary service lines are tapped.
fig. C8: single-line service.

HV/LV distribution substations - C11

 1. supply of power at high voltage (continued)

C
1.2 different HV service connections (continued)
ring-main principle
Ring-main units (RMU) are normally
connected to form a HV ring main* or
interconnector-distributor*, such that the RMU
busbars carry the full ring-main or
interconnector current (figure C9).
The RMU consists of three compartments,
integrated to form a single assembly, viz:
c 2 incoming compartments, each containing
a load-break/isolating switch and a circuit
earthing switch,
c 1 outgoing and general protection
compartment, containing a load-break switch
and HV fuses, or a combined load-break/fuse
switch, or a circuit breaker and isolating
switch, together with a circuit-earthing switch
in each case.
All load-break switches and earthing switches
are fully rated for short-circuit current-making
duty.
This arrangement provides the user with a
two-source supply, thereby reducing
considerably any interruption of service due
to system faults or operational manœuvres
by the supply authority, etc.
The main application for RMUs is in public-
supply HV underground-cable networks in
urban areas.
* A ring main is a continuous distributor in the form of a
closed loop, which originates and terminates on one set of
busbars. Each end of the loop is controlled by its own circuit
breaker. In order to improve operational flexibility the
busbars are often divided into two sections by a normally-
closed bus-section circuit breaker, and each end of the ring underground
is connected to a different section. cable ring main
An interconnector is a continuous untapped feeder
connecting the busbars of two substations. Each end of the
interconnector is usually controlled by a circuit beaker.
An interconnector-distributor is an interconnector which
supplies one or more distribution substations along its
length. fig. C9: ring-main service.

parallel feeders
Where a HV supply connection to two lines or
cables originating from the same busbar of a
substation is possible, a similar HV
switchboard to that of a RMU is commonly
used (figure C10).
The main operational difference between this
arrangement and that of a RMU is that the
two incoming panels are mutually interlocked,
such that one incoming switch only can be
closed at a time, i.e. its closure prevents the
closure of the other.
On the loss of power supply, the closed
incoming switch must be opened and the
(formerly open) switch can then be closed.
The sequence may be carried out manually paralleled
underground-cable
or automatically. distributors
This type of switchboard is used particularly
in networks of high-load density and in
rapidly-expanding urban areas supplied by
HV underground cable systems. fig. C10: duplicated supply service.

C12 - HV/LV distribution substations


1.3 some operational aspects of HV distribution networks
overhead lines
High winds, ice formation, etc., can cause the
conductors of overhead lines to touch each
other, thereby causing a momentary (i.e. not
permanent) short-circuit fault.
Insulation failure due to broken ceramic or
glass insulators, caused by air-borne debris;
careless use of shot-guns, etc., or again,
heavily polluted insulator surfaces, can result
in a short-circuit to earth.
Many of these faults are self-clearing. For
example, in dry conditions, broken insulators
can very often remain in service undetected,
but are likely to flashover to earth (e.g. to a
metal supporting structure) during a
rainstorm. Moreover, polluted surfaces
generally cause a flashover to earth only in
damp conditions.
The passage of fault current almost invariably
takes the form of an electric arc, the intense
heat of which dries the current path, and to
some extent, re-establishes its insulating
properties. In the meantime, protective
devices have usually operated to clear the
fault, i.e. fuses have blown or a circuit
breaker has tripped.
Experience has shown that in the large
majority of cases, restoration of supply by
replacing fuses or by re-closing a circuit
breaker will be successful.
For this reason it has been possible to
considerably improve the continuity of service
on HV overhead-line distribution networks by
the application of automatic circuit breaker
reclosing schemes at the origin of the circuits
concerned.
These automatic schemes permit a number
of reclosing operations if a first attempt fails,
with adjustable time delays between
successive attempts (to allow de-ionization of
the air at the fault) before a final lock-out of
the circuit breaker occurs, after all (generally
three) attempts fail.
1-cycle RR + 1SR
C
Other improvements in service continuity are
achieved by the use of remotely-controlled
section switches and by automatic isolating
switches which operate in conjunction with an
auto-reclosing circuit breaker.
This last scheme is exemplified by the final
sequence shown in figure C11, where the
isolating switch is referred to as IACT*
(voltage-drop-operated outdoor switch).
The principle is as follows:
If, after two reclosing attempts, the circuit
breaker trips, the fault is assumed to be
permanent, and, while the distributor is dead,
the IACT opens to isolate a section of the
network, before the third (and final) reclosure
takes place. There are then two possibilities:
1) the fault is on the section which is isolated
by IACT, and supply is restored to those
consumers connected to the remaining
section, or
2) the fault is on the section upstream of
IACT and the circuit breaker will trip and lock
out.
The IACT scheme, therefore, provides the
possibility of restoration of supplies to some
consumers in the event of a permanent fault.
While these measures have greatly improved
the reliability of supplies from HV overhead
line systems, the consumers must, where
considered necessary, make their own
arrangements to counter the effects of
momentary interruptions to supply (between
reclosures), for example:
c uninterruptible standby emergency power,
c lighting that requires no cooling down
before re-striking.
(See Chapter F section 2)
* Interrupteur Aérien à ouverture dans le Creux de Tension
(used by EDF, the French supply authority).

If O1 RR O2 SR O3

In

Io 15 to 30s

fault permanent fault

0.3s 0.4s
2-cycle 2SR
a-fault on main distributor

If O1 RR O2 SR1 O3 SR2 O4

In

Io 15 to 30s 15 to 30s

fault permanent fault

0.3s 0.4s 0.4s 0.45s
b-fault on section supplied through IACT

If O1 RR O2 SR1 O3

In
SR2
Io 15 to 30s 15 to 30s

fault opening of IACT

0.3s 0.4s 0.4s
O = circuit breaker opening / RR = rapid reclosing / SR = slow reclosing / In = normal load current / If = fault current / I0 = zero current

fig. C11: automatic reclosing cycles of a circuit breaker controlling a radial HV distributor.

HV/LV distribution substations - C13

 1. supply of power at high voltage (continued)

C
1.3 some operational aspects of HV distribution networks (continued)
underground cable networks
Faults on underground cable networks are
sometimes the result of careless
workmanship by cable jointers or by cable-
laying contractors, etc., but are more
commonly due to damage from tools such as
pick-axes, pneumatic drills and trench
excavating machines, and so on, used by
other utilities.
Insulation failures sometimes occur in cable-
terminating boxes due to overvoltage,
particularly at points in a HV system where an
overhead line is connected to an
underground cable. The overvoltage in such
a case is generally of atmospheric origin, and
electromagnetic-wave reflection effects at the
joint box (where the natural impedance of the
circuit changes abruptly) can result in
overstressing of the cable-box insulation to
the point of failure. Overvoltage protection
devices, such as lightning arresters, are
frequently installed at these locations.
Faults occurring in cable networks are less
frequent than those on overhead (O/H) line
systems, but are almost invariably permanent
faults, which require more time for localization
and repair than those on O/H lines.
Where a cable fault occurs on a ring main,
supplies can be quickly restored to all
consumers when the faulty section of cable
has been determined.
If, however, the fault occurs on a radial
distributor, the delay in locating the fault and
carrying out repair work can amount to
several hours, and will affect all consumers
downstream of the fault position.
In any case, if supply continuity is essential
on all, or part of, an installation, a standby
source must be provided. Standby power
equipment is described in Chapter F
section 2.1.

centralized remote control, based on remote control of HV networks

SCADA (Supervisory Control And Remote control of HV circuit breakers and
switchgear, and tapchangers, etc. from a
Data Acquisition) systems and recent central control room is possible, while similar
developments in IT (Information control facilities are also available from the
Technology) techniques, is becoming console of a mobile control centre.
more and more common in countries
in which the complexity of highly-
interconnected systems justifies the
expenditure.

C14 - HV/LV distribution substations

2. consumers HV substations
2.1 procedures for the establishment of a new substation
the consumer must provide certain
data to the power-supply
organization at the earliest stage
of the project.
the power-supply organization must
give specific information to the
prospective consumer.
Large consumers of electricity are invariably
supplied at HV.
On LV systems operating at 120/208 V
(3-phase 4-wires), a load of 50 kVA might be
considered to be “large”, while on a
240/415 V 3-phase system a “large”
consumer could have a load in excess of
100 kVA. Both systems of LV distribution are
common in many parts of the world.
As a matter of interest, the IEC recommends
a “world” standard of 230/400 V for 3-phase
4-wire systems. This is a compromise level
and will allow existing systems which operate
at 220/380 V and at 240/415 V, or close to
these values, to comply with the proposed
standard simply by adjusting the off-circuit
tapping switches of standard distribution
transformers.
The distance over which the load has to be
transmitted is a further factor in considering
an HV or LV service. Services to small but
isolated rural consumers are obvious
examples.
The decision of a HV or LV supply will
depend on local circumstances and
considerations such as those mentioned
above, and will generally be imposed by the
power-supply authority for the district
concerned.
When a decision to supply power at HV has
been made, there are two widely-followed
methods of proceeding.
preliminary information
Before any negotiations or discussions can
be initiated with the supply authorities, the
following basic elements must be
established:
c maximum anticipated power (kVA)
demand
Determination of this parameter is described
in Chapter B, and must take into account the
possibility of future additional load
requirements. Factors to evaluate at this
stage are:
v the utilization factor (ku),
v the simultaneity factor (ks),
c layout plans and elevations showing
location of proposed substation
Plans should indicate clearly the means of
access to the proposed substation, with
project studies
From the information provided by the
consumer, the power-supplier must indicate:
c the type of power supply proposed
and define:
v the kind of power-supply system: overhead-
line or underground-cable network,
v service connection details: single-line
service, ring-main installation, or parallel
feeders, etc.,
v power (kVA) limit and fault current level.
C
(1) The power-supplier constructs a standard
substation close to the consumer’s premises,
but the HV/LV transformer(s) is (are) located
in transformer chamber(s) inside the
premises, close to the load centre.
(2) The consumer constructs and equips his
own substation on his own premises, to
which the power supplier makes the HV
connection.
In method (1) the power supplier owns the
substation, the cable(s) to the transformer(s),
the transformer(s) and the transformer
chamber(s), to which he has unrestricted
access.
The transformer chamber(s) is (are)
constructed by the consumer (to plans and
regulations provided by the supplier) and
include plinths, oil drains, fire walls and
ceilings, ventilation, lighting, and earthing
systems, all to be approved by the supply
authority.
The tariff structure will cover an agreed part
of the expenditure required to provide the
service.
Whichever procedure is followed, the same
principles apply in the conception and
realization of the project. The following notes
refer to procedure (2).
dimensions of possible restrictions, e.g.
entrances corridors and ceiling height,
together with possible load (weight) bearing
limits, and so on, keeping in mind that:
v the power-supply personnel must have free
and unrestricted access to the HV equipment
in the substation at all times,
v only qualified and authorized consumer’s
personnel are allowed access to the
substation.
c degree of supply continuity required
The consumer must estimate the
consequences of a supply failure in terms
of its duration,
v loss of production,
v safety of personnel and equipment.
c the nominal voltage and rated voltage
(Highest voltage for equipment)
Existing or future, depending on the
development of the system.
c metering details
which define:
v the cost of connection to the power
network,
v tariff details (consumption and standing
charges).
HV/LV distribution substations - C15
 2. consumers HV substations (continued)
C
2.1 procedures for the establishment of a new substation (continued)
the power-supply organization must
give official approval of the
equipment to be installed in the
substation, and of proposed methods
of installation.
after testing and checking of the
installation by an independent test
authority, a certificate is granted
which permits the substation to be
put into service.
C16 - HV/LV distribution substations
implementation
Before any installation work is started, the
official agreement of the power-supplier must
be obtained. The request for approval must
include the following information, largely
based on the preliminary exchanges noted
above:
c location of the proposed substation,
c one-line diagram of power circuits and
connections, together with earthing-circuit
proposals,
commissioning
Commissioning tests must be successfully
completed before authority is given to
energize the installation from the power-
supply system. The verification tests include
the following:
c measurement of earth-electrode
resistances,
c continuity of all equipotential earth-and
safety bonding conductors,
c inspection and testing of all HV
components,
c insulation checks of HV equipment,
c dielectric strength test of transformer oil
(and switchgear oil if appropriate),
c inspection and testing of the LV installation
in the substation,
c checks on all interlocks (mechanical key
and electrical) and on all automatic
sequences,
c checks on correct protective-relay operation
and settings.
It is also imperative to check that all
equipment is provided, such that any properly
executed operational manœuvre can be
carried out in complete safety.
On receipt of the certificate of conformity:
c personnel of the power-supply authority will
energize the HV equipment and check for
correct operation of the metering,
c the installation contractor is responsible for
testing and connection of the LV installation.
c full details of electrical equipment to be
installed, including performance
characteristics,
c layout of equipment and provision for
metering components,
c arrangements for power-factor
improvement if eventually required,
c arrangements provided for emergency
standby power plant (HV or LV) if eventually
required.
When finally the substation is operational:
c the substation and all equipment belongs to
the consumer,
c the power-supply authority has operational
control over all HV switchgear in the
substation, e.g. the two incoming load-break
switches and the transformer HV switch (or
CB) in the case of a RMU, together with all
associated HV earthing switches,
c the power-supply personnel has
unrestricted access to the HV equipment,
c the consumer has independent control of
the HV switch (or CB) of the transformer(s)
only,
c the consumer is responsible for the
maintenance of all substation equipment, and
must request the power-supply authority to
isolate and earth the switchgear to allow
maintenance work to proceed. The power
supplier must issue a signed permit-to-work
to the consumers maintenance personnel,
together with keys of locked-off isolators, etc.
at which the isolation has been carried out.
3. substation protection schemes

C
The subject of protection in the electrical-
power industry is vast: it covers all aspects of
safety for personnel, and protection against
damage or destruction of property, plant, and
equipment.
These different aspects of protection can be
broadly classified according to the following
objectives:
c protection of personnel and animals against
the dangers of overvoltages and electric
shock, fire, explosions, and toxic gases, etc.,
c protection of the plant, equipment and
components of a power system against the
stresses of short-circuit faults, atmospheric
surges (lightning) and power-system
instability (loss of synchronism) etc.,
c protection of personnel and plant from the
dangers of incorrect power-system operation,
by the use of electrical and mechanical
interlocking. All classes of switchgear
(including, for example, tap-position selector
switches on transformers, and so on...) have
well-defined operating limits. This means that
the order in which the different kinds of
switching device can be safely closed or
opened is vitally important. Interlocking keys
and analogous electrical control circuits are
frequently used to ensure strict compliance
with correct operating sequences.
It is beyond the scope of a guide to describe
in full technical detail the numerous schemes
of protection available to power-systems
engineers, but it is hoped that the following
sections will prove to be useful through a
discussion of general principles. While some
of the protective devices mentioned are of
universal application, descriptions generally
will be confined to those in common use on
HV and LV systems only, as defined in
Sub-clause 1.1 of this Chapter. Where some
technical explanation is necessary to simplify
an understanding of the text, reference is
made to a related Appendix.

3.1 protection against electric shocks and overvoltages

protection against electric shocks
and overvoltages is closely related to
the achievement of efficient (low
resistance) earthing and effective
application of the principles of
equipotential environments.
protection against electric
shocks
Protective measures against electric shock
are based on two common dangers:
c contact with an active conductor, i.e. which
is alive with respect to earth in normal
circumstances. This is referred to as a “direct
contact” hazard,
c contact with a conductive part of an
apparatus which is normally dead, but which
has become alive due to insulation failure in
the apparatus. This is referred to as an
“indirect contact” hazard.
It may be noted that a third type of shock
hazard can exist in the proximity of HV or LV
(or mixed) earth electrodes which are passing
earth-fault currents. This hazard is due to
potential gradients on the surface of the
ground and is referred to as a “step-voltage”
hazard; shock current enters one foot and
leaves by the other foot, and is particular
dangerous for four-legged animals. A
variation of this danger, known as a “touch
voltage” hazard can occur, for instance,
where an earthed metal fence is situated in
an area in which potential gradients exist.
Touching the fence would cause shock
current to pass through the hand and both
feet (Appendix C2).
Animals with a relatively long front-to-hind
legs span are particularly sensitive to step-
voltage hazards and cattle have been killed
by the potential gradients caused by a low
voltage (240/415 V) neutral earth electrode of
insufficiently low resistance. Potential
gradients on the surface of the ground can be
reduced to safe values by measures such as
those shown in Appendix C2.
Potential-gradient problems of the kind
mentioned above are not normally
encountered in electrical installations of
buildings, providing that equipotential
conductors properly bond all exposed metal
parts of equipment and all extraneous metal
(i.e. not part of an electrical apparatus or the
installation - for example structural steel-
work, etc.) to the protective-earthing
conductor.

HV/LV distribution substations - C17

 3. substation protection schemes (continued)
C
3.1 protection against electric shocks and overvoltages (continued)
in the case of a HV fault to a metallic
enclosure, it may not be possible to
limit the touch voltage to the safe
value of 50 V*. The solution is to
create an equipotent-situation as
described in Sub-clause 1.1
"Earthing connections".
C18 - HV/LV distribution substations
Direct-contact protection
The main form of protection against direct
contact hazards is to contain all live parts in
housings of insulating material, by placing out
of reach (behind insulated barriers or at the
top of poles) or by means of obstacles.
Where insulated live parts are housed in a
metal envelope, for example transformers,
electric motors and many domestic
appliances, the metal envelope is connected
to the installation protective earthing system.
For LV appliances this is achieved through
the third pin of a 3-pin plug and socket. Total
or even partial failure of insulation to the
metal, can (depending on the ratio of the
resistance of the leakage path through the
insulation, to the resistance from the metal
envelope to earth) raise the voltage of the
envelope to a dangerous level.
Indirect-contact protection
A person touching the metal envelope of an
apparatus of which the insulation is faulty, as
described above, is said to be making an
indirect contact.
An indirect contact is characterized by the
fact that a current path to earth exists
(through the protective earthing (PE)
conductor) in parallel with the shock current
through the person concerned.
c case of fault on L.V. system.
Extensive tests have shown that, providing
the potential of the metal envelope is not
greater than 50 V* with respect to earth, or to
any conductive material within reaching
distance, no danger exists.
c indirect-contact hazard in the case of a HV
fault.
If the insulation failure in an apparatus is
between a HV conductor and the metal
envelope, it is not generally possible to limit
the rise of voltage of the envelope to 50 V
or less, simply by reducing the earthing
resistance to a low value.
The solution in this case is to create an
equipotential situation, as described in
Sub-clause 1.1 “Earthing connections”.
* in dry locations, 25 V in wet locations
(bathrooms, etc.).
protection against overvoltages
The situation mentioned immediately above,
describing an indirect-contact hazard
resulting from faulty HV insulation, is one
of a number of ways in which an abnormal
overvoltage condition can occur.
Methods of eliminating danger to personnel in
such a case are described in Sub-clause 1.1.
Other situations which can cause
overvoltages to occur on HV and LV systems
include:
c surges of atmospheric origin,
c a short-circuit earth fault on an unearthed
(or high-impedance earthed) 3-phase system,
c ferro-resonance,
c energization of capacitor banks,
c circuit breaker opening or fuse melting to
break short-circuit current.
Overvoltages created by the causes listed
above can be divided according to
characteristies such as:
c duration: permanent, temporary, transient,
c frequency: industrial frequency, harmonics
of industrial frequency, high frequency,
unidirectional surges.
Overvoltages of atmospheric origin
Protection against this kind of danger must be
provided when a substation is supplied
directly from an overhead-line system. The
most common protective device used at
present is a non-linear resistor-type of
lightning arrester, which is connected (one for
each phase) between a phase conductor and
the substation earthing system, as close to
the point of entry into the substation as
possible.
For consumers' substations, this protection is
achieved by:
c lightning arresters (one per phase
conductor, which are sometimes connected in
series with a device for automatic tripping of a
circuit breaker) (see Chapter L) and/or by
c the reduction of the substation-earthing
resistance to the lowest possible value to
avoid (as far as possible) a breakdown of LV
insulation due to the rise in potential of the
earthing system when discharging the surge
current.
Where it is advisable to protect a substation
against direct strokes, lightning-discharge
electrodes (Franklin type) and shield wires
should be installed and connected to the
substation earthing system.
It may be noted that, at the voltage levels
being considered (i 35 kV), switching surges
are generally less severe than lightning
surges, and so devices which are suitable for
satisfactory lightning protection are adequate
to protect against overvoltages due
to switching surges.

Earth faults on IT-earthed systems
In normal conditions the phase conductors of
a 3-phase IT system are all approximately at
phase volts with respect to earth. The exact
values depend on the capacitance and
insulation resistance of each conductor to
earth. On an unfaulted system these
parameters are sensibly equal in all three
phases so that the vector relationship of
phase voltages will be as shown below in
figure C12, and the neutral point of the
transformer secondary winding will be at
approximately zero volts with respect to
earth.
A short-circuit to earth on one phase will
change the values of phase conductor
voltages with respect to earth; the phase-to-
phase voltage values and their phase
displacement relationships however, will
remain unchanged. This latter feature,
unearthed secondary winding of power transformer
C
together with the fact that current passing
through the earth-fault path will be too small
to constitute a hazard, are the reasons for
adopting the IT system, where supply
continuity must be maintained even in “first-
fault” conditions.
With one phase short-circuited to earth, and
the neutral point of the transformer isolated:
c the neutral point will rise to phase volts
above earth,
c the faulty phase conductor will be at zero
volts with respect to earth,
c the other two phases will rise to etimes
the phase voltage, with respect to earth.
As indicated above, this is a 50 Hz (or 60 Hz)
stable (i.e. permanent) condition, and
transformers, cabling and all appliances must
be suitably insulated with respect to earth,
when used on IT systems.
1

insulation conductor
resistance capacitance

fault current normally restricted to several milli-amps depending on the size of the installation

V1
V1
3 I(C+R)

√3 I(C+R)2
I(C+R)1 I(C+R)2
√3 I(C+R)1
VNE
<90°

V2
V3 I(C+R)3 V2 V3 = 0

normal voltages and capacitive / resistive currents voltage conditions and current flowing in an earth
fault on an IT system
fig. C12: earth fault on IT-earthed systems.

HV/LV distribution substations - C19

 3. substation protection schemes (continued)

C
3.1 protection against electric shocks and overvoltages (continued)
Ferro-resonance V1E V1N
Ferro-resonance is a spontaneous condition
which occurs due to a complex interaction
between intrinsic power-system capacitances
and the non-linear voltage-dependent N
inductances of transformers or reactors,
V3N V2N
chokes, etc. when their magnetic circuits are
in a highly-saturated state (generally due to
an abnormal system disturbance). V3E V2E
The resonant condition may be at any E
frequency, and can be a parallel or series
fig. C13: vector diagram of a displaced
resonance, not corresponding exactly to the
neutral due to ferro-resonance at 50 Hz.
classical formulae for LC resonant circuits
(which are based on assumed linearity of the
LC components). Moreover, resonance may
occur on one or two phases only of a 3-phase
system.
All types of transformer can be affected,
including instrument voltage transformers;
the capacitor-type VT (not normally used
at the HV levels considered in this guide) is
especially prone to sub-harmonic resonance
(1/3 of the fundamental frequency).
Electro-magnetic VTs (which are very
commonly used at HV levels covered by this
guide) counter the possibility of resonance
by:
c designing the transformer cores to operate
at low levels of flux density,
c incorporating damping resistors in the
transformer secondary or tertiary circuits.
Apart from the obvious problems presented
by false signals given by instrument
transformers, permanent overvoltage
conditions can be established.
Unless the precautions mentioned above are
taken, the following situation may arise (and
often did in the past, before the phenomenon
was identified). The problem concerns
IT-earthed systems, in which the potential of
the neutral point becomes displaced (from
approx. earth potential) with the result that
excessive values of phase voltage with
respect to earth occur on two phases, as
shown in the vector diagram of figure C13.
The condition is due to the saturation of two
(of the three) single-phase cores of a voltage
transformer, the windings of which are
connected between phase and earth, as
shown in figure C14, and may be provoked
by a transitory* overvoltage condition such as
that described above and shown in figure
C12.
The overvoltage saturates the two single-
phase VT cores, which then present a (non-
linear, but average) inductance which is much
lower than its normal value. The parallel
combination of phase-to-earth capacitance
and phase-to-earth inductance which, under
normal conditions, behaves overall as a
capacitance K (because the capacitive
reactance < inductive reactance) suddenly
changes character to that of an inductance.
The two states, viz: before saturation and
during saturation are shown in figure C14 (a)
and (b) respectively.
In C14 (a1) the three capacitances and the
three inductances each form an independent
balanced 3-phase star-connected group, i.e.
there is no exchange of current between
them.
* for example, a bird causing a brief short-circuit to earth,
and falling clear of the line, or wind-blown debris, etc.

C20 - HV/LV distribution substations

 C
In C14 (b2) however, it will be seen that
the two inductances, together with one
capacitance, constitute an unbalanced
3-phase group, the star point of which
is the earth.
It is clear that an unbalanced 3-phase load on
a 3-wire system will displace the “floating”
neutral point of the source. A simple
calculation in Appendix C3 shows how the
vector diagram of figure C13 was determined.

Note: it should be appreciated that the vector

representation shown in figure C13 gives an
approximate, but qualitatively useful, picture
of the actual phenomenon, since harmonic
voltages and currents are also present.
However, in the 50 Hz (or 60 Hz) resonant
condition, the power-frequency values are
predominant. The circuit behaviour therefore,
is mainly governed by these power-frequency
quantities, and justifies an approximate
representation by vectors. Field
measurements have confirmed the validity of
such a representation.
For interested readers, further information on
ferroresonance can be found in Cahier
Technique No. 31 : "Ferroresonance"
published by Merlin Gerin.

1
=
=
(a1) (a2)
N
3 2
source

L L L C C C K K K

K<C
(a) circuits in normal operation at normal system frequency

= (b2)
(b1) N

source

H<L H H K XH > XK at a resonant frequency

(b) circuits with phase 1 and phase 2 VT cores saturated

fig. C14: equivalent circuits for ferro-resonant condition.

HV/LV distribution substations - C21

 3. substation protection schemes (continued)
C
3.2 electrical protection
overcurrents due to overloading or
to short-circuit faults (between
phases and/or to earth) are detected
by protective devices up-stream and
down-stream of the power
transformer(s). These devices
cause the faulty circuit to be cut-off
electrically from the power supply.
The devices may be:
c fuses which clear the faulty circuit
directly, or together with a
mechanical tripping attachment,
which opens an associated three-
phase load-break switch,
c direct-acting tripping coils which
form part of a LV circuit breaker, and
are operated by the fault (or
overload) current passing through
them,
c relays which act indirectly such as:
v electrical relays supplied from
current and/or voltage transformers,
v pressure-operated relays
(pressostats),
v temperature-operated relays
(thermostats),
v gas-detection relays (Buchholz,
etc.),
v oil-surge operated relays.
C22 - HV/LV distribution substations
general
The circuits and equipment in a substation
must be protected so that excessive currents
and/or voltages are rapidly removed from the
system before causing danger, damage or
destruction. All equipments normally used in
power-system installations have
(standardized) short-time withstand ratings for
overcurrent and overvoltage conditions, and
the role of protective schemes is to ensure
that these withstand limits can never be
exceeded. In general, this means that fault
conditions must be cleared as fast as
possible within the limits set by
considerations of the highest attainable
reliability.
Overcurrents due to overloading can normally
be tolerated for longer periods than those of
short-circuits and some protective devices
are designed to operate with increasing
speed as the degree of overloading increases
(i.e. an inverse-time/current characteristic).
In addition to the protection against
overvoltages mentioned in section 3.1,
electrical protection is routinely provided
against the following abnormal conditions:
c overloading (i.e. excessive currents not due
to faults),
c transformer faults,
c short-circuit faults between phases,
c short-circuit faults to earth, and is
commonly realized by:
c a circuit breaker downstream of the
transformer,
c detection and trip-initiating devices which
are integral parts of the transformer,
c a circuit breaker or fuses (with or without an
associated load-break switch) upstream of
the transformer.
The choice and sophistication of the
protective schemes will depend on the
characteristics of the substation, and are
discussed later.
Protective devices upstream of the
transformer must be co-ordinated with
downstream devices, as noted in Chapter H2,
Sub-clause 4.6.
overload protection
Overloading is frequently due to the co-
incidental demand of a number of small
loads, or to an increase in the apparent
power (kVA) demand of an installation, due to
expansion of an enterprise, with consequent
building extensions, and so on.-Load
increases raise the temperature of the circuit
conductors concerned, together with that of
the transformer.
When the temperature exceeds the normal
design limits of the equipment involved, the
deterioration rate (ageing) of the insulation
materials is increased, and the working life of
the equipment is correspondingly reduced.
Overload protection devices are usually
located downstream of the transformer in
consumer-type substations, but are
commonly provided on the upstream side in
public-supply substations.
 C
transformer protection
Overloads
The protection against overloading of a
transformer is provided by a time-delayed
overload relay (either a thermal bi-metal strip
device or an electronic device) which acts to
trip the downstream-side circuit breaker.
The time delay inherent in this relay ensures
that the transformer will not be unnecessarily
tripped for overloads of short duration. Other
alternatives are:
c for pole-mounted transformers “thermal-
image” relays are frequently used. Such
relays artificially simulate the temperature of
the transformer windings with an accuracy
which is sufficient to safeguard the insulation,
c dry-type transformers use heat sensors
embedded in the hottest part of the windings
insulation for alarm and/or tripping, while
c larger oil-immersed transformers frequently
have thermostats with two settings, one for
alarm purposes and the other for tripping.
Internal faults
The protection of transformers by
transformer-mounted devices, against the
effects of internal faults, is provided on
transformers which are fitted with air-
breathing conservator tanks (see figure
C15), by the classical Buchholz mechanical
relay. These relays can detect a slow
accumulation of gases which results from the
arcing of incipient faults in the winding
insulation or from the ingress of air due to an
oil leak. This first level of detection generally
gives an alarm, but if the condition
deteriorates further, a second level of
detection will trip the upstream circuit breaker.
An oil-surge detection feature of the Buchholz
relay will trip the upstream circuit breaker
"instantaneously" if a surge of oil occurs in
the pipe connecting the main tank with the
conservator tank.
Such a surge can only occur due to the
displacement of oil caused by a rapidly-
formed bubble of gas, generated by an arc of
short-circuit current under the oil.
All transformers are fitted with some kind fig. C15: transformer with conservator
over-pressure relief device, which limits the tank.
maximum pressure to a value well below that
at which the transformer tank will rupture.
By specially designing the cooling-oil radiator
elements to perform a concertina action,
“totally filled” types of transformer as large as
10 MVA are now currently available.
Expansion of the oil is accommodated without
an excessive rise in pressure by the “bellows”
effect of the radiator elements. A full
description of these transformers is given in
Sub-clause 4.4 (see figure C16).
Evidently the Buchholz devices mentioned
above cannot be applied to this design; a
modern counterpart has been developed
however, which measures:
c the accumulation of gas,
c overpressure,
c overtemperature,
the first two conditions trip the upstream
circuit breaker, and the third condition trips
fig. C16: total-fill transformer.
the downstream circuit breaker of the
transformer.
The device, referred to as a "DGPT" unit
(Detection of Gas, Pressure and
Temperature) is mentioned further in 4.4,
under "Liquid-filled transformers".

HV/LV distribution substations - C23

 3. substation protection schemes (continued)

C
3.2 electrical protection (continued)
protection against short-circuits choice of protective devices
Short-circuits may occur between phase on the upstream side of the
conductors, between a phase conductor and transformer in a consumer-type
earth, or in any combination of these substation
conditions on the three phases. The
(extremely unlikely) occurrence of a short- In certain national standards*, the choice is
circuit fault between the high-voltage made according to two current values:
windings and the low-voltage windings will c the reference current Ib, the value of which
constitute a short-circuit-to-earth fault on the will be:
HV winding if the secondary winding is v in the case of metering at low voltage: the
earthed, which is generally the case. nominal rated current of the transformer,
Unearthed star-connected LV secondary v in the case of metering at high voltage: the
windings of IT-system transformers have an sum of the nominal rated currents of
overvoltage device which will operate in these transformers and other HV plant (e.g. motors,
circumstances to connect the LV neutral point etc.),
of the transformer directly to earth. c the minimum value of HV 3-phase short-
Earth faults on the HV winding present a circuit current at the installation.
particular danger to personnel, due to the * There is no equivalent IEC standard.
Transferred Potential hazard mentioned in
HV LV
Sub-clause 1.1: “Earthing connections”.
1 1
For this reason, high-speed sensitive earth-
fault protection is standard on the HV side of
2 2
power transformers in many public-supply
distribution and consumer-type substations. 3 3
The scheme is shown below in figure C17
and can be applied to transformers having N
delta or unearthed-star primary windings.
This arrangement is called a “Restricted
E/F relay
Earth-Fault" (REF) protection because it will
detect earth faults only on the HV windings or
on the circuit downstream of the CTs (current
transformers) to the winding terminals. fig. C17: protection against earth fault on
The advantages of the scheme include: the HV winding.
c simplicity and low cost,
c instantaneous operation,
c high sensitivity,
c virtual elimination of the dangers of
Transferred Potential (because of its
instantaneous operation),
c no problems of coordination with
downstream protection; LV earth faults
appear as phase/phase faults on the HV side
of the transformer, thereby being undetected
by the REF relay (see fig. AC1-2(c) of
Appendix C1).
Again, in public-supply systems in general,
there is no CB on the LV side, simply a load-
break switch. Overcurrent protective relays
(2 only) are connected in series with the REF
current transformers, as shown dotted in
figure C17 (see note). These overcurrent
relays afford protection against overloading
and short-circuit faults downstream of the
CTs, but must be carefully co-ordinated with
LV overcurrent protective devices.

Note: where short-circuit fault levels are low,

it is recommended to use 3 overcurrent
relays (rather than 2) since on delta/star
transformers a phase/phase short-circuit at
LV gives a 2:1:1 fault-current distribution at
HV (see fig. AC1-2(b) of Appendix C1).
In view of the effectiveness of REF protection
against the hazards of transferred potentials,
and its uncomplicated application, it is
strongly recommended to be included in any
protection scheme which includes a HV
circuit breaker.

C24 - HV/LV distribution substations

 C
When the reference current is less than 45 A
and there is only one transformer, the
protection may be by fuses or by a circuit
breaker.
When the reference current is equal to or
greater than 45 A, or when there is more than
one transformer, the protection will be by a
circuit breaker.
The maximum IEC standard kVA ratings of
transformers corresponding to a HV full-load
current not exceeding 45 A are given in the
table C18.
primary maximum IEC
voltage standard ratings
(kV) for transformers
rated nominal (kVA)
3.6 3 250
3.3
7.2 4.16
5.5 500
6
6.6
12 10 800
11
17.5 13.8 1,250
15
24 20 1,600
22
36 33 2,500
40.5 36.5 3,150
table C18: power limits of transformers
with a maximum primary current not
exceeding 45 A.
c protection by fuses
The relationships between the reference
current Ib, as defined above, the rated current
In of the fuse, and the short-circuit current Ic
at the primary terminals of the transformer,
are determined according to the national
standards previously referred to, as follows:
v when the substation consists of a single
HV/LV transformer, the rated current In of the
fuse must satisfy the following relationships:
In > 1.4 Ib and In < Ic/6
Where:
In = rated current of the fuse,
Ib = rated primary current of the transformer,
Ic = the minimum current at the primary side
of the transformer when the secondary-
winding terminals are short-circuited,
v when the substation is supplied from an
overlead line, or when the installation is
sensitive to unbalanced-voltage conditions
(for example three-phase motor loads), it is
recommended that the failure of a fuse
causes all three phases to be cut off, by
automatic tripping of the HV load-break
switch (i.e. a combined switch-fuse).
Standard current ratings for fuses according
to IEC 282-1 are listed in table C19.

HV/LV distribution substations - C25

 3. substation protection schemes (continued)

C
3.2 electrical protection (continued)
supply voltages nominal transformer ratings
(kV) (kVA)
rated nominal 25 50 100 125 160 200 250 315 400 500 630 800 1,000 1,250 1,600 2,000 2,500
3.6 3 16 25 40 50 50 63 80 80 100 125 160 200 250
3.3 16 25 40 50 50 63 80 80 100 125 160 200 250
7.2 4.16 10 25 31.5 40 50 50 63 80 80 100 125 160 200 250
5.5 10 16 25 31.5 40 40 50 63 63 80 100 125 160 200 250
6 10 16 25 31.5 31.5 40 50 50 63 80 80 100 125 160 200 250
6.6 10 16 25 25 31.5 40 40 50 63 80 80 100 125 160 200 250
12 10 6.3 10 16 25 25 31.5 31.5 40 50 50 63 80 80 100 125 160 200
11 6.3 10 16 25 25 25 31.5 31.5 40 50 63 63 80 100 125 160 200
17.5 13.8 6.3 6.3 10 16 25 25 25 31.5 31.5 40 50 63 63 80 100 160 160
15 6.3 6.3 10 16 16 25 25 31.5 31.5 40 50 50 63 80 80 100 160
24 20 6.3 6.3 10 10 16 16 25 25 31.5 31.5 40 50 50 63 80 80 160
22 6.3 6.3 10 10 10 16 25 25 25 31.5 31.5 40 50 50 63 80 160
36 33 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 16 16 16 16 16 31.5 31.5 40 50 63 80
40.5 36.5 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 16 16 16 16 16 25 25 31.5 40 50 63
table C19: rated current (A) of HV fuses for transformer protection according to IEC 282-1.
It is strongly recommended that, following the the transformer can also be achieved very
operation of a fuse (or fuses) to clear a fault simply by devices which are sometimes
or overload condition, all three fuses be referred to as “high-set” relays.
replaced, since it is possible that the fuse (or The “high-set” principle depends on the fact
fuses) that had not operated may have that, if the current is sufficiently high to
deteriorated, due to the passage of excessive operate the relay, then the short-circuit must
current during the disturbance. be on the HV side of the transformer,
because a short-circuit on the LV terminals or
c protection by circuit breaker windings of the transformer will not produce
no disturbance occurring within the When the substation is supplied through a sufficient current on the HV side to cause the
installation shall cause the operation HV circuit breaker, it will be a contractual relay to operate.
of any protective relaying in the condition that no disturbance occurring within The high-set relays (2 or 3 as noted in Sub-
power-supply network. the installation shall cause the operation of clause "protection against short-circuits") will
any protective relaying in the power-supply each be connected in series with one of the
network. inverse-time/overcurrent relays, shown dotted
To ensure that this condition can be complied in figure C17, and for distribution-type
with, the supply authority must specify the transformers are generally set to operate at
longest times permissible for clearing the 25 times the full-load current of the
following faults on the installation: transformer. By these simple means
c short-circuit fault between all 3 phases, therefore, instantaneous clearance of short-
c short-circuit fault between any 2 phases, circuit faults on the HV side of a transformer
c short-circuit fault of one phase to earth, can be achieved, without affecting the co-
c short-circuit fault of any 2 phases to earth. ordination scheme for downstream protection.
The maximum level of a 3-phase short-circuit At periods of the lowest levels of short-circuit
at the installation was known at the outset of fault current, however, the high-set scheme
the project, in order to purchase adequately- may not be sufficiently sensitive, i.e. the
rated equipment. To ensure correct operation current may not be high enough to operate
of the protective devices, the minimum value the relay (there is no similar problem with
of 3-phase short-circuit current must also be earth faults, the REF scheme being very
stated by the supply authority. sensitive).
When planning the protection scheme for the In extreme cases, where the difference
installation, the general principle of co- between maximum and minimum fault levels
ordination is that the circuit breaker closest to is very large, it may be necessary to provide a
the power source will have the longest differential-protection scheme for the
tripping time. In the present case, this is the transformer.
HV circuit breaker. Differential-protection schemes compare the
This longest tripping time must not, however, currents entering the primary windings with
exceed that given by the supply authority; a those leaving the secondary windings (after
constraint which generally is satisfied only by correction for current-level and phase
protective relays at the HV circuit breaker, to changes) and any significant difference will
supplement the transformer-mounted operate the relay, which trips the circuit
protective devices previously mentioned. breakers controlling the transformer.
As far as earth faults are concerned, there is Such protection will provide adequate
no co-ordination problem, provided that the sensitivity with high-speed tripping, and will
transformer HV winding is a delta- or not affect co-ordination of downstream
unearthed-star connection, since, as already protection.
mentioned, earth faults on the LV system will It may be noted that the high-speed relays
then appear as phase-to-phase faults on the used for the REF, high-set and differential
HV system. HV earth faults occurring in the protection schemes are stabilized against
substation can therefore be cleared false operation due to CT saturation (for
instantaneously by a REF scheme. example, when energizing the transformer).
Instantaneous tripping for phase-to-phase Overcurrent, REF, and high-set relays are
short-circuit faults occurring on the HV side of commonly contained in a single relay case.

C26 - HV/LV distribution substations


choice of downstream protective
devices
The protective device (circuit breaker or
fuse-switch)* downstream of the transformer
must include and comply with the following
requirements (IEC 364). The device must:
c include an isolating switch (for the
protection of persons) of which the open
switch contacts are clearly visible,
c have a current rating adequate for the
transformer concerned,
c have a breaking-current rating where
appropriate*, adequate for the secondary
3-phase short-circuit current,
c have the correct number of poles according
to the earthing scheme of the installation,
C
v 4 poles for IT scheme with neutral
conductor, TT and TNS,
v 3 poles for IT scheme without neutral
conductor, and for TNC.
By way of an example, table C20 lists the
nominal currents and corresponding short-
circuit currents at the secondary terminals of
IEC-standard 20 / 0.4 kV transformers. From
these data it can be seen that the short-circuit
impedances are in the range of 4% (for the
100 kVA transformer) to 6.9% (for the
2,000 kVA transformer).
* where no LV circuit breaker or fuse-switch is installed, a
non-automatic LV load-break isolating switch must be
provided, and overload protection must be effected at HV.

transformer rated power (kVA) 50 100 160 250 315 400 500 630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 2500
transformer current Ir (A) 69 137 220 344 433 550 687 866 1100 1375 1718 2199 2749 3437
oil-immersed transformer Isc (kA) Psc = 250 MVA 1.71 3.40 5.41 8.38 10.5 13.2 16.4 20.4 17.4 21.5 26.4 33.1 40.4 49.1
Psc = 500 MVA 1.71 3.42 5.45 8.49 10.7 13.5 16.8 21.0 17.9 22.2 27.5 34.8 43.0 52.9
cast-resin transformer Isc (kA) Psc = 250 MVA 1.14 2.28 3.63 5.63 7.07 8.93 11.1 13.9 17.4 21.5 26.4 33.1 40.4 49.1
Psc = 500 MVA 1.14 2.28 3.65 5.68 7.14 9.04 11.3 14.1 17.9 22.2 27.5 34.8 43.0 52.9
table C20: 3-phase short-circuit currents of typical distribution transformers.

discrimination (selectivity)
between the protective devices
on the upstream and
downstream sides of the
transformer
The consumer-type substation with LV
metering requires discriminative operation
between the HV fuses and the LV circuit
breaker or fuses. The calibre of the HV fuses
will have been chosen according to the
characteristics of the transformer.
The tripping characteristics of the LV circuit
breaker must be such, that for an overload or
short-circuit condition downstream of its
location, the breaker will trip sufficiently
quickly to ensure that the HV fuses will not be
adversely affected by the passage of
overcurrent through them.
The tripping performance curves for HV fuses
and LV circuit breakers are given by graphs
of time-to-operate against current passing
through them. Both curves have the general
inverse-time/current form (with an abrupt
discontinuity in the CB curve at the current
value above which “instantaneous” tripping
occurs).
These curves are shown typically in
figure C21.
c in order to achieve discrimination:
v all parts of the fuse curve must be above
and to the right of the CB curve,
c in order to leave the fuses unaffected (i.e.
undamaged):
v all parts of the minimum pre-arcing fuse
curve must be located to the right of the CB
curve by a factor of 1.35 or more (e.g. where,
at time T, the CB curve passes through a
point corresponding to 100 A, the fuse curve
at the same time T must pass through a point
corresponding to 135 A, or more, and so
on...) and,
v all parts of the fuse curve must be above
the CB curve by a factor of 2 or more (e.g.
where, at a current level I the CB curve
passes through a point corresponding to
1.5 seconds, the fuse curve at the same
current level I must pass through a point
corresponding to 3 seconds, or more, etc.).
The factors 1.35 and 2 are based on standard
maximum manufacturing tolerances for
HV fuses and LV circuit breakers.*
In order to compare the two curves, the HV
currents must be converted to the equivalent
LV currents, or vice-versa.
Figure C21 illustrates these requirements.
Where an LV fuse-switch is used, similar
separation of the characteristic curves of the
HV and LV fuses must be respected. This
question is considered in Appendix C1
(figure AC1-3).
time minimum pre-arcing
time of HV fuse
B/A u 1.35 at any
moment in time
D/C u 2 at any
current value
D
circuit breaker
tripping
C
characteristic
current
A
B
fig. C21: discrimination between HV fuse
operation and LV circuit breaker tripping,
for transformer protection.
Note: In the simple and widely used case,
where a HV circuit breaker incorporates REF,
high-set and inverse-time/overcurrent relays
as previously described, the only electrical
protection of the LV windings and the LV
connections from the transformer terminals to
the upstream terminals of the LV circuit
breaker is that provided by the HV inverse-
time/overcurrent relays.
* Merlin Gerin “catalogue distribution HT/MT 96” page G29.

HV/LV distribution substations - C27

 3. substation protection schemes (continued)
C
3.2 electrical protection (continued)
There is no compelling need for
discrimination between these HV relays and
the LV circuit breaker protection, since a
short-circuit on the upstream or downstream
side of the LV breaker would result in a total
loss of supply, in either case.
In general, a 3-phase short-circuit at the LV
terminals of a distribution transformer will
cause a current of 14-25 times the
transformer full-load current to flow in the LV
and HV circuits (at times of maximum short-
circuit fault levels on the system).
If the fault is a short-circuit of one phase to
earth, immediately upstream of the LV circuit
breaker however, then this value will be
reduced to approximately 8-14 times full-load
HV earth-fault relay settings
Earth-fault relays have low current-setting
ranges, i.e. they are sensitive instruments,
and can, in consequence, act to clear a
developing short-circuit fault in its early
stages, thereby minimizing the damage to
insulation at the fault position, and reducing
the risk of fire.
Care must be taken however, to avoid
increasing the sensitivity (by reducing the
operating-current setting) to a point where
the relay can be caused to operate when an
earth fault occurs on a nearby circuit, the
circuit on which the relay is installed being
(perfectly) healthy (unfaulted).
This false operation is due to the inherent
capacitance to earth of the power-system
phase conductors and connected loads, and
is especially likely to occur on impedance-
earthed systems (which are common at the
HV levels covered by this guide).
In normal circumstances, the capacitive
current from each phase to earth has
practically the same magnitude (Ic) and the
three currents summate in the earth to give
the so-called “residual” current, which,
because of the balanced conditions (in this
case) is theoretically zero.
A short-circuit of one phase to earth, as
already mentioned in “Earth faults on IT-
earthed systems” (Sub-clause 3.1) will cause:
c the voltage of the faulted conductor, and
that of all conductors of the faulty phase over
a wide area surrounding the fault location, to
fall to practically zero volts,
c the voltage of the two healthy phase
conductors over the same area to increase by
(up to) etimes their original value with
respect to earth.
As a result of this, the residual current in all
circuits affected by the voltage changes will
no longer approximate to zero. On healthy
circuits close to the fault position, the residual
current will, in fact, amount to almost 3 Ic, as
illustrated in figure C22.
If a healthy circuit has a significant
capacitance to earth (a long overhead line or
a section of underground cable) then 3 Ic will
be detected by its earth-fault relay which, if
given an oversensitive setting, will trip the
circuit breaker of the unfaulted circuit.
A conventional minimum value of earth-fault-
current setting intended to avoid this problem,
commonly adopted in the power-distribution
industry, is 6 Ic (i.e. a safety factor of 2).
This phenomenon is only of interest to a HV
installation-design engineer in cases where
the HV circuit breaker and protective relays
C28 - HV/LV distribution substations
current on the HV side of the transformer and
will flow in two lines only. The tripping time of
the inverse-time/overcurrent relays may, in
this case, be unacceptably long.
The conventional solution to the problem is to
make these LV connections “fault-free” by
enclosing the (generously-insulated)
conductors in vermin-proof metal bus-ducts, a
method which, in view of the location (in an
area prohibited to all except authorized
personnel) is generally considered to be
satisfactory. A 100 % solution would be to
install overall protection from the HV circuit
breaker to the LV circuit breaker, as provided
by the differential protective scheme
previously described.
are some distance from the transformer,
especially if the supply is by underground
cable, and the HV nominal voltage is high,
e.g. u 20 kV.
The foregoing discussion of the presence of
residual capacitive components in the earth-
fault current of impedance-earthed systems,
leads conveniently to an explanation of the
principle of the Petersen coil.
System earthing on overhead-line HV
systems by means of a Petersen coil
In the resistance-earthed system described
above, it was shown that the current through
the earth fault is the sum of the residual
capacitive currents of the system and the
current which flows through the resistor.
This resistor current is in phase with the
voltage of the faulted phase (the voltage
vector being reversed during the fault period)
as shown in the vector diagram of figure
C22. The phase displacement between the
resistor current and the residual capacitive
current is practically 90 degrees.
If now, the resistor is replaced by a reactor,
the reactor current will lag the (reversed)
faulted phase voltage by 90 degrees and will,
therefore, be in phase opposition to the
residual capacitive current.
By a suitable choice of reactance value the
residual capacitive current through the fault
can, in principle, be exactly cancelled, i.e.
there will be no fault current flowing to earth,
as shown in figure C23. This is the principle
of Petersen Coil operation.
In practice, absolute cancellation of fault
current is not possible, owing to conductor-
and fault- path resistances, and to the
impracticality of precise coil tuning at all
times. These effects prevent perfect mutual
cancellation of the opposing currents, but
providing the fault-path resistance is low, the
fault current can be reduced to very small
values.
Petersen coils are provided with a number of
tapping steps on the coil to cover a range of
system capacitance values. These coils are
associated mainly with isolated O/H line
power networks in the HV voltage ranges
covered by this guide.

Operational advantages
Advantages of the system include:
c continuity of supply in the (common) event
of an earth fault. In principle, the system can
operate indefinitely with an earth fault on
one phase,
C
c damage at the fault position is limited,
owing to the restricted current level,
c disturbance to neighbouring systems at
the instant of fault is practically non-existent.

earth-fault protection relays A

eIC1A
of the healthy circuits 1
A and C will detect an eIC2A
apparent earth fault 2

3
0 V3 0

3ICA

B eIC1B
1
eIC2B
2

3
IF 0 V3 0

IF
IF
3ICB

power
supply
source
C I’F
IF
eIC1C
1
eIC2C
2

3
0 V3 0

3ICC

power supply eIc1

eIc2

IF

IF

I’F

I’F

simplified diagram showing current division eIC1 + eIC2 = 3IC

IF I’F >> 3IC
IF = I’F + 3IC

3IC V1
V1 V1
V1
3IC
IC2 √3IC2
√3IC2 I'F
IC1 VNE
VNE
√3IC1
V3 = 0 V2 √3IC1 V2
V3 IC3 V2
V3 = 0 V2 fault current IF is the vector sum of
voltages during the neutral resistor current I’F and
normal voltages
short-circuit to residual current on healthy the residual capacitive currents of
and capacitive
earth on phase 3 circuits during fault the system 3IC
currents

fig. C22: earth-fault diagram.

HV/LV distribution substations - C29
 3. substation protection schemes (continued)

C
3.2 electrical protection (continued)
power supply eIc1

eIc2

Petersen coil L

IF = 0

0 0

I’F

I’F = 3IC

I’F = eIC1 + eIC2 = 3IC

simplified diagram showing current division when XC / XL = 3
(where XC = capacitive reactance of one phase to earth)

3IC V1

eIC2

VNE

eIC1
E V2

I’F
vector diagram for condition I’F = 3 IC

V1 V1
V1
3IC
IC2
eIC2
IC1 VNE

V3 = 0 V2 √3IC1
V3 IC3 V2
V3 = 0 V2
voltages during
normal voltages
short-circuit to residual current on healthy
and capacitive
earth on phase 3 circuits during fault
currents
fig. C23: earth fault diagram (with Petersen coil).
C30 - HV/LV distribution substations
 C
3.3 protection against thermal effects
The risk and consequences of a fire are
particularly serious.
The prefabricated equipments are conceived
and manufactured in a way that avoids
excessive temperature rise in normal use.
Where an installation includes one or several
liquid-insulated transformers, the regulations
and arrangements relative to the protection
and construction details must be fully
respected, and are described in Sub-
clause 4.3: “choice of HV/LV transformers”.

3.4 interlocks and conditioned manœuvres

Mechanical and electrical interlocks are
included on mechanisms and in the control
circuits of apparatus installed in substations,
as a measure of protection against an
incorrect sequence of manœuvres by
operating personnel.
Mechanical protection is afforded by:
c compartments enclosing specific parts of
equipment in pre-fabricated HV cells,
c key-transfer interlocking.

an interlocking scheme is intended to key interlocking c a transformer compartment interlocks allow

prevent any operational manœuvre
which would expose operating
personnel to danger.
The most widely-used form of locking/
interlocking depends on the principle of key-
transfer.
The principle is based on the possibility of
freeing or trapping one or several keys,
according to whether or not the conditions of
safety are satisfied.
These conditions can be combined in unique
and obligatory sequences, thereby
guaranteeing the safety of personnel by the
avoidance of an incorrect operational
procedure.
For example, access to a HV panel requires
a certain number of operations which must be
carried out in a pre-determined order. It is
necessary to carry out manœuvres in the
reverse order to restore the system to its
former condition.
Non-observance of the correct sequence of
manœuvres in either case may have
extremely serious consequences for the
operating personnel, as well as for the
equipment concerned.
Note: It is important to provide for a scheme
of interlocking in the basic design stage of
planning a HV/LV substation.
In this way, the apparatuses concerned will
be equipped during manufacture in a
coherent manner, with assured compatibility
of keys and locking devices.
interlocks in substations
equipped with metalclad
switchgear
In a HV/LV distribution substation which
includes:
c a single incoming HV panel or two incoming
panels (from parallel feeders) or two
incoming/outgoing ring-main panels,
c a transformer switchgear-and-protection
panel, which can include a load-break/
isolating switch with HV fuses and an
earthing switch, or a circuit breaker and line-
isolating switch together with an earthing
switch,
manœuvres and access to different panels in
the following conditions:
v operation of the load-break/isolating
switch
if the panel door is closed and the associated
earthing switch is open,
v operation of the line-isolating switch of
the transformer switchgear - and -
protection panel
- if the door of the panel is closed, and
- if the circuit breaker is open, and the
earthing switch(es) is (are) open.
v closure of an earthing switch
if the associated isolating switch(es) is (are)
open*,
v access to the interior of each panel
if the isolating switch for the panel is open
and the earthing switch(es) in the panel is
(are) closed,
v closure of the door of each panel or
compartment
if the earthing switch(es) in the panel is (are)
closed,
v access to the HV fuses of a substation
supplied by two incomers from parallel
feeders
if the two isolating switches are open and the
two earthing switches in the panel are closed,
v access to the compartment(s) occupied
by the VT(s)
if the HV isolating switch is open, and if the
LV isolating device is open,
v operation of the isolating switches in the
VT panel
if the door of the panel is closed.
* if the earthing switch is on an incoming circuit, the
associated isolating switches are those at both ends of the
circuit, and these should be suitably interlocked.

HV/LV distribution substations - C31

 3. substation protection schemes (continued)

C
3.4 interlocks and conditioned manœuvres (continued)
practical example
In a consumer-type substation with LV
metering, the interlocking scheme most
commonly used is HV/LV/TR (high voltage/
low voltage/transformer).
The aim of the interlocking is:
c to prevent access to the transformer
compartment if the earthing switch has not
been previously closed,
c to prevent the closure of the earthing switch
in a transformer switchgear-and-protection
panel, if the LV circuit breaker of the
transformer has not been previously locked
“open” or “withdrawn”.
Access to the HV or LV terminals of a
transformer, protected upstream by a HV
switchgear-and-protection panel, containing a
HV load-break / isolating switch, HV fuses,
and a HV earthing switch) must comply with
the strict procedure described below, and is
illustrated by the diagrams of figure C24.
Note: The transformer in this example is
provided with plug-on type HV terminal
connectors which can only be removed by
unlocking a retaining device common to all
three phase connectors*.
S
The HV load-break / isolating switch is
mechanically linked with the HV earthing
switch such that only one of the switches can
be closed, i.e. closure of one switch
automatically blocks the closure of the other.
* or may be provided with a common protective cover over S
the three terminals.

Procedure for the isolation and earthing of

the power transformer, and removal of the HV switch and LV CB closed
HV plug-type shrouded terminal
connections (or protective cover). O
c initial conditions:
v HV load-break/isolating switch and LV
circuit breaker are closed,
v HV earthing switch locked in the open S
position by key “O”, O
v key “O” is trapped in the LV circuit breaker
as long as that circuit breaker is closed,
c step 1:
v open LV CB and lock it open with key “O”,
v key “O” is then released, S
c step 2:
v open the HV switch,
v check that the “voltage presence” neon HV fuses accessible
indicators extinguish when the HV switch is
opened,
c step 3:
v unlock the HV earthing switch with key “O”
and close the earthing switch,
v key “O” is now trapped, O
S
c step 4:
v the access panel to the HV fuses can now
be removed (i.e. is released by closure of the
HV earthing switch). Key “S” is located in this
panel, and is trapped when the HV switch is
closed,
S
v turn key “S” to lock the HV switch in the
open position, O
v key “S” is now released,
transformer HV terminals accessible
c step 5:
v key “S” allows removal of the common legend
locking device of the plug-type HV terminal key absent
connectors on the transformer or of the key free
common protective cover over the terminals, key trapped
as the case may be. panel or door
In either case, exposure of one or more fig. C24: example of HV/LV/TR
terminals will trap key “S” in the interlock. interlocking.

C32 - HV/LV distribution substations

 C
The result of the foregoing procedure is that:
a) the HV switch is locked in the open
position by key “S”.
Key “S” is trapped at the transformer
terminals interlock as long as the terminals
are exposed.
b) the HV earthing switch is in the closed
position but not locked, i.e. may be opened or
closed. When carrying out maintenance work,
a padlock is generally used to lock the
earthing switch in the closed position, the key
of the padlock being held by the engineer
supervizing the work.
c) the LV CB is locked open by key “O”, which
is trapped by the closed HV earthing switch.

The transformer is therefore safely isolated

and earthed.
It may be noted that the upstream terminal of
the load-break switch may remain alive in the
procedure described. There are three
reasons for this:
c the terminals in question are located in a
separate inaccessible compartment in the
particular switchgear under discussion,
c the open contacts of the switch have an
earthed screen interposed between them,
c the envelope containing the switch is
moulded from insulating material, filled with
SF6 gas, and sealed for life.
In the general case, the upstream terminals
of such a switch (or circuit breaker) will be
exposed within the compartment, and an
earthing switch will be provided, interlocked
mechanically with a line-isolating switch. Or
again, it may be necessary (depending on the
type of switchgear) to isolate and lock off the
incoming supply cable at its remote end,
before closing the local earthing switch.
Any scheme of interlocking must evidently
include appropriate procedures, along similar
lines to those described above.

HV/LV distribution substations - C33

 4. the consumer substation with LV metering

C
4.1 general
A consumer substation with LV metering is an
electrical installation connected to a public-
supply system at a nominal voltage
of 1 kV - 35 kV, and includes a single HV/LV
transformer generally not exceeding
1,250 kVA.

functions
The substation Metering
All component parts of the substation are Metering at low voltage allows the use of
located in one chamber, either in an existing small metering transformers at modest cost.
building, or in the form of a prefabricated Most tariff structures take account of
housing exterior to the building. transformer losses.
Connection to the HV network LV installation circuits
Connection at HV can be: A low-voltage circuit breaker, suitable for
c either by a single service cable or over- isolation duty with visible contacts and locking
head line, or, off facilities, to:
c via two mechanically interlocked load-break c supply a distribution board,
switches with two service cables from c protect the transformer against overloading
duplicate supply feeders, or, and the downstream circuits against short-
c via two load-break switches of a ring-main circuit faults.
unit.
The transformer
Since the use of PCB*-filled transformers is
prohibited in most countries, the preferred
available technologies are:
c oil-immersed transformers for substations
located outside premises,
c dry-type, vacuum-cast-resin transformers
for locations inside premises, e.g. multi-
storeyed buildings, buildings receiving the
public, and so on...
* polychlorinated biphenyl.

one-line diagrams
The diagrams on the following page
(figure C25) represent:
c the different methods of HV service
connection, which may be one of four types:
v single-circuit service,
v single-circuit (for later change to ring-main
service),
v duplicate service (interlocked
mechanically),
v ring-main service,
c HV protective functions and HV/LV
transformation,
c LV metering and general isolation functions,
c LV protective and distribution functions,
c zones of access for interested parties.

C34 - HV/LV distribution substations

 C
power supply system service connection HV protection and LV metering LV distribution
HV/LV transformation and isolation and protection

supplier/consumer interface transformer LV terminals downstream terminals

of LV isolator

protection protection

single-line service

(permitted if IHV nominal

i 45 A and one transformer )

single-line service (equipped

for extension to form a ring
main)

protection

duplicate-
supply
service
(permitted if IHV nominal
i 45 A and one transformer )
protection
+
auto-changeover
switch

ring-main
service
protection automatic LV
standby
source

(always permitted)

authorized
access limits consumer consumer

testing authority

power-supply authority

fig. C25: consumer substation with LV metering.

HV/LV distribution substations - C35

 4. the consumer substation with LV metering (continued)

C
4.2 choice of panels
standards and specifications
The SF6 switchgear and equipments
described below are rated for 1 kV - 24 kV
systems and conform to the following
international and national standards:
c international:
IEC 56-1, 129, 265-1, 298, 694,
c national: French: UTE, EDF,
British: BS,
German: VDE,
American: ANSI.

type of material
All kinds of switchgear arrangements are
possible when using modular compartmented
panels, and provisions for later extensions
are easily realized.
Compact substations of modular panels are
particularly applicable in the following cases:
c ring-main substations (a 3-function
monobloc assembly),
c severe climatic or heavily-polluted
conditions (integral insulation),
c insufficient space for “classical”
switchboards.
This “all - SF6” equipment is distinguished by
its reduced dimensions, its integrated
functions and by its operational flexibility.

operational safety of
compartmented metalclad panels
Description
The following notes describe a “state-of-the-
art” load-break / isolating-switch panel (see
figure C26) incorporating the most modern
developments for ensuring:
c operational safety,
c minimum space requirements,
c extendibility and flexibility,
c minimum maintenance requirements.
Each panel includes 4 compartments:
c switchgear: the load-break switch is
incorporated in an SF6-filled hermetically
sealed (for life) molded epoxy-resin unit,
c connections: by cable at terminals located
on the molded load-break switch unit,
c busbars: modular, such that any number of
panels may be assembled side-by-side to
form a continuous switchboard,
c control and indication: a control and
instrument compartment which can
accommodate automatic control and relaying
equipment. An additional compartment may
be mounted above the existing one if
required.
Cable connections
Cable connections are provided inside a
cable-terminating compartment at the front of
the unit, to which access is gained by
removal of the front panel of the
compartment.
The units are connected electrically by
means of prefabricated sections of busbars.
Site erection is effected by following the
assembly instructions.
Operation of the switchgear is simplified by
the grouping of all controls and indications on
a control panel at the front of each unit.
The technology of these switchgear units is
essentially based on operational safety, ease
of installation and low maintenance fig. C26: compartmented SF6 HV
requirements. load-break isolating switch.

C36 - HV/LV distribution substations

 C
state of isolation clearly apparent
The load-break/isolating switch fully satisfies
the requirement of “isolation clearly apparent"
as defined in IEC 129, by means of:
c a position indicator accurately reflecting the
open state of the contacts,
c an earthed metal barrier interposed
between the open contacts.
Interlocks
c closure of the switch is not possible unless
the earth switch is open and the access panel
to the cable-terminations compartment* is
closed,
c closure of the earthing switch is only
possible if the load-break/isolating switch is
open,
c opening of the access panel to the cable-
terminations compartment* is only possible if
the earthing switch is closed,
c the load-break/isolating switch is blocked in
the open position when the above-mentioned
access panel is open. Operation of the
earthing switch is then possible.
* where HV fuses are used they are located in this
compartment.

Apart from the functional interlocks noted

above, each switchgear panel includes:
c built-in padlocking facilities,
c 5 predrilled sets of fixing holes for possible
future interlocking locks.
Manœuvres
c operating handles, levers, etc. required for
switching manœuvres are grouped together
on a clearly illustrated panel,
c all closing-operation levers are identical on
all units (except those containing a circuit
breaker),
c operation of a closing lever requires very
little effort,
c opening or closing of a load-break/isolating
switch can be by lever or by push-button for
automatic switches,
c conditions of switches (Open, Closed,
Spring-charged), are clearly indicated.

Choice of short-circuit withstand ratings

short-circuit (MVA) for nominal system voltages ITH/1 sec.(1) ICL(3)
(kV) Isc(2) (kA)
3 3.3 4.16 5 5.5 6 6.6 10 11 13.8 15 20 22 33 (kA) r.m.s. peak
65 70 90 110 120 130 145 215 240 300 325 435 475 715 12.5 31.5
75 85 105 125 135 150 165 250 275 345 375 500 550 825 14.4 36.5
85 90 115 140 150 165 185 280 305 385 415 555 610 915 16 40
110 120 150 180 200 220 240 365 400 500 545 20 50
135 150 190 230 250 275 300 455 500 25 62.5
165 180 227 275 300 330 360 31.5 79
table C27: standard short-circuit MVA and current ratings at different levels of nominal
voltage.
(1) I /1 sec: thermal withstand current for 1 second
TH

(2) Isc: short-circuit current

(3) I : peak rated closing current
CL

HV/LV distribution substations - C37

 4. the consumer substation with LV metering (continued)
C
4.3 choice of HV switchgear panel for a transformer circuit
4.4 choice of HV/LV transformer
a transformer is characterized in part
by its electrical parameters, but also
by its technology and its conditions of
use.
the rated power of the transformer is
chosen according to the maximum
apparent power, as determined in
B.4.6.
C38 - HV/LV distribution substations
Three types of HV switchgear panel are
generally available:
c load-break switch and separate HV fuses in
the panel,
c load-break switch/HV fuses combination,
c circuit breaker.
Seven parameters influence the optimum
choice:
c the primary current of the transformer,
c the insulating medium of the transformer,
c the position of the substation with respect
characteristic parameters
of a transformer
A transformer is characterized in part by its
electrical parameters, but also by its
technology and its conditions of use.
Electrical characteristics
c rated power (Pn): the conventional
apparent-power in kVA on which other
design-parameter values and the
construction of the transformer are based.
Manufacturing tests and guarantees are
referred to this rating,
c frequency: for power distribution systems of
the kind discussed in this guide, the
frequency will be 50 Hz or 60 Hz,
c rated primary and secondary voltages: for a
primary winding capable of operating at more
than one voltage level, a kVA rating
corresponding to each level must be given.
The secondary rated voltage is its open-
circuit value,
c rated insulation levels: are given by
overvoltage-withstand test values at power
frequency, and by high-voltage impulse tests
which simulate lightning discharges. At the
voltage levels discussed in this guide,
overvoltages caused by HV switching
operations are generally less severe than
those due to lightning, so that no separate
tests for switching-surge withstand capability
are made.
IEC standards define the rated (power-
frequency) voltage and the “highest voltage
for equipment” in exactly the same terms, as
noted in Sub-clause 1.1 of this Chapter,
c off-circuit tap-selector switch: generally
allows a choice of up to ± 2.5 % and ± 5 %
level about the rated voltage of the highest
voltage winding. The transformer must be
de-energized before this switch is operated;
however, on-load tap-changers are available
(e.g. ± 12.5%) where circumstances require
it,
c winding configurations: are indicated in
diagrammatic form by standard symbols for
star, delta and inter-connected-star windings;
(and combinations of these for special duty,
e.g. six-or twelve-phase rectifier transformers,
etc.) and in an IEC-recommended alpha-
numeric code. This code is read from left-to-
right, the first letter refers to the highest
voltage winding, the second letter to the next
highest, and so on,
to the load centre,
c the kVA rating of the transformer,
c the distance from switchgear to the
transformer,
c the use of separate protection relays (as
opposed to direct-acting trip coils).
Note: the fuses used in the load-break/fuse-
switch combination have striker-pins which
ensure tripping of the 3-pole switch on the
operation of one (or more) fuse(s).
v capital letters refer to the highest voltage
winding
D = delta
Y = star
Z = interconnected-star (or zigzag)
N = neutral connection brought out to a
terminal
v lower-case letters are used for tertiary and
secondary windings
d = delta
y = star
z = interconnected-star (or zigzag)
n = neutral connection brought out to a
terminal
v a number from 0 to 11, corresponding to
those, on a clock dial (“O” is used instead of
“12”) follows any pair of letters to indicate the
phase change (if any) which occurs during
the transformation. If a neutral terminal is
available then the number appears after the
N (or n).
A very common winding configuration used
for distribution transformers is that of a
Dyn 11 transformer, which has a delta HV
winding with a star-connected secondary
winding the neutral point of which is brought
out to a terminal. The phase change through
the transformer is +30 degrees, i.e. phase 1
secondary voltage is at “11 o’clock” when
phase 1 of the primary voltage is at
“12 o’clock”, as shown in figure C36. All
combinations of delta, star and zigzag
windings produce a phase change which (if
not zero) is either 30 degrees or a multiple of
30 degrees.
IEC 76-4 describes the “clock code” in detail.
Characteristics related to the technology
and utilization of the transformer
This list is not exhaustive:
c choice of technology.
The insulating medium is:
v liquid (mineral oil) or,
v solid (epoxy resin and air),
c for interior or exterior installation,
c altitude (i 1,000 m is standard),
c temperature (IEC 76-2),
v maximum ambient air: 40 °C,
v daily maximum average ambient air: 30 °C,
v annual maximum average ambient air:
20 °C.
For non-standard operating conditions, refer
to C1.1 "Influence of the Ambient
temperature and altitude on the rated
current".
 C
description of insulation
techniques
There are two basic classes of distribution On request, mineral oil can be replaced
transformer presently available: by an alternative insulating liquid, by adapting
c dry type (cast in resin), the transformer, as required, and taking
c liquid filled (oil-immersed). appropriate additional precautions
Dry type transformers if necessary.
The windings of these transformers are The insulating fluid also acts as a cooling
insulated by resin cast under vacuum (which medium; it expands as the load and/or the
is patented by major manufacturers). ambient temperature increases, so that all
It is recommended that the transformer be liquid-filled transformers must be designed
chosen according to the CENELEC to accommodate the extra volume of liquid
standards documents HD 46451, as follows: without the pressure in the tank becoming
c environment class E2 (frequent excessive.
condensation and/or high level of pollution),
c climatic conditions class C2 (utilization,
transport and stockage down to -25 °C),
c fire resistance (transformers exposed to fire
risk with low flammability and self-
extinguishing in a given time).
The following description refers to the
process developed by a leading European
manufacturer in this field.
The encapsulation of a winding uses three
components:
c epoxy-resin based on biphenol A with a
viscosity that ensures complete impregnation
of the windings,
c anhydride hardener modified to introduce a
degree of resilience in the moulding, essential
to avoid the development of cracks during the
temperature cycles occurring in normal
operation,
c pulverulent additive composed of
trihydrated alumina Al (OH)3 and silica which
enhances its mechanical and thermal
properties, as well as giving exceptional
intrinsic qualities to the insulation in the
presence of heat.
This three-component system of
encapsulation gives Class F insulation
(∆θ = 100 K) with excellent fire-resisting
qualities and immediate self-extinction. These fig. C28: dry-type transformer.
transformers are therefore classified as non-
flammable.
The mouldings of the windings contain no
halogen compounds (chlorine, bromine, etc.)
or other compounds capable of producing
corrosive or toxic pollutants, thereby
guaranteeing a high degree of safety to
personnel in emergency situations, notably
in the event of a fire.
It also performs exceptionally well in hostile
industrial atmospheres of dust, humidity, etc.
See figure C28.
Liquid-filled transformers
The most common insulating/cooling liquid
used in transformers is mineral oil. Mineral
oils are specified in IEC 296. Being
flammable, safety measures are obligatory in
many countries, especially for indoor
substations. The DGPT unit (Detection of
Gas, Pressure and Temperature) ensures the
protection of oil-filled transformers.
In the event of an anomaly, the DGPT causes
the HV supply to the transformer to be cut off
very rapidly, before the situation becomes
dangerous.
Mineral oil is bio-degradable and does not
contain PCB (polychlorinated biphenyl),
which was the reason for banning askerel,
i.e. Pyralène, Pyrolio, Pyroline...

HV/LV distribution substations - C39

 4. the consumer substation with LV metering (continued)

C
4.4 choice of HV/LV transformer (continued)
There are two ways in which this pressure
limitation is commonly achieved:
c hermetically-sealed totally-filled tank
(up to 10 MVA at the present time)
Developed by a leading French manufacturer
in 1963, this method was adopted by the
national power authority in 1972, and is now
in world-wide service.
Expansion of the liquid is compensated by
the elastic deformation of the oil-cooling
passages attached to the tank.
The “total-fill” technique has many important
advantages over other methods:
v oxydation of the dielectric liquid (with
atmospheric oxygen) is entirely precluded,
v no need for an air-drying device, and so no
consequent maintenance (inspection
and changing of saturated dessicant),
v no need for dielectric-strength test
of the liquid for at least 10 years,
v simplified protection against internal faults
by means of a DGPT device is possible, fig. C29: hermetically-sealed totally-filled
v simplicity of installation: lighter and lower tank.
profile (than tanks with a conservator) and
access to the HV and LV terminals is
unobstructed,
v immediate detection of (even small) oil
leaks; water cannot enter the tank.
c air-breathing conservator-type tank at
atmospheric pressure
Expansion of the insulating liquid is taken up
by a change in the level of liquid in an
expansion (conservator) tank, mounted
above the transformer main tank, as shown is
figure C30. The space above the liquid in the
conservator may be filled with air which is
drawn in when the level of liquid falls, and is
partially expelled when the level rises. When
the air is drawn in from the surrounding
atmosphere it is admitted through an oil seal,
before passing through a dessicating device
(generally containing silica-gel crystals)
before entering the conservator. In some
designs of larger transformers the space
above the oil is occupied by an impermeable
air bag so that the insulation liquid is never in
contact with the atmosphere. The air enters
and exits from the deformable bag through an
oil seal and dessicator, as previously
described. A conservator expansion tank is fig. C30: air-breathing conservator-type
obligatory for transformers rated above tank at atmosphere pressure.
10 MVA (which is presently the upper limit
for “total-fill” type transformers).

C40 - HV/LV distribution substations

 C
choice of technology
As discussed above, the choice of
transformer is between liquid-filled or dry-
type. For ratings up to 10 MVA, totally-filled
units are available as an alternative
to conservator-type transformers.
A choice depends on a number
of considerations, including:
c safety of persons in proximity to the
transformer. Local regulations and official
recommendations may have to be respected,
c economic considerations, taking account
of the relative advantages of each technique.
Regulations affecting the choice
c dry-type transformer:
v in some countries a dry-type transformer is
obligatory in high apartment blocks,
v dry-type transformers impose no
constraints in other situations,
c transformers with liquid insulation:
v this type of transformer is generally
forbidden in high apartment blocks,
v for different kinds of insulation liquids,
installation restrictions, or minimum protect-
against fire risk, vary according to the class
of insulation used,
c some countries in which the use of liquid
dielectrics is highly developed, classify the
several categories of liquid according to their
fire performance. This latter is assessed
according to two criteria: the flash-point
temperature, and the minimum calorific
power. The principal categories are shown in
Table C31 in which a classification code is
used for convenience.

code dielectric fluid flash-point (°C) minimum calorific power (MJ/kg)

O1 mineral oil < 300 -
K1 high-density hydrocarbons > 300 48
K2 esters > 300 34 - 37
K3 silicones > 300 27 - 28
L3 insulating halogen liquids - 12
table C31: categories of dielectric fluids.
National standards exist which define the
conditions for the installation of liquid-filled
transformers. No equivalent IEC standard
has yet been established.
The national standard is aimed at ensuring
the safety of persons and property and
recommends, notably, the minimum
measures to be taken against the risk of fire.
The main precautions to observe
are indicated in Table C32.
c for liquid dielectrics of class L3 there
are no special measures to be taken,
c for dielectrics of classes 01 and K1 the
measures indicated are applicable only if
there are more than 25 litres of dielectric
liquid in the transformer,
c for dielectrics of classes K2 and K3 the
measures indicated are applicable only
if there are more than 50 litres of dielectric
liquid in the transformer.

HV/LV distribution substations - C41

 4. the consumer substation with LV metering (continued)

C
4.4 choice of HV/LV transformer (continued)
class no. of locations
of litres chamber or enclosed area reserved to qualified reserved to trained personnel other chambers
dielec- above and authorized personnel, and separated from any and isolated from work areas or locations
tric which other building by a distance D by fire-proof walls (2 hours rating) (b)
fluid measures D>8m 4m<D<8m D < 4 m (a) in the direc- no openings with opening(s)
must be tion of occupied areas
taken
O1 25 no special interposition of fire-proof wall measures (1 + 2) measures (1 + 2 + 5) measures
K1 measures a fire-proof screen (2 hour rating) or 3 or 3 (1A + 2 + 4)(c)
(1 hour rating) against adjoining or 4 or (4 + 5) or 3
building
K2 50 no special measures interposition of a no special measures 1A measures 1
K3 fire-proof screen measures or 3 or 3
(1 hour rating) or 4 or 4
L3 no special measures
table C32: safety measures recommended in electrical installations using dielectric liquids of classes 01, K1, K2 or K3.
Measure 1: arrangements such that if the
dielectric escapes from the transformer, it will
be completely contained (in a sump, by sills
around the transformer, and by blocking of
cable trenches, ducts and so on, during
construction).
Measure 1A: in addition to measure 1,
arrange that, in the event of liquid ignition
there is no possibility of the fire spreading
(any combustible material must be moved
to a distance of at least 4 metres from
the transformer, or at least 2 metres from
it if a fire-proof screen [of 1 hour rating] is
interposed).
Measure 2: arrange that burning liquid will
extinguish rapidly and naturally (by providing
a pebble bed in the containment sump).
Measure 3: an automatic device (DGPT
or Buchholz) for cutting off the primary power
supply, and giving an alarm, if gas appears in
the transformer tank.
Measure 4: automatic fire-detection devices
in close proximity to the transformer, for
cutting off primary power supply, and giving
an alarm.
Measure 5: automatic closure by fire-proof
panels (1/2 hour minimum rating) of all
openings (ventilation louvres, etc.) in the
walls and ceiling of the substation chamber.
Notes:
(a) a fire-proof door (rated at 2 hours)
is not considered to be an opening.
(b) - transformer chamber adjoining a
workshop and separated from it by walls,
the fire-proof characteristics of which are
not rated for 2 hours,
- areas situated in the middle of workshops
the material being placed (or not) in a
protective container.
(c) it is indispensable that the equipment be
enclosed in a chamber, the walls of which are
solid, the only orifices being those necessary
for ventilation purposes.

C42 - HV/LV distribution substations


the determination
of optimal power
Oversizing a transformer results in:
c excessive investment and unecessarily
high no-load losses, but,
c lower on-load losses.
Undersizing a transformer, causes:
c a reduced efficiency when fully loaded,
(the highest efficiency is attained in the range
50% - 70% full load) so that the optimum
loading is not achieved,
c on long-term overload, serious
consequences for:
v the transformer, owing to the premature
ageing of the windings insulation, and in
extreme cases, resulting in failure of
insulation and loss of the transformer,
v the installation, if overheating of the
transformer causes protective relays to trip
the controlling circuit breaker.
C
Definition of optimal power
In order to select an optimal power (kVA)
rating for a transformer, the following factors
must be taken into account:
c list the power of installed power-consuming
equipment as described in Chapter B,
c decide the utilization (or demand) factor for
each individual item of load,
c determine the load cycle of the installation,
noting the duration of loads and overloads,
c arrange for power-factor correction,
if justified, in order to:
v reduce cost penalties in tariffs based,
in part, on maximum kVA demand,
v reduce the value of declared load
(P(kVA) = P (kW)/cos ø),
c select, among the range of standard
transformer ratings available, taking into
account all possible future extensions
to the installation.
It is important to ensure that cooling
arrangements for the transformer
are adequate.

the chamber is ventilated by natural ventilation orifices

convection or forced ventilation.
In the general case of cooling by natural air S'
circulation (AN) the ventilation of the chamber
is arranged to remove the heat (produced
by losses in the transformer) by natural
convection.
A good system of ventilation allows cool air to
enter through an orifice of sectional area S at H
floor level, and to leave the chamber through
an orifice of sectional area S' on the opposite
wall to that of the air entry and at a height H
above the incoming-air orifice, as shown in S
figure C33.
It is important to note that any restriction to
the free flow of a sufficient volume of air will
result in a reduction of power available from
the transformer, if the rated temperature limit fig. C33: natural ventilation.
is not to be exceeded.
Natural ventilation
The formulae for calculating the sectional
area of the ventilation orifices are as follows:
S = 0.18 P/√H and S’ = 1.1 S
Where:
P = the sum of the no-load losses and the
full-load losses expressed in kW
S = the sectional area of the incoming-air
orifice (area of louvres or grill to be deducted)
expressed in mm2
S’ = the sectional area of the outgoing-air
orifice (area of louvres or grill to be deducted)
expressed in mm2
H = height (centre to centre) of the outgoing
air orifice above the incoming-air orifice,
expressed in metres.
The formulae are valid for a mean ambient
temperature of 20 °C and up to an altitude
of 1,000 m.
Forced ventilation
Forced (i.e. electric-fan assisted) ventilation
of the chamber is necessary for ambient
temperatures exceeding 20 °C, or if the
chamber is badly ventilated; frequent
overloading of the transformer, and so on...
The fan can be controlled by thermostat.
Recommended air-flow rate, in cubic metres
per second at 20 °C:
c totally-filled transformer: 0.081 P,
c dry-type Class F transformer: 0.05 P
where P = total losses in kW.

HV/LV distribution substations - C43

 5. a consumer substation with HV metering

C
5.1 general
A consumer substation with HV metering is
an electrical installation connected to a public
supply system at a nominal voltage of 1 kV -
35 kV and generally includes a single HV/LV
transformer which exceeds 1,250 kVA, or
several smaller transformers.
The rated current of the HV switchgear does
not normally exceed 400 A.

functions
The substation
According to the complexity of the installation
and the manner in which the load is divided,
the substation:
c might include one room containing the HV
switchboard and metering panel(s), together
with the transformer(s) and low-voltage main
distribution board(s),
c or might supply one or more transformer
rooms, which include local LV distribution
boards, supplied at HV from switchgear in a
main substation, similar to that described
above.
These substations may be installed, either:
c inside a building, or
c outdoors in prefabricated housings.
Connection to the HV network
Connection at HV can be:
c either by a single service cable or overhead
line, or
c via two mechanically interlocked load-break
switches with two service cables from
duplicate supply feeders, or
c via two load-break switches of a ring-main
unit.
Metering
Before the installation project begins, the
agreement of the power-supply authority
regarding metering arrangements must be
obtained.
A metering panel will be incorporated in the
HV switchboard. Voltage transformers and
current transformers, having the necessary
metering accuracy, may be included in the
main incoming circuit breaker panel or (in the
case of the voltage transformer) may be
installed separately in the metering panel.
Transformer rooms
If the installation includes a number of
transformer rooms, HV supplies from the
main substation may be by simple radial
feeders connected directly to the
transformers, or by duplicate feeders to each
room, or again, by a ring-main, according to
the degree of supply security desired.
In the two latter cases, 3-panel ring-main
units will be required at each transformer
room.
Local emergency generators
Emergency standby generators are intended
to maintain a power supply to essential loads,
in the event of failure of the power supply
system.
Capacitors
Capacitors will be installed, according to
requirements:
c in stepped HV banks at the main
substation, or
c at LV in transformer rooms.
Transformers
For additional supply-security reasons,
transformers may be arranged for automatic
changeover operation, or for parallel
operation.

one-line diagrams
The diagrams shown in figure C34 represent:
c the different methods of HV service
connection, which may be one of four types:
v single-circuit service,
v single-circuit (for later change to ring-main
service),
v duplicate service (interlocked
mechanically),
v ring-main service,
c general protection at HV, and HV metering
functions,
c protection of outgoing HV circuits,
c protection of LV distribution circuits.

C44 - HV/LV distribution substations

 C
power supply service connection HV protection HV distribution and protection LV distribution
system and metering of outgoing circuits and protection

supplier/consumer interface downstream terminals of HV isolator LV terminals of

for the installation transformer

single-line
service protection
LV

I nominal of transformer u 45 A

single-line service
(equipped for extension a single transformer
to form a ring main)

HV LV
automatic LV/HV
standby source

duplicate-
supply
service
protection
+
automatic
changeover
feature

protection

ring-main
service
automatic LV
standby source

authorized
access consumer
limits
testing authority

power-supply authority

fig. C34: consumer substation with HV metering.

HV/LV distribution substations - C45

 5. a consumer substation with HV metering (continued)

C
5.2 choice of panels
A substation with HV metering includes, in
addition to the panels described in 4.2,
panels specifically designed for metering and,
if required, for automatic or manual
changeover from one source to another.

metering and general protection

These two functions are achieved by the
association of two panels:
c one panel containing the VT,
c the main HV circuit breaker panel,
containing the CTs for measurement
and protection.
The general protection is usually against main HV CB panel
metering with metering and HV distribution
overcurrent (overload and short-circuit) and VT panel protection CTs panels
earth faults. Both schemes use protective
relays which are sealed by the power-supply
authority.

power-supply network

fig. C35: typical arrangement of

switchgear panels for HV metering.

power-supply changeover
schemes
Some national standards recommend a In the second case, the tripping command to
supplementary protection when an the decoupling circuit breaker must operate
installation includes an emergency automatic reliably on undervoltage and reverse-power
changeover to a local generator. The protection. Setting of protection relays is
standard states that operation of the standby carried out by the power-supply authority
plant must not, in any circumstances, result in and made inaccessible to the consumer
perturbations on the power-supply network. by sealing, or some equivalent means.
This means that, apart from protective The tripping supply and switchgear-control
devices intended to protect the generator: switch(es) must also be inaccessible to the
c either a scheme of interlocking must consumer.
preclude any possibility of parallel operation
of the generator with the power system, or
c a suitable automatic de-coupling scheme
agreed with the power-supply authority, which
will trip the paralleling circuit breaker in the
event of a short-circuit, or other anomaly,
occurring on the power supply system, or on
the installation.
HV distribution
panels for which automatic busbar
standby supply is changeover transition
required panel panel
to remainder
of the HV
switchboard

from standby generator

P i 20,000 kVA

fig. C36: section of HV switchboard including standby supply panel.

C46 - HV/LV distribution substations
 C
small generators operating
in parallel with public supply
networks
The following notes indicate some basic Note: The problem is essentially that of a
considerations to be taken into account when “small” generator and a “large” system. The
parallel operation of consumer’s generators terms “small” and “large” are relative, so that,
with the public power-supply networks is for example, even a small generator at the
planned. end of a long line could probably operate
A voltage regulator controlling an alternator is satisfactorily on constant-voltage control.
generally arranged to respond to a reduction To be more specific, if the system impedance
of voltage at its terminals by automatically viewed from the generator location is high
increasing the excitation current of the (i.e. the short-circuit fault level is low) then
alternator, until the voltage is restored to constant-voltage control may be satisfactory.
normal. When it is intended that the alternator In highly-developed networks where the
should operate in parallel with others, the short-circuit fault levels are high, then
AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator) is constant-power-factor operation is generally
switched to “parallel operation” in which the obligatory.
AVR control circuit is slightly modified A technical discussion with the power-supply
(compounded) to ensure satisfactory sharing authority will be necessary to resolve the
of kvars with the other parallel machines. question, but it is recommended that facilities
When a number of alternators are operating for both kinds of control be specified when
in parallel under AVR control, an increase in purchasing the generator sets.
the excitation current of one of them (for
example, carried out manually after switching
its AVR to Manual control) will have
practically no effect on the voltage level.
In fact, the alternator in question will simply
operate at a lower power factor (more kVA,
and therefore more current) than before.
The power factor of all the other machines
will automatically improve, such that the load
power factor requirements are satisfied,
as before.
Consider now the case of a standby
generator at a consumer’s substation, which
is operating in parallel with all the generation
of the public power supply system.
Supposing the power system voltage is
reduced for operational reasons (it is
common to operate HV systems within a
range of ± 5% of nominal voltage, or even
more, where load-flow patterns require it).
An AVR set to maintain the voltage within
± 3% (for example) will immediately attempt
to raise the voltage by increasing the
excitation current of the alternator.
Instead of raising the voltage, the alternator
will simply operate at a lower power factor
than before, thereby increasing its current
output, and will continue to do so, until it is
eventually tripped out by its overcurrent
protective relays.
This is a well-known problem and is usually
overcome by the provision of a “constant-
power-factor” control switch on the AVR unit.
By making this selection, the AVR will
automatically adjust the excitation current to
match whatever voltage exists on the power
system, while at the same time maintaining
the power factor of the alternator constant at
the pre-set value (selected on the AVR
control unit).
In the event that the alternator becomes de-
coupled from the power-system, the AVR
must be automatically (rapidly) switched back
to “constant-voltage” control.

HV/LV distribution substations - C47

 5. a consumer substation with HV metering (continued)

C
5.3 parallel operation of transformers
The need for operation of two or more
transformers in parallel often arises due to:
c load growth, which exceeds the capactiy
of an existing transformer,
c lack of space (height) for one large
transformer,
c a measure of security (the probability
of two transformers failing at the same time
is very small),
c the adoption of a standard size
of transformer throughout an installation.

total power (kVA)

The total power (kVA) available when two or
more transformers of the same kVA rating are
connected in parallel, is equal to the sum of
the individual ratings, providing that the
percentage impedances are all equal
and the voltage ratios are identical.
Transformers of unequal kVA ratings will
share a load practically (but not exactly)
in proportion to their ratings, providing
that the voltage ratios are identical
and the per-centage impedances (at their
own kVA rating) are identical, or very nearly
so.
In these cases, a total of more than 90% of
the sum of the two ratings is normally
available.
It is recommended that transformers, the kVA
ratings of which differ by more than 2: 1,
should not be operated permanently
in parallel.

conditions necessary for parallel

operation
All paralleled units must be supplied from the
same network.
The inevitable circulating currents exchanged
between the secondary circuits of paralleled
transformers will be negligibly small providing
that:
c secondary cabling from the transformers
to the point of paralleling have approximately
equal lengths and characteristics,
c the transformer manufacturer is fully
informed of the duty intended for the
transformers, so that:
v the winding configurations (star, delta,
zigzag star) of the several transformers have
the same phase change between primary
and secondary voltages,
v the short-circuit per-centage impedances
are equal, or differ by less than 10%,
v voltage differences between corresponding
phases must not exceed 0.4%,
v all possible information on the conditions of
use, expected load cycles, etc. should be
given to the manufacturer with a view to
optimizing load and no-load losses.

common winding arrangements voltage vectors

1
As described in 4.4 “Electrical characteristics - 1
winding configurations” the relationships
between primary, secondary, and tertiary
windings depend on: V12
c type of windings (delta, star, zigzag),
c connection of the phase windings. 2
N
Depending on which ends of the windings
form the star point (for example), a star
winding will produce voltages which are 180° 3 2
displaced with respect to those produced if
the opposite ends had been joined to form 3
the star point. Similar 180° changes occur in 1 1
the two possible ways of connecting phase-
to-phase coils to form delta windings, while
four different combinations of zigzag
connections are possible, N
c the phase displacement of the secondary
phase voltages with respect to the
corresponding primary phase voltages.
As previously noted, this displacement (if not
zero) will always be a multiple of 30° and will 2 2
depend on the two factors mentioned above,
viz type of windings and connection windings correspondence
(i.e. polarity) of the phase windings.
By far the most common type of distribution
transformer winding configuration is 3 3
the Dyn 11 connection.

V12 on the primary winding produces V1N in the

secondary winding and so on ...
fig. C37: phase change through a Dyn 11
transformer.

C48 - HV/LV distribution substations

6. constitution of HV/LV distribution substations

C
HV/LV substations are constructed according
to the magnitude of the load and the kind of
power system in question.
Substations may be built in public places,
such as parks, residential districts, etc. or on
private premises, in which case the power
supply authority must have unrestricted
access. This is normally assured by locating
the substation, such that one of its walls,
which includes an access door, coincides
with the boundary of the consumers premises
and the public way.

6.1 different types of substation

Substations may be classified according to
metering arrangements (HV or LV) and type
of supply (O/H ou U/G).
The substations may be installed:
c either indoors in chambers specially built
for the purpose, or incorporated in an
apartment block, etc., or
c an outdoor installation mounted on a pole,
or poles, (“H” structure or 4-pole
arrangement) or in a brick-built, concrete or
prefabricated housing.
Prefabricated housings mounted on a
concrete base provide a particularly simple,
rapid and competitive choice.

6.2 indoor substations equipped with metal-enclosed switchgear

conception
Figure C38 shows a typical equipment layout
recommended for a LV metering substation.
Remark: the use of a cast-resin dry-type
transformer would obviate the need for a fire-
protection oil sump.
HV connections to transformer LV connections from
(included in a panel or free-standing) transformer

LV switchgear

HV switching
2 incoming and protection
HV panels panel

current
transformers
provided by
power-supply
authority

connection to the power-supply transformer oil sump LV cable trench

network by single-core or
three-core cables, with or
without a cable trench

fig. C38: typical arrangment of switchgear panels for LV metering.

HV/LV distribution substations - C49

 6. constitution of HV/LV distribution substations (continued)

C
6.2 indoor substations equipped with metal-enclosed switchgear (continued)
service connections and
equipment interconnections
At high voltage
c connections to the HV system are made by,
and are the responsibility of the power-supply
authority,
c connections between the HV switchgear
and the transformers may be:
v by short copper bars where the transformer
is housed in a panel forming part of the HV
switchboard,
v by single-core unarmoured cables with
synthetic insulation,
v single-core unarmoured cables to 250 A
(or more) plug-in type terminals at the
transformer.
At low voltage
c connections between the LV terminals of
the transformer and the LV switchgear may
be:
v single-core unarmoured cables,
v solid copper bars (circular or rectangular
section) with heat-shrinkable insulation.
Metering
c metering current transformers are generally
installed in the protective cover of the power
transformer LV terminals, the cover being
sealed by the supply authority,
c alternatively, the current transformers are
installed in a sealed compartment within the
main LV distribution cabinet,
c the meters are mounted on a panel which is
completely free from vibrations,
c placed as close to the current transformers
as possible, and
c are accessible only to the power-supply
authority.
The dials and graduations of the meters
should be at a height of approximately
1.65 m. above floor level, not lower than
0.7 m, and not higher than 1.8 m.

100

800 mini
common earth busbar for the
substation safety accessories meters

fig. C39: plan view of typical substation with LV metering.

C50 - HV/LV distribution substations

 C
earthing circuits
The substation must include:
c an earth electrode for all exposed
conductive parts of electrical equipment in the
substation and exposed extraneous metal
including:
v protective metal screens,
v reinforcing rods in the concrete base of the
substation,
v the common point of all current-transformer
secondary windings.
Note: Metal doors and ventilation louvres are
not connected to earth.
c an earth electrode for the LV neutral point
of the transformer*,
c removable links at strategic points for
measuring continuity and the resistances of
individual electrodes,
c an earth electrode for the installation*.
* in small areas, the resistance zones of earth electrodes
overlap. In such cases all electrodes are interconnected to
form a common earthing system for HV and LV equipments,
as discussed in “Earthing connections” in Sub-clause 1.1 of
this Chapter.

substation lighting
Supply to the lighting circuits can be taken
from a point upstream or downstream of the
main incoming LV circuit breaker. In either
case, appropriate overcurrent protection must
be provided. A separate automatic circuit (or
circuits) is (are) recommended for emergency
lighting purposes.
Operating switches, pushbuttons, etc. are
normally located immediately adjacent to
entrances.
Lighting fittings are arranged such that:
c switchgear operating handles and position-
indication markings are adequately
illuminated,
c all metering dials and instruction plaques
and so on, can be easily read.

materials for operation

and safety
The substation must be provided with:
c materials for assuring safe exploitation of
the equipment including:
v a wooden stool and/or an insulating mat
(rubber or synthetic),
v a pair of insulated gloves stored in an
envelope provided for the purpose,
v a voltage-detecting device for use on the
HV equipment,
v earthing attachments (according to type of
switchgear),
c fire-extinguishing devices of the powder or
CO2 type,
c warning signs, notices and safety alarms:
v on the external face of all access doors, a
DANGER warning plaque and prohibition of
entry notice, together with instructions for
first-aid care for victims of electrical
accidents,
v inside the substation: a first-aid panel as
noted above,
v a DANGER plaque (skull and cross-bones,
or a local equivalent sign) on each removable
panel providing access to live parts.

HV/LV distribution substations - C51

 6. constitution of HV/LV distribution substations (continued)

C
6.3 outdoor substations
pole-top public distribution lightning
arresters
substations
Field of application
These substations are mainly used to supply
isolated rural consumers from HV overhead
line distribution systems:
c at voltage levels between 1 - 24 kV,
c from a single transformer not exceeding
160 kVA and at a preferred LV voltage level of
230/400 V (3-phase 4-wires),
c with low-voltage metering.
Constitution
These substations are commonly supplied by
a single 3-wire line, with no local switchgear
or fuses at the HV side of the transformer.
Lightning arresters are provided, however, to
protect the transformer and consumers as
shown in figure C40.
Protection of the LV circuit is generally LV circuit
provided by two LV circuit breakers (D1) and breaker
D1
(D2), shown in figure C41:
c circuit breaker D1 protects the transformer
earthing conductor
against overloading and the LV service 25 mm2 copper
connection against short-circuit faults. This
circuit breaker is mounted on the pole and
has inverse-time/current-relay tripping
characteristics, or may be tripped by a protective
conductor cover
thermal-image relay monitoring the
transformer-windings temperature,
c circuit breaker D2 is the main LV circuit safety
earth
breaker for the installation. mat
Tripping discrimination between these two
circuit breakers must be established, the
settings to be made by the power-supply
authority, and sealed.
fig. C40: pole-mounted transformer
substation.

LV circuit breaker installation main

at the transformer circuit breaker
D1 D2

remote metering
pole-mounted pole-mounted
load-break/ transformer
isolating switch
lightning arresters
fig. C41: diagram showing the principles of a pole-mounted transformer substation.
General arrangement of equipment
As previously noted the location of the
substation must allow easy access, not only
for personnel but for equipment handling
(raising the transformer, for example) and the
installation
manœuvring of heavy vehicles. Earthing
electrodes are commonly separated as
discussed in Sub-clause 1.1 of this Chapter.
See figure C42.

Rp RB RA

Rp must have a maximum value derived in the same way as

that shown for Rs of case "E" in figure C7.
RB < 3 ohms to limit the voltage appearing at the consumer's
installation in the event of a breakdown of HV/LV insulation
due to back-flashover, or other causes.

fig. C42: separated earth electrodes.

C52 - HV/LV distribution substations

 C
prefabricated housings
for outdoor substations
For more elaborate substations requiring the
use of ring-main units or a switchboard of
several circuit breakers, compact
weatherproof and vermin-proof housings are
commonly used.
These prefabricated units require the
minimum civil work, being mounted on a
simple concrete base, and are used for both
urban and rural substations.
Among the advantages offered by these
units, are:
c an optimization of materials and safety by:
v an appropriate choice from a wide range of
available housings,
v conformity with all existing and foreseeable
international standards,
c a reduction in study and design time, and in
the cost of implementation, by:
v minimal co-ordination between the several
disciplines of building construction and site
works,
v realization, independent of the main
building construction,
v obviating the need for a temporary “hook-
up” at the beginning of the site preparation
work,
v simplification of civil work, which consists
only of the provision of a reinforced-concrete
plinth,
c greatly simplified equipment installation and
connection.

fig. C43: cut-away view of typical HV/LV substation using a prefabricated housing.

HV/LV distribution substations - C53

 6. constitution of HV/LV distribution substations (continued)

C
6.3 outdoor substations (continued)
Other kinds of outdoor substation are
common in some countries, based on
weatherproof equipment exposed to the
elements.
These comprise a fenced area in which three
or more concrete plinths are installed:
c for a ring-main unit, or one or more switch-
fuse or circuit breaker unit(s),
c for one or more transformer(s), and
c for one or more LV distribution pillar(s).
The simplicity of this arrangement is
countered by the high cost of weatherproof
switchgear, cable boxes, etc. and by an
adverse visual impact.
This class of substation is not favoured in
residential areas or in other locations where
visual amenities are important, and for these
reasons have been largely supplanted by
prefabricated housings and indoor-type
equipment in many countries.

C54 - HV/LV distribution substations

7. example in coordination of the characteristics
of an HV switch-fuse combination protecting
an HV/LV transformer
This appendix is based on Appendices A and
B of IEC 420, and is intended to clarify some
of the operational features of these
combination units.
The following example is based on a
400 kVA, 11 kV/LV transformer with a
maximum fault level at its HV terminals of
16 kA.
c the full-load current is 21 A,
c the permissible periodic overload is 150%
F.L.,
c the off-circuit tapping switch is selected to
the - 5% tap, so that the primary current in
the overload condition is:
21 x 1.5 x 1.05 = 33 A,
c the magnetizing in-rush current surge is:
21 x 12 = 252 A maximum for a duration of
0.1 second (Clause 4a of IEC 787),
c the ambient-air temperature at site is 45 °C,
i.e. 5 °C higher than the IEC standard.
The user has selected a 12 kV switch-fuse
combination from a certain manufacturer to
protect the transformer. The manufacturer will
provide a list of fuses which are suitable for
use in the combination, and will recommend
those fuses necessary for this particular
application.
The choice of the manufacturer will be based
on factory type-tests to the appropriate IEC
specifications covering this class of HV
switch-fuse combination.
Suppose the manufacturer recommends a
12 kV, 40 A, 16 kA (at least) fuse of a given
type from a certain fuse manufacturer. To
justify this choice, the manufacturer will have
ascertained that:
1. The fuse can withstand the 252 A of inrush
current for 0.1 second, without any
modification to its subsequent performance.
This will be done by reference to the time-
current characteristic of the fuse, and/or in
consultation with the fuse manufacturer.
2. The normal current rating of the
combination when using the recommended
fuses is adequate to carry 33 A periodically in
an ambient-air temperature of 45 °C, i.e. it
matches the transformer overload capability.
Note: the normal current rating of the
combination when fitted with the
recommended 40 A fuses may, in fact, be
less than 40 A, particularly in the above-
standard ambient temperature conditions.
Temperature-rise tests carried out by the
switch-fuse manufacturer, or calculations
based on such tests, may indicate a normal
current rating of (for example) 35 A at 45 °C.
Such a rating is evidently satisfactory for this
application.
C
3. The pre-arcing current in the fuse is low
enough in the 10-second region of the fuse
time-current characteristic, to ensure
satisfactory protection of the transformer
(Clause 4c of IEC 787). This information will
be obtained by the switch-fuse manufacturer,
from the fuse characteristic curves, and/or in
consultation with the fuse manufacturer.
4. The fuses alone will clear a solid 3-phase
short-circuit fault at the LV terminals of the
transformer, i.e. the maximum short-circuit
primary currrent (based on 5% transformer
reactance) is greater than the transfer current
(current at which the switch operates
concurrently with the fuse(s))* when the
combination includes the recommended 40 A
fuses.
Figure AC1-1 shows that the transfer current
in this case is 280 A.
5. The transfer current of the combination
when fitted with the 40 A fuses concerned is
less than its rated transfer current, assumed
in this case to be 1,000 A.
* transfer current is defined below.
The installation designers must check that the
fuse discriminates with the highest rating of a
LV fuse (if existing) in the event of a phase-
to-phase fault on the LV system. This is
generally the worst condition for
discrimination, since the LV fuses pass
0.87 Isc3 while one HV fuse (only) passes
Isc3, as shown in figure AC1-2 (b). To
ensure discrimination in this case, the time-
current characteristics of the HV and LV
fuses should intersect at a current value
which is greater than that of the maximum
possible short-circuit current on the LV
system, as shown in figure AC1-3.
Discrimination between HV fuses and LV
circuit breakers has been covered in
Chapter C Sub-clause 3.2 (figure C21) and
Chapter H2 Sub-clause 4.6 (figures H2-56
and H2-57).
Appendix C1 - 1
C
7.1 transfer current and take-over current
transfer current Figure AC1-1 is intended only to show the
The transfer current of a combination basic principles involved, and takes no
depends on both the fuse-initiated (striker) account of maximum and minimum
opening time of the switch, and the time- tolerances in the fuse pre-arcing curves, etc.
current characteristic of the fuse. For greater detail, reference should be made
Near the transfer-current level, during a to IEC 420.
LV 3-phase short-circuit (at the transformer 430 A 10.7 kA
terminals), the fastest fuse to melt clears one
pole and operates its striker pin.
430 A
The two remaining poles are then passing a
reduced current (87%), which will be 10.7 kA
interrupted by the switch or by the fuses.
The transfer point is that at which the switch 430 A 10.7 kA
opens and one or both remaining fuses melt
simultaneously. (a) 3 - phase S.C.
For this to occur, the second fuse must melt 430 A
at the instant of switch opening (by striker
action of the first fuse to operate).
215 A
By calculation (demonstrated in Appendix B
of IEC 420) it is shown that the level of 9.3 kA
3-phase fault current* which will cause the
second fuse to melt at a time (equal to the 215 A
switch-opening time) after the operation of
the first fuse, is that corresponding to a period (b) phase-to-phase S.C.
of 0.045 seconds after fault initiation, as 0 10.7 kA
shown on the time-current fuse-characteristic
curve. 248 A
* this is the transfer-current value. Its reduction to 87%,
following operation of the first fuse, is taken into account
when calculating the operating time of the second fuse.

248 A
take-over current
The take-over current of the combination is (c) 1 - phase-to-earth S.C.
the level of overcurrent at which the fuses fig. AC1-2: short-circuit currents for the
take over the duty of protection from overload transformer of the example, assuming a
relays, i.e. from the take-over current level up 242-420 V secondary winding.
to and beyond the transfer current level, the
switch will be tripped by striker-pin action.
time (secs.) not to scale

10 minimum rated
breaking current
full-load of fuse
current

50% take-over
overload current level
current

1.0

overload relay
characteristic

40 A fuse
characteristic
transfer current level
0.1

rated transfer current

of the combination

0.045 secs.

fault current (amps)

0.01
10 21 33 100 252 420 1000
overload cleared by faults cleared 280 faults cleared by fuses only
switch only on operation by fuses and switch (strikers operate but fault is cleared
of overload relay through striker action before switch contacts open)
fig. AC1-1: principles of HV/LV transformer protection by HV switch-fuse combination.

2 - Appendix C1
 C
7.2 types of faults involved in the transfer region
Primary-side protective devices are
particularly concerned with faults in the
secondary-terminals zone of the transformer,
upstream of the LV protection devices.
The primary short-circuit currents arising from
solid short-circuits at the transformer
secondary terminals are shown in
figure AC1-2.
The breaking of solid (i.e. non-arcing)
3-phase faults is associated with severe TRV
values which the switch in the combination is
not designed to interrupt. This type of fault
therefore must be cleared by the fuses only,
i.e. before the striker-operated switch opens
its contacts.
It is necessary therefore, that the transfer-
current limit (280 A in the example) shall
always be lower than that of a 3-phase
LV-terminals short-circuit (430 A at HV), as
shown in figure AC1-1.
This condition being fulfilled, then 3-phase
short-circuit transfer currents correspond to
faults for which LV arc impedance reduces
the magnitude of both the current and TRV
values, as well as improving the power factor
of the fault current.
For a phase-to-phase LV terminal fault, the
diagram (b) of figure AC1-2 shows that the
HV fault current of one phase is equal to that
of a 3-phase LV short-circuit. The fuse of that
phase will clear rapidly; the current in the two
remaining phases will then reduce to
practically zero*, and be cleared in the
transfer-current region by two of the switch
contacts acting in series. This feature
improves the switch performance for breaking
current which is (in the present case) mainly
transformer-magnetizing current.

For a phase-to-earth LV terminal fault,

diagram (c) of figure AC1-2 shows that the
HV fault current is less than the calculated
value (280 A) for the transfer-current limit.
As in the previous case, following the
operation of one fuse (assuming that both
fuses do not clear simultaneously), the fault
current will reduce to a very low value. The
switch contacts breaking this low-valued (but
highly-inductive) current, are acting in series,
with the advantage of enhanced switchgear
performance noted above.
time (seconds)

minimum time-current
characteristic of HV fuse

maximum fault
current at LV
(referred to HV side)
maximum operating
time of LV fuse
(referred to HV side)

430 A HV fault current (amps)

fig. AC1-3: discrimination between HV and
LV fuses.
* because the LV voltages induced in the faulted phases will
then be sensibly equal in magnitude, but will be in direct
phase opposition around the fault-current loop.

Appendix C1 - 3
8. ground-surface potential gradients due to earth-fault
currents

C
When earth-fault current flows between an 0.9 0.8
ground surface
earthing electrode and the surrounding soil, 0.7 0.6 0.5
potential gradients exist in the soil and on
the ground surface.
Close to the location of the buried electrode,
the potential gradients, both in the soil and
on the ground surface, are generally at their
maximum values and are therefore (for the 0.4
ground-surface gradients) the most
dangerous.

nature of the potential gradients

A vertical-rod electrode is very commonly
used, either singly, or in interconnected current-flow
lines
groups; a single-rod electrode is taken as an
example in the following notes. The current equipotential contours
flow and associated potential contours fig. AC2-1: idealized current-flow pattern
associated with a rod electrode are shown in and associated equipotential contours of
figure AC2-1, and are based on the following a single-rod vertically-driven earth
simplifying assumptions: electrode.
c perfectly homogeneous soil,
Note: current-flow lines are identical to the lines of the
c the origin of the fault current (i.e. a short- electric field.
circuit to earth) is at an infinite distance from
the electrode, thereby creating a perfectly
symmetrical current-flow between the
electrode and the surrounding soil.
Earth rod at 1.0 pu (per unit) volts with
respect to remote-earth.

"remote-earth" and "local-earth"

zero-potential references
In classical theory "remote-earth" is an earth-
reference point at zero potential, located at
an infinite distance from the electrode
concerned. The following notes show that,
where a current circulates between two
electrodes, a local zero-potential-earth
reference is available, which can be used in
practical electrode-resistance tests. The
resulting measured values correspond
closely to those calculated by the classical
theory.
electrode A
When two electrodes exchange fault current,
i.e. the power-source electrode and the
electrode of an installation at which an earth
fault occurs, there exists (at some point
between the two electrodes) an equipotential
vertical-plane surface of infinite area,
perpendicular to the flow lines of the fault
current, as shown in figure AC2-2.
typical
current-flow
electrode B lines

+0.3 +0.2 +0.1 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3

(a) plan view of
+0.5 +0.4 -0.4 -0.5
0 ground-surface
equipotential contours
"local-earth" zero-voltage equipotential reference plane
ground-surface
A + 1.0 pu 0 B -1.0 pu
typical
current-flow
+ 0.6 - 0.6
lines (b) equipotential surfaces
+ 0.5 - 0.5
+ 0.4 - 0.4 in the earth
+ 0.3 - 0.3
+ 0.2 - 0.2
+ 0.1 positive negative - 0.1
potential region potential region
+ 1.0 vp vp (c) voltage profile
A not to scale
zero
B
RI VI -1

(d) measured resistance

for different locations
Vg of electrode P
VI = (V - vp) V VI = (V + vp)
in zone A in zone B
zero
A O B distance from A
of test-electrode P
Vg = voltage of test-instrument generator
RI = resistance in ohms indicated by an electrode-resistance measuring instrument
VI = voltage applied to test instrument
V = voltage at electrode A with respect to local-earth reference
Vp = voltage at probe P with respect to local-earth reference
For an accurate measurement of resistance of electrode A, test-electrode P must be located at 0, the position of which is not
known exactly (see text for fig. F52 Chapter F).
fig. AC2-2: zero-voltage local-earth reference for two electrodes.
Appendix C2 - 1
C
The vertical plane surface is the locus at
which the strength of the positive* electric
field from one electrode (A) is exactly equal to
the strength of the negative field of the other
electrode (B). This means that the resultant
polarity at the plane is neither positive nor
negative. It therefore constitutes an
equipotential surface at zero volts with
respect to the two electrodes.
When "local-earth" is mentioned in these
notes, it refers to a point on the ground at
which the edge of this plane surface is
located.
From the foregoing description, it can be
seen that the zero-voltage equipotential
surface is also the boundary of the two
"zones of influence" of the two electrodes,
sometimes also referred to as "zones of
resistance".
As a matter of interest, the electric fields of
the two electrodes (X) and (C) for the
electrode-resistance test, shown in figure F52
(Chapter F) are essentially similar to those
mentioned above. The location of local-earth
in each of the diagrams of F52 (and of
diagram (d) in AC2-2) is indicated by 0 (i.e.
zero).
* Since a.c. systems are being considered, each electrode
will change its polarity at every half cycle.
potential gradients of a
vertical-rod electrode
It will be seen in figure AC2-1 that the high
current density at the (pointed) tip of the rod
results in steep potential gradients in the soil
beneath the buried extremity of the electrode,
as indicated by the close proximity of
adjacent equipotential contours in that region.
It can also be seen that the gradient at the
ground surface is less severe than those
below the surface, and that the maximum
gradient at the surface occurs immediately
adjacent to the point at which the rod
emerges from the soil, as shown in
figure AC2-3.
Vpu
0.8 m
step maximum gradient at
length the rod-soil interface
ground
surface 1.0 pu
0.5
0.32 pu
step voltage local-earth datum (zero volts)
1 0.5 rod 0.5 1 metres
position
fig. AC2-3: voltage profile of the single-rod
electrode of figure AC2-1.
Note: the equipotential contours on the surface of the
ground, when viewed from above, are concentric circles
around the rod location (in the idealized conditions
assumed).
2 - Appendix C2
Investigations have shown that, in a
homogeneous soil, between 0.5 pu and
0.8 pu of the voltage at the rod is measured
between the rod and a point on the ground at
1 metre from it (i.e. approximately the length
of a step) for very long-rod and very short-rod
electrodes, respectively.
It is clear therefore, that, where earth-fault
currents are high, the area close to such an
electrode will be dangerous. Measures taken
to reduce such dangers are described later in
this appendix.
reason for potential gradients
The resistance to a flow of current in a
conducting medium is given in ohms by the
ρl
formula R = where
a
ρ is the resistivity coefficient of the medium,
expressed in ohm-metres,
l is the length in metres of the conducting
path (in the direction of the current-flow lines),
a is the cross-sectional area in square metres
through which the current flows.
So that, for a given distance (l) along, the
current-flow lines R ∝ 1
a
The soil in contact with the rod has an area
(a) equal to that of the rod surface, while at
points progressively further from the rod, the
current passes through increasingly-large
areas.
For equal lengths of current-flow path,
therefore, the resistance becomes
progressively lower and lower, and the
voltage drops across equally-spaced intervals
become less and less, so that the voltage
gradients are smaller and smaller with
distance from the rod, as shown in figure
AC2-3. Another way of considering the
formation of potential gradients is shown in
figure AC2-1, in which the equipotential
contours are shown at 0.1 pu voltage
intervals. Since the same current is passing
through all the equipotential surfaces, the
resistance of the mass of soil between any
two adjacent equipotential surfaces will have
the same value.
This means that, as the areas of successive
surfaces are larger, the lengths of the current
paths between successive surfaces must
increase for R to remain constant (reminder
R = ρl/a). The spacing between successive
surfaces must therefore be greater (i.e. l/a
must be constant) and this results in
progressively lower potential gradients.
 C
voltage gradients associated with (a)
earthing grids
The purpose of an earthing grid (or mat) is to
provide a close approximation to an α
equipotential condition at the ground surface long rod
over a large area, generally that of a short rod
switchyard or substation. β
In practice, potential gradients will always
occur when earth-fault currents are flowing,
but providing the grid meshes are
appropriately dimensioned (i.e. not too large),
the permissible maximum values of gradient
at the highest anticipated levels of earth-fault
current will not be exceeded.
During an earth fault, the whole of the
earthing grid and all metallic parts connected
The resistance of a rod electrode is approximately inversely
to it (together with any personal present) may proportional to its length.
be raised to several hundreds (or thousands)
of volts. (b)
Potential gradients in the grid meshes will α gradient α with
have the general form shown in figure AC2-4. original soil
This figure also shows that connecting a
metallic boundary fence to the earthing grid β
can be dangerous, unless adequate gradient β with
precautions are taken. special earth fill

reducing potential gradients due

to earth faults
Some of the methods commonly employed in special
the reduction of potential gradients include: low-resistance
earth fill
c reduction of earth-fault-current levels:
v by using resistance- or reactance-earthed
sources (generators or transformers as
appropriate),
v where transformers or generators (c) metal fence
(according to the case) operate permanently
in parallel, some of them are left unearthed, fence is out of reach
c for electrodes generally (figure AC2-5) by:
(a) increasing the length and/or number of
rods to reduce the electrode resistance and
therefore the voltage rise at the electrode,
(b) using special low-resistance "soils" in the
space surrounding the electrodes, voltage profiles at
S1 the ground surface
(c) reducing earthing-grid-mesh sizes, and S2
using "grading electrodes" at the grid grid voltage S3 with grading
with respect
boundaries. The same "grading-electrode" to local-earth
technique is sometimes used around the β without
α grading
base of transmission-line towers, boundary
zero
fences, etc. to reduce the severity of the
S1, S2 and S3 are strip grading electrodes running parallel
gradients, and therefore that of both "touch" to the fence and connected to it at frequent intervals.
and "step" voltages,
(d) insulating driven rods from contact with (d)
the earth over the upper section, i.e. from the without α voltage
surface of the ground to a depth of insulation profiles
approximately 1 m.

fence β with insulation

insulation

ground surface
touch
voltage
grid voltage with step voltage
respect to local-earth
Note: the connection at the top of the rod, as well as the
connecting lead, must also be insulated. An alternative
zero potential method is to bury the rod completely with the top of the rod
below ground level, and connected to an insulated
fig. AC2-4: voltage profile and potential gradients of an earthing grid. connecting lead.

fig. AC2-5: voltage profiles and methods

of reducing maximum potential gradients
in some common earthing arrangements.

Appendix C2 - 3
C
other methods of reducing
the dangers of ground-surface
potential gradients
The easiest method (but wasteful in terms of
space) is simply to fence off the area around
the electrode(s) with warning notices. More
commonly, measures are taken to reduce the
current passing through a person's feet by
providing an insulated floor covering indoors,
such as plastic tiles, rubber mats, etc., while
for outdoor locations, highly-resistive
surfaces, such as crushed rock, thick layers
of asphalt, or clean gravel or pebbles are
frequently used.
Gravel or pebbles provide a very effective
high-resistance surface, even when wet,
providing the stones are clean. Leaf mould, or
mud etc. between the stones greatly reduces
the insulating performance of such surfaces.

safe levels of ground-surface

potential gradient
There is no IEC-recommended safe value of
maximum long-duration (> 10 seconds) touch
voltage for HV installations at the time of
writing (1994), but many authorities have
adopted the 50 V AC (or 25 V AC in wet
conditions) criteria of IEC 364-4-41.
Standards differ in various countries, and in
certain cases, long-duration touch-voltage
values which are significantly higher than
50 V AC maximum are permitted, while there
is an even greater difference above the
recommended IEC 364 values for allowable
short-duration (e.g. 0.03 to 0.5 seconds)
touch voltages.
In the present circumstances, therefore, it is
necessary to comply with the appropriate
local regulations.
At the time of writing, Cenelec Technical
Committee 112 is preparing a European HV
installation standard. Chapter 9 (according to
present proposals) of this future standard will
include recommendations for safe touch-
voltage/time duration levels.
It is recognized that, for a given voltage level,
a touch-voltage is more dangerous to human
beings than a step-voltage (since, in the
former case, a substantial part of the current
passes through the vital organs in the thorax).
If the gradients are such that the touch-
voltage criterion is satisfied, then the step-
voltage condition is also considered to be
satisfactory.

4 - Appendix C2
9. vector diagram of ferro-resonance at 50 Hz (or 60 Hz)

C
Figure C13 of Sub-clause 3.1 Chapter C calculation of IN
shows how the neutral of an unearthed In figure C14 of Chapter C it was stated that,
3-phase source can be displaced from its in the resonant condition, XL > XC. In these
normal near-zero potential, as a result of the calculations XC = -j 1 pu impedance, and
particular ferro-resonant condition XL = j 10 pu.
described. 1 90°
The vector diagram can be constructed as I1 = = 0.1 0° = 0.1 + j 0
10 90°
follows.
Per-unit notation is used to generalize and 1 -30°
I2 = = 0.1 -120° = -0.05 - j 0.0866
simplify the calculations: 10 90°
c 1 pu voltage is the nominal phase-to- 1 210°
I3 = = 1 300° = 0.5 - j 0.866
neutral system voltage, 1 -90°
c 1 pu impedance is equal to the normal IN = 0.55 - j 0.953 = 1.1 -60°
capacitive reactance of one phase-to-earth
at power frequency (i.e. K in figure C14 of
Chapter C), calculation of ZNE
c the source impedance is assumed to be ZNE is the parallel combination of XL1, XL2 and
negligible. Xc.
1 XL1 in parallel with XL2 = j 5
j 5 in parallel with XC3 =
L1
imaginary neutral j 5 x (-j 1) 5
E = = -j 1.25
L2 j5-j1 j4
N C3
3 2 ZNE = - j 1.25 pu ohms.

source calculation of VNE

1.1 -60° x 1.25 -90° = 1.375 -150°
or 1.375 pu 210°
V1

not to scale
complete vector diagram
Other values shown in the vector diagram are
easily obtained from the above calculations.
N ➀, ≠ and ➂ are the power-supply terminals.
I1
V3 1
VNE = 1.375 pu
I2 V2
VNE V 3 E = 0.375 pu
2.066 pu
I1 + I2 IC3
N not to scale
I1 + I2 + I3 = IN 1 1
fig. AC3-1: calculation of VNE - circuit and 3 2
vector diagrams. E 2.066 pu
IL1
The procedure is as follows:
c compute the current IN in an imaginary IL2
neutral of negligible impedance (i.e. ZN = 0) IL1 + IL2 = 0.375 pu
by summating the individual phase currents, fig. AC3-2: vector diagram for the
as shown in figure AC3-1. resonant condition.
According to Thévenin's theorem IN also
equals
VNE
where
ZNE + Z
VNE is the voltage between N and E when no
neutral connection exists,
ZNE is the impedance of the network
measured between terminals N and E when
no neutral connection exists,
ZN is the impedance of the neutral conductor
(zero in the present case).
This means that VNE = IN ZNE

Appendix C3 - 1
1. low-voltage public distribution networks

D
1.1 low-voltage consumers
Low-voltage consumers are, by definition, Loads up to 250 kVA can be supplied at LV,
the most-common LV supplies are
those consumers whose loads can be but power-supply organizations generally
within the range 120 V single phase satisfactorily supplied from the low-voltage propose a HV service at load levels for which
to 240/415 V 3-phase 4-wires. system in their locality. their LV networks are marginally adequate.
Loads up to 250 kVA can be supplied The voltage of the local LV network may be
at LV, but power-supply organizations 120/208 V or 240/415 V, i.e. the lower or
upper extremes of the most common 3-phase
generally propose a HV service at levels in general use, or at some intermediate
load levels for which their LV level, as shown in table D1.
networks are marginally adequate. An international voltage standard for 3-phase
An international voltage standard for 4-wire LV systems is recommended by the
IEC to be 230/400 V.*
3-phase 4-wire LV systems is
recommended by the IEC to be country frequency domestic commercial industrial low-voltage
& tolerance tolerance
230/400 V.* Hz & % %
Australia 50 ± 0.1 240/415 (A) (E) 240/415 (A) 22 kV ±6
240 (L) 250/440 (A) 11 kV
440 (N) (6) 6.6 kV
240/415 (A)
250/440 (A)
the adjoining table is extracted from Western 50 250/440 (A) (9) (9) ± 6 (10)
the document "World Electricity Algeria 50 ± 1.5 127/220 (E) 220/380 (A) 10 kV + 5 and + 10
220 (L) (1) 127/220 (A) 5.5 kV
Supplies", fourth edition. 6.6 kV
220/380 (A)
Argentina 50 ± 1.0 225 (L) (1) 225/390 (A) 13.2 kV
220 (L) (1) 220/380 (A) 6.88 kV
220 (L) 225/390 (A)
220/380 (A) ± 10
Brazil 60 220 (L) (1) 220/380 (A) 13.8 kV (9)
127 (L) (1) 127/220 (A) 11.2 kV
220/380 (A)
127/220 (A)
Belgium 50 ± 3 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 15 kV + 5 (day)
127/220 (A) 127/220 (A) 6 kV ± 10 (night)
220 (F) 220 (F) 220/380 (A)
127/220 (A)
220 (F)
Bolivia 50 ± 1 115/230 (H) 115/230 (H) 115/230 (H) (3) ±5
Cambodia 50 120/208 (A) 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) (3) (9)
120 (L) 120/208 (A) 120/208 (A)
Canada 60 ± 0.02 120/240 (K) 347/600 (A) 7.2/12.5 kV ±4
480 (F) 347/600 (A) - 8.3
240 (F) 120/208
120/240 (K) 600 (F)
120/208 (A) 480 (F)
240 (F)
Chile 50 220 (L) (1) 220/380 (A) (1) 220/380 (A) (3) (9)
China 50 220 (L) (1) 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) (3) ±7
Colombia 60 ± 1 120/240 (G) 120/240 (G) 13.2 kV ± 10
120 (L) 120 (L) 120/240 (G)
Costa Rica 60 120 (L) (1) 120/240 (K) 120/240 (G) (3) (9)
120 (L) (1)
Czechoslovakia 50 ± 0.1 230/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 22 kV ± 10
220 (L) 220 (L) 15 kV
6 kV
3 kV
220/380 (A)
Denmark 50 ± 0.4 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 30 kV ± 10
220 (L) 220 (L) 10 kV
220/380 (A)
Egypt (AR) 50 ± 1 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 11 kV + 10
220 (L) 220 (L) 6.6 kV
220/380 (A)
Finland 50 ± 0.1 220 (L) (1) 220/380 (A) 380/660 (A) ± 10
500 (B)
220/380 (A) (D)
France 50 ± 1 230/400 (A) 230/400 (A) ± 10
220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 20 kV
220 (L) 220/380 (D) 15 kV
230/400
127/220 (E) 380 (B) 380 (B)
127 (L) 220/380 (A) (D)
Germany 50 ± 0.3 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 20 kV ± 10
Ex-DRG 220 (L) 220 (L) 10 kV
220/380 (A)

Ex-FRG 50 ± 0.3 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 10 kV ±5

220 (L) 220 (L) 6 kV
127/220 (A) 380/660 (A)
127 (L) 220/380 (A)
Greece 50 ± 1 220 (L) (1) 6.6 kV 22 kV ±5
220/380 (A) 20 kV
table D1: survey of electricity supplies in 15 kV
various countries around the world. 6.6 kV
Bracketed letters relate to the circuit 220/380 (A)
Hong Kong 50 ± 2 200/346 (A) 11 kV 11 kV ±6
diagrams at the end of the table, while (and Kowloon) 200 (L) (1) 200/346 (A) 200/346 (A)
bracketed numbers refer to the notes 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) (3)
which follow the diagrams. 200 (L)

* IEC 38 (1983).

low-voltage service connections - D1

 1. low-voltage public distribution networks (continued)

D
1.1 low-voltage consumers (continued)
country frequency domestic commercial industrial low-voltage
& tolerance tolerance
Hz & % %
Hungary 50 ± 2 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 20 kV + 5 - 10
220 (L) 220 (L)
10 kV
220/380 (A)
Iceland 50 ± 0.1 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) (3) (9)
220 (L) 220 (L)
India (4)
Bombay 50 ± 1 250/440 (A) 250/440 (A) 11 kW +4
230 (L) 230 (L) 250/440 (A)

New Delhi 50 ± 3 230/400 (A) 230/400 (A) 11 kV +6

230 (L) 230 (L) 230/400 (A)

Roma- 50 ± 3 230/400 (A) 220/400 (A) 22 kV and 11 kV +6

krishnapuram (2) 25 230 (L) 230 (L) (9)
d.c. 230/460 (P) 230/460 (P) (9)
Indonesia 50 ± 1 127/220 (A) 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) (3) +5
-2 127/220 (A)
Iran 50 ± 5 220 (L) (1) 220/380 (A) 20 kV + 15
11 kV
231/400 (A)
220/380 (A)
Iraq 50 220 (L) (1) 220/380 (A) 11 kV +5
6.6 kV
3 kV
220/380 (A)
Ireland (Northern) 50 ± 0.4 230 (L) (1) 230/400 (A) 230/400 (A) (3) +6
220 (L) (1) 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A)

Ireland 50 220 (L) (1) 220/380 (A) 10 kV (9)

(Republic of) 220/380 (A)
Israel 50 ± 0.2 230/400 (A) 230/400 (A) 22 kV +6
230 (L) 230 (L) 12.6 kV
6.3 kV
230/400 (A)
Italy 50 ± 0.4 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 20 kV ± 5 (urban)
127/220 (E) 127/220 (E) 15 kV ± 10 (rural)
220 (L) 10 kV
220/380 (A)
220 (C)
Japan (East) (4) 50 ± 0.2 100/200 (K) 100/200 (H) (K) 6.6 kV ± 10
(5) 100 (L) 100/200 (H)
200 (G) (J)

Japan (West) (4) 60 ± 0.1 105/210 (K) 105/210 (H) (K) 22 kV ± 10

(5) 100/200 (K) 100/200 (K) 6.6 kV
100 (L) 100 (L) 105/210 (H)
100/200 (H)
Korea (North) 60 + 0 220 (L) 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) + 6.8
-5 - 13.6 (10)

Korea (South) 60 100 (L) 100/200 (K) (9) (9)

Kuwait 50 240 (L) (1) 240/415 (A) 240/415 (A) (3) (9)
Luxembourg 50 ± 0.5 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 20 kV ± 5 and ± 10
127/220 (A) 127/220 (A) 15 kV
120/208 (A) 120/208 (A) 5 kV
Malaysia 50 ± 1.0 240 (L) (1) 240/415 (A) 240/415 (A) (3) +5
- 10
Mexico 60 ± 0.2 127/220 (A) 127/220 (A) 13.8 kV ±6
220 (L) 220 (L) 13.2 kV
120 (M) 120 (M) 277/480 (A)
127/220 (B)
Morocco 50 127/220 (A) 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) (3) (9)
115/200 (A)
Netherlands 50 ± 0.4 220/300 (A) 220/380 (A) 10 kV ±6
220 (E) (L) 3 kV
220/380 (A)
New Zealand 50 ± 1.5 230/400 (A) (E) 240/415 (A) (E) 11 kV ±5
230 (L) 230/400 (A) (E) 230/400 (A)
240 (L) 230 (L) 240/415 (A)
240 (L) 440 (N) (6)
Nigeria 50 ± 1 230 (L) (1) 230/400 (A) 15 kV ±5
220 (L) (1) 220/380 (A) 11 kV
230/400 (A)
220/380 (A)
Norway 50 ± 0.2 230 (B) 220/380 (A) 20 kV ± 10
230 (B) 10 kV
5 kV
220/380 (A)
230 (B)
Pakistan 50 230 (L) (1) 230/400 (A) 230/400 (A) (3) (9)
230 (L)
Philippines 60 ± 0.16 110/220 (K) 13.8 kV 13.8 kV ±5
4.16 kV 4.16 kV
2.4 kV 2.4 kV
110/220 (H) 440 V (B)
110/220 (H)
table D1: survey of electricity supplies in Manila 60 ± 5 240/120 (H) (K) 240/120 (H) (K) 20 kV ±5
various countries around the world. 240/120 (H) 240/120 (H) 6.24 kV
3.6 kV
Bracketed letters relate to the circuit 240/120 (H)
diagrams at the end of the table, while Peru 60 225 (B) (M) 225 (B) (M) 10 kV (9)
bracketed numbers refer to the notes 6 kV
which follow the diagrams (continued). 225 (B)

D2 - low-voltage service connections

 D
1.1 low-voltage consumers (continued)
country frequency domestic commercial industrial low-voltage
& tolerance tolerance
Hz & % %
Poland 50 ± 1 220 (L) (1) 220/380 (A) 15 kV ±5
6 kV
220/380 (A)
Portugal 50 ± 1 220/380 (A) 15 kV 15 kV ±5
220 (L) 5 kV 5 kV
220/380 (A) 220/380 (A)
220 (L)
Rumania 50 ± 1 220 (L) (1) 220/380 (L) 20 kV ±5
10 kV
6 kV
220/380 (A)
Saudi Arabia 60 ± 0.5 127/220 (A) 127/220 (A) 13.8 kV ±5
220/380 (A) 220/380 (A)
Singapore 50 ± 0.5 230/400 (A) 6.6 kV 22 kV ±3
230 (L) 230/400 (A) 6.6 kV
230/400 (A)
Spain 50 ± 3 220/380 (A) (E) 220/380 (A) 15 kV ±7
220 (L) 127/220 (A) 11 kV
127/220 (A) (E) 220/380 (A)
127 (L)
South Africa 50 ± 2.5 250/433 (A) (7) 11 kV 11 kV ±5
25 (8) 230/400 (A) (7) 6.6 kV 6.6 kV
220/380 (A) 3.3 kV 3.3 kV
220 (L) 250/433 (A) (7) 500 (B)
230/400 (A) (7) 220/380 (A)
220/380 (A)
Sweden 50 ± 0.2 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 20 kV ± 10
220 (L) 220 (L) 10 kV
6 kV
220/380 (A)
Syria 50 220 (L) (1) 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) (3) (9)
115 (L) (1) 220 (L) 115/200 (A)
115/200 (A)
115 (L)
Taiwan 60 ± 4 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 22.8 kV ± 5 and ± 10
220 (L) 110/220 (H) 11.4 kV
110/220 (K) 220/380 (A)
110 (L) 220 (H)
Tunisia 50 + 2 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 15 kV + 10
220 (L) 220 (L) 10 kV
220/380 (A)
Turkey 50 ± 2 220 (L) (1) 220/380 (A) 15 kV ± 10
6.3 kV
220/380 (A)
United Kingdom 50 ± 1 240 (L) (1) 240/415 (A) 22 kV ±6
11 kV
6.6 kV
3.3 kV
240/415 (A)
U.S.A. (4)
Charlotte 60 ± 0.06 120/240 (K) 265/460 (A) 14.4 kV + 5 - 2.5
(North Carolina) 120/208 (A) 120/240 (K) 7.2 kV
120/208 (A) 2.4 kV
575 (F)
460 (F)
240 (F)
265/460 (A)
120/240 (K)
120/208 (A)

Detroit 60 ± 0.2 120/240 (K) 480 (F) 13.2 kV + 4 - 6.6

(Michigan) 120/208 (A) 120/240 (H) 4.8 kV
120/208 (A) 4.16 kV
480 (F)
120/240 (H)
120/208 (A)

Los Angeles 60 ± 0.2 120/240 (K) 4.8 kV 4.8 kV ±5

(California) 120/240 (G) 120/240 (G)

Miami 60 ± 0.3 120/240 (K) 120/240 (K) 13.2 kV ±5

(Florida) 120/208 (A) 120/240 (H) 2.4 kV
120/208 (A) 480/277 (A)
120/240 (H)

New York 60 120/240 (K) 120/240 (K) 12.47 kV (9)

(New York) 120/208 (A) 120/208 (A) 4.16 kV
240 (F) 277/480 (A)
480 (F)

Pittsburgh 60 ± 0.03 120/240 (K) 265/460 (A) 13.2 kV ± 5 (lighting)

(Pennsylvania) 120/240 (K) 11.5 kV ± 10 (power)
120/208 (A) 2.4 kV
460 (F) 265/460 (A)
230 (F) 120/208 (A)
460 (F)
230 (F)

table D1: survey of electricity supplies in Portland 60 120/240 (K) 227/480 (A) 19.9 kV (9)
(Oregon) 120/240 (K) 12 kV
various countries around the world. 120/208 (A) 7.2 kV
Bracketed letters relate to the circuit 480 (F) 2.4 kV
240 (F) 277/480 (A)
diagrams at the end of the table, while 120/208 (A)
bracketed numbers refer to the notes 480 (F)
which follow the diagrams (continued). 240 (F)

low-voltage service connections - D3

 1. low-voltage public distribution networks (continued)

D
1.1 low-voltage consumers (continued)
country frequency domestic commercial industrial low-voltage
& tolerance tolerance
Hz & % %
San Francisco 60 ± 0.08 120/240 (K) 277/480 (A) 20.8 kV ±5
(California) 120/240 (K) 12 kV
4.16 kV
277/480 (A)
120/240 (G)

Toledo 60 ± 0.08 120/240 (K) 277/480 (C) 12.47 kV ±5

(Ohio) 120/208 (A) 120/240 (H) 7.2 kV
120/208 (K) 4.8 kV
4.16 kV
480 (F)
277/480 (A)
120/208 (A)
USSR (former) 50 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) (3) (9)
220 (L) 220 (L)
127/220 (A)
127 (L)
Viet-Nam 50 ± 0.1 220 (L) (1) 220/380 (A) 15 kV ± 10
120 (L) (1) 120/208 (A) 220/380 (A)
Yugoslavia 50 220/380 (A) 220/380 (A) 10 kV (9)
220 (L) 220 (L) 6.6 kV
220/380 (A)
table D1: survey of electricity supplies in various countries around the world.
Bracketed letters relate to the circuit diagrams at the end of the table, while bracketed
numbers refer to the notes which follow the diagrams.

D4 - low-voltage service connections

 D
circuit diagrams*

(a) three-phase star; (b) three-phase star: (c) three-phase star;

four-wire: three-wire three-wire:
earthed neutral earthed neutral

(d) three-phase star; (e) two-phase star; (f) three-phase delta:

four-wire: three-wire: three-wire
non-earthed neutral earthed neutral

(g) three-phase delta; (h) three-phase open delta; (j) three-phase open delta:
four-wire: four-wire: earthed junction of phases
earthed mid point of one phase earthed mid point of one phase

(k) single-phase; (l) single-phase; (m) single-phase;

three-wire: two-wire: two-wire:
earthed mid point earthed end of phase unearthed

V kV

(n) single-wire: (p) d.c.:

earthed return (swer) three-wire: unearthed
* Windings (A) (B) (C) (D) and (F) may be transformer-secondary windings or alternator stator windings.

Notes (5) Frequency is 50 Hz (eastern area) and

(1) The supply to each house is normally
single-phase using one line and one neutral
conductor of systems (A) or (G).
(2) Frequencies below 50 Hz and d.c.
supplies are used in limited areas only. The
examples given show the diversity of
possibilities existing.
(3) Information on higher voltage supplies
to factories is not available.
(4) More than one area of country is given
to illustrate the differences which exist.
60 Hz (western area). The dividing line from
north to south passes through Shizuoka on
Honshu Island.
(6) Some remote areas are supplied via a
Single Wire Earthed Return (SWER) system.
(7) A few towns only have this supply.
(8) Refers to isolated mining districts.
(9) Information not available.
(10) Observed values.

low-voltage service connections - D5

 1. low-voltage public distribution networks (continued)

D
1.1 low-voltage consumers (continued)
residential and commercial These constraints mean that the magnitude
consumers of loads which power-supply organizations
The function of a LV "mains" distributor are willing to connect to their LV distribution
(underground cable or overhead line) is to mains, is necessarily restricted.
provide service connections to a number of For the range of LV systems mentioned in the
consumers along its route. second paragraph of this sub-clause (1.1) viz:
The current-rating requirements of 120 V single phase to 240/415 V 3-phase,
distributors are estimated from the number of typical maximum permitted loads connected
consumers to be connected and an average to a LV distributor might* be:
demand per consumer.
The two principal limiting parameters of a
distributor are:
c the maximum current which it is capable of
carrying indefinitely, and
c the maximum length of cable which, when
carrying its maximum current, will not exceed
the statutory voltage-drop limit.

system assumed max. permitted current kVA

per consumer service
120 V 1-phase 2-wire 60 A 7.2
120/240 V 1-phase 3-wire 60 A 14.4
120/208 V 3-phase 4-wire 60 A 22
220/380 V 3-phase 4-wire 120 A 80
230/400 V 3-phase 4-wire 120 A 83
240/415 V 3-phase 4-wire 120 A 86
table D2.
* The table D2 values shown are indicative only, being (arbitrarily) based on 60 A maximum service currents for the first three
systems, since smaller voltage drops are allowed at these lower voltages, for a given percentage statutory limit.
The second group of systems is (again, arbitrarily) based on a maximum permitted service current of 120 A.

Practices vary considerably from one power- In short, each case must be examined
supply organization to another, and no individually.
"standardized" values can be given. The load levels listed above are adequate for
Factors to be considered include: all normal domestic consumers, and will be
c the size of an existing distributor to which sufficient for the installations of many
the new load is to be connected, administrative, commercial and similar
c the total load already connected to the buildings.
distributor,
c the location along the distributor of the
proposed new load, i.e. close to the
substation, or near the remote end of the
distributor, etc.

medium-size and small industrial For these reasons, dedicated supply lines at
consumers (with dedicated LV LV are generally applied (at 220/380 V to
lines direct from a public-supply 240/415 V) to a load range of 80 kVA to
HV/LV substation) 250 kVA.
Consumers normally supplied at low voltage
Medium and small industrial consumers can include:
also be satisfactorily supplied at low-voltage. c domestic dwellings,
For loads which exceed the maximum c shops and commercial buildings,
permitted limit for a service from a distributor, c small factories, workshops and filling
a dedicated cable can usually be provided stations,
from the LV distribution fuse- (or switch-) c restaurants,
board from which the mains distributors c farms, etc.
emanate, in the power-supply authority
substation.
In principle, the upper load limit which can be
supplied by this means is restricted only by
the available spare transformer capacity in
the substation.
In practice, however:
c large loads (e.g. > 300 kVA) require
correspondingly large cables, so that, unless
the load centre is close to the substation,
this method can be economically
unfavourable,
c many power-supply organizations prefer to
supply loads exceeding 200 kVA (this figure
varies with different suppliers) at high voltage.

D6 - low-voltage service connections


1.2. LV distribution networks
in cities and large towns, standard-
sized LV distribution cables form a
network through link boxes. Some
links are removed, so that each
(fused) distributor leaving a
substation forms a branched open-
ended radial system, as shown in
figure D3.
In European countries the standard
3-phase 4-wire distribution voltage levels are
220/380 V, 230/400 V, or 240/415 V. Many
countries are currently converting their LV
systems to the latest IEC standard of
230/400 V nominal (IEC 38-1983). The target
date for completion is the year 2003. Medium
to large-sized towns and cities have
underground cable distribution systems.
HV/LV distribution substations, mutually
spaced at approximately 500-600 metres, are
typically equipped with:
c a 3-or 4-way HV switchboard, often made
up of incoming and outgoing load-break
switches forming part of a ring main, and one
or two HV circuit breakers or combined fuse/
load-break switches for the transformer
circuits,
c one or two 1.000 kVA HV/LV transformers,
c one or two (coupled) 6-or 8-way LV
3-phase 4-wire distribution fuse boards, or
moulded-case circuit breaker boards, control
and protect outgoing 4-core distribution
cables, generally referred to as “distributors".
The output from a transformer is connected
to the LV busbars via a load-break switch, or
simply through isolating links.
HV/LV
substation
service
cable
fig. D3: showing one of several ways in which a LV distribution network may be arranged
for radial branched-distributor operation, by removing (phase) links.
D
In densely-loaded areas, a standard size of
distributor is laid to form a network, with
(generally) one cable along each pavement
and 4-way link boxes located in manholes at
street corners, where two cables cross.
Recent trends are towards weather-proof
cabinets above ground level, either against a
wall, or where possible, flush-mounted in the
wall.
Links are inserted in such a way that
distributors form radial circuits from the
substation with open-ended branches (see
figure D3). Where a link box unites a
distributor from one substation with that from
a neighbouring substation, the phase links
are omitted or replaced by fuses, but the
neutral link remains in place.
This arrangement provides a very flexible
system in which a complete substation can
be taken out of service, while the area
normally supplied from it is fed from link
boxes of the surrounding substations.
Moreover, short lengths of distributor
(between two link boxes) can be isolated for
fault-location and repair.
4-way
link box
phase links
removed
low-voltage service connections - D7
 1. low-voltage public distribution networks (continued)
D
1.2 LV distribution networks (continued)
in less-densely loaded urban areas a
more-economic system of tapered
radial distribution is commonly used,
in which conductors of reduced size
are installed as the distance from a
substation increases.
improved methods using insulated
twisted conductors to form a pole-
mounted aerial cable are now
standard practice in many countries.
in Europe, each public-supply
distribution substation is able to
supply at LV an area corresponding
to a radius of approximately
300 metres from the substation.
North and Central American systems
of distribution consist of a HV
network from which numerous
(small) HV/LV transformers each
supply one or several consumers, by
direct service cable (or line) from the
transformer location.
D8 - low-voltage service connections
Where the load density requires it, the
substations are more closely spaced, and
transformers up to 1.500 kVA are sometimes
necessary.
Other forms of urban LV network, based on
free-standing LV distribution pillars, placed
above ground at strategic points in the
network, are widely used in areas of lower
load density. This scheme exploits the
principle of tapered radial distributors in which
the distribution cable conductor size is
reduced as the number of consumers
downstream diminish with distance from the
substation.
In this scheme a number of large-sectioned
LV radial feeders from the distribution board
in the substation each supply the busbars of
a distribution pillar, from which smaller
distributors supply consumers immediately
surrounding the pillar.
Distribution in market towns, villages and
rural areas generally has, for many years,
been based on bare copper conductors
supported on wooden, concrete or steel
poles, and supplied from pole-mounted or
ground-mounted transformers.
In recent years, LV insulated conductors,
twisted to form a two-core or 4-core self-
supporting cable for overhead use, have
been developed, and are considered to be
safer and visually more acceptable than bare
copper lines.
This is particularly so when the conductors
are fixed to walls (e.g. under-eaves wiring)
where they are hardly noticeable.
As a matter of interest, similar principles have
been applied at higher voltages, and self-
supporting “bundled” insulated conductors for
HV overhead installations are now available
for operation at 24 kV.
Where more than one substation supplies a
village, arrangements are made at poles on
which the LV lines from different substations
meet, to interconnect corresponding phases
at times of emergency. The neutral
conductors are permanently connected.
In Europe, each public-supply distribution
substation is able to supply at LV an area
corresponding to a radius of approximately
300 metres from the substation.
North and Central American practice differs
fundamentally from that in Europe, in that LV
networks are practically nonexistent, and
3-phase supplies to domestic premises in
residential areas are rare.
The distribution is effectively carried out at
high voltage in a way, which again differs
from standard European practices. The HV
system is, in fact, a 3-phase 4-wire system
from which single-phase distributors (phase
and neutral conductors) supply numerous
single-phase transformers, the secondary
windings of which are centre-tapped to
produce 120/240 V single-phase 3-wire
supplies. The central conductors provide the
LV neutrals, which, together with the HV
neutral conductors, are solidly earthed at
intervals along their lengths.
Each HV/LV transformer normally supplies
one or several premises directly from the
transformer position by radial service cable(s)
or by overhead line(s).
 D
Many other systems exist in these countries,
but the one described appears to be the most
common.
Figure D4 shows the main features of the two
systems.
for primary voltages > 72.5 kV
(see note)
primary winding may be :
– delta
13.8 kV / 2.4-4.16 kV
– earthed star
– earthed zigzag }with on-load
tap changer
N depending on the country concerned
each HV/LV transformer shown
1 2 3 represents many similar units
tertiary delta
2 normally (not always)
3 used if the primary
winding is not delta
N
1 ph
2.4 kV / 120-240 V
1 ph - 3 wire
distribution
transformer HV (1)
HV / 230 V
service transformer
to isolated consumer(s)
(rural supplies)
}
Ph N
N
1 1
resistor replaced
N HV (2) by a Petersen coil
on O/H line systems
in some countries

N
2 2
N

3 ph
HV / 230/400 V
4-wire distribution
transformer
1 2 3 N N
main 3 ph and neutral
HV distributor N 1 2 3
LV distribution network

(1): 132 kV for example

(2): 11 kV for example
fig. D4: widely-used American and European-type systems.
Note: at primary voltages greater than
72.5 kV in bulk-supply substations, it is
common practice in some European
countries to use an earthed-star primary
winding and a delta secondary winding. The
neutral point on the secondary side is then
provided by a zigzag earthing reactor, the star
point of which is connected to earth through a
resistor.
Frequently, the earthing reactor has a
secondary winding to provide LV 3-phase
supplies for the substation. It is then referred
to as an “earthing transformer”.

low-voltage service connections - D9

 1. low-voltage public distribution networks (continued)

D
1.3 the consumer-service connection
service components and metering
equipment were formerly installed
inside a consumer's building. The
modern tendency is to locate these
items outside in a weatherproof
cabinet.
In the past, an underground cable service or
the wall-mounted insulated conductors from
an overhead line service, invariably
terminated inside the consumer's premises,
where the cable-end sealing box, the supply-
authority fuses (inaccessible to the
consumer) and meters were installed.
A more recent trend is (as far as possible) to
locate these service components in a
weatherproof housing outside the building.
The supply-authority/consumer interface is
often at the outgoing terminals of the meter(s)
or, in some cases, at the outgoing terminals
of the installation main circuit breaker
(depending on local practices) to which
connection is made by supply-authority
personnel, following a satisfactory test and
inspection of the installation.
A typical arrangement is shown in figure D5.

fig. D5: typical service arrangement for TT-earthed systems.

A = Service cable tee-joint
F = Supply authority fuses
C = Metering equipment
S = Isolating link
DB = Installation main circuit breaker

LV consumers are normally supplied
according to the TN or TT system, as
described in chapters F and G. The
installation main circuit breaker for a
TT supply must include a residual-
current earth-leakage protective
device. For a TN service, overcurrent
protection by circuit breaker or
switch-fuse is required.
A MCCB which incorporates a sensitive
residual-current earth-fault protective feature
is mandatory at the origin of any LV
installation forming part of a TT earthing
system. The reason for this feature and
related leakage-current tripping levels are
discussed in Clause 3 of Chapter G.
A further reason for this MCCB is that the
consumer cannot exceed his (contractual)
declared maximum load, since the overload
trip setting, which is sealed by the supply
authority, will cut off supply above the
declared value. Closing and tripping of the
MCCB is freely available to the consumer, so
that if the MCCB is inadvertently tripped on
overload, or due to an appliance fault,
supplies can be quickly restored following
correction of the anomaly.
In view of the inconvenience to both the
meter reader and consumer, the location of
meters is nowadays generally outside the
premises, either:
c in a free-standing pillar-type housing as
shown in figures D6 and D7,
c in a space inside a building, but with cable
termination and supply authority’s fuses
located in a flush-mounted weatherproof
cabinet accessible from the public way, as
shown in figure D8.

D10 - low-voltage service connections

 D

fig. D6: typical rural-type installation.

In this kind of installation it is often necessary
to place the main installation circuit breaker
some distance from the point of utilization,
e.g. saw-mills, pumping stations, etc.

fig. D7: semi-urban installations (shopping precincts, etc.).

The main installation CB is located in the
consumer's premises in cases where it is set
to trip if the declared kVA load demand is
exceeded.

fig. D8: town centre installations.

The service cable terminates in a flush-
mounted wall cabinet which contains the
isolating fuse links, accessible from the public
way. This method is preferred for esthetic
reasons, when the consumer can provide a
suitable metering and main-switch location.

low-voltage service connections - D11

 1. low-voltage public distribution networks (continued)

D
1.3 the consumer-service connection (continued)
c for private domestic consumers, the
equipment shown in the cabinet in figure D5
is installed in a weatherproof cabinet
mounted vertically on a metal frame in the
front garden, or flush-mounted in the
boundary wall, and accessible to authorized
personnel from the pavement. Figure D9
shows the general arrangement, in which
removable fuse links provide the means of
isolation.
Experiments are now well-advanced in the
field of electronic metering; reading, and
recording on magnetic cards is now possible,
using information technology (IT) techniques,
and it is confidently predicted that, in addition
to remote reading and recording, the
modification of tariff structures for a given
meter will be possible from a central control
location, in areas where it is economically
justified.

supply authority/
consumer interface
overhead line LV distributor
service cable

isolation by fuse links installation

meter
main
installation
circuit
meter cabinet breaker

fig. D9: typical LV service arrangement for domestic consumers.

D12 - low-voltage service connections


1.4 quality of supply voltage
an adequate level of voltage at the
consumers supply-service terminals
is essential for satisfactory operation
of equipment and appliances.
Practical values of current, and
resulting voltage drops in a typical LV
system, show the importance of
maintaining a high Power Factor as a
means of reducing voltage drop.
The quality of the LV network supply voltage
in its widest sense implies:
c compliance with statutory limits of
magnitude and frequency,
c freedom from continual fluctuation within
those limits,
c uninterrupted power supply, except for
scheduled maintenance shutdowns, or as a
result of system faults or other emergencies,
c preservation of a near-sinusoidal wave
form.
In this Sub-clause the maintenance of
voltage magnitude only will be discussed,
the remaining subjects are covered in
Clause 2 of chapter F.
In most countries, power-supply authorities
have a statutory obligation to maintain the
level of voltage at the service position of
consumers within the limits of ± 5% (or in
some cases ± 6% or more-see table D1) of
the declared nominal value.
Again, IEC and most national standards
recommend that LV appliances be designed
and tested to perform satisfactorily within the
limits of ± 10% of nominal voltage. This
leaves a margin, under the worst conditions
(of minus 5% at the service position, for
example) of 5% allowable voltage drop in
the installation wiring.
The voltage drops in a typical distribution
system occur as follows:
the voltage at the HV terminals of a HV/LV
transformer is normally maintained within a
± 2% band by the action of automatic on-
load tapchangers of the transformers at
bulk-supply substations, which feed the HV
network from a higher-voltage sub-
transmission system.
If the HV/LV transformer is in a location
close to a bulk-supply substation, the ± 2%
voltage band may be centred on a voltage
level which is higher than the nominal HV
value. For example, the voltage could be
20.5 kV
± 2% on a 20 kV system. In this case, the
HV/LV distribution transformer should have
its HV off-circuit tapping switch selected to
the
+ 2.5% tap position.
Conversely, at locations remote from bulk-
supply substations a value of 19.5 kV ± 2%
is possible, in which case the off-circuit
tapping switch should be selected to the
- 5% position.
The different levels of voltage in a system are
normal, and depend on the system power-
flow pattern. Moreover, these voltage
differences are the reason for the term
“nominal” when referring to the system
voltage.
practical application
With the HV/LV transformer correctly
selected at its off-circuit tapping switch, an
unloaded transformer output voltage will be
held within a band of
± 2% of its no-load voltage output.
To ensure that the transformer can maintain
the necessary voltage level when fully
loaded, the output voltage at no-load must
be as high as possible without exceeding
the upper + 5% limit (adopted for this
example).
In present-day practice, the winding ratios
generally give an output voltage of about
D
104% at no-load*, when nominal voltage is
applied at HV, or is corrected by the tapping
switch, as described above. This would
result in a voltage band of 102% to 106% in
the present case.
A typical LV distribution transformer has a
short-circuit reactance voltage of 5%. If it is
assumed that its resistance voltage is one
tenth of this value, then the voltage drop
within the transformer when supplying full
load at 0.8 power factor lagging, will be:
V% drop = R% cos ø + X% sin ø
= 0.5 x 0.8 + 5 x 0.6
= 0.4 + 3 = 3.4%
The voltage band at the output terminals of
the fully-loaded transformer will therefore be
(102 - 3.4) = 98.6% to (106 - 3.4) = 102.6%.
The maximum allowable voltage drop along
a distributor is therefore 98.6 - 95 = 3.6%.
This means, in practical terms, that a
medium-sized 230/400 V 3-phase 4-wire
distribution cable of 240 mm2 copper
conductors would be able to supply a total
load of 292 kVA at 0.8 PF lagging,
distributed evenly over 306 metres of the
distributor. Alternatively, the same load at the
premises of a single consumer could be
supplied at a distance of 153 metres from
the transformer, for the same volt-drop, and
so on...
As a matter of interest, the maximum rating
of the cable, based on calculations derived
from IEC 287 (1982) is 290 kVA, and so the
3.6% voltage margin is not unduly restrictive,
i.e. the cable can be fully loaded for
distances normally required in LV distribution
systems.
Furthermore, 0.8 PF lagging is appropriate
to industrial loads. In mixed semi-industrial
areas 0.85 is a more common value, while
0.9 is generally used for calculations
concerning residential areas, so that the
volt-drop noted above may be considered as
a “worst case” example.
* Transformers designed for the 230/400 V IEC standard
will have a no-load output of 420 V, i.e. 105% of the
nominal voltage.
low-voltage service connections - D13
 2. tariffs and metering

D
tariffs and metering
No attempt will be made in this guide to
discuss particular tariffs, since there appears
to be as many different tariff structures
around the world as there are distribution
authorities.
Some tariffs are very complicated in detail but
certain elements are basic to all of them and
are aimed at encouraging consumers to
manage their power consumption in a way
which reduces the cost to the supply authority
of generation, transmission and distribution.
The two predominant ways in which the cost
of supplying power to consumers can be
reduced, are:
c reduction of power losses in the generation,
transmission and distribution of electrical
energy. In principle the lowest losses in a
power system are attained when all parts of
the system operate at unity power factor,
c reduction of the peak power demand, while
increasing the demand at low-load periods,
thereby exploiting the generating plant more
fully, and minimizing plant redundancy.
meters
It will be appreciated that high-quality
instruments and devices are necessary to
implement this kind of metering, when using
classical electro-mechanical equipment.
Recent developments in electronic metering
and micro-processors, together with remote
ripple-control* from a supply-authority control
centre (to change peak-period timing
throughout the year, etc.) are now
operational, and facilitate considerably the
application of the principles discussed.
* Ripple control is a system of signalling in which a voice-
frequency current (commonly at 175 Hz) is injected into the
LV mains at appropriate substations. The signal is injected
as coded impulses, and relays which are tuned to the signal
frequency and which recognize the particular code will
operate to initiate a required function. In this way, up to 960
discrete control signals are available.

reduction of losses
Although the ideal condition noted in the first
possibility mentioned above cannot be
realized in practice, many tariff structures are
based partly on kVA demand, as well as on
kWh consumed.
Since, for a given kW loading, the minimum
value of kVA occurs at unity power factor, the
consumer can minimize billing costs by taking
steps to improve the power factor of the load
(as discussed in Chapter E).
The kVA demand generally used for tariff
purposes is the maximum average kVA
demand occurring during each billing period,
and is based on average kVA demands, over
fixed periods (generally 10, 30 or 60 minute
periods) and selecting the highest of these
values.
The principle is described below in "principle
of kVA maximum-demand metering".

reduction of peak power demand

The second aim, i.e. that of reducing peak
power demands, while increasing demand at
low-load periods, has resulted in tariffs which
offer substantial reduction in the cost of
energy at:
c certain hours during the 24-hour day,
c certain periods of the year.
The simplest example is that of a domestic
consumer with a storage-type water heater
(or storage-type space heater, etc.). The
meter has two digital registers, one of which
operates during the day and the other
(switched over by a timing device) operates
during the night.
A contactor, operated by the same timing
device, closes the circuit of the water heater,
the consumption of which is then indicated on
the register to which the cheaper rate applies.
The heater can be switched on and off at any
time during the day if required, but will then
be metered at the normal rate.
Large industrial consumers may have 3 or 4
rates which apply at different periods during a
24-hour interval, and a similar number for
different periods of the year.
In such schemes the ratio of cost per kWh
during a period of peak demand for the year,
and that for the lowest-load period of the
year, may be as much as 10: 1.

D14 - low-voltage service connections

 D
In most countries, certain tariffs, as noted registered for succeeding periods during the
above, are partly based on kVA demand, in billing interval.
addition to the kWh consumption, during the Figure D10 shows a typical kVA demand
billing periods (often 3-monthly intervals). curve over a period of two hours divided into
The maximum demand registered by the succeeding periods of 10 minutes. The meter
meter to be described, is, in fact, a maximum measures the average value of kVA during
(i.e. the highest) average kVA demand each of these 10 minute periods.
maximum average value
during the 2 hour interval
kVA
average values
for 10 minute
periods

0 1 time 2 hrs
fig. D10: maximum average value of kVA
over an interval of 2 hours.
principle of kVA maximum- At the end of the billing period, the red
demand metering indicator will be at the maximum of all the
A kVAh meter is similar in all essentials to a average values occurring in the billing period.
kWh meter but the current and voltage phase The red indicator will be reset to zero at the
relationship has been modified so that it beginning of each billing period.
effectively measures kVAh (kilo-volt-amp- Electro-mechanical meters of the kind
hours). described are rapidly being replaced by
Furthermore, instead of having a set of electronic instruments. The basic measuring
decade counter dials, as in the case of a principles on which these electronic meters
conventional kWh meter, this instrument has depend however, are the same as those
a rotating pointer. described above.
When the pointer turns it is measuring kVAh
and pushing a red indicator before it.
At the end of 10 minutes the pointer will have
moved part way round the dial (it is designed
so that it can never complete one revolution
in 10 minutes) and is then electrically reset to
the zero position, to start another 10 minute
period.
The red indicator remains at the position
reached by the measuring pointer, and that
position, corresponds to the number of kVAh
(kilo-volt-ampere-hours) taken by the load in
10 minutes.
Instead of the dial being marked in kilo-VA-
hours at that point however it can be marked
in units of average kVA.
The following figures will clarify the matter.
Supposing the point at which the red indicator
reached corresponds to 5 kVAh. It is known
that a varying amount of kVA of apparent
power has been flowing for 10 minutes, i.e.
1/6 hour.
If now, the 5 kVAh is divided by the number of
hours, then the average kVA for the period is
obtained.
In this case the average kVA for the period
will be:
1
5x = 5 x 6 = 30 kVA
1/6
Every point around the dial will be similarly
marked i.e. the figure for average kVA will be
6 times greater than the kVAh value at any
given point.
Similar reasoning can be applied to any other
reset-time interval.

low-voltage service connections - D15

1. power factor improvement
1.1 the nature of reactive energy
alternating current systems supply
two forms of energy:
c "active" energy measured in
kilowatt hours (kWh) which is
converted into mechanical work,
heat, light, etc.
c "reactive" energy, which again
takes two forms:
v "reactive" energy required by
inductive circuits (transformers,
motors, etc.),
v "reactive" energy required by
capacitive circuits (cable
capacitance, power capacitors, etc).
E
All inductive (i.e. electromagnetic) machines For these reasons, viz:
and devices that operate on a.c. systems c transmission power losses and
convert electrical energy from the power- c voltage drop.
system generators into mechanical work and The power-supply authorities reduce the
heat. This energy is measured by kWh amount of wattless (inductive) current as
meters, and is referred to as "active" or much as possible.
"wattful" energy. In order to perform this Wattless (capacitive) currents have the
conversion, magnetic fields have to be reverse effect on voltage levels and produce
established in the machines, and these fields voltage-rises in power systems.
are associated with another form of energy to The power (kW) associated with "active"
be supplied from the power system, known energy is usually represented by the letter P.
as "reactive" or "wattless" energy. The reactive power (kvar) is represented
The reason for this is that inductive plant by Q. Inductively-reactive power is
conventionally positive (+ Q) while
cyclically absorbs energy from the system
(during the build-up of the magnetic fields) capacitively-reactive power is shown as a
and re-injects that energy into the system negative quantity (- Q).
(during the collapse of the magnetic fields) Sub-clause 1.3 shows the relationship
twice in every power-frequency cycle. The between P, Q, and S.
effect on generator rotors is to (tend to) slow S represents kVA of "apparent" power.
them during one part of the cycle and to Figure E1 shows that the kVA of apparent
accelerate them during another part of the power is the vector sum of the kW of active
cycle. The pulsating torque is stricly true only power plus the kvar of reactive power.
for single-phase alternators. In three-phase
alternators the effect is mutually cancelled in S
the three phases, since, at any instant, the (kVA)
reactive energy supplied on one (or two)
phase(s) is equal to the reactive energy being
returned on the other two (or one) phase(s) of
a balanced system. The nett result is zero
average load on the generators, i.e. the Q P
reactive current is "wattless".
(kvar) (kW)
An exactly similar phenomenon occurs with
shunt capacitive elements in a power system,
such as cable capacitance or banks of power
capacitors, etc. In this case, energy is stored
electrostatically. The cyclic charging and
discharging of capacitive plant reacts on the
generators of the system in the same manner fig. E1: an electric motor requires active
as that described above for inductive plant, power P and reactive power Q from the
but the current flow to and from capacitive power system.
plant is in exact phase opposition to that of
the inductive plant.
This feature is the basis on which power-
factor improvement schemes depend.
It should be noted that while this "wattless"
current (more accurately, the wattless
component of a load current) does not draw
power from the system, it does cause power
losses in transmission and distribution
systems by heating the conductors.
In practical power systems, wattless
components of load currents are invariably
inductive, while the impedances of
transmission and distribution systems are
predominantly inductively reactive. The
combination of inductive current passing
through an inductive reactance produces the
worst possible conditions of voltage drop
(i.e. in direct phase opposition to the system
voltage).
power factor improvement - E1
 1. power factor improvement (continued)

E
1.2 plant and appliances requiring reactive current
All a.c. plant and appliances that include
items of plant which require reactive
electromagnetic devices, or depend on
energy. magnetically-coupled windings, require some
degree of reactive current to create magnetic
flux.
The most common items in this class are
transformers and reactors, motors and
discharge lamps (i.e. the ballasts of).
The proportion of reactive power (kvar) with
respect to active power (kW) when an item of
plant is fully loaded varies according to the
item concerned being:
c 65-75% for asynchronous motors,
c 5-10% for transformers.
The power factor at which a synchronous
motor operates may be changed, by
adjustment of the excitation current. These
machines can be made to operate at lagging
(underexcited) or leading (overexcited) power
factors. In the latter condition, a synchronous
motor is sometimes referred to as a
"synchronous condenser".
Before capacitor technology had developed
sufficiently to guarantee the high standard of
reliability of modern capacitors, synchronous
condensers were widely used on
transmission systems to provide reactive-
power compensation, for optimum
transmission-line performance under
changing load conditions.

fig. E2: power consuming items that also

require reactive energy.

1.3 the power factor

the power factor is the ratio of kW to
kVA. The closer the power factor
approaches its maximum possible
value of 1, the greater the benefit to
consumer and supplier.
PF = P (kW) ≈ cos ϕ
S (kVA)
P = active power
S = apparent power
definition of power factor
The power factor of a load, which may be a
single power-consuming item, or a number of
items (for example an entire installation), is
given by the ratio of P/S i.e. kW divided by
kVA at any given moment.
The value of a power factor will range from
0 to 1.
The power diagram of figure E3 shows that
the ratio mentioned above gives the cosine
value for the angular displacement between
the kW vector and the kVA vector.
Conventionally, this angle is given the
symbol ϕ, in which case power factor = cos ϕ.
The accuracy of this equivalence depends on
an absence of harmonic currents and
voltages on the system. It is generally
assumed that these effects are small, so that
cos ϕ and power factor are considered to be
exact equivalents, for all practical purposes.
A power factor close to unity means that the
reactive energy is small compared with the
active energy, while a low value of power
factor indicates the opposite condition.

E2 - power factor improvement

 E
power quantities kA, kVA and kvar power vector diagram ϕ P kW
are double-frequency functions and Active power P (in kW)
c single phase (1 phase and neutral):
cannot be represented on a simple P = VI cos ϕ
vector diagram. A static diagram for c single phase (phase to phase): Q S
these quantities (figure E3) can be P = UI cos ϕ
obtained, however, to provide a c three phase (3 wires or 3 wires + neutral):
P = e UI cos ϕ* kVA
visual representation, with the aid of kvar
the true vector diagram of current Reactive power Q (in kvar)
c single phase (1 phase and neutral): fig. E3: power diagram.
components and one phase-voltage Q = VI sin ϕ P: active power
(figure E4). Since, in the diagram, the c single phase (phase to phase): Q = UI sin ϕ Q: reactive power
power quantities have direction and c three phase (3 wires or 3 wires + neutral): S: apparent power
magnitude, they are referred to as Q = e UI sin ϕ*
"vectors" for convenience. Apparent power S (in kVA)
c single phase (1 phase and neutral): S = VI
c single phase (phase to phase): S = UI
c three phase (3 wires or 3 wires + neutral):
S = e UI*
where:
V: voltage between phase and neutral
U: voltage between phases
2 2
S= P +Q
* for balanced and near-balanced loads on
4-wire systems.

current and voltage vectors, and ϕ

derivation of the power diagram P = VI cos ϕ (kW) V
The power "vector" diagram is a useful
artifice, derived directly from the true rotating
vector diagram of currents and voltage, as
follows: S = VI (kVA)
The power-system voltages are taken as the
reference quantities, and one phase only is Q = VI sin ϕ (kvar)
considered on the assumption of balanced
3-phase loading. fig. E4: current and voltage vector
The reference phase voltage (V) is diagram per phase.
co-incident with the horizontal axis, and the
current (I) of that phase will, for practically all
power-system loads, lag the voltage by an
angle ϕ.
The component of I which is in phase with V
is the wattful component of I and is equal to
I cos ϕ, while VI cos ϕ equals the active
power (in kV) in the circuit, if V is expressed
in kV.
The component of I which lags 90 degrees
behind V is the wattless component of I and
is equal to I sin ϕ, while VI sin ϕ equals the
reactive power (in kvar) in the circuit, if V is
expressed in kV.
If the vector I is multiplied by V, expressed in
kV, then VI equals the apparent power
(in kVA) for the circuit.
The above kW, kvar and kVA values per
phase, when multiplied by 3, can therefore
conveniently represent the relationships of
kVA, kW, kvar and power factor for a total
3-phase load, as shown in figure E3.

1.4 tan ϕ
Some electricity tariffs are partly based on
tan ϕ = Q (kvar) this factor, which shows the amount of
P (kW) reactive power supplied per kW. A low value
of tan ϕ corresponds to a high power factor
and to a favourable consumer bill.

power factor improvement - E3

 1. power factor improvement (continued)

E
1.5 practical measurement of power factor
The power factor (or cos ϕ) can be
measured, either:
c by a direct-reading cos ϕ meter for an
instantaneous value, or
c a recording var meter, which allows a
record over a period of time to be obtained, of
current, voltage and power factor. Readings
taken over an extended period provide a
useful means of estimating an average value
of power factor for an installation.

1.6 practical values of power factor

an example of power calculations
type of apparent power active power reactive power
circuit S (kVA) P (kW) Q (kvar)
single-phase (phase and neutral) S = VI P = VI cos ϕ Q = VI sin ϕ
single-phase (phase to phase) S = UI P = UI cos ϕ Q = UI sin ϕ
example 5 kW of load 10 kVA 5 kW 8.7 kvar
cos ϕ = 0.5
three phase 3-wires or 3-wires + neutral S = e UI P = e UI cos ϕ Q = e UI sin ϕ
example motor Pn = 51 kW 65 kVA 56 kW 33 kvar
cos ϕ = 0.86
ρ = 0.91 (motor efficiency)
table E5: example in the calculation of active and reactive power.

The calculations for the three-phase example P = 56 kW

in addition to other information ϕ
above are as follows:
Table E20 gives corresponding Pn = delivered shaft power = 51 kW
cosine and tangent values for given P = active power consumed =
Q = 33 kvar
angles. Pn 51 S=
= = 56 kW
ρ 0.91 65
kVA
S = apparent power =
P P
= = 65 kVA
cos ϕ 0.86
fig. E6: calculation power diagram.
so that, on referring to Table E20 or using a
pocket calculator, the value of tan ϕ
corresponding to a cos ϕ of 0.86 is found to
be 0.59
Q = P tan ϕ = 56 x 0.59 = 33 kvar.
Alternatively
2 2 2 2
Q= S - P = 65 - 56 = 33 kvar

average power factor values for the most commonly-used plant,

equipment and appliances
plant and appliances cos ϕ tan ϕ
c common loaded at 0% 0.17 5.80
induction 25% 0.55 1.52
motor 50% 0.73 0.94
75% 0.80 0.75
100% 0.85 0.62
c incandescent lamps 1.0 0
c fluorescent lamps (uncompensated) 0.5 1.73
c fluorescent lamps (compensated) 0.93 0.39
c discharge lamps 0.4 to 0.6 2.29 to 1.33
c ovens using resistance elements 1.0 0
c induction heating ovens (compensated) 0.85 0.62
c dielectric type heating ovens 0.85 0.62
c resistance-type soldering machines 0.8 to 0.9 0.75 to 0.48
c fixed 1-phase arc-welding set 0.5 1.73
c arc-welding motor-generating set 0.7 to 0.9 1.02 to 0.48
c arc-welding transformer-rectifier set 0.7 to 0.8 1.02 to 0.75
c arc furnace 0.8 0.75
table E7: values of cos ϕ and tan ϕ for commonly-used plant and equipment.

E4 - power factor improvement

2. why improve the power factor?
2.1 reduction in the cost of electricity
an improvement of the power factor
of an installation presents several
technical and economic advantages,
notably in the reduction of electricity
bills.
2.2 technical/economic optimization
power factor improvement allows the
use of smaller transformers,
switchgear and cables, etc. as well
as reducing power losses and
voltage drop in an installation.
Good management in the consumption of
reactive energy brings with it the following
economic advantages.
These notes are based on an actual tariff
structure of a kind commonly applied in
Europe, designed to encourage consumers to
minimize their consumption of reactive
energy.
The installation of power-factor correcting
capacitors on installations permits the
consumer to reduce his electricity bill by
maintaining the level of reactive-power
consumption below a value contractually
agreed with the power-supply authority.
In this particular tariff, reactive energy is billed
according to the tan ϕ criterion. As previously
noted:
Q (kvarh)
tan ϕ =
P (kWh)
At the supply service position, the power
supply distributor delivers reactive energy
free, until:
c the point at which it reaches 40% of the
active energy (tan ϕ = 0.4) for a maximum
period of 16 hours each day (from 06-00 h to
22-00 h) during the most-heavily loaded
period (often in winter);
c without limitation during light-load periods in
winter, and in spring and summer.
During the periods of limitation, reactive-
energy consumption exceeding 40% of the
active energy (i.e. tan ϕ > 0.4) is billed
monthly at the current rates.
A high power factor allows the optimization of
the components of an installation.
Overating of certain equipment can be
avoided, but to achieve the best results, the
correction should be effected as close to the
individual items of inductive plant as possible.
reduction of cable size
Table E8 shows the required increase in the
size of cables as the power factor is reduced
from unity to 0.4.
multiplying factor 1 1.25 1.67 2.5
for the cross-sectional
area of the cable core(s)
cos ϕ 1 0.8 0.6 0.4
table E8: multiplying factor for cable size
as a function of cos ϕ.
reduction of losses (P, kW)
in cables
Losses in cables are proportional to the
current squared, and are measured by the
kWh meter for the installation. Reduction of
the total current in a conductor by 10% for
example, will reduce the losses by almost
20%.
E
Thus, the quantity of reactive energy billed in
these periods will be:
kvarh (to be billed) = kWh (tan ϕ - 0.4) where
kWh is the active energy consumed during
the periods of limitation, and kWh tan ϕ is the
total reactive energy during a period of
limitation, and 0.4 kWh is the amount of
reactive energy delivered free during a period
of limitation.
tan ϕ = 0.4 corresponds to a PF of 0.93 so
that, if steps are taken to ensure that during
the limitation periods the PF never falls below
0.93, the consumer will have nothing to pay
for the reactive power consumed.
Against the financial advantages of reduced
billing, the consumer must balance the cost of
purchasing, installing and maintaining the
power-factor-improvement capacitors and
controlling switchgear, automatic control
equipment (where stepped levels of
compensation are required) together with the
additional kWh consumed by the dielectric
losses of the capacitors, etc.
It may be found that it is more economic to
provide partial compensation only, and that
paying for some of the reactive energy
consumed is less expensive than providing
100% compensation.
The question of power-factor correction is a
matter of optimization, except in very simple
cases.
reduction of voltage drop
PF correction capacitors reduce or even
cancel completely the (inductive) reactive
current in upstream conductors, thereby
reducing or eliminating voltage drops.
Note: Overcompensation will produce a
voltage rise at the capacitors.
increase in available power
By improving the power factor of a load
supplied from a transformer, the current
through the transformer will be reduced,
thereby allowing more load to be added.
In practice, it may be less expensive to
improve the power factor*, than to replace the
transformer by a larger unit.
This matter is further elaborated in clause 6.
* Since other benefits accrue from a high
value of PF, as previously noted.
power factor improvement - E5
 3. how to improve the power factor

E
3.1 theoretical principles
improving the power factor of an
installation requires a bank of
capacitors which acts as a source of
reactive energy. This arrangement is
said to provide reactive energy
compensation.
An inductive load having a low power factor
requires the generators and
transmission/distribution systems to pass
reactive current (lagging the system voltage
by 90 degrees) with associated power losses
and exaggerated voltage drops, as noted in
sub-clause 1.1.
If a bank of shunt capacitors is added to the
load, its (capacitive) reactive current will take
the same path through the power system as
that of the load reactive current.
Since, as pointed out in sub-clause 1.1, this
capacitive current Ic (which leads the system
voltage by 90 degrees) is in direct phase
opposition to the load reactive current (IL), the
two components flowing through the same
path will cancel each other, such that
if the capacitor bank is sufficiently large and
Ic = IL there will be no reactive current flow in
the system upstream of the capacitors.
This is indicated in figure E9 (a) and (b) which
show the flow of the reactive components of
current only.
In this figure:
R represents the active-power elements of
the load
L represents the (inductive) reactive-power
elements of the load
C represents the (capacitive) reactive-power
elements of the power-factor correction
equipment (i.e. capacitors).
IL - IC IC IL IL
L R
C
load
a) reactive current components only flow pattern
IL - IC = 0 IL = IC IL
IC
R
C L
load
b) when IC = IL, all reactive power is supplied from
the capacitor bank
Figure E10 uses the power diagram
discussed in sub-clause 1.3 (figure E3) to
illustrate the principle of compensation by
reducing a large reactive power Q to a
smaller value Q' by means of a bank of
capacitors having a reactive power Qc.
In doing so, the magnitude of the apparent
power S is seen to reduce to S'.
P
ϕ ϕ'
Q'
S'
Q
S
Qc
fig. E10: diagram showing the principle of
compensation: Qc = P (tan ϕ - tan ϕ').
Example:
A motor consumes 100 kW at a PF of 0.75
(i.e. tan ϕ = 0.88).
To improve the PF to 0.93 (i.e. tan ϕ = 0.4),
the reactive power of the capacitor bank must
be : Qc = 100 (0.88 - 0.4) = 48 kvar
The selected level of compensation and the
calculation of rating for the capacitor bank
depend on the particular installation. The
factors requiring attention are explained in a
general way in clause 5, and in clauses 6 and
7 for transformers and motors.
Note:
Before embarking on a compensation project,
a number of precautions should be observed.
In particular, oversizing of motors should be
avoided, as well as the operation of the
motors in an unloaded condition. In this latter
condition, the reactive energy consumed by
a motor results in a very low power factor
(≈ 0.17); this is because the kW taken by the
motor (when it is unloaded) are very small.

IR IC IR + IL IL IR
L R
C

load
c) with load current added to case (b)
fig. E9: showing the essential features of
power-factor correction.
It will be seen from diagram (b) of figure E9,
that the capacitor bank C appears to be
supplying all the reactive current of the load.
For this reason, capacitors are sometimes
referred to as "generators of lagging vars".
In diagram (c) of figure E9, the active-power
current component has been added, and
shows that the (fully-compensated) load
appears to the power system as having a
power factor of 1.
In general, it is not economical to fully
compensate an installation.

E6 - power factor improvement


3.2 by using what equipment?
compensation at L.V.
At low voltage, compensation is provided
by:
c fixed-valued capacitor,
c equipment providing automatic regulation,
or banks which allow continuous adjustment
according to requirements, as loading of the
installation changes.
E
Note:
When the installed reactive power of
compensation exceeds 800 kvar, and the
load is continuous and stable, it is often found
to be economically advantageous to instal
capacitor banks at high voltage.

compensation can be carried out by fixed capacitors

a fixed value of capacitance in
favourable circumstances.
This arrangement employs one or more
capacitor(s) to form a constant level of
compensation. Control may be:
c manual: by circuit breaker or load-break
switch,
c semi-automatic: by contactor,
c direct connection to an appliance and
switched with it.
These capacitors are applied: fig. E11: example of fixed-value-
c at the terminals of inductive devices compensation capacitors.
(motors and transformers),
c at busbars supplying numerous small
motors and inductive appliance for which
individual compensation would be too costly,
c in cases where the level of load is
reasonably constant.

compensation is more-commonly automatic capacitor banks

effected by means of an
automatically-controlled stepped
bank of capacitors.
This kind of equipment provides automatic
control of compensation, maintaining within
close limits, a selected level of power factor.
Such equipment is applied at points in an
installation where the active-power and/or
reactive-power variations are relatively large,
for example:
c at the busbars of a general power
distribution board,
c at the terminals of a heavily-loaded feeder
cable.

fig. E12: example of

automatic-compensation-regulating
equipment.

power factor improvement - E7

 3. how to improve the power factor (continued)

E
3.2 by using what equipment? (continued)
automatically-regulated banks of
capacitors allow an immediate
adaptation of compensation to match
the level of load.
the principles of, and reasons,
for using automatic
compensation
A bank of capacitors is divided into a number
of sections, each of which is controlled by a
contactor. Closure of a contactor switches its
section into parallel operation with other
sections already in service. The size of the
bank can therefore be increased or
decreased in steps, by the closure and
opening of the controlling contactors.
A control relay monitors the power factor of
the controlled circuit(s) and is arranged to
close and open appropriate contactors to
maintain a reasonably constant system
power factor (within the tolerance imposed by
the size of each step of compensation). The
current transformer for the monitoring relay
must evidently be placed on one phase of the
incoming cable which supplies the circuit(s)
being controlled, as shown in figure E13.
By closely matching compensation to that
required by the load, the possibility of
producing overvoltages at times of low load
will be avoided, thereby preventing an
overvoltage condition, and possible damage
to appliances and equipment.
Overvoltages due to excessive reactive
compensation depend partly on the value of
source impedance.

CT In / 5 A cl 1

varmetric
relay

fig. E13: the principle of automatic-compensation control.

3.3 the choice between a fixed or automatically-regulated bank of capacitors

commonly-applied rules
Where the kvar rating of the capacitors is less
than, or equal to 15% of the supply-
transformer rating, a fixed value of
compensation is appropriate.
Above the 15% level, it is advisable to install
an automatically-controlled bank of
capacitors.

The location of low-voltage capacitors in an

installation constitutes the mode of
compensation, which may be global (one
location for the entire installation), partial
(section-by-section), local (at each individual
device), or some combination of the latter
two. In principle, the ideal compensation is
applied at a point of consumption and at the
level required at any instant.
In practice, technical and economic factors
govern the choice.

E8 - power factor improvement

4. where to install correction capacitors
4.1 global compensation
where a load is continuous and
stable, global compensation can be
applied.
4.2 compensation by sector
compensation by sector is
recommended when the installation
is extensive, and where the load/time
patterns differ from one part of the
installation to another.
E
principle
The capacitor bank is connected to the
busbars of the main LV distribution board for
the installation, and remains in service during
the period of normal load.
advantages
The global type of compensation:
c reduces the tariff penalties for excessive n°1
consumption of kvars,
c reduces the apparent power kVA demand,
on which standing charges are usually based,
c relieves the supply transformer, which is
then able to accept more load if necessary.
comments
c reactive current still flows in all conductors
of cables leaving (i.e. downstream of) the
main LV distribution board,
c for the above reason, the sizing of these
cables, and power losses in them, are not M M M M
improved by the global mode of
compensation. fig. E14: global compensation.
principle
Capacitor banks are connected to busbars of
each local distribution board, as shown in
figure E14.
A significant part of the installation benefits
from this arrangement, notably the feeder
cables from the main distribution board to
each of the local distribution boards at which
n°1
the compensation measures are applied.
advantages
The compensation by sector:
c reduces the tariff penalties for excessive n°2 n°2
consumption of kvars,
c reduces the apparent power kva demand,
on which standing charges are usually based,
c relieves the supply transformer, which is
then able to accept more load if necessary,
c the size of the cables supplying the local M M M M
distribution boards may be reduced, or will
fig. E15: compensation by sector.
have additional capacity for possible load
increases, kW
c losses in the same cables will be reduced. kvar
comments conductors
c reactive current still flows in all cables
downstream of the local distribution boards,
c for the above reason, the sizing of these
cables, and the power losses in them, are not
improved by compensation by sector,
c where large changes in loads occur, there
is always a risk of overcompensation and
consequent overvoltage problems.
power factor improvement - E9
 4. where to install correction capacitors (continued)
E
4.3 individual compensation
individual compensation should be
considered when the power of motor
is significant with respect to power of
the installation.
E10 - power factor improvement
principle
Capacitors are connected directly to the
terminals of inductive plant (notably motors,
see further in Clause 7). Individual
compensation should be considered when
the power of the motor is significant with
respect to the declared power requirement
(kVA) of the installation.
The kvar rating of the capacitor bank is in the n°1
order of 25% of the kW rating of the motor.
Complementary compensation at the origin of
the installation (transformer) may also be
beneficial.
advantages n°2 n°2
Individual compensation:
c reduces the tariff penalties for excessive
consumption of kvars, n°3 n°3 n°3 n°3
c reduces the apparent power kVA demand,
c reduces the size of all cables as well as the
cable losses. M M M M
comments fig. E16: individual compensation.
c significant reactive currents no longer exist
in the installation.
5. how to decide the optimum level of compensation

5.1 general method
listing of reactive power
demands at the design stage
This listing can be made in the same way
(and at the same time) as that for the power
loading described in chapter B.
The levels of active and reactive power
loading, at each level of the installation
(generally at points of distribution and
sub-distribution of circuits) can then be
determined.
E
technical-economic optimization
for an existing installation
The optimum rating of compensation
capacitors for an existing installation can be
determined from the following principal
considerations:
c electricity bills prior to the installation of
capacitors,
c future electricity bills anticipated following
the installation of capacitors,
c costs of:
v purchase of capacitors and control
equipment (contactors, relaying, cabinets,
etc.),
v installation and maintenance costs,
v cost of dielectric heating losses in the
capacitors, versus reduced losses in cables,
transformer, etc., following the installation of
capacitors.
Several simplified methods applied to typical
tariffs (common in Europe) are shown in
sub-clauses 5.3 and 5.4.

5.2 simplified method

general principle
An approximate calculation is generally
adequate for most practical cases, and may
be based on the assumption of a power
factor of 0.8 (lagging) before compensation.
In order to improve the power factor to a
value sufficient to avoid tariff penalties (this
depends on local tariff structures, but is
assumed here to be 0.93) and to reduce
losses, volt-drops, etc. in the installation,
reference can be made to table E17.
From the table, it can be seen that, to raise
the power factor of the installation from 0.8
to 0.93 will require 0.355 kvar per kW of load.
The rating of a bank of capacitors at the
busbars of the main distribution board
of the installation would be
Q (kvar) = 0.355 x P (kW).
This simple approach allows a rapid
determination of the compensation capacitors
required, albeit in the global, partial or
independent mode.
Example
It is required to improve the power factor of a
666 kVA installation from 0.75 to 0.928.
The active power demand is
666 x 0.75 = 500 kW.
In table E17, the intersection of the row
cos ϕ = 0.75 (before correction) with the
column cos ϕ = 0.93 (after correction)
indicates a value of 0.487 kvar of
compensation per kW of load.
For a load of 500 kW, therefore,
500 x 0.487 = 244 kvar of capacitive
compensation is required.
Note: this method is valid for any voltage
level, i.e. is independent of voltage.

power factor improvement - E11

 5. how to decide the optimum level of compensation (continued)

E
before kvar rating of capacitor bank to install per kW of load, to improve cos ϕ (the power factor) or tan ϕ,
compensation to a given value
tan ϕ 0,75 0.59 0.48 0.46 0.43 0.40 0.36 0.33 0.29 0.25 0.20 0.14 0.0
tan ϕ cos ϕ cos ϕ 0.80 0.86 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1
2.29 0.40 1.557 1.691 1.805 1.832 1.861 1.895 1.924 1.959 1.998 2.037 2.085 2.146 2.288
2.22 0.41 1.474 1.625 1.742 1.769 1.798 1.831 1.840 1.896 1.935 1.973 2.021 2.082 2.225
2.16 0.42 1.413 1.561 1.681 1.709 1.738 1.771 1.800 1.836 1.874 1.913 1.961 2.022 2.164
2.10 0.43 1.356 1.499 1.624 1.651 1.680 1.713 1.742 1.778 1.816 1.855 1.903 1.964 2.107
2.04 0.44 1.290 1.441 1.558 1.585 1.614 1.647 1.677 1.712 1.751 1.790 1.837 1.899 2.041
1.98 0.45 1.230 1.384 1.501 1.532 1.561 1.592 1.628 1.659 1.695 1.737 1.784 1.846 1.988
1.93 0.46 1.179 1.330 1.446 1.473 1.502 1.533 1.567 1.600 1.636 1.677 1.725 1.786 1.929
1.88 0.47 1.130 1.278 1.397 1.425 1.454 1.485 1.519 1.532 1.588 1.629 1.677 1.758 1.881
1.83 0.48 1.076 1.228 1.343 1.370 1.400 1.430 1.464 1.497 1.534 1.575 1.623 1.684 1.826
1.78 0.49 1.030 1.179 1.297 1.326 1.355 1.386 1.420 1.453 1.489 1.530 1.578 1.639 1.782
1.73 0.50 0.982 1.232 1.248 1.276 1.303 1.337 1.369 1.403 1.441 1.481 1.529 1.590 1.732
1.69 0.51 0.936 1.087 1.202 1.230 1.257 1.291 1.323 1.357 1.395 1.435 1.483 1.544 1.686
1.64 0.52 0.894 1.043 1.160 1.188 1.215 1.249 1.281 1.315 1.353 1.393 1.441 1.502 1.644
1.60 0.53 0.850 1.000 1.116 1.144 1.171 1.205 1.237 1.271 1.309 1.349 1.397 1.458 1.600
1.56 0.54 0.809 0.959 1.075 1.103 1.130 1.164 1.196 1.230 1.268 1.308 1.356 1.417 1.559
1.52 0.55 0.769 0.918 1.035 1.063 1.090 1.124 1.156 1.190 1.228 1.268 1.316 1.377 1.519
1.48 0.56 0.730 0.879 0.996 1.024 1.051 1.085 1.117 1.151 1.189 1.229 1.277 1.338 1.480
1.44 0.57 0.692 0.841 0.958 0.986 1.013 1.047 1.079 1.113 1.151 1.191 1.239 1.300 1.442
1.40 0.58 0.665 0.805 0.921 0.949 0.976 1.010 1.042 1.076 1.114 1.154 1.202 1.263 1.405
1.37 0.59 0.618 0.768 0.884 0.912 0.939 0.973 1.005 1.039 1.077 1.117 1.165 1.226 1.368
1.33 0.60 0.584 0.733 0.849 0.878 0.905 0.939 0.971 1.005 1.043 1.083 1.131 1.192 1.334
1.30 0.61 0.549 0.699 0.815 0.843 0.870 0.904 0.936 0.970 1.008 1.048 1.096 1.157 1.299
1.27 0.62 0.515 0.665 0.781 0.809 0.836 0.870 0.902 0.936 0.974 1.014 1.062 1.123 1.265
1.23 0.63 0.483 0.633 0.749 0.777 0.804 0.838 0.870 0.904 0.942 0.982 1.030 1.091 1.233
1.20 0.64 0.450 0.601 0.716 0.744 0.771 0.805 0.837 0.871 0.909 0.949 0.997 1.058 1.200
1.17 0.65 0.419 0.569 0.685 0.713 0.740 0.774 0.806 0.840 0.878 0.918 0.966 1.007 1.169
1.14 0.66 0.388 0.538 0.654 0.682 0.709 0.743 0.775 0.809 0.847 0.887 0.935 0.996 1.138
1.11 0.67 0.358 0.508 0.624 0.652 0.679 0.713 0.745 0.779 0.817 0.857 0.905 0.966 1.108
1.08 0.68 0.329 0.478 0.595 0.623 0.650 0.684 0.716 0.750 0.788 0.828 0.876 0.937 1.079
1.05 0.69 0.299 0.449 0.565 0.593 0.620 0.654 0.686 0.720 0.758 0.798 0.840 0.907 1.049
1.02 0.70 0.270 0.420 0.536 0.564 0.591 0.625 0.657 0.691 0.729 0.769 0.811 0.878 1.020
0.99 0.71 0.242 0.392 0.508 0.536 0.563 0.597 0.629 0.663 0.701 0.741 0.783 0.850 0.992
0.96 0.72 0.213 0.364 0.479 0.507 0.534 0.568 0.600 0.634 0.672 0.712 0.754 0.821 0.963
0.94 0.73 0.186 0.336 0.452 0.480 0.507 0.541 0.573 0.607 0.645 0.685 0.727 0.794 0.936
0.91 0.74 0.159 0.309 0.425 0.453 0.480 0.514 0.546 0.580 0.618 0.658 0.700 0.767 0.909
0.88 0.75 0.132 0.82 0.398 0.426 0.453 0.487 0.519 0.553 0.591 0.631 0.673 0.740 0.882
0.86 0.76 0.105 0.255 0.371 0.399 0.426 0.460 0.492 0.526 0.564 0.604 0.652 0.713 0.855
0.83 0.77 0.079 0.229 0.345 0.373 0.400 0.434 0.466 0.500 0.538 0.578 0.620 0.687 0.829
0.80 0.78 0.053 0.202 0.319 0.347 0.374 0.408 0.440 0.474 0.512 0.552 0.594 0.661 0.803
0.78 0.79 0.026 0.176 0.292 0.320 0.347 0.381 0.413 0.447 0.485 0.525 0.567 0.634 0.776
0.75 0.80 0.150 0.266 0.294 0.321 0.355 0.387 0.421 0.459 0.499 0.541 0.608 0.750
0.72 0.81 0.124 0.240 0.268 0.295 0.329 0.361 0.395 0.433 0.473 0.515 0.582 0.724
0.70 0.82 0.098 0.214 0.242 0.269 0.303 0.335 0.369 0.407 0.447 0.489 0.556 0.698
0.67 0.83 0.072 0.188 0.216 0.243 0.277 0.309 0.343 0.381 0.421 0.463 0.530 0.672
0.65 0.84 0.046 0.162 0.190 0.217 0.251 0.283 0.317 0.355 0.395 0.437 0.504 0.645
0.62 0.85 0.020 0.136 0.164 0.191 0.225 0.257 0.291 0.329 0.369 0.417 0.478 0.620
0.59 0.86 0.109 0.140 0.167 0.198 0.230 0.264 0.301 0.343 0.390 0.450 0.593
0.57 0.87 0.083 0.114 0.141 0.172 0.204 0.238 0.275 0.317 0.364 0.424 0.567
0.54 0.88 0.054 0.085 0.112 0.143 0.175 0.209 0.246 0.288 0.335 0.395 0.538
0.51 0.89 0.028 0.059 0.086 0.117 0.149 0.183 0.230 0.262 0.309 0.369 0.512
0.48 0.90 0.031 0.058 0.089 0.121 0.155 0.192 0.234 0.281 0.341 0.484
table E17: kvar to be installed per kW of load, to improve the power factor of an installation.

E12 - power factor improvement


5.3 method based on the avoidance of tariff penalties
in the case of certain (common)
types of tariff, an examination of
several bills covering the most
heavily-loaded period of the year
allows determination of the kvar level
of compensation required to avoid
kvarh (reactive-energy) charges.
the pay-back period of a bank
of power-factor-improvement
capacitors and associated equipment
is generally about 18 months.
E
The following method allows calculation of c the necessary value of compensation
the rating of a proposed capacitor bank, kvarh billed
in kvar = = Qc
based on billing details, where the tariff number of hours of operation*
structure corresponds with (or is similar to) * in the billing period, during the hours for
the one described in sub-clause 2.1 of this which reactive energy is charged
chapter. for the case considered above:
The method determines the minimum 15,966 kvarh
compensation required to avoid these Qc = = 73 kvar
220 h
charges which are based on kvarh The rating of the installed capacitor bank is
consumption. generally chosen to be slightly larger than
The procedure is as follows: that calculated.
c refer to the bills covering consumption for Certain manufacturers can provide "slide-
the 5 months of winter (in France these are rules" especially designed to facilitate these
November to March inclusive). kinds of calculation, according to particular
Note: in tropical climates the summer months tariffs. These devices and accompanying
may constitute the period of heaviest loading documentation advise on suitable equipment
and highest peaks (owing to extensive air- and control schemes, as well as drawing
conditioning loads) so that a consequent attention to constraints imposed by harmonic
variation of high-tariff periods is necessary in voltages on the power system. Such voltages
this case. The remainder of this example will require either overdimensioned capacitors (in
assume Winter conditions in France. terms of heat-dissipation, voltage and current
c identify the line on the bills referring to ratings) and/or harmonic-suppression
"reactive-energy consumed" and "kvarh to be inductors or filters (see Appendix E3).
charged". Choose the bill which shows the
highest charge for kvarh (after checking that
this was not due to some exceptional
situation).
For example: 15,966 kvarh in January.
c evaluate the total period of loaded
operation of the installation for that month, for
instance: 220 hours (22 days x 10 hours).
The hours which must be counted are those
occurring during the heaviest load and the
highest peak loads occurring on the power
system. These are given in the tariff
documents, and are (commonly) during a
16 hour period each day, either from 06.00 H
to 22.00 H or from 07.00 H to 23.00 H
according to the region. Outside these
periods, no charge is made for kvarh
consumption.

5.4 method based on reduction of declared maximum apparent power (kVA)

for 2-part tariffs based partly on a
declared value of kVA, a table (E16)
allows determination of the kvar of
compensation required to reduce the
value of kVA declared, and to avoid
exceeding it.
For consumers whose tariffs are based on a
fixed charge per kVA declared, plus a charge
per kWh consumed, it is evident that a
reduction in declared kVA would be beneficial.
The diagram of figure E18 shows that as the
power factor improves, the kVA value
diminishes for a given value of kW (P).
The improvement of the power factor is
aimed at (apart from other advantages
previously mentioned) reducing the declared
level and never exceeding it, thereby
avoiding the payment of an excessive price
per kVA during the periods of excess, and/or
tripping of the the main circuit breaker.
Table E17 indicates the value of kvar of
compensation per kW of load, required to
improve from one value of power factor to
another.
P = 85.4 kW
ϕ ϕ'
Example:
A supermarket has a declared load of
122 kVA at a power factor of 0.7 lagging, i.e.
an active-power load of 85.4 kW.
The particular contract for this consumer was
based on stepped values of declared kVA
(in steps of 6 kVA up to 108 kVA, and 12 kVA
steps above that value, this is a common
feature in many types of two-part tariff).
In the case being considered, the consumer
was billed on the basis of 132 kVA.
Referring to table E17, it can be seen that a
60 kvar bank of capacitors will improve the
power factor of the load from 0.7 to 0.95
(0.691 x 85.4 = 59 kvar in the table).
The declared value of kVA will then be
85.4 = 90 kVA, i.e. an improvement of 30%.
0.95

Q'
S'
cos ϕ = 0.7
cos ϕ' = 0.95 Q
S = 122 kVA
S' = 90 kVA
Q = 87.1 kvar S
Qc
Qc = 59 kvar
Q' = 28.1 kvar

fig. E18: reduction of declared maximum

kVA by power-factor improvement.
power factor improvement - E13
 6. compensation at the terminals of a transformer

E
6.1 compensation to increase the available active power output
the installation of a bank of
capacitors can avoid the need to
change a transformer in the event of
a load increase.
Steps similar to those taken to reduce the
declared maximum kVA, i.e. improvement of
the load power factor, as discussed in sub-
clause 5.4, will maximise the available
transformer capacity, i.e. to supply more
active power.
Cases can arise where the replacement of a
transformer by a larger unit, to cater for load
growth, may be avoided by this means.
Table E20 shows directly the power (kW)
capability of fully-loaded transformers at
different load power factors, from which the
increase of active-power output, as the value
of power factor increases, can be obtained.
Example:
Refer to figure E19.
An installation is supplied from a 630 kVA
transformer loaded at 450 kW (P1) with a
mean power factor of 0.8 lagging.
The apparent power S1 = 450 = 562 kVA
0.8
The corresponding reactive power
Q1= S12 − P12 = 337 kvar
Total reactive power required by the
installation before compensation:
Q1 + Q2 = 337 + 102 = 439 kvar.
So that the minimum size of capacitor bank to
instal:
Qkvar = 439 - 307 = 132 kvar.
It should be noted that this calculation has not
taken account of peak loads and their
duration.
The best possible improvement, i.e.
correction which attains a PF of 1 would
permit a power reserve for the transformer of
630 - 550 = 80 kW. The capacitor bank would
then have to be rated at 439 kvar.
Q
S2
Q2
Q
S1
P2

The anticipated load increase P2 = 100 kW at S

a power factor of 0.7 lagging. Q1 Qm

The apparent power S2 = 100 = 143 kVA

0.7 P1 P
The corresponding reactive power fig. E19: compensation Q allows the
Q2 = S22 − P22 = 102 kvar installation-load extension S2 to be
What is the minimum value of capacitive kvar added, without the need to replace the
to be installed, in order to avoid a change of existing transformer, the output of which
transformer? is limited to S.
Total power now to be supplied:
P = P1 + P2 = 550 kW.
The maximum reactive power capability of
the 630 kVA transformer when delivering
550 kW is:
Qm = S 2 - P 2
Qm = 630 2 - 550 2 = 307 kvar

tan ϕ cos ϕ nominal kVA rating of transformers (in kVA)

100 160 250 315 400 500 630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000
0.00 1 100 160 250 315 400 500 630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000
0.20 0.98 98 157 245 309 392 490 617 784 980 1225 1568 1960
0.29 0.96 96 154 240 302 384 480 605 768 960 1200 1536 1920
0.36 0.94 94 150 235 296 376 470 592 752 940 1175 1504 1880
0.43 0.92 92 147 230 290 368 460 580 736 920 1150 1472 1840
0.48 0.90 90 144 225 284 360 450 567 720 900 1125 1440 1800
0.54 0.88 88 141 220 277 352 440 554 704 880 1100 1408 1760
0.59 0.86 86 138 215 271 344 430 541 688 860 1075 1376 1720
0.65 0.84 84 134 210 265 336 420 529 672 840 1050 1344 1680
0.70 0.82 82 131 205 258 328 410 517 656 820 1025 1312 1640
0.75 0.80 80 128 200 252 320 400 504 640 800 1000 1280 1600
0.80 0.78 78 125 195 246 312 390 491 624 780 975 1248 1560
0.86 0.76 76 122 190 239 304 380 479 608 760 950 1216 1520
0.91 0.74 74 118 185 233 296 370 466 592 740 925 1184 1480
0.96 0.72 72 115 180 227 288 360 454 576 720 900 1152 1440
1.02 0.70 70 112 175 220 280 350 441 560 700 875 1120 1400
table E20: active-power capability of fully-loaded transformers, when supplying loads at different values of power factor.

E14 - power factor improvement


6.2 compensation of reactive energy absorbed by the transformer
where metering is carried out at the
HV side of a transformer, the
reactive-energy losses in the
transformer may (depending on the
tariff) need to be compensated.
the reactive power absorbed by a
transformer cannot be neglected,
and can amount to (about) 5% of the
transformer rating when supplying its
full load. Compensation can be
provided by a bank of capacitors.
in transformers, reactive power is
absorbed by both shunt
(magnetizing) and series (leakage
flux) reactances. Complete
compensation can be provided
by a bank of shunt-connected LV
capacitors.
the nature of transformer
inductive reactances
All previous references have been to shunt-
connected devices such as those used in
normal loads, and PF-correcting capacitor
banks etc. The reason for this is that shunt-
connected plant requires (by far) the largest
quantities of reactive energy in power
systems; however, series-connected
reactances, such as the inductive reactances
of power lines and the leakage reactance of
transformer windings, etc., also absorb
reactive energy.
Where metering is carried out at the HV side
of a transformer, the reactive-energy losses in
the transformer may (depending on the tariff)
need to be compensated.
As far as reactive-energy losses only are
concerned, a transformer may be
reactive-power absorption
in series-connected
(leakage flux) reactance
A simple illustration of this phenomenon is
given by the vector diagram of figure E21.
The reactive-current component through the
load = I sin ϕ so that kvarL = VI sin ϕ.
The reactive-current component from the
source = I sin ϕ' so that
kvars = EI sin ϕ'
where V and E are expressed in kV.
It can be seen that E > V and sin ϕ' > sin ϕ.
The difference between EI sin ϕ' and VI sin ϕ
gives the kvar per phase absorbed by XL.
It can be shown that this kvar value is equal
to I2XL (which is analogous to the I2R active-
power (kW) losses due to the series
resistance of power lines, etc.).
From the I2XL formula it is very simple to
deduce the kvar absorbed at any load value
for a given transformer, as follows:
If per-unit values are used (instead of
percentage values) direct multiplication
of I and XL can be carried out.
XL
E V
source load
E always applied.
V
IXL
ϕ consumption is below the level at which a
ϕ'
I sin ϕ
I sin ϕ'
fig. E21: reactive power absorption by
series inductance.
Example:
A 630 kVA transformer with a short-circuit
reactance voltage of 4% is fully loaded.
What is its reactive-power (kvar) loss?
4% = 0.04 pu Ipu = 1
loss = I2XL = 12 x 0.04 = 0.04 pu kvar
where 1 pu = 630 kVA
E
represented by the elementary diagram of
figure E22. All reactance values are referred
to the secondary side of the transformer,
where the shunt branch represents the
magnetizing-current path. The magnetizing
current remains practically constant (at about
1.8 % of full-load current) from no load to full
load, in normal circumstances, i.e. with a
constant primary voltage, so that a shunt
capacitor of fixed value can be installed at the
HV or LV side, to compensate for the reactive
energy absorbed.
perfect transformer leakage reactance
primary secondary magnetizing
winding winding reactance
fig. E22: transformer reactances
(per phase).
The 3-phase kvar losses
are 630 x 0.04 = 25.2 kvar
(or, quite simply, 4% of 630 kVA).
At half load i.e. I = 0.5 pu the losses
will be 0.52 x 0.04 = 0.01 pu =
630 x 0.01 = 6.3 kvar and so on...
This example, and the vector diagram of
figure E21 show that:
c the power factor at the primary side of a
loaded transformer is different (normally
lower) than that at the secondary side (due to
the absorption of vars),
c that full-load kvar losses due to leakage
reactance are equal to the transformer
percentage reactance (4% reactance means
a kvar loss equal to 4% of the kVA rating of
the transformer),
c that kvar losses due to leakage reactance
vary according to the current (or kVA loading)
squared.
To determine the total kvar losses of a
transformer the constant magnetizing-current
circuit losses (approx. 1.8% of the
transformer kVA rating) must be added to the
foregoing "series" losses.
Table E24 shows the no-load and full-load
kvar losses for typical distribution
transformers.
In principle, series inductances can be
compensated by fixed series capacitors (as is
commonly the case for long HV transmission
lines). This arrangement is operationally
difficult, however, so that, at the voltage levels
covered by this guide, shunt compensation is
In the case of HV metering, it is sufficient to
raise the power factor to a point where the
transformer plus load reactive-power
billing charge is made. This level depends on
the tariff, but often corresponds to a tan ϕ
value of 0.31 (cos ϕ of 0.955).
As a matter of interest, the kvar losses in a
transformer can be completely compensated
by adjusting the capacitor bank to give the
load a (slightly) leading power factor. In such
a case, all of the kvar of the transformer is
being supplied from the capacitor bank, while
the input to the HV side of the transformer is
at unity power factor, as shown in figure E23.
power factor improvement - E15
 6. compensation at the terminals of a transformer (continued)

E
6.2 compensation of reactive energy absorbed by the transformer (continued)
E (input voltage)

IXL
I
ϕ
V (load voltage)

I0 compensation current

load current
fig. E23: overcompensation of load to
completely compensate transformer
reactive-power losses.
In practical terms, therefore, compensation
for transformer-absorbed kvar is included in
the capacitors primarily intended for power-
factor correction of the load, either globally,
partially, or in the individual mode.
Unlike most other kvar-absorbing items, the
transformer absorption (i.e. the part due to
the leakage reactance) changes significantly
with variations of load level, so that, if
individual compensation is applied to the
transformer, then an average level of loading
will have to be assumed.
Fortunately, this kvar consumption generally
forms only a relatively small part of the total
reactive power of an installation, and so
mismatching of compensation at times of
load change is not likely to be a problem.
Table E24 indicates typical kvar loss values
for the magnetizing circuit (“no-load kvar”
columns), as well as for the total losses at full
load, for a standard range of distribution
transformers supplied at 20 kV (which include
the losses due to the leakage reactance).

rated power reactive power (kvar) to be compensated

kVA oil immersed type cast resin type
no load full load no load full load
50 1.5 2.9
100 2.5 5.9 2.5 8.2
160 3.7 9.6 3.7 12.9
250 5.3 14.7 5.0 19.5
315 6.3 18.3 5.7 24.0
400 7.6 22.9 6.0 29.4
500 9.5 28.7 7.5 36.8
630 11.3 35.7 8.2 45.2
800 20 66.8 10.4 57.5
1 000 24.0 82.6 12.0 71.0
1 250 27.5 100.8 15.0 88.8
1 600 32.0 125.9 19.2 113.9
2 000 38.0 155.3 22.0 140.6
2 500 45.0 191.5 30.0 178.2
table E24: reactive power consumption of distribution transformers with 20 kV
primary windings.
Note: for a 630 kVA transformer, the range of
kvar losses extends from 11.3 at no load to
35.7 kvar at full load. These values
correspond closely to those given in the
worked example above.

E16 - power factor improvement

7. compensation at the terminals of an induction motor
7.1 connection of a capacitor bank and protection settings
individual motor compensation is
recommended where the motor
power (kVA) is large with respect to
the declared power of the installation.
E
general precautions
Because of the small kW consumption, the
power factor of a motor is very low at no-load
or on light load. The reactive current of the
motor remains practically constant at all
loads, so that a number of unloaded motors
constitute a consumption of reactive power
which is generally detrimental to an
installation, for reasons explained in
preceding sections.
Two good general rules therefore are that
unloaded motors should be switched off, and
motors should not be oversized (since they
will then be lightly loaded).
connection
The bank of capacitors should be connected
directly to the terminals of the motor.
special motors
It is recommended that special motors
(stepping, plugging, inching, reversing
motors, etc.) should not be compensated.
effect on protection settings
After applying compensation to a motor, the
current to the motor-capacitor combination
will be lower than before, assuming the same
motor-driven load conditions. This is because
a significant part of the reactive component of
the motor current is being supplied from the
capacitor, as shown in figure E25.
Where the overcurrent protection devices of
the motor are located upstream of the motor-
capacitor connection (and this will always be
the case for terminal-connected capacitors),
the overcurrent relay settings must be
reduced in the ratio:
cos ϕ before compensation speed in R.P.M. reduction factor
cos ϕ after compensation 750 0.88
For motors compensated in accordance with 1000 0.90
the kvar values indicated in Table E28 1500 0.91
(maximum values recommended for
3000 0.93
avoidance of self-excitation of standard
induction motors, as discussed in table E26: reduction factor for overcurrent
sub-clause 7.2), the above-mentioned ratio protection after compensation.
will have a value similar to that indicated for
the corresponding motor speed in Table E26.
before after
compensation compensation
transformer
power
made
available
active
power
motor reactive
M M power
supplied
by capacitor
fig. E25: before compensation, the
transformer supplies all the reactive
power; after compensation, the capacitor
supplies a large part of the reactive power.
power factor improvement - E17
 7. compensation at the terminals of an induction motor (continued)
E
7.2 how self-excitation of an induction motor can be avoided
when a capacitor bank is connected
to the terminals of an induction
motor, it is important to check that the
size of the bank is less than that at
which self-excitation can occur.
E18 - power factor improvement
When a motor is driving a high-inertia load,
the motor will continue to rotate (unless
deliberately braked) after the motor supply
has been switched off.
The "magnetic inertia" of the rotor circuit
means that an emf will be generated in the
stator windings for a short period after
switching off, and would normally reduce to
zero after 1 or 2 cycles, in the case of an
uncompensated motor.
Compensation capacitors however, constitute
a 3-phase "wattless" load for this decaying
emf, which causes capacitive currents to flow
through the stator windings. These stator
currents will produce a rotating magnetic field
in the rotor which acts exactly along the same
axis and in the same direction as that of the
decaying magnetic field.
The rotor flux consequently increases; the
stator currents increase; and the voltage at
the terminals of the motor increases;
sometimes to dangerously-high levels.
This phenomenon is known as self-excitation
and is one reason why a.c. generators are
not normally operated at leading power
factors, i.e. there is a tendency to
spontaneously (and uncontrollably) self-
excite.
Notes
1. The characteristics of a motor being driven
by the inertia of the load are not rigorously
identical to its no-load characteristics. This
assumption, however, is sufficiently accurate
for practical purposes.
2. With the motor acting as a generator, the
currents circulating are largely reactive, so
that the braking (retarding) effect on the
motor is mainly due only to the load
represented by the cooling fan in the motor.
3. The (almost 90° lagging) current taken
from the supply in normal circumstances by
the unloaded motor, and the (almost 90°
leading) current supplied to the capacitors by
the motor acting as a generator, both have
the same phase relationship to the terminal
voltage. It is for this reason that the two
characteristics may be superimposed on the
graph.
In order to avoid self-excitation as described
above, the kvar rating of the capacitor bank
must be limited to the following maximum
value:
Qc i 0,9 Io Un e where Io = the no-load
current of the motor and Un = phase-to-
phase nominal voltage of the motor in kV.
Table E28 gives appropriate values of Qc
corresponding to this criterion.
Example
A 75 kW, 3 000 Rpm, 400 V, 3-phase motor
may have a capacitor bank no larger than
17 kvar according to Table E28. The table
values are, in general, too small to
adequately compensate the motor to the level
of cos ϕ normally required. Additional
compensation can, however, be applied to
the system, for example an overall bank,
installed for global compensation of a number
of smaller appliances.
High-inertia motors and/or loads
In any installation where high-inertia motor-
driven loads exist, the circuit breakers or
contactors controlling such motors should, in
the event of total loss of power supply, be
rapidly tripped.
If this precaution is not taken, then self-
excitation to very high voltages is likely to
occur, since all other banks of capacitors in
the installation will effectively be in parallel
with those of the high-inertia motors.
fig. E27: connection of the capacitor bank
to the motor.
The protection scheme for these motors
should therefore include an overvoltage
tripping relay, together with reverse-power
checking contacts (the motor will feed power
to the rest of the installation, until the stored
inertial energy is dissipated).
An undervoltage relay would not be suitable
because the voltage is not only maintained,
but will increase, immediately following the
loss of power supply.
 E
If the capacitor bank associated with a high-
inertia motor is larger than that recommended
in Table E28, then it should be separately
controlled by a circuit breaker or contactor,
which trips in unison with the main motor-
controlling circuit breaker or contactor, as
shown in figure E27.
Closing of the main contactor is commonly
subject to the capacitor contactor being
previously closed.
3-phase motors 230/400 V
nominal kvar to be installed
power
speed of rotation (RPM)
kW hp 3000 1500 1000 750
22 30 6 8 9 10
30 40 7.5 10 11 12.5
37 50 9 11 12.5 16
45 60 11 13 14 17
55 75 13 17 18 21
75 100 17 22 25 28
90 125 20 25 27 30
110 150 24 29 33 37
132 180 31 36 38 43
160 218 35 41 44 52
200 274 43 47 53 61
250 340 52 57 63 71
280 380 57 63 70 79
355 482 67 76 86 98
400 544 78 82 97 106
450 610 87 93 107 117
table E28: maximum kvar of P.F.
correction applicable to motor terminals
without risk of self-excitation.
Note
Exact sizing of capacitor unit for a particular
motor is only possible when the "no-load
current" or "no-load magnetising" kvar is
known.

power factor improvement - E19

 8. example of an installation before and after power-factor
correction

E
installation before P.F. correction installation after P.F. correction
*→→→ c kvarh are billed heavily above the declared →→→
kVA=kW+kvar kVA=kW+kvar c the consumption of kvarh is
level, v eliminated, or
c apparent power kVA is significantly greater v reduced, according to the cos ϕ required,
kVA than the kW demand, kVA c the tariff penalties
c the corresponding excess current causes v for reactive energy where applicable
kW kvar kW
losses (kWh) which are billed, v for the entire bill in some cases are
c the installation must be over-dimensioned. eliminated,
* the arrows denote vector quantities. c the fixed charge based on kVA demand is
adjusted to be close to the active power kW
demand.

Characteristics of the installation Characteristics of the installation

500 kW cos ϕ = 0.75 500 kW cos ϕ = 0.928
630 kVA 630 kVA
c transformer is overloaded c transformer no longer overloaded
c the power demand is c the power-demand is 539 kVA
P 500 c there is 14% spare-transformer capacity
S= = = 665 kVA
cos ϕ 0.75 available.
S = apparent power
400 V 400 V

c the current flowing into the installation c the current flowing into the installation
downstream of the circuit breaker is through the circuit breaker is 778 A.
I= P = 960 A
eU cos ϕ

c losses in cables are calculated as a c the losses in the cables are

function of the current squared: (960)2 (778)2
reduced to = 65% of the former value,
P=I2R (960)2
thereby economizing in kWh consumed.

cos ϕ = 0.75 cos ϕ = 0.928

c reactive energy is supplied through the c reactive energy is supplied by the capacitor
transformer and via the installation wiring, bank.
c the transformer, circuit breaker, and cables
must be over-dimensioned. kvar

Capacitor bank rating is 250 kvar

in 5 automatically-controlled steps of 50 kvar.

cos ϕ = 0.75 cos ϕ = 0.928

workshop workshop

Note: In fact, the cos ϕ of the workshop

remains at 0.75 but cos ϕ for all the
installation upstream of the capacitor bank
to the transformer LV terminals is 0.928.
As mentioned in Sub-clause 6.2, the cos ϕ
at the HV side of the transformer will be
slightly lower, * due to the reactive power
losses in the transformer.
* moreso in the pre-corrected case.
fig. E29: technical-economic comparison of an installation before and after power-factor correction.

E20 - power factor improvement

9. the effect of harmonics on the rating of a capacitor bank
9.1 problems arising from power-system harmonics
9.2 possible solutions
harmonics are taken into account
mainly by oversizing capacitors and
including harmonic-suppression
reactors in series with them.
Equipment which uses power electronics
components (variable-speed motor
controllers, thyristor-controlled rectifiers, etc.)
have, in recent years, considerably increased
the problems caused by harmonics in power-
supply systems.
Harmonics have existed from the earliest
days of the industry and were (and still are)
caused by the non-linear magnetizing
impedances of transformers, reactors,
fluorescent lamp ballasts, etc.
Harmonics on symmetrical 3-phase power
systems are generally* odd-numbered: 3rd,
5th, 7th, 9th..., and the magnitude decreases
as the order of the harmonic increases.
All of these features may be used in various
ways to reduce specific harmonics to
negligible values - total elimination is not
possible. In this section, practical means of
reducing the influence of harmonics are
recommended, with particular reference to
capacitor banks.
Capacitors are especially sensitive to
harmonic components of the supply voltage
due to the fact that capacitive reactance
decreases as the frequency increases. In
practice, this means that a relatively small
percentage of harmonic voltage can cause a
significant current to flow in the capacitor
circuit.
The presence of harmonic components
causes the (normally sinusoidal) wave form
of voltage or current to be distorted; the
countering the effects of
harmonics
The presence of harmonics in the supply
voltage results in abnormally high current
levels through the capacitors. An allowance is
made for this by designing for an r.m.s. value
of current equal to 1.3 times the nominal
rated current.
All series elements, such as connections,
fuses, switches, etc., associated with the
capacitors are similarly oversized, between
1.3 to 1.5 times nominal rating.
countering the effects
of resonance
Capacitors are linear reactive devices, and
consequently do not generate harmonics.
The installation of capacitors in a power
system (in which the impedances are
predominantly inductive) can, however, result
in total or partial resonance occurring at one
of the harmonic frequencies.
The harmonic order ho of the natural
resonant frequency between the system
inductance and the capacitor bank is given by
SSC / Q where
Ssc = the level of system short-circuit kVA at
the point of connection of the capacitor
Q = capacitor bank rating in kvar; and ho =
the harmonic order of the natural frequency fo
i.e. fo/50 for a 50 Hz system, or fo/60 for a
60 Hz system.
E
greater the harmonic content, the greater the
degree of distortion .
If the natural frequency of the capacitor bank/
power-system reactance combination is close
to a particular harmonic, then partial
resonance will occur, with amplified values of
voltage and current at the harmonic
frequency concerned.
In this particular case, the elevated current
will cause overheating of the capacitor, with
degradation of the dielectric, which may result
in its eventual failure.
Several solutions to these problems are
available, which aim basically at reducing the
distortion of the supply-voltage wave form,
between the equipment causing the
distortion, and the bank of capacitors in
question. This is generally accomplished by
shunt connected harmonic filter and/or
harmonic-suppression reactors.
* With the advent of power electronics devices, and
associated non-linear components, even-numbered
harmonics are now sometimes encountered.
Harmonic distortion of the voltage wave
frequently produces a "peaky" wave form, in
which the peak value of the normal sinusoidal
wave is increased. This possibility, together
with other overvoltage conditions likely to
occur when countering the effects of
resonance, as described below, are taken
into account by increasing the insulation level
above that of "standard" capacitors.
In many instances, these two counter
measures are all that is necessary to achieve
satisfactory operation.
For example: SSC / Q may give a value for
ho of 2.93 which shows that the natural
frequency of the capacitor/system-inductance
combination is close to the 3rd harmonic
frequency of the system.
From ho = fo/50 it can be seen that
fo = 50 ho = 50 x 2.93 = 146.5 Hz
The closer a natural frequency approaches
one of the harmonics present on the system,
the greater will be the (undesirable) effect.
In the above example, strong resonant
conditions with the 3rd harmonic component
of a distorted wave would certainly occur.
power factor improvement - E21
 9. the effect of harmonics on the rating of a capacitor bank (continued)
E
9.2 possible solutions
9.3 choosing the optimum solution
E22 - power factor improvement
(continued)
countering the effects
of resonance (continued)
In such cases, steps are taken to change the
natural frequency to a value which will not
resonate with any of the harmonics known to
be present. This is achieved by the addition
of a harmonic-suppression inductor
connected in series with the capacitor bank.
On 50 Hz systems, these reactors are often
adjusted to bring the resonant frequency of
the combination, i.e. the capacitor bank +
reactors to 190 Hz. The reactors are adjusted
to 228 Hz for a 60 Hz system.
These frequencies correspond to a value for
ho of 3.8 for a 50 Hz system, i.e.
approximately mid-way between the 3rd and
5th harmonics.
A choice is made from the following
parameters:
c Gh = the sum of the kVA ratings of all
harmonic-generating devices (static
converters, inverters, speed controllers, etc.)
connected to the busbars from which the
capacitor bank is supplied.
If the ratings of some of these devices are
quoted in kW only, assume an average power
factor of 0.7 to obtain the kVA ratings.
c Ssc = the 3-phase short-circuit level in kVA
at the terminals of the capacitor bank.
capacitors supplied at LV via transformer(s)
c general rule valid for any size of transformer
Gh i Ssc Ssc i Gh i Ssc
120 120 70
standard capacitors capacitor voltage rating
increased by 10%
(except 230 V units)
c simplified rule if transformer(s) rating Sn i 2 MVA
Gh i 0.15 Sn 0.15 Sn < Gh i 0.25 Sn
standard capacitors capacitor voltage rating
increased by 10%
(except 230 V units)
table E30: choice of solutions for limiting harmonics associated with a LV capacitor bank.
In this arrangement, the presence of the
reactor increases the fundamental-frequency
(50 Hz or 60 Hz) current by a small amount
(7-8%) and therefore the voltage across the
capacitor in the same proportion.
This feature is taken into account, for
example, by using capacitors which are
designed for 440 V operation on 400 V
systems.
c Sn = the sum of the kVA ratings of all
transformers supplying (i.e. directly
connected to) the system level of which the
busbars form a part.
If a number of transformers are operating in
parallel, the removal from service of one or
more, will significantly change the values of
Ssc and Sn.
From these parameters, a choice of capacitor
specification which will ensure an acceptable
level of operation with the system harmonic
voltages and currents, can be made, by
reference to the following table.
Gh > Ssc
70
capacitor voltage rating
increased by 10%
+ harmonic-suppression reactor
0.25 Sn < Gh i 0.60 Sn Gh > 0.60 Sn
capacitor voltage rating
increased by 10% filters
+ harmonic suppression
reactor
 E
examples
Three cases are presented, showing Example 3:
(respectively) situations in which standard, 630 kVA transformer having 4% short-circuit
overdimensioned, and overdimensioned plus voltage.
harmonic-suppression-equipped capacitor Total rating of harmonic-generating devices
banks should be installed. Gh = 250 kVA
Example 1: 100
Ssc = 630 x = 15,750 kVA
500 kVA transformer having 4% short-circuit 4
voltage. Ssc 15,750
= = 225
Total rating of harmonic-generating devices 70 70
Gh = 50 kVA Gh = 250 > Scc
100 70
Ssc = 500 x = 12,500 kVA Solution: use overated (440 V) capacitors
4
Ssc 12,500 and harmonic-suppression reactors.
= = 104
120 120
Ssc
Gh = 50 i
120
Solution: use standard capacitors.
Example 2:
1,000 kVA transformer having 6% short-circuit
voltage.
Total rating of harmonic-generating devices
Gh = 220 kVA
100
Ssc = 1,000 x = 16,667 kVA
6
Ssc 16,667
= = 139
120 120
Ssc 16,667
= = 238
70 70
Ssc Ssc
Gh = 220 is between and
120 70
Solution: use overated (440 V) capacitors.

9.4 possible effects of power-factor-correction capacitors on the power-supply system

it is necessary to ensure that
interaction between harmonic-
generating devices and P.F.
correction capacitors, does not result
in unacceptable levels of voltage
and/or current wave-form distortion
on the power-supply network.
Power-supply authorities generally impose a
strict limit on the total-harmonic distortion
(THD) permitted at the point of power supply
to a consumer.
The degree of distortion is measured as the
ratio of the r.m.s. value of all harmonics
present, with respect to the r.m.s. value of the
fundamental frequency wave (50 or 60 Hz).
For LV loads supplied through a transformer
from a high-voltage service connection, this
means that a maximum value of 4 or 5% for
voltage THD is permissible at the LV
terminals of the transformer.
If this value of THD is unattainable, then
recourse has to be made to low-voltage L-C
series filters. Such filters are shunt-
connected, and are tuned to resonate at
harmonic frequencies to which they present
practically zero impedance.
Filters connected in this way fortuitously have
the added benefit of contributing to reactive-
power compensation for the installation.

power factor improvement - E23

 10. implementation of capacitor banks

E
10.1 capacitor elements
technology
fuse
The capacitors are dry-type units (i.e. are not
impregnated by liquid dielectric) comprising discharge
metallized polypropylene self-healing film in resistor
the form of a two-film roll. short-circuiting
contacts
They are protected by a high-quality system
(overpressure disconnector used with an overpressure
HPC fuse) which switches off the capacitor if device
an internal fault occurs.
The protection scheme operates as follows:
c a short-circuit through the dielectric will
blow the fuse,
c current levels greater than normal, but
insufficient to blow the fuse sometimes occur,
e.g. due to a microscopic flow in the dielectric
film. Such "faults" often re-seal due to local
heating caused by the leakage current, i.e.
the units are said to be "self-healing";
v if the leakage current persists, the defect
may develop into a short-circuit, and the fuse fig. E31: cross-section of a capacitor
will blow, element.
v gas produced by vaporizing of the
metallisation at the faulty location will
gradually build up a pressure within the
plastic container, and will eventually operate
a pressure-sensitive device to short-circuit
the unit, thereby causing the fuse to blow.
Capacitors are made of insulating material
providing them with double insulation and
avoiding the need for a ground connection.

electrical characteristics
standards IEC 831, NF C 54-104, VDE 0560
CSA standards, UL tests
operating rated voltage 400 V
range rated frequency 50 Hz
capacitance tolerance 0 to + 5%
temperature maximum temperature 55 °C
range average temperature over 24 h 45 °C
average annual temperature 35 °C
minimum temperature -25 °C
insulation level 50 Hz 1 mn withstand voltage: 6 kV
1.2/50 µs impulse withstand voltage: 25 kV
permissible current overload standard range H range
30% 50%
permissible voltage overload 10% 20%
current on 400 V - 50 Hz supply 2 A/kvar 2.2 A/kvar
consumption on 230 V - 50 Hz supply 3.5 A/kvar

E24 - power factor improvement


10.2 choice of protection, control devices, and connecting cables
due to the possible presence of
harmonic currents and to
manufacturing tolerances,
components must be over-sized, and
based on 1.5 times rated current.
component dimensions
The choice of upstream cables and protection
and control devices depends on the current
loading.
For capacitors, the current is a function of:
c the applied voltage and its harmonics,
c the capacitance value.
The nominal current In a capacitor of kvar
rating Q, supplied from a 3-phase system
having a phase/phase voltage of Un
kilo-volts, is given by:
Q the components will be necessary.
In = A
3 Un
The permitted range of applied voltage at
fundamental frequency, plus harmonic
components, together with manufacturing
tolerances of actual capacitance (for a
declared nominal value) can result in a 50%
increase above the calculated value of
current.
protection
At the instant of closing a switch to energize a
capacitor, the current is limited only by the
impedances of the network upstream of the
capacitor, so that high peak values of current
will occur for a brief period, rapidly falling to
normal operating values.
This transient overcurrent however, is
generally a high-frequency phenomenon,
which is superimposed on the 50 Hz
(or 60 Hz) current wave.
The first peak of transient high-frequency or
(sometimes) unidirectional* current has the
greatest magnitude. The maximum value
attainable, when charging an initially
uncharged capacitor, will occur if the closing
switch contacts touch at the instant of peak
power-supply voltage.
For this condition, the maximum high-
frequency peak current is given by:
2C
Ip = U A (all steps are electrically identical).
3 Lo
Where U = system phase-to-phase voltage in
Volts
C = capacitance of capacitor in Farads
Lo = inductance of system impedance in
Henrys (system resistance is ignored).
The frequency fo of the transient current
surge is given by:
1 Generally, the frequencies of the two infeeds
fo = Hz
2Π LoC
* In general, peak unidirectional currents are
lower than the first peaks of high-frequency
currents.
E
Approximately 30% of this increase is due to
the voltage increases, while a further 15% is
due to the range of manufacturing tolerances,
so that 1.3 x 1.15 = 1.5 In.
All components carrying the capacitor current
therefore, must be adequate to cover this
"worst-case" condition, in an ambient
temperature of 50 °C maximum.
In the case where higher temperatures (than
50 °C) occur in enclosures, etc. derating of
c for a single capacitor bank, the upstream
cables and transformers constitute the
predominant part of Lo (the system
inductance),
c where a bank of capacitors is automatically
switched in steps, however, those units which
are already in service will initially discharge
into an uncharged capacitor group at the
instant of switching it into service. The
transient in-rush current from the previously-
charged units will then amount to an initial
peak of
2C n
I' P = U ( )A
3 L n +1
where L = the supply cable inductance in
series with each capacitor
n = the number of capacitor steps already
energized before closure of the switch
C = capacitance of each group forming 1 step
The frequency f'o of the current from the
energized capacitors is given by
1
fo' = Hz
2Π LC
The total inrush current is the sum of the two
infeeds, i.e. from the system and from the
previously-charged bank.
will not be equal.
power factor improvement - E25
 10. implementation of capacitor banks (continued)

E
10.2 choice of protection, control devices, and connecting cables (continued)
The peak value of this transient current must
not exceed 100 times the rated current of the
capacitors in one step of a multi-step bank
(IEC 831-1). This maximum transient current
peak occurs when the last step is energized.
It is sometimes necessary to install small
series inductors to achieve this limitation, in
which case the manufacturer of the
capacitors should be consulted.
In order to avoid undesirable nuisance
tripping of controlling circuit breakers at the
instant of energizing a capacitor bank, the
instantaneous elements of overcurrent
tripping relays should be given a suitably high
setting.
Note: The short-circuit current-breaking rating of the circuit
breaker must be adequate to match the short-circuit level
existing at the point of connection of the capacitor bank.

cross-sectional area Section H1-2 of chapter H facilitates the

of conductors
The current rating of cables, as previously
noted, must be based on 1.5 times the
nominal current rating for the capacitor bank
concerned.
selection of suitable cables, or other types of
conductor, as a function of their
characteristics, method of installation, and
ambient temperature, etc.

voltage transients For any other values of voltage and polarity

High-frequency voltage transients
accompany the high-frequency current
transients, the maximum voltage transient
peak never (in the absence of steady-state
harmonics) exceeds twice the peak value of
rated voltage, when switching an uncharged
capacitor into service.
In the case of a capacitor being already
charged at the instant of switch closure,
however, the voltage transient can attain a
maximum value approaching 3 times the
normal rated peak value.
This maximum condition occurs only if:
c the existing voltage at the capacitor is equal
to the peak value of rated voltage, and
c the switch contacts close at the instant of
peak supply voltage, and
c the polarity of the power-supply voltage is
opposite to that of the charged capacitor.
In such a situation, the current transient will
be at its maximum possible value, viz: twice
that of its maximum when closing on to an
initially uncharged capacitor, as previously
noted.
on the pre-charged capacitor, the transient
peaks of voltage and current will be less than
those mentioned above. In the particular case
of peak rated voltage on the capacitor having
the same polarity as that of the supply
voltage, and closing the switch at the instant
of supply-voltage peak, there would be no
voltage or current transients.
Where automatic switching of stepped banks
of capacitors is considered, therefore, care
must be taken to ensure that a section of
capacitors about to be energized is fully
discharged.
The discharge delay time may be shortened,
if necessary, by using discharge resistors of a
lower resistance value.

E26 - power factor improvement

11. elementary harmonic filters

E
For this appendix, the more commonly- An exact analysis of the combination is not
occurring odd-numbered harmonics are simple, since each filter is affected by those
shown in the diagrams. in parallel with it, as well as by the power-
Before the advent of power-electronics, system source reactance shunting the filter
even-numbered harmonics were rarely bank (shown dotted in figure AE3-3).
encountered, so that the 100 Hz (on 50 Hz When all factors have been taken into
systems) separating one harmonic account, including a degree of damping
frequency from the next made the task of caused by the load impedance, the
filters (despite manufacturing tolerances, response of the filter bank in terms of its
and impedance changes with temperature, impedance at different frequencies is shown
etc.) relatively straightforward, so that in figure AE3-2.
satisfactory results were achieved (and still
IZI Ω
are in all but exceptional cases) by the
methods described below.
If it is required to eliminate (almost) a
harmonic voltage existing across two points
A and B in a network, a series-connected
LCR circuit (figure AE3-1(a)) tuned to fh/f50
resonate at the harmonic frequency
concerned, will constitute a virtual short- 1 5 7 11 13 (harmonic
circuit to the current of that harmonic order)
frequency, thereby reducing VAB(h) to fig. AE3-2.
practically zero.
It will be seen that, at each harmonic
The same procedure can be adopted for any
frequency for which a filter has been
number harmonic frequencies known to be
provided, the impedance is very low, while at
present, the individual filters being connected
intermediate frequencies, high-impedance
in parallel across the points A-B
values occur.
(figure AE3-1(b)).
Care should be taken to ensure that
(a) A frequencies corresponding to the low-
C impedance point are not close to control
frequencies (such as those of ripple-control
1 schemes used by many power companies
L f= for remote control of power-network devices).
2 π v LC
R Otherwise, the control signals will be virtually
short-circuited.
B Harmonic-producing equipment must create
the harmonic e.m.f.s. and resulting currents
(b) A in order to function correctly. The role of a
filter bank, as described, is to allow a free
flow of harmonic currents to circulate
protected between the harmonic source and the filter
harmonic bank, while practically eliminating these
source network and
power source currents and voltages from the rest of the
network.

B
fig. AE3-1.

Appendix E3 - 1
E
A

Zh
a loads X source
Vh

harmonic
source
5 7 11 13 B

filter bank
fig. AE3-3.
In figure AE3-3, it will be seen that since the
filters are practically short-circuits to
harmonics, most of the harmonic voltage Vh
will be dropped across the internal
impedance Zh of the harmonic source and
that small harmonic-current components only
will pass through the power-system source
impedance Xs and the loads (the latter having
relatively high impedance).
Since at fundamental frequency the
capacitive reactance of each filter is much
greater than its inductive reactance, most of
the power-frequency voltage will appear
across the capacitors, so that a useful
contribution to any power-factor correction
requirement is fortuitously available.

damped harmonic filters

As noted in Chapter E, Sub-clause 9.1, the
magnitude of harmonic emfs diminishes as
the order of the harmonic increases. The
filtering requirements are not, therefore, so
critical for high-order harmonics as those
necessary for lower-order harmonics.
For that reason, the filter for the highest
harmonic of a bank, such as that shown in
figure AE3-1 (b) is often damped, by
connecting a resistor in parallel with the
reactor.
The result is a filter which is less effective
(but adequate) at its tuned frequency, while
at all higher frequencies, the impedance will
be low (inductive/resistive), approaching the
value of the resistor only (figure AE3-4) as
the frequency increases (i.e. it forms a "high-
pass" filter).
Such a high-pass filter is commonly used for
the highest-order harmonic filter (the 11th or
13th for example) of a bank, as shown
dotted in figure AE3-3.
IZI Ω

R L

C R
r
Hz

fo
fig. AE3-4: damped filter circuit and
characteristic impedance/frequency
curve.
There are several variations of damped
filters and many combinations of band-pass
and undamped filters in service, according
to particular requirements.
In fact, the successful application of power
electronics devices is largely due to the
development of effective filtering techniques
which are, however, beyond the scope of
these brief notes.

2 - Appendix E3
12. harmonic suppression reactor for a single
(power factor correction) capacitor bank

As shown in Appendix E2, the crux of the
problem for capacitor banks is that a fraction
of the total component of a given harmonic
current can be magnified to dangerous levels
in a parallel LCR circuit if that circuit
resonates at the harmonic frequency
concerned.
By connecting a reactor L in series with the
capacitor bank, the parallel resonant
condition is moved away from the harmonic
frequency towards a lower frequency, as
shown in figure AE4-1 (b).
In fact, the circuit now resonates at two
different frequencies; the lower frequency is
due to the parallel Ls//LCR combination, and
the upper due to the series LCR circuit.
C
L (a) LS
R
IZI Ω series
parallel resonance fS
resonance power source
fP impedance
(b)
E
stepped banks of capacitors
Power-factor correction capacitor banks are
frequently made up of a number of switched
sections, so that the amount of compensation
can be adjusted to suit the requirements of a
changing load.
If all switched steps have the same kvar
rating, then the series resonant frequency of
each step must be the same, i.e. the first step
in service must fulfill the conditions of series
resonance already mentioned and shown in
figure AE4-1 (b). The addition of further
identical steps in parallel will not affect the
two resonant frequencies fp and fs.
This is because, although the capacitance
has increased n times (for n steps in service),
the inductance has reduced to 1/n times its
original value, so that the product LC, on
which the series resonant frequency
depends, remains constant.
By similar reasoning, it follows that mixed
steps of any kvar rating may be paralleled,
providing that every step is tuned to the same
series resonant frequency.

f (Hz)
f1 fp fS range of
unwanted
harmonic
frequencies
fig. AE4-1.
It is sufficient that the two resonant
frequencies be lower than those of the
harmonics to be protected against, to ensure
complete immunity from resonance. The
reason for this is that for frequencies higher
than the series-resonant frequency XL > XC so
that the LCR branch behaves as an
inductance + resistance series circuit. This
branch being in parallel with LS, the power-
system source inductance, no resonant
condition is possible.
Furthermore, the addition of reactor L means
that changes in the power-system source
reactance will have much less influence (than
formerly) on the parallel-resonant frequency,
since L generally has a much greater value
than LS (e.g. 2 to 9 times) and the parallel-
resonant frequency depends on L + LS.
It may be noted that, although a harmonic-
suppression reactor protects the capacitor
bank against the problem of resonance with
the source reactance, it does not reduce the
amount of harmonic current which passes
through the HV/LV transformer to the source.
Such currents must be eliminated by shunt-
connected series filters, as described in
Appendix E3.

Appendix E4 - 1
1. general

F
1.1 the principal schemes of LV distribution
In a typical LV installation, distribution circuits
originate at a main general-distribution board
(MGDB) from which cables are installed in
various kinds of cables-ways, conduits, etc.
to supply local distribution and sub-
distribution boards.
The arrangement of groups of insulated
conductors and the means of fixing them and
of protecting them from mechanical damage,
while respecting aesthetic considerations,
constitute the practical realization of an
electrical installation.
Circuit arrangements
The creation of independent circuits to
different parts of an installation allows:
c the limitation of consequences, on the
failure of a circuit;
c simplification in locating a defective circuit;
c maintenance work on, or extension of a
circuit may be effected without disturbing the
greater part of the installation.
Division of circuits falls logically into several
categories, each requiring an individual circuit
or group of circuits, and, in some cases,
particular kinds of cable (e.g. for fire-alarm
and protection circuits).
In general, the following circuit groups are
required:
c lighting circuits (the circuits on which the
majority of insulation failures occur);
c socket-outlet circuits;
c heating and/or air-conditioning appliances
circuits;
c power circuits for motor-driven fixed plant;
c power-supply circuits for auxiliary services
(indication and control);
c circuits for safety systems (emergency
lighting, fire-protection systems and
uninterruptible-power-supplies (UPS) circuits
for computer systems, etc.), the installation of
which is normally subject to strict national
regulations and codes of practice.
The most common distribution arrangements
for low-voltage installations are described in
the following pages.

* IEC 38 (1983).

distribution within a low-voltage installation - F1

 1. general (continued)

F
1.1 the principal schemes of LV distribution (continued)

radial branched distribution schemes,
in which conductor sizes are
progressively reduced at each point
of circuit sub-division are the most
commonly used systems in most
countries.
For socket-outlet circuits in certain
countries, a ring-main circuit is
standard, in which the conductor size
is the same throughout the circuit.
Circuit wires drawn through conduits,
as well as prefabricated bus
channels, are commonly used.
radial branched distribution
This scheme of distribution is practically
universal, and its realization generally follows
arrangements similar to those illustrated
below:
Advantages
One sub-divided circuit only will be isolated
(by fuses or MCCB) in case of a fault.
Location of the defect is simplified.
Conventional wiring installation (fig. F1)
in buildings intended for specific use:
dwellings, hotels, agricultural activities,
schools, etc.
Maintenance or extensions to the circuit
leaves the remainder of the installation in
service. Conductor sizes can be tapered to
suit the decreasing current levels towards
the final sub-circuits.
Disadvantages
A fault occurring on one of the cables from
the main distribution board will cut off supply
to all circuits of related downstream
distribution boards and sub-distribution
boards.
Advantages
Virtually unrestricted passage for cable
ways, conduits, trays, ducts, etc.

main distribution
board

distribution board
"A" worhshop

power lighting & heating

sub-distribution sub-distribution
board board

M M

process

fig. F1: radial branched distribution by conventional wiring at 3 levels.

With prefabricated bus channels at the Advantages

second level of distribution (fig. F2) for Flexibility of installation in large non-
industrial and tertiary sector installations. partitioned work-spaces, easy exploitation.

MGDB
(main
general
distribution
board)
D1 D2 D3 D4

to lighting
and heating
distribution
board

prefabricated a second prefabricated bus channel

bus channel

M M M

process

fig. F2: radial branched distribution using prefabricated bus channels at the second
level of distribution.
F2 - distribution within a low-voltage installation

With prefabricated bus-rail and pre-wired
channels at final-circuits level (fig. F3):
for offices, laboratories, etc.
F
Advantages
Aesthetically acceptable; flexible in locations
where partitioning may change according to
consumers requirements; easy exploitation.

main distribution
board

A B C

distribution
board
office C

to heating
control
board
prefabricated
pre-wired
columns,
skirting-board
channels,
etc...
bus rails
for
luminaires

fig. F3: radial branched distribution using prefabricated pre-wired channels and lighting
rails at final-circuits level.

simple (unbranched) radial

distribution
This scheme is used for the centralised
control of an installation or process dedicated
to a particular application, its control,
maintenance and surveillance.
Advantages
A fault (other than at the busbar level) will
clear one circuit only.
Disadvantages
Surplus of copper due to a multiplicity of
circuits. Protective-device characteristics
must be at a high level (proximity of source).

main distribution
board

M M M M

fig. F4: simple radial distribution.

distribution within a low-voltage installation - F3

 1. general (continued)
F
1.2 the main LV distribution board
The starting point for the design of an
electrical installation, and the physical
location of distribution and sub-distribution
boards, is the geographical division of the
loads, shown on plans of the building(s)
concerned.
The HV/LV substation, standby-supply plant,
and the main LV distribution board, should,
for both technical and economic reasons, be
placed as near to the electrical centre of the
load area as possible.
fig. F5: low-voltage main distribution board.
1.3 transition from IT to TN
In large LV installations, two voltage levels
are normally used:
c one level which is generally of 380 V, 400 V
or 415 V (or exceptionally 480 V) for power
circuits, which are mainly motors;
c and a second level of 220 V, 230 V or
240 V (or exceptionally 277 V) for lighting and
socket-outlet circuits.
The first set of voltages are the phase to
phase voltages of 3-phase systems, and
correspond respectively to the phase-to-
neutral voltages given in the second set. Very
often, particularly in factories and in some
hospitals, the system comprises the three
phase wires only, and operates as an IT
scheme (discussed fully in Chapter G
Clause 6).
In order to provide the lower voltages for
lighting circuits, etc. while at the same time
residual earth fault device
IT power
network
PE
protective
earthing
conductor
fig. F6: use of a LV/LV transformer to provide a 3-phase 3-wire TN system from a 3-phase
3-wire IT network.
F4 - distribution within a low-voltage installation
Many other factors must be considered
however, and in particular, the agreement of
the power-supply authority concerning the
HV/LV substation, and its related civil
engineering works. In fact, very often only the
main LV distribution board can be located at
the load centre, the HV/LV substation being
on the building line with the public way.
retaining, for those circuits requiring them, the
advantages of the IT scheme, LV/LV
delta/star transformers are used, as shown in
fig. F6.
In this way :
c a 3-phase 3-wire supply is available at the
secondary side of the LV/LV transformer with
phase-to-phase voltages of 220 V, 230 V or
240 V as required;
c all loads are connected phase-to-phase
only (see Note);
c earth faults occurring on the TN system will
be cleared rapidly by the TN system circuit
breaker and the advantages of the IT scheme
will be preserved.
TN lighting, etc
network
PE
protective
earthing
conductor
Note: in this scheme of
delta-connected loads, it
is essential that balanced
loading is maintained in
all three phases.
2. essential services standby supplies
2.1 continuity of electric-power supply
continuity of power supply is
achieved by:
c appropriate division of the
installation and the provision of
alternative supply sources,
c the provision of local emergency
standby generation,
c sub-division and duplication of
important circuits,
c the type of earthing scheme
(IT for example),
c discriminative protection schemes.
In order to achieve the highest possible plant
performance, it is necessary that the
continuity and quality of the electric-power
supply be assured.
A high degree of power-supply continuity can
be achieved by: dividing the installation;
providing more than one source, e.g. a ring-
main type service connection; automatic local
standby generation for essential services; the
sub-division of circuits; the choice of earthing
system (IT, TT, TN, etc.) and the use of
selective protection devices (fuses, relays).
the division of installations and
the provision of more than one
source
Ring-main type HV supplies, and (where the
installed load justifies the expense) two or
more HV/LV transformers, with provision for
interconnection of the LV main distribution
boards, is the most common way of ensuring
a high level of supply continuity from the
power network. The use of several
transformers allows a measure of separation
of loads which would otherwise cause an
unacceptable disturbance to other circuits, for
example:
c computer systems which are sensitive to
voltage regulation (dips and peaks) and to
waveform distortion (harmonics);
c circuits which create harmonics, such as
discharge lamps, electric converters of
various kinds (thyristor-controlled rectifiers,
inverters, motor-speed controllers, etc.);
c circuits which create excessive voltage
changes, such as large motors, arc furnaces,
etc.
These loads and others of similar
characteristics, i. e. loads susceptible to
disturbances, and loads creating them,
should preferably be supplied through
different HV/LV transformers. In this way, the
PCC (point of common coupling) is moved
from the LV busbars to the HV busbars,
where the effects are considerably less
between one group of loads and the next,
and in some cases are completely eliminated.
HV
LV
non-essential loads
fig. F7: essential and non-essential loads are separated, with automatic standby supplies
provided for essential loads.
F
A case in particular concerns 3rd harmonics
and all multiples of the 3rd harmonic*.
If delta/star HV/LV transformers are used,
then triplen harmonic currents on the LV side
of one transformer do not appear in the HV-
side conductors supplying it (the currents
circulate internally around the delta winding)
and so cannot affect neighbouring
transformers.
Moreover, any triplen harmonic voltages
which may be present on the HV busbars
(from directly-connected HV loads for
example) will not be transformed down to
LV by a delta/star transformer.
The separation of loads through transformers
in this way is sometimes referred to as
"de-coupling".
* Known as "triplen" harmonics. Triplen
harmonics are of zero-phase-sequence on
balanced 3-phase systems, which accounts
for their particular behaviour in delta/star
transformers.
the provision of standby
emergency power supplies
Examples of standby emergency power
supplies include: two separate HV/LV
substations, a privately-owned power plant,
diesel-generator sets, uninterruptible static
power supply equipment (UPS).
the sub-division of circuits
Circuits are divided into groups according to
their relative importance. In general, two
groups, commonly referred to as "essential"
and "non-essential" loads are separated and
supplied from different busbars.
Figure F7 shows a typical arrangement of an
automatic changeover scheme to provide LV
standby power to an "essential" loads
distribution board.
standby generator ant automatic changeover
contactor NORMAL-STANDBY
essential loads
inverter
sensitive load
(computer, etc.)
distribution within a low-voltage installation - F5
 2. essential services standby supplies (continued)

F
2.1 continuity of electric-power supply (continued)
A sub-group of the essential loads, namely
computer and information technology
equipment (ITE), requires the highest degree
of continuity, stable voltage level, and quality
of wave form. These requirements are met by
a static UPS inverter system.
Supply from HV from a private power plant or
a HV substation from a different HV substation
HV HV
LV LV
essential non-essential essential non-essential
loads loads loads loads
fig. F8: an example of HV standby power
supply.
choice of earthing system
Where considerations of supply continuity are
paramount, e.g. in continuous-process
manufacturing, hospital operating theatres,
etc., the IT scheme* of earthing is generally
adopted.
This scheme allows normal (and safe)
system operation to continue in the event of
an earth-fault (by far the most common type
of insulation failure). A shutdown to trace the
fault manually or automatically (see G 6.2)
and effect repairs can then be carried out
later, at any convenient time (e.g. at the end
of a manufacturing process, etc.).
A second earth fault (if it occurs on a different
phase or on a neutral conductor) will,
however, constitute a short-circuit fault, which
will cause overcurrent relays to trip the
circuit(s).
* Chapter F Sub-clause 4-5 discusses the
matter of earthing schemes in more detail.
selective discrimination
by protection relays and/or fuses
The prime objective in any scheme of
automatic protection against insulation faults,
over-loading, etc., is to trip the circuit breaker
or blow the fuse(s) which control(s) the
faulted circuit only, leaving all other circuit
breakers and fuses unaffected.
In radial branched installations, this means
the nearest upstream circuit breaker or
fuse(s) to the fault position. All downstream
loads then being inevitably deprived of
supply.
The short-circuit (or overload) current will
generally pass through one or more circuit
breaker(s) or fuse(s) upstream of the circuit
breaker (or fuses) controlling the faulted
cable.
By "discrimination" is meant that none of the
upstream protective devices through which
the fault (or overload) current flows will
operate before the protective device
controlling the faulted circuit has operated.
In general, discrimination is achieved by
increasing the operating time of relays as
their location in a network becomes closer to
the power source. In this way, the failure to
operate of the relay closest to the fault means
that the next relay upstream will operate in a
slightly longer time.
closed
closed open
fig. F9: the principle of selective
discrimination.

2.2 quality of electric-power supply

public and private power-supply
networks are subject to diverse
disturbances, the level and frequency
of which must be controlled and
maintained within acceptable limits.
Among the most onerous are:
c voltage drops, or sudden peaks
and dips,
c flicker,
c overvoltages,
c harmonic voltages and currents,
particularly odd-numbered harmonics
(3rd, 5th...),
c high-frequency phenomena.
Power network disturbances may be of a
continuous or transitory nature. The most
important of these, in terms of the design and
operation of a network, are:
c excessive dips (occasional voltage drops,
from 15 to 90% of Un, from half a cycle to
1 s) and peaks of the supply voltage at
normal frequency;
c flicker, i.e. repetitive voltage drops of less
than 10%, e.g. due to welding machines,
photocopiers, etc.;
c overvoltage surges;
c harmonic currents and voltages, particularly
the odd harmonics (3rd, 5th...);
c high-frequency phenomena.

F6 - distribution within a low-voltage installation


the undesirable effects of voltage
dips are countered in various ways,
depending on the apparatus in
question. Some common remedies
include:
c automatic load shedding and re-
connection,
c the use of uninterruptible power-
supply units,
c high-torque motors,
c use of lamps which do not
extinguish during dips, and other
solutions.
the damaging effects of overvoltages
can be avoided:
c for overvoltages at power-system
frequency by:
v assuring adequate overvoltage
withstand capability for the
equipment concerned,
v the use of voltage limiting devices
where required, in a properly
co-ordinated insulation scheme.
These devices are always necessary
in IT earthed systems,
c for transitory (generally impulse-
type) overvoltages, by:
v the application of lightning
arresters,
v correct coordination in the
insulation scheme noted above.
voltage depressions of short
duration ("dips")
Types of voltage dip
According to the duration of the undervoltage
condition, the origin of the dip may be due to
one of the following causes:
c less than 0.1 second: short-circuit faults
occurring anywhere on local LV networks,
and cleared by protective devices (relays,
fuses, etc.). This kind of dip is the most
common in "standard" systems, i.e. as
opposed to networks close to heavy industry,
where large disturbances are frequent;
c from 0.1 to 0.5 seconds: most of the faults
occurring on HV systems fall into this
category;
c above 0.5 seconds: on rural networks
where auto-reclosing circuit breakers are
common, several successive dips may be
experienced before the fault is cleared.
Other reasons for voltage dips exceeding
0.5 seconds include the starting of local
electric motors (central station fire-alarm
sirens produce cyclic dips in the neighbouring
distribution network, for example); lift motors
will affect local consumers, and so on...
Some consequences and solutions
Among the numerous undesirable
consequences of voltage dips, the following
may be cited:
c depending on the severity of the dip and
the type of loads in a given installation, there
can be the risk of a heavy current surge
occurring at the restoration of normal voltage,
with the consequent tripping of main circuit
breakers on overcurrent.
A possible solution is a scheme of automatic
load shedding and staged re-connection of
overvoltages
Types of overvoltage
Overvoltages are distinguished in a general
way, according to their origin:
c overvoltage surges due to lightning are
referred to as being of atmospheric origin.
These overvoltages mainly affect overhead
transmission and distribution lines, outdoor
substation equipment, and switchgear and
transformers, etc., connected directly to such
exposed plant.
The frequency of such surges occurring is
related to the so-called keraunic level of the
region and to the types of network
concerned, i.e. underground cables or
overhead lines.
The keraunic level is defined as the number
of days per annum on which the sound of
thunder is heard at the location concerned.
c operational overvoltages.
Switching at high voltage can produce surges
of voltage similar to those of atmospheric
origin; while on LV networks, the blowing of
fuses to clear fault current can also produce
relatively severe surges of overvoltage. At HV
distribution voltage levels, switching
overvoltages are adequately suppressed by
standard lightning arresters.
c overvoltage on an LV installation due to
faults on an HV system, for example:
v a direct HV/LV fault occurring between the
primary and secondary windings of a
transformer, or a HV line touching a LV
overhead-line distributor, etc.,
v due to the flow of earth-fault current from a
HV fault or lightning stroke, which passes
through a substation earthing system that is
F
apparatuses requiring high restarting
currents, e.g. cold incandescent lamps and
resistive heating loads;
c in all computer-based applications, such as:
word processing, information technology,
machine-tool control, and so on, voltage dips
are unacceptable, since the loss of
information or destruction of a programme
can occur, with catastrophic consequences.
Some degree of voltage variation can be
tolerated and voltage-stabilizing circuits are
built-in for this purpose, but the universal
solution for important installations is the use
of uninterruptible power supply (UPS) units,
based on trickle-charged storage cells and
inverters, associated with automatically-
controlled diesel-generator sets;
c for an electric motor, the deceleration
during a voltage dip (torque α V2) means that
its back-e.m.f. will very likely be out-of-phase
with the restored voltage. This constitutes
(more or less, depending on the degree of
phase difference) conditions of short-circuit,
with a corresponding heavy current flow. In
certain cases, excessive transient torques
may occur, with a risk of damaging shafts and
couplings, etc.
A common remedy is to install high-inertia
high peak-torque motors where the driven
load allows;
c some types of discharge lamp (notably
mercury-vapour lamps) used for public
lighting, extinguish below a certain voltage
level, and require several minutes (to cool)
before re-igniting. The remedy is to use other
types of lamp or to mix non-extinguishing
lamps, in sufficient number to maintain a safe
level of illumination.
common to both the HV and LV networks.
Methods of protection against the dangers of
such overvoltages are described in
Chapter C Sub-clause 3.1.
Consequences and solutions
All appliances, plant, and equipment must
have a basic overvoltage withstand ability.
Electric motors are particularly susceptible to
winding insulation failure in the presence of
high-frequency high-voltage surges, while
computer installations and related electronic
processing equipments are frequently
provided with independent (battery based)
supplies, which not only assure a high quality
level of harmonic-free stable voltage as
already described, but effectively isolate
sensitive circuits from the kind of voltage
surges in question.
In industrial installations, protection against
overvoltage is considered to be achieved if all
components of the installation have been
successfully tested for power-frequency
overvoltage withstand ability, and the
measures described below have been taken
to protect against high-frequency high-voltage
and unidirectional surge phenomena.
c tests at normal power frequency.
The dielectric withstand test voltage at normal
power frequency for most LV materials is
2U + 1,000 volts for 1 minute (or close to this
value - discussions are still underway in the
IEC). In IT-earthed systems a voltage-limiting
device between the supply-transformer
neutral point and earth is obligatory for
protection against power-frequency and
possible induced-surge type overvoltages.
distribution within a low-voltage installation - F7
 2. essential services standby supplies (continued)

F
2.2 quality of electric-power supply (continued)
c measures against transient impulse-type
overvoltage surges.
These measures depend, in addition to a
basic impulse-voltage withstand capability of
the insulating materials, on the application of
lightning arresters at the origin of the
installation, together with voltage-surge
suppression devices at sensitive points in the
installation (e.g. at terminals of large motors).
Such schemes require careful study and are
best carried out in cooperation with the
relevant manufacturers.
For LV installations, the transference of surge
voltages through the interwinding
capacitances of the HV/LV transformer
reduces considerably the severity of the
overvoltage on the LV side, compared to that
on the HV side.
Transformers with earthed screens between
HV and LV windings may also be used to
provide a costly but effective method of
eliminating the problem.
v impulse voltage withstand capability of
insulating materials.
The basic test applies a standardized
lightning voltage impulse of the form shown in
figure F11, characterized by the values
1.2/50 µs. These two values (in micro
seconds) indicate the time interval for the
wave to attain its peak value from the
(defined) instant of impulse initiation (i.e.
1.2 µs) and the time for the impulse to fall to
50% of its peak value (50 µs). These values
are called "front time" and "time to half value"
respectively.
The peak value is designated by Uimp
(imp = impulse).
Other impulse test wave-forms, notably for
representing switching overvoltages, are
used for test purposes, but these tests are
relevant only for very high system voltages,
beyond the ranges used for distribution.
Table F10 shows maximum values of peak
overvoltage assumed to be possible at
different points in a typical LV installation.
Note: Materials tested to IEC standards have
an impulse withstand capability of 123% of
the values shown in Table F10, for altitudes of
0-2,000 metres.

nominal voltage of the installation levels of distribution

main distribution local final circuits

board distribution level
board
230/400 V 6 kV 4 kV 2.5 kV
400/690 V 8 kV 6 kV 4 kV
table F10: assumed levels of transient overvoltage possible at different points of a typical
installation.
v industrial switchgear.
concerning overvoltages, IEC The levels indicated in Table F12 are
kV

Publication 947 takes account of
the rules governing insulation
coordination and requires that
LV switchgear be impulse tested
according to the withstand values
abstracted from IEC Publication 947. During
the several impulse-voltage tests, no break
down of insulation must occur between 9,8kV
phases between open contacts or between
any phase and earth.
Table F12 also includes a test for switchgear,
50%

shown in the relevant tables.
the front face of which is insulated to class II
level, but at the same time including an
accessible manual-operating handle. This
1,2 50 µs
feature provides additional safety for
operating personnel. fig. F11: standardized impulse voltage
Note: all Compact* and Masterpact* circuit wave-form 1.2/50 µs.
breakers have the class II front face feature.
* Merlin Gerin brand names.

application of impulse-voltage values

impulse voltage circuit breakers circuit breakers/ circuit breakers/isolators
isolators + class II front face
between phases 9.8 kV 9.8 kV 9.8 kV
across the open 9.8 kV 12.3 kV 12.3 kV
circuit breaker
between phases and earth 9.8 kV 9.8 kV 14.7 kV
table F12: typical levels of impulse withstand voltage of industrial circuit breakers labelled
Uimp = 8 kV.
v use of lightning arresters. strongly recommended, regardless of the
Lightning arresters are necessary (obligatory keraunic level, where equipment known to be
in some countries) where an installation is susceptible to damage from overvoltage
supplied by a low-voltage overhead line and surges is installed.
the keraunic level is 25 or more. Their use is

F8 - distribution within a low-voltage installation

 F
Arresters are commonly installed at each end This potential will be transferred to the phase
of the LV line, generally on the first pole away conductors of the installation, as described in
from the HV/LV transformer position and on chapter C sub-clause 3.1.
the pole at which the consumers service If the installation earth electrode is beyond
cable is connected to the line. In this the zone of influence of the arresters
arrangement the voltage will not exceed electrode, then a TT-earthed system is
3-4.5 kV, the wave front being chopped at this commonly used. If not, then the more-costly
level. The withstand value of LV components TN-C-S system and equipotential "cage"
is normally standardized at 6 kV earthing scheme will be necessary.
for a 1.2/50 µs impulse, and equipments
complying with such standards are therefore
adequately protected.
Assuming that the neutral conductor and the
lightning arresters are connected to the same
earth electrode, then the discharge current
through the arresters will raise the potential of
the neutral conductor, more or less, according
to the resistance of the several different earth
electrodes to which it is connected.

the undesirable effects of harmonic harmonic voltages and currents

voltages and currents are minimized
by:
c over-sizing of components
(e.g. capacitors),
v increasing insulation levels
v increasing current-carrying
capability
c isolation of a harmonic source by
supplying it through a separate
HV/LV transformer,
c use of harmonics filters.
Sources and types of harmonics
The principal sources of harmonics are:
c electromagnetic machines and devices,
such as: iron-cored inductances, transformers
(magnetizing currents), motors and
generators and so on, and results from the
non-linear relationship between current and
magnetic flux produced by the current in
ferro-magnetic materials.
This non-linearity produces odd-order
harmonics (principally 3rd order) with some
additional harmonics from rotating machines,
which are related to winding slots in the
magnetic circuits (slot ripple);
c computer installations;
c discharge lamps and ballasts (both lamps
and ballasts are highly nonlinear);
c static 3-phase converters of various kinds
(inverters, speed controllers for a.c. motors,
rectifiers and so on) which depend on
thyristor control and current-chopping
techniques. The harmonic generation is
variable according to the function, but in
general the 5th and 7th harmonics are
prominent, while (unlike the ferromagnetic
sources) the 2nd harmonic may be present;
c arc furnaces create a continuous spectrum
of random disturbances. If the arc is d.c.,
supplied through static thyristor-controlled
rectifiers, then the random perturbations are
of lower average amplitude and the
harmonics produced by the rectifiers are
relatively significant.
Consequences
Harmonics give rise to (among others) the
following consequences:
c the need to oversize certain network and
installation components:
v oversizing of conductors (refer to the
manufacturers of the products concerned),
v oversizing of neutral conductors (of a
3-phase 4-wire system) particularly for
discharge- or fluorescent-lighting circuits; for
example, a 33% 3rd-harmonic content in the
current of each phase produces 100%
3rd-harmonic current in the neutral conductor
(since 3rd harmonic currents have zero-
phase-sequence on 3-phase systems, and
add arithmetically),
v oversizing of alternators (e.g. in diesel-
generating sets). Refer to the manufacturers
of single-phase static rectifiers and inverters
for guidance. The value of the subtransient
reactance of the alternator and the type of
loads are important factors,
v oversizing of transformers,
v oversizing of capacitor banks,
c local overheating of magnetic circuits in
motors;
c possibility of resonance between network
capacitances and inductances (ferro-
resonances) or between capacitor banks and
the system source impedance (mainly
inductive).
For the latter case, the manufacturer of the
capacitor banks should be able to advise on
suitable filtering arrangements.
Solutions
In general, an installation cannot tolerate a
significant percentage of harmonics: a value
of 5% maximum is a limit often
recommended.
Reducing the harmonic content of a system
to an acceptable level consists of:
c using delta/star LV/LV transformers to
isolate the 3rd (and odd multiples of the
3rd-harmonic);
c installing filters. Filters are of two kinds:
v shunt-connected, series-resonant:
extremely effective for a particular harmonic
(the 5th for example) and is used in
association with others for selective filtration
of harmonic voltages, to which they present a
virtual short-circuit,
v damped filter: less efficient, but covering a
wide band of frequencies. The action of a
damped filter is described in Appendix F1,
v harmonic-suppression reactor, series
connected to a capacitor bank. The action of
a series harmonic-suppression reductor is
described in Appendix F1.
distribution within a low-voltage installation - F9
 2. essential services standby supplies (continued)
F
2.2 quality of electric-power supply (continued)
the undesirable effects of inductive
(electric or magnetic) or common-
impedance coupling between
adjacent circuits at power-system
frequency (with its harmonics and
superimposed high-frequency
disturbances) together with high-
frequency radiated electromagnetic
waves, are minimized by:
c the selection of appropriate
materials,
c specific studies.
F10 - distribution within a low-voltage installation
electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC)
This subject concerns all cases of coupling,
by common impedance and induction
(electric or magnetic) at fundamental
frequency and harmonic frequencies,
together with unidirectional and H.F. surges,
and radiated electromagnetic waves,
provoked by normal (switching, etc.) and
abnormal (system faults, lightning, etc.)
operating conditions.
The unifying feature of all inductive
phenomena is that electric, magnetic, or
radiated electromagnetic fields, or different
combinations of any number of them, result in
producing emfs in any conducting medium in
their paths.
Essential differences are as follows:
c electric or magnetic fields at power-system
frequency and its harmonics do not, for all
practical purposes, leave the space
immediately surrounding their point of origin,
namely a charged conductor (electric field) or
a current-carrying conductor (magnetic field).
Moreover, the field strength in both cases
varies inversely with the distance squared
from the conductor*, i.e. their zone of
influence rapidly diminishes with distance
from the conductor.
c the amount of energy leaving a conductor
in the form of an electromagnetic wave
depends on the acceleration of electrons.
This is why, for example, at the instant of
switching on a lamp, the radiation due to the
initial acceleration of electrons can be heard
in a radio receiver (i.e. the switching-transient
current). All disturbances on power systems
which cause electrons to accelerate, whether
in a unidirectional or oscillatory manner, will
cause a radiated wave to leave the conductor
and propagate through space.
The higher the frequency, the greater the
acceleration of electrons, and the greater the
portion of energy leaving the circuit as
radiation.
The field strength of a propagated wave
varies inversely as the distance from the
conductor, i.e. its zone of influence is much
greater than that of the electric or magnetic
fields noted above.
c a further difference between the above
cases is that a non-radiating electric field can
be much stronger than its associated
magnetic field, for example, in a high-voltage
high-impedance (low current) circuit, and
vice-versa, i.e. in a low-voltage low-
impedance (high current) circuit.
Whereas in a radiated wave the energy in the
electric field is exactly equal to that of the
magnetic field, the circuit of origin generally
being a capacitive/inductive combination
where XC = XL at the frequency of natural
resonance. It may be noted that in the context
of the present discussion, the effects of a
radiated wave have not, until recently, been
very important. With the increasing use of
walkie-talkies, mobile transmitters and
cordless telephones, etc., however, this
aspect of EMC will require closer attention
than hitherto.
The emfs induced by one or more of the
three possible modes are generally of the
order of milli- or micro-volts. However, certain
modern electronic circuits have enormous
amplifying power, while at the same time in
other circuits minute currents and voltages
are normal and the circuit components are
correspondingly fragile.
equipment
It is for the foregoing reasons that electronic
equipment requires special care, and full
protection against interference from any
propagated or direct-coupled source.
Other sources, commonly causing problems,
include:
c "white-noise" from fluorescent and other
types of discharge lamps;
c radiation from ignition systems of internal
combustion engines;
c commercial and amateur radio transmitters,
radio-directed taxis, walkie-talkies, etc.;
c mains-borne interference through
conductors in the installation, for example:
the opening of contactor coils or circuit
breaker tripping coils.
The European Directive of 3rd March 1989,
concerning electromagnetic compatibility,
imposes a maximum level of permitted
radiation from electrical installations and their
component parts (the practical application of
the methods to adopt is still being studied at
the time of publication of this guide).
earthing arrangements and
equipotential bonding-guidance
for installation contractors
The following notes have been abstracted
from November 1993 IEC draft proposal
documents.
Protection against electromagnetic
interference (EMI)
Lightning currents in a lightning protection
system (LPS) or in the vicinity of a building
can cause overvoltages in electrical
installations of buildings by induction. This is
the case if large metal loops exist, where
different electrical wiring systems for the
supply of different electrical equipment, e.g.
for power supply and for information
technology, are installed on different routes.
In practice, a very common example is the
connection of earthed conductors of power
supply cables and of cables for information
technology systems in a wide (extensive)
mesh.
Furthermore, equipotential bonding systems,
building constructions or pipe systems for
non-electrical supplies, e.g. for water, gas,
heating or air conditioning, can also present
such induction loops.
When non-electrical pipe-systems or metal
parts of the building construction are
connected with the equipotential bonding
system of the building, these metal parts may
contribute to a screening effect which
reduces the induction and contributes to the
protection against electromagnetic
interference.
The value of the induced voltage depends on
the rate of rise (di/dt) of the lightning current,
and on the size of the loop.
* except in very close proximity to the conductor, where it
varies inversely as the distance cubed.
 F
Power cables carrying large currents with a L
high rate of rise of current (di/dt) (e.g. the N
starting current of lifts or currents controlled PE
by rectifiers) can induce overvoltages in I
cables of information technology systems, equipment 1
which may influence or damage the related
electrical equipment.
In or near rooms for medical use, electric or
magnetic fields of electrical installations may
interfere with medical electrical equipment (a loop
new clause for Section 710 of IEC 364,
concerning such situations is currently under equipment 2
consideration).
Recommended measures for reduction in the
effect of induced overvoltages depend on
adequate equipotential bonding, screening,
physical separation, use of filters and surge I
suppressors.
Consideration must be given by the planner
and designer of electrical installations to the
following:
1. Location of potential sources of
interferences relative to sensitive equipment.
2. Location of sensitive equipment relative to
heavily loaded centres, busbars or
fig. F13: neutral currents in a
equipment, e.g. lifts.
TN-S system.
3. Provision of filters and/or surge
suppressors in the circuits feeding sensitive L
electrical equipment. PEN
4. Bonding of metal enclosures and
screening. I1
I1 equipment 1
5. Adequate separation of power and signal
cables and crossovers at right angles.
6. Avoidance of induction loops by selection
of a common route for the wiring systems. I6
See also item 17 of this list. I1
7. Use of signal cables, screened and/or in I6 loop
I3
twisted pairs.
8. Bonding connections should be made as equipment 2
short as possible.
9. Wiring systems with single core conductors I6
should be enclosed in bonded metal I6
enclosures. I5
10. Avoidance of TN-C system (see sub- I4
clause F 4.2 and clause G5) in installations
with sensitive equipment; see figure F13.
For buildings which have, or are likely to I5
have, significant information technology
equipment installed, consideration must be
given to the use of separate protective
conductors (PE) and neutral conductors (N)
beyond the incoming supply point, in order to fig. F14: neutral currents in a
minimise the possibility of over-current and TN-C system.
EMC problems, due to the passage of neutral
current through signal cables (see figures
F13 and F14).
11. For TN-C-S systems, there are two
possibilities depending on the arrangement
for interconnection of equipment and
extraneous conductive parts within the
building:
c avoidance of the "TN-C section" of the
TN-C-S system for distribution within the
building, i.e. make the separation (of the PE
conductor from the PEN conductor) at the
origin of the installation;
c avoidance of loops between different "TN-S
sections" of the TN-C-S system within the
building (see figure F14).

distribution within a low-voltage installation - F11

 2. essential services standby supplies (continued)
F
2.2 quality of electric-power supply (continued)
12. Cables and pipes (e.g. for water, gas or
heating) for feeding the building should enter
the building at the same place.
Bonding of metal sheaths, screens and metal
pipes and connections of these parts with the
main equipotential bonding (MEB) of the
building (see figure F15).
13. Avoidance of potential differences
between different areas of equipotential
bonding should be achieved by the use of
metal-free fibre optic cable or other non-
conducting interconnecting systems such as
microwave or laser links.
Note: the problem of earth differential
voltages on large public telecommunication
networks are the responsibility of the network
operator, who may employ other methods.
Provisions for electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC)
Signal connections
In buildings which include a PEN conductor,
or where there are EMC problems on signal
cables due to inadequate EMC provisions in
the electrical installations, the following
methods may be considered to avoid or
minimise the problem.
14. Use of fibre optic links for signal
connections.
15. Use of Class II equipment.
16. Use of local transformers with separate
windings (double wound transformers) for the
supply of the information technology
equipment, taking into account the
requirements of IEC 364-3, sub-clause
312.2.3 and IEC 364-4, sub-clause 413.1.5,
for IT* systems (local IT* systems), or of
clause 413-5, for protection by electrical
separation (e.g. transformers according to
IEC 742).
17. Use of suitable wiring (cabling) routing in
order to minimise the enclosed area of
common loops formed by the supply cables
and signal cables.
* not to be confused with Information Technology. IT
earthing systems are defined in sub-clause F 4.2.
Information Technology equipment may be
subject to malfunction due to currents and
voltages induced in equipment or between
interconnected equipment.
Further examples of basic techniques used to
achieve immunity to incoming
electromagnetic disturbances are:
a) to provide inherent immunity in the
Information Technology equipment, either
electrically or by use of error correction,
telephone
power supply
MEB
I I
V U=0
cable
from the
antenna I antenna
water
district heating
gas
waste water
fig. F15: introduction of armoured cables and metal pipes into buildings (examples).
a) a common introduction is suitable, U = 0
b) introduction at different places is not suitable, U ≠ 0.
F12 - distribution within a low-voltage installation
b) to separate the Information Technology
equipment from the sources of disturbance,
c) to provide equipotential bonding between
equipment for the relevant range of
frequencies,
d) to provide a low impedance earth
reference plane to minimize earth potential
differential voltages and provide shielding.
There is a continuous range of earthing and
equipotential bonding methods to achieve
electromagnetic compatibility. The following
methods exemplify this range.
Method 1: radially connected protective
conductors (see figure F16)
This uses the normal protective conductors
associated with the supply conductors. The
protective conductor at each equipment
provides a relatively high impedance path for
electromagnetic disturbances (other than
mains-borne transients) such that inter-unit
signal cables are subject to a large proportion
of the incident noise. Equipment must
therefore have a high immunity to function
satisfactorily.
By providing a dedicated supply circuit and
earthing system serving the Information
Technology equipment, incident disturbances
can be much reduced. In some cases, the
star earthing point (e.g. the PE bar in the
relevant distribution board) of the radially
connected protective and functional earthing
conductors for the Information Technology
equipment may be earthed by a separate
dedicated insulated conductor connected to
the main earthing terminal.
Method 2: use of a local horizontal
equipotential bonding system (mesh)
(see figure F17)
The normal protective conductors are
supplemented by equipotential bonding of the
components of the Information Technology
system to a local mesh (bonding mat).
Depending on the frequency and the mesh
spacing, this can provide a low impedance
earth reference plane for signal
interconnections between those system
components in close proximity to the mesh.
As with Method 1, additional immunity may
be provided by a separate dedicated
Information Technology supply circuit and
earthing system, including the bonding mesh,
from other supply circuits and earthing
systems and extraneous conductive parts
such as building metalwork.
earth electrode telephone
embedded in power supply
the foundation
V
cable
from the U≠0
water I
district heating
gas
waste water

Method 2 may be extended where necessary
by the installation of bonding meshes on
other floors. All such meshes are
interconnected by (numerous) vertical
bonding conductors to minimize potential
differences in the meshes.
Method 1 is most easily implemented,
especially in existing buildings. The difficulty
and cost of implementation increases through
Method 2 and its possible extensions.
However, these are more likely to provide an
acceptable environment for unspecified future
Information Technology equipment.
F
The foregoing information concerning
Methods 1 and 2 has been abstracted from a
November 1993 draft proposal for a new
section (548) of IEC 364 Part 5 Chapter 54.
In the case of particular difficulties, it may be
necessary to consult specialists.
For current projects, and in the absence of
more precise information, it is recommended
that materials be selected which satisfy the
requirements indicated in table F18.

PE PE PE
signal cables signal cables
ITE ITE ITE

ITE - Information Technology Equipment

distribution board

main earthing terminal

or earthing-bus-conductor

fig. F16: radially connected protective conductors.

PE PE PE
signal cables signal cables
ITE ITE ITE

distribution board

main earthing terminal

or earthing-bus-conductor

fig. F17: local horizontal bonding mesh.

disturbance reference level

minimum recommended
electrostatic discharge IEC 801-2 level 3 (8 kV) level 4 (15 kV)
field strength IEC 801-3 level 2 level 3
(3 V/m) (10 V/m)
high speed repetitive transient IEC 801-4 level 2 level 4
"bursts" (contact bounce)
transient overvoltages IEC 60.2
at the origin 690 V 10 kV
of the installation 400 V 7.5 kV
other cases 690 V 7.5 kV
400 V 5 kV
current waves IEC 8/20 µs 80 A 200 A
(lightning, switch closing) (in preparation)
table F18: compatibility levels for installation materials.

distribution within a low-voltage installation - F13

 2. essential services standby supplies (continued)
F
2.2 quality of electric-power supply (continued)
it is possible, within a low-voltage
installation, to provide a supply of
High Quality (free from disturbances)
for dedicated circuits specifically
intended to supply highly sensitive
equipments, such as computer-
based appliances, etc.
F14 - distribution within a low-voltage installation
High Quality Supplies HV Diesel
The objective is to supply sensitive LV generator
equipment (information-technology devices,
cash registers, micro-processors, etc.) from a
source which is free from the pollution
discussed above, at a reasonable cost.
The diagram of figure F19 represents a
scheme at the level of the main general
distribution board.
The High Quality supply is achieved by
means of an inverter and its associated
UPS
battery of storage cells and rectifier (charger),
which is supplied, in normal circumstances,
from one outgoing-way of the main general
distribution board. Continuity of supply is
assured by means of a diesel-generator set
and automatic changeover switch, so that an
uninterrupted power supply can be
maintained indefinitely (if personnel are fig. F19: example of the production of
available to top up the fuel tank) or for several High Quality power supply.
hours if the substation is unattended.
3. safety and emergency-services installations, and standby
power supplies

3.1 safety installations
the provision of safety and
emergency installations is a legal
obligation.
Safety and emergency-services installations
are governed by statutory regulations,
concerning:
c establishments receiving the public;
c high-rise apartment blocks;
c establishments in which people are
employed (offices, shops, factories, etc.).
They must be provided with the means for
ensuring the safe evacuation of personnel,
notably:
c security and safety lighting;
c alarms and warning systems;
c automatic fire detection;
c fire-extinguishing systems;
c smoke evacuation;
F
c air compressors for the pressure-operated
fire-extinguishing system;
c water pumps for re-filling the fire-
extinguishing system.
Apart from the general rules noted above,
there are certain projects for which the safety
regulations are related to a particular process
(petro-chemical, cement works...) or services
(tunnel lighting, airport runway lighting...).
Note: power supplies for security lighting are
described in Chapter J, Sub-clause 4.6.

3.2 standby reserve-power supplies

standby reserve-power plant is an
economic necessity in numerous
circumstances where loss of supply
would have far-reaching
consequences.
Among the many applications in which an It may be noted that where several
interruption of power supply cannot be emergency-services standby sources exist,
tolerated, the following may be cited: they can also be used as reserve-power
c information technology installations sources, on condition that any one of them is
(protection of data concerning insurances, available and capable of starting and
banking, professional practices, supplying all safety and emergency circuits,
administrations...); and that the failure of one of them does not
c industrial processes (continuity of "feed" affect the normal functioning of the others.
material for continuous processing, boiler
feed-water pumps in power stations, paper
production, desalination plants...);
c food-processing industry (refrigeration
plants, egg-hatching...);
c telecommunications;
c scientific research;
c surgical operating theatres;
c ticketing, plane reservations, cash
registers...;
c military.

fig. F20: examples of reserve power supplies: central storage battery (left) and diesel-generator sets (right).

distribution within a low-voltage installation - F15

 3. safety and emergency-services installations, and standby
power supplies (continued)

F
3.3. choice and characteristics of reserve-power supplies
Apart from perceptible (albeit very brief) cuts
in power supply, imperceptible interruptions
of several milli-seconds are sufficient to
interfere with certain equipments. As
previously noted, UPS systems are essential
in these cases, and are used together with
the reserve-power source, to ensure the
utmost security.

principal specifications
In order to satisfy the requirement of
economical exploitation, the following
features are imperative:
c supply interruption is not tolerated:
v in information technology (IT) systems,
v in continuous-process operations, except
for loads of high inertia which can tolerate an
interruption in the order of 1 second;
c period for conserving data in information
technology (IT) systems: 10 minutes;
c autonomy is desirable for reserve-power
supplies installations; it is a function of the
economics related to exploitation beyond the
minimum demanded for the safety (only) of
personnel.
Specifications particular to safety
installations
Regulations covering safety installations
contain a number of conditions to be
respected concerning their electric-power
sources:
c duration time of an interruption: according
to the case, the following choices are
imposed:
v no break,
v a break of less than 1 second,
v a break of less than 15 seconds;
c autonomy demanded for the reserve-power
source: in general it corresponds to the time
necessary to complete all safety operations
for persons: for example, the time to
evacuate an ERP (Establishments for
Receiving the Public): 1 hour minimum.
In large apartment blocks, the autonomy of
the source must be 36 hours, or more.

requirement
programmable controllers interruptible continuous
IT equipment sequential process
telecommunications process
applications
applications - data banks - cold-working - indications and
types - process control and sequence control of the process
monitoring parameters
examples - IT - light - nuclear
of installations services machining - chemical
banking - packaging - biological
insurance assembly - thermal
administration, chain - heavy mechanical
- management (high inertia)
systems for
production processes
conditions
allowable zero c c
duration i1s c
of break i 15 s c (1)
i 15 mn c (1)
autonomy 10 mn c (2)
of source 20 mn c c
minimum 1h c c c
and preferred permanent if economical
solutions
technique inverter with or without no-break generator permanent
employed a generator to take over or start-up generation
load of the inverter and take over set
load from
an inverter
(1) according to economic circumstances.
(2) data-storage time limit.
table F21: table showing the choice of reserve-power supply types according to
application requirements and acceptable supply-interruption times.

F16 - distribution within a low-voltage installation

 F
3.4. choice and characteristics of different sources
The several possible solutions are An overall review of the many possibilities
characterized by their availability, i.e. and associated constraints often leads to an
immediate or delayed load pick-up time, and optimum solution based on an inverter
their autonomy, i.e. ability to supply the load scheme associated with a standby diesel-
for a given period without attention (refilling generator set. A battery of storage cells
fuel tanks for example). It is also necessary to maintains an uninterrupted supply during the
take account of: start-up and load pick-up time of the standby
c constraints imposed by the installation: in set.
particular for specialized locations, and
according to the source(s) used;
c complementary equipment;
c operational constraints, e.g. according to
manufacturers operating instructions or local
statutory regulations, etc.;
c routine maintenance requirements, which
could impose less than ideal restrictions
during the periods allotted to such work...

emergency and/or
M G
reserve power
supply
battery inverter cold-start diesel load generators in
generator pick-up (1) permanent service
time required to supply load
zero time (no break) c c c
1 second c
1 to 10 minutes (5) c
total time for a changeover operation
zero c c c
related to the automatic c c c
changeover scheme
adopted for each source
installation constraints
Special location None. Unless Special location (vibrations noise nuisance, access required for
(type of battery). batteries are open maintenance, fire protection).
Special d.c. type. Fuel tanks.
network.
additional equipment (apart from protection and changeover devices)
Charger. None. Unless Starter, Inertial fly wheel Automatic
Regulator, additional batteries by batteries or and clutch. synchronizing
indications and are required. compressed air. equipment.
meters.
operational mode and constraints
Special network. Automatic. Manual or Automatic. Permanent operating
System losses. automatic. Fixed maximum staff.
Frequent checking. Periodic startups load.
other parameters
maintenance Periodic shut-downs None. Unless open- Periodic checks, but Minor mechanical Periodic checks, but
for checking and type batteries. minimal wear and very constraints only except on minimal wear and very
maintenance work. little upkeep required. clutch and coupling shaft little upkeep required.
life expectancy (3) 4 to 5 years (2). 4 to 5 years (for 1.000 to 10.000 hrs 5 to 10 years. 10.000 hrs or 1 year.
sealed batteries). and 5 to 10 years.
necessary x 2 if installation is typically 2 for 1 batteries x 2. x 2 where security x 2 if the installation
redundance (4) permanent. and 3 for 2. is important. is permanent.
reliability (4) constant checking Integrated checks. Mechanical and Mechanical particularly Mechanical and
is important (numerous starter clutch assembly and system of
human errors). batteries. coupling shaft. synchronization.
(1) A motor-generator set permanently running and equipped with a heavy flywheel.
On the loss of normal supply, the pick-up of load generally requires less than 1 second.
(2) Longer if the battery is of the open type.
(3) Before requiring an important overhaul.
(4) A study of safety requirements allows the definition of an optimal scheme.
(5) According to whether the set is pre-heated or not.
table F22: table of characteristics of different sources.

distribution within a low-voltage installation - F17

 3. safety and emergency-services installations, and standby
power supplies (continued)
F
3.5 local generating sets
In certain installations a power supply,
the association of an inverter and
independent of the normal public service, is
local generating set is the optimum needed so that a local generator (usually
solution for ensuring a long driven by a diesel engine) is provided, and is
autonomy. associated with an inverter.
In this case the autonomy of the inverter, i.e.
of the battery must be sufficient to cover the
period of starting the diesel and coupling the
generator to the load.
The time required to effect a changeover from
normal power
source
protection and distribution
equipment
(complementary)
possible
transformater *
network 1
battery
charger
inverter
battery
protection
box
fig. F23: example of an inverter/generating-set changeover scheme, taken from Merlin
Gerin "Guides Pratiques".
In normal operation of the inverter, a.c. power
passes into the rectifier section, and a very
small part of the d.c. power at the output of
the rectifier maintains the battery in a fully-
charged condition. The remainder of the d.c.
power is converted into interference-free a.c.
power for the load.
In the event of a changeover from normal to
reserve-power generator supply, it is
important (particularly if the load to be
supplied from the generator is large, relative
to its rating) that damaging transient torques
on the generator shaft and couplings be
avoided. Such torques occur for suddenly-
applied loads and are due to the oscillating
transient torque of the shaft and the steady
load torque adding and subtracting at the
natural frequency of the shaft oscillations. In
order to avoid this phenomenon, the rectifier
is controlled electronically to pass a low
current initially, gradually increasing the
current until the load is taken entirely by the
generator and the battery is receiving its
* necessary in some cases, e.g. to adapt the voltages.
F18 - distribution within a low-voltage installation
one source to the other depends on the
characteristics of the particular installation,
such as: start-up sequence for the engine,
possible shedding of inessential loads...
The coupling is generally carried out at the LV
main general distribution board, by means of
an automatic changeover panel, an example
of which is shown diagrammatically in
fig. F23.
diesel
generator
network 2
static
changeover
switch
manual by-pass
maintenance switch
protection and
distribution equipment
(complementary)
maintaining trickle charge. This operation
lasts for 10-15 seconds.
Closing down of the inverter is also carried
out progressively by similar controls on the
rectifier circuits.
A gradual application of load also avoids the
possibility of large transient currents, and
fluctuations in frequency, the latter being due
to inertia in the speed-regulation governor
system of the prime mover.
The rectifier in the conversion system creates
harmonic currents which generally means
that the reserve-power generator has to be
derated (i.e. an oversized generator may
have to be installed). This question should be
discussed with the UPS equipment
manufacturer.
In the example shown in fig. F23, the output
from the inverter is in synchronism with the
input supply to the rectifier, so that, in the
event of overloading or failure of the inverter,
instantaneous closure of the static
changeover switch will maintain supply.
4. earthing schemes

4.1 earthing connections
in a building, the connection to an
earth electrode and the
interconnection (bonding) of all metal
parts of the building and all exposed
conductive parts of electrical
equipment prevents the appearance
of dangerously high voltages
between any two simultaneously
accessible metal parts.
definitions
The following terms are commonly used in
industry and in the literature. Bracketed
numbers refer to fig. F24.
c earth electrode (1): a conductor or group
of conductors in intimate contact with, and
providing an electrical connection with Earth
(see F4.6);
c earth: the conductive mass of the Earth,
whose electric potential at any point is
conventionally taken as zero;
c electrically independent earth
electrodes: earth electrodes located at such
a distance from one another that the
maximum current likely to flow through one of
them does not significantly affect the potential
of the other(s);
c earth electrode resistance: the contact
resistance of an earth electrode with the
Earth;
c earthing conductor (2): a protective
conductor connecting the main earthing
terminal (6) of an installation to an earth
electrode (1) or to other means of earthing
(e.g. TN systems);
c exposed-conductive-part (see table F25):
a conductive part of equipment which can be
touched and which is not a live part, but
which may become live under fault
conditions,
F
c protective conductor (3): a conductor
used for some measures of protection
against electric shock and intended for
connecting together any of the following
parts:
v exposed-conductive-parts,
v extraneous-conductive-parts,
v the main earthing terminal,
v earth electrode(s),
v the earthed point of the source or an
artificial neutral;
c extraneous-conductive-part (see table
F25): a conductive part liable to introduce a
potential, generally earth potential, and not
forming part of the electrical installation (4).
For example:
v non-insulated floors or walls, metal
framework of buildings,
v metal conduits and pipework (not part of the
electrical installation) for water, gas, heating,
compressed-air, etc. and metal materials
associated with them;
c bonding conductor (5): a protective
conductor providing equipotential bonding;
c main earthing terminal (6): the terminal or
bar provided for the connection of protective
conductors, including equipotential bonding
conductors, and conductors for functional
earthing, if any, to the means of earthing.

connections
The main equipotential bonding system
The bonding is carried out by protective
conductors and the aim is to ensure that, in
the event of an incoming extraneous branched 3
protective
conductor (such as a gas pipe, etc.) being conductors 3
raised to some potential due to a fault to individual
external to the building, no difference of consumers (3) 3
potential can occur between extraneous- extraneous
conductive main
conductive-parts within the installation. The parts (4) protective
bonding must be effected as close as conductor
4
possible to the point(s) of entry into the
building, and be connected to the main
earthing terminal (6).
heating 5
However, connections to earth of metallic
sheaths of communications cables require water 5
the authorization of the owners of the cables.
4
Supplementary equipotential connections gas 5
These connections are intended to connect
all exposed-conductive-parts and all
extraneous-conductive-parts simultaneously 6
accessible, when correct conditions for
protection have not been met, i.e. the original possible TN 7
bonding conductors present an unacceptably connection 2
high resistance.
Connection of exposed-conductive-parts 1
to the earth electrode(s)
The connection is made by protective fig. F24: an example of a block of flats in
conductors with the object of providing a low- which the main earthing terminal (6)
resistance path for fault currents flowing to provides the main equipotential
earth. connection. The removable link (7) allows
an earth-electrode-resistance check.

distribution within a low-voltage installation - F19

 4. earthing schemes (continued)
F
4.1 earthing connections (continued)
the efficient bonding and connecting
to earth of all accessible metal
fixtures, and all exposed-conductive-
parts of electrical appliances and
equipment, is essential for effective
protection against electric shocks.
F20 - distribution within a low-voltage installation
component parts
component parts to consider
as exposed-conductive-parts
1. cable ways
c conduits
c impregnated-paper-insulated lead-covered
cable, armoured or unarmoured
c mineral insulated metal-sheathed cable
(pyrotenax, etc.)
2. switchgear
c withdrawable section
3. appliances
c exposed metal parts of class 1 insulated
appliances
4. non-electrical elements
v metallic fittings associated with cable ways
(cable trays, cable ladders, etc.)
c metal objects:
v close to aerial conductors or to busbars
v in contact with electrical equipment.
component parts not to be consider
as exposed-conductive-parts
1. diverse service channels, ducts, etc.
c conduits of insulating material,
c mouldings in wood or other insulating
material,
c conductors and cables without metallic
sheaths.
2. switchgear
c enclosures made of insulating material.
3. appliances
c all appliances having class II insulation,
regardless of the type of exterior envelope.
table F25: list of exposed-conductive-parts and extraneous-conductive-parts.
installation and measurements
of earth electrodes
This subject is dealt with at the end of Sub-
clause 4.6.
component parts to consider
as extraneous-conductive-parts
1. elements used in building construction
c metal or re-inforced concrete (RC):
v steel-framed structure,
v re-inforcement rods,
v prefabricated RC panels,
c surface finishes:
v floors and walls in re-inforced concrete
without further surface treatment,
v tiled surface,
c metallic covering,
v metallic wall covering,
2. building services elements other than
electrical
c metal pipes, conduits, trunking, etc. for gas,
water and heating systems, etc.,
c related metal components (furnaces, tanks,
reservoirs, radiators),
c metallic fittings in wash rooms, bathrooms,
toilets, etc.,
c metallized papers.
component parts not to be consider
as extraneous-conductive-parts
c wooden-block floors,
c rubber-covered or linoleum-covered floors,
c dry plaster-block partition,
c brick walls,
c carpets and wall-to-wall carpeting.

4.2 definition of standardized earthing schemes
the different earthing schemes
described, characterize the method
of earthing the LV neutral point of a
HV/LV transformer, and the earthing
of the exposed conductive-parts
of the LV installation supplied from it.
The choice of these methods
governs the measures necessary for
protection against indirect-contact
hazards.
F
The earthing schemes to be described
characterize the method of earthing the LV
neutral point of a HV/LV transformer (or of
any other source) and the means of earthing
exposed conductive parts of the related LV
installation.
The choice of earthing scheme governs the
measures to be taken for the protection of
persons against the hazards of indirect
contact.
Several different schemes of earthing can co-
exist in an installation if necessary.

neutral exposed-conductive-parts TT scheme (earthed neutral) L1

L2
One point* at the supply source is connected L3
N
directly to earth. All exposed- and
Earth Earth
extraneous-conductive-parts are connected
to a separate earth electrode at the PE
installation. This electrode may or may not be
Rn
electrically independent of the source
electrode, the two zones of influence may fig. F26: TT scheme.
* Generally the star-point of a star-connected LV overlap, without affecting the operation of
winding. protective devices.

neutral exposed-conductive-parts TN schemes

The source is earthed as for the TT scheme
(above). At the installation, all exposed- and
Earth Neutral extraneous-conductive-parts are connected
to the neutral conductor. The several versions
of TN schemes are shown below:

TN-C scheme L1
L2
The neutral conductor is also used as a L3
protective conductor and is referred to as a PEN
PEN (Protective Earth and Neutral)
conductor. This scheme is not permitted for
conductors of less than 10 mm2 and for
portable equipment. Rn
The TN-C scheme requires the establishment fig. F27: TN-C scheme.
of an efficient equipotential environment
within the installation with dispersed earth
electrodes spaced as regularly as possible.

TN-S scheme L1
the TN-S (5 wires) system is L2
The protective conductor and the neutral L3
obligatory for circuits of cross- conductor are separate. On underground cable N
sectional-area of less than 10 mm2 systems where lead-sheathed cables exist, the PE

for copper and 16 mm2 for aluminium
on mobile equipment.
protective conductor is generally the lead
sheath. The use of separate PE and N
conductors (5 wires) is obligatory for circuits of Rn
cross-sectional area of less than 10 mm2 for
fig. F28: TN-S scheme.
copper and 16 mm2 for aluminium on mobile
equipment.

TN-C-S scheme The point at which the PE conductor

The TN-C and TN-S schemes can be used in separates from the PEN (i.e. neutral)
the same installation. In the scheme TN-C-S conductor, is generally at the origin of the
the TN-C (4 wires) scheme must never be installation.
used downstream of the TN-S (5 wires)
scheme.
TN-C TN-S 5 x 50 mm2
L1
L2
L3
N
PE
PEN
PE

16 mm2 6 mm2 16 mm2 16 mm2

PEN

bad bad

TN-C scheme
not permitted downstream of TN-S scheme
fig F29: TN-C-S scheme.
distribution within a low-voltage installation - F21
 4. earthing schemes (continued)
F
4.2 definition of standardized earthing schemes (continued)
important: in the TN-C scheme the
protective conductor function of the
PEN conductor takes priority. In
particular, the PEN conductor must
be connected directly to the earth
terminal of an applicance, and the
bridging connection is then made to
the neutral terminal.
neutral exposed-conductive-parts
Isolated Earth
or Impedance-earthed
F22 - distribution within a low-voltage installation
TNC 4 x 95 mm2
L1
L2
L3
PEN
16 mm2 10 mm2 6 mm2 6 mm2
PEN PEN
N
correct incorrect correct incorrect
PEN connected to the neutral S < 10 mm2
terminal is prohibited TNC prohibited
fig. F30: connection of the PEN conductor in the TN-C scheme.
IT scheme (isolated neutral)
No intentional connection is made between
the neutral point of the supply source and
earth (fig. F31).
Exposed- and extraneous-conductive-parts of
the installation are connected to an earth
electrode. fig F31: IT scheme (isolated neutral).
In practice all circuits have a leakage Example:
impedance to earth, since no insulation is In a LV 3-phase 3-wire system, 1 km of cable
perfect. In parallel with this (distributed) will have a leakage impedance due to C1,
resistive leakage path there is the distributed C2, C3 and R1, R2 and R3 equivalent to a
capacitive current path, the two paths neutral earth impedance Zct of 3,000 to 4,000
together constituting the normal leakage ohms.
impedance to earth (fig. F32).
HV/LV HV/LV
R1 R2 R3
C1 C2 C3
Zct
fig. F32: leakage impedance in an fig. F33: equivalent impedance to leakage
IT scheme. impedances in an IT scheme.
IT scheme (impedance-earthed) HV/LV
An impedance Zs (in the order of 1.000 to
2.000 ohms) is connected permanently
between the neutral point of the transformer
LV winding and earth (fig. F34).
All exposed- and extraneous-conductive-
parts are connected to an earth electrode.
The reasons for this form of power-source Zs
earthing are to fix the potential of a small
network with respect to earth (Zs is small
compared to the leakage impedance) and
to reduce the level of overvoltages, such as
transmitted surges from the HV windings, fig. F34: IT scheme (impedance-earthed).
static charges, etc. with respect to earth.
It has, however, the effect of slightly
increasing the first-fault current level
(see G 3.4).

4.3 earthing schemes characteristics
Each earthing scheme (often referred to as
the type of power system or system earthing
arrangement) reflects three technical
choices:
c earthing method;
c arrangement of PE protective conductors;
c arrangement of protection against indirect
contact.
These choices and their consequences will
be described for each scheme.
L1
L2
L3
N
Ω Rm
PE
Rd Rc
fig. F35: with a TN-S scheme, fault
currents can be very high, limited only by
the impedance of the live conductors
(phase and PEN).
TN-C scheme
Characteristics
c earthing method:
v the neutral point of the transformer is
connected directly to earth and the neutral
conductor is earthed at as many points as
possible,
v exposed conductive parts of equipment and
extraneous conductive parts are connected to
the neutral conductor;
c arrangement of PE protective conductors.
The PE and neutral conductors are combined
in a single PEN conductor;
c arrangement of protection against indirect
contact.
Given the high fault currents and touch
voltages:
v automatic disconnection is mandatory in
the event of an insulation fault,
v this disconnection must be provided by
circuit breakers or fuses. On installations with
a combined neutral and protective conductor,
residual current devices cannot be used for
this purpose since an insulation fault to earth
also constitutes a phase-neutral short-circuit.
L1
L2
L3
PEN
Rn
fig. F36: any insulation fault occurring
outside a building creates a rapid rise in
the potential difference outside the
building. The result of a high voltage
insulation fault is shown here for a TN
system, all earth electrodes considered
together.
F
The consequences are related to the
following points:
c electric shock;
c fire;
c power supply continuity;
c overvoltages;
c electromagnetic disturbances;
c design and operation.
Consequences
c earthing method:
v the neutral point of the transformer is
connected directly to earth and the neutral
conductor is earthed at as many points as
possible;
v exposed conductive parts of equipment and
extraneous conductive parts are connected to
the neutral conductor;
c overvoltages:
v under normal conditions, the neutral,
exposed conductive parts and earth are at
virtually the same potential;
v given the localised effect of earth
electrodes, the potential may vary with the
distance from the electrode. Therefore, during
a HV insulation fault, a current will flow
through the earth electrode of the LV neutral
and a power frequency voltage will appear
between the exposed conductive parts of LV
equipment and the distant earth;
c power supply continuity, electromagnetic
compatibility and fire: the current of insulation
faults is not limited by any earth electrode
impedance and is therefore high (several kA).
During a LV insulation fault, the supply
voltage drop, electromagnetic disturbances
and the risk of damage (fire, motor windings
and magnetic frames) is high;
c overvoltages: during a LV insulation fault,
the neutral point of the triangle representing
the 3-phase voltage system is displaced and
the voltage between phase and the exposed
conductive parts of the installation exceed the
phase-to-neutral voltage. In practice, a value
of 1.45 Un provides a rough approximation;
c protective conductors. The PE and neutral
conductors are combined in a single PEN
conductor.
distribution within a low-voltage installation - F23
 4. earthing schemes (continued)
F
4.3 earthing schemes characteristics (continued)
The PEN conductor must satisfy the
requirements of both its functions. In the
event of a conflict, the PE function has
priority.
The TN-C scheme is prohibited for all circuits
with cross-sectional areas less than 10 mm2
for copper conductors or 16 mm2 for
aluminium conductors. It is also prohibited
for flexible conductors.
c fire protection
The TN-C scheme is prohibited in premises
where there is a high risk of fire or explosion,
for example in class BE2 and BE3 premises
respectively for standard NFC 15-100.
The reason is that the connection of the
extraneous conductive parts of the building to
the PEN conductor creates a flow of current
in the structures, resulting in a risk of fire and
electromagnetic disturbances. During
insulation faults, these circulating currents are
considerably increased. These phenomena
are the reason for prohibiting the use of the
TN-S scheme in premises where the risk of
fire is high.
L1
L2
L3
N
PE
Rn
fig. F37: the presence of any length of
PEN conductor in a building leads to the
flow of currents in the exposed
conductive parts and the shielding of
equipment supplied by a TN-S scheme.
c electromagnetic compatibility
v when a PEN conductor is installed in a
building, regardless of its length, it leads to a
power frequency voltage drop under normal
operating conditions, creating potential
differences and therefore the flow of currents
in any circuit formed by the exposed
conductive parts of the installation, the
extraneous conductive parts of the building,
coaxial cable and the shielding of computer
or telecommunications systems.
These voltage drops are amplified in modern
installations by the proliferation of equipment
generating 3rd-order harmonics. The
magnitude of this harmonic is tripled in the
neutral conductor instead of being cancelled
out as is the case for the fundamental;
TNC TNS
PEN
PE
16 mm2
fig. F38: to determine the breaking capacity of circuit breaker C, it is necessary to know
the impedance of the normal source, that of the replacement source and the length of
circuit C protected by circuit breaker C.
F24 - distribution within a low-voltage installation
v in a less apparent manner, these circulating
currents correspond to an imbalance of the
currents in the distribution circuit and
therefore the creation of a magnetic field that
can disturb cathode-ray tubes, monitors,
certain medical equipment, etc. at levels as
low as 0.7 A/m (i.e. 5 A passing one metre
from a sensitive device). This phenomenon is
amplified in the event of an insulation fault;
c corrosion: corrosion has two sources, first
the DC component that the PEN conductor
can carry and second, the telluric currents
that corrode the earth electrodes and metal
structures in the case of multiple earthing;
c arrangement of protection against indirect
contact.
Given the high fault currents and touch
voltages:
v automatic disconnection is mandatory in
the event of an insulation fault,
v this disconnection must be provided by
circuit breakers or fuses. On installations with
a combined neutral and protective conductor,
residual current devices cannot be used for
this purpose since an insulation fault to earth
also constitutes a phase-neutral short-circuit;
c fire: protection is not provided for certain
types of faults (impedant faults) that are not
instantly transformed into solid short-circuits.
Only residual current devices offer this type of
protection. This situation therefore presents a
risk of fire;
c design and operation
v when using circuit breakers or fuses to
protect against indirect contact, the
impedance of the source, upstream circuits
and downstream circuits (the ones to be
protected) must be known at the design
phase and subsequently remain unchanged
unless the protection is also changed. This
impedance must be measured after
installation and then at regular intervals
(depending on the type of premises
concerned). The characteristics of the
protection devices are determined from these
elements;
v when the installation can be supplied from
two sources (UPS, engine generator set,
etc.), the characteristics governing the
opening of the circuit breaker or the blowing
of the fuse must be determined for each
configuration and source used;
5 x 50 mm 2
L1
L2
L3
N
PE
6 mm2 16 mm2 16 mm2
PEN
incorrect incorrect
TNC scheme
not permitted downstream of TN-S scheme

v each circuit is designed once and for all and
cannot exceed a maximum length specified in
design tables as a function of the protection
device used.
Oversized cable cross-sections may be
necessary in certain cases;
v any modification to the installation requires
reassessment and checking of the protection
conditions.
TNC
16 mm2 10 mm2
correct incorrect
PEN connected to the neutral
terminal is prohibited
fig. F39: with a TN-S scheme, fault currents can be very high, limited only by the
impedance of the live conductors (phase and PE).
TN-S scheme
Characteristics
c earthing method;
v the neutral point of the transformer (or the
power supply system if the distribution uses a
TN-C scheme and the installation a TN-S
scheme) is earthed just once at the upstream
end of the installation,
v exposed conductive parts of equipment and
extraneous conductive parts are connected to
the protection conductors which are in turn
connected to the transformer neutral;
c arrangement of PE protective conductors.
The PE conductors are separate from the
neutral conductors and are sized for the
highest fault current that can occur;
c arrangement of protection against indirect
contact.
Given the high fault currents and touch
voltages:
v automatic disconnection is mandatory in
the event of an insulation fault,
v this disconnection must be provided by
circuit breakers, fuses or residual current
devices since the protection against indirect
contact can be separated from the protection
against phase-phase or phase-neutral short-
circuits.
Consequences
c earthing method:
v the neutral point of the transformer (or the
power supply system if the distribution uses a
TN-C scheme and the installation a TN-S
scheme) is earthed just once at the upstream
end of the installation,
v exposed conductive parts of equipment and
extraneous conductive parts are connected to
the protection conductors which are in turn
connected to the transformer neutral;
c overvoltages: under normal conditions, the
neutral of the transformer, exposed
conductive parts and earth electrode are at
the same potential, even if transient
phenomena cannot be excluded and can lead
to the use of lightning arrestors on the
phases, neutral and exposed conductive
parts;
c power supply continuity, electromagnetic
compatibility and fire: the effects of HV/LV
faults, HV insulation faults and LV insulation
faults are similar to those already described
F
4 x 95 mm2
L1
L2
L3
PEN
6 mm2 6 mm2
PEN
correct incorrect
S < 10 mm2
TNC prohibited
for the TN-C scheme. In particular, the
current of insulation faults is not limited by
any earth electrode impedance and is
therefore high (several kA) (see points 2,
3 and 4 of the corresponding part for the
TN-C scheme);
c the neutral conductor cannot be earthed.
This avoids creating a TN-C scheme with its
inherent disadvantages, i.e. voltage drop and
load currents in the protective conductor
under normal operating conditions;
c arrangement of PE protective conductors.
The PE conductors are separate from the
neutral conductors and are sized for the
highest fault current that can occur;
c electromagnetic compatibility:
v under normal conditions, the PE conductor,
as opposed to the PEN conductor, is not
subject to voltage drop and all the resulting
drawbacks of the TN-C scheme are therefore
eliminated. The TN-S scheme is similar in
this respect to the TT scheme,
v in the event of an insulation fault, a high
impulse voltage appears along the PE
conductor, creating the same transient
problems as for the TN-C scheme;
c arrangement of protection against indirect
contact.
Given the high fault currents and touch
voltages:
v automatic disconnection is mandatory in
the event of an insulation fault,
v this disconnection must be provided by
circuit breakers, fuses or residual current
devices since the protection against indirect
contact can be separated from the protection
against phase-phase or phase-neutral short-
circuits.
fig. F40: with a TT scheme, fault currents
are limited by the earth electrode
resistances and the accompanying
voltage drops are very small.
distribution within a low-voltage installation - F25
 4. earthing schemes (continued)
F
4.3 earthing schemes characteristics (continued)
If the protection against indirect contact is
provided by overcurrent protection devices:
the same characteristics apply as for the
TN-C scheme;
c fire: protection is not provided for impedant
faults, leading to a risk of fire;
c design and operation:
v calculation of the impedance of the sources
and that of the circuit to be protected, with
checking by measurements after installation
and then at regular intervals,
v double determination of the disconnection
conditions when the installation can be
supplied from two sources (UPS, engine
generator set, etc.),
v the circuits have a maximum length that
cannot be exceeded,
v any modification to the installation requires
reassessment and checking of the protection
conditions.
TT scheme
Characteristics
c earthing method:
v the neutral point of the transformer is
connected directly to earth,
v exposed conductive parts of equipment are
connected by protective conductors to the
earth electrode of the installation which is
generally independent with respect to the
earth electrode of the transformer neutral;
c arrangement of PE protective conductors.
The PE conductors are separate from the
neutral conductors and are sized for the
highest fault current that can occur;
c arrangement of protection against indirect
contact.
Automatic disconnection is mandatory in the
event of an insulation fault.
In practice, this disconnection is carried out
by residual current devices. Their operating
currents must be low enough for the devices
to detect the fault currents, limited by two
earth electrode resistances in series.
c earthing method.
Consequences
c the neutral point of the transformer is
connected directly to earth;
c exposed conductive parts of equipment are
connected by protective conductors to the
earth electrode of the installation which is
generally independent with respect to the
earth electrode of the transformer neutral;
c overvoltages: although, as for the TN
scheme, the potential of the exposed
conductive parts and the earth electrode is
the same, this may not be true for the neutral
conductor which is galvanically connected to
an earth electrode and the exposed
conductive parts, different and in some cases
relatively far away (often the case for
lightning strikes in rural areas).
On industrial sites or urban areas, this is not
generally the case. The coupling of the two
earth earth electrodes is, from an overall
point of view, an acceptable compromise.
The installation of lightning arrestors provides
the necessary level of protection;
c electromagnetic compatibility: in the event
of an insulation fault, the fault current is
relatively low. For instance, with an earth
electrode resistance of 230V/100A
z 2.3 Ω, the fault current is only 100 A. As a
result, the voltage drop created by the fault,
F26 - distribution within a low-voltage installation
If the protection against indirect contact is
provided by residual current devices: to avoid
nuisance tripping, it is often possible to use
high residual operating currents in the order
of 1 A or more;
c fire, design and operation:
v the drawbacks already discussed are
eliminated and we obtain the advantages of
the TT scheme,
v the use of residual current devices with
operating currents 500 mA helps to prevent
damage of electrical origin which can occur in
the event of an impedant fault or due to the
high level of insulation faults.
the accompanying electromagnetic
disturbances and the transient difference in
potential between two devices (e.g. two
interconnected PCs) connected by a shielded
cable are much easier to withstand than for a
TN-S scheme;
c arrangement of PE protective conductors.
The PE conductors are separate from the
neutral conductors and are sized for the
highest fault current that can occur;
c electromagnetic compatibility: under normal
conditions, the PE conductor is not subject to
voltage drop and all the resulting drawbacks
of the TN-C scheme are therefore eliminated.
In the event of an insulation fault, the impulse
voltage that appears along the PE conductor
is low and the resulting disturbances are
negligible;
c design and operation: for distribution
circuits, the cross-sectional area of the PE
conductor can be less than for a TN-S
scheme;
c arrangement of protection against indirect
contact:
v automatic disconnection is mandatory in
the event of an insulation fault.
In practice, this disconnection is carried out
by residual current devices. Their operating
currents must be low enough for the devices
to detect the fault currents, limited by two
earth electrode resistances in series,
v residual current devices are added in the
form of relays for circuit breakers and in the
form of RCCBs for fuses. They can protect a
single circuit or a group of circuits and their
operating currents are chosen according to
the maximum value of the resistance R of the
earth electrode for the exposed conductive
parts,
v the presence of residual current devices
minimises the design and operating
constraints. It is unnecessary to know the
upstream source impedance and there is no
limit concerning the length of the circuits
(except to avoid excessive voltage drop). An
installation can be modified or extended
without calculations or in-situ measurements,
v the use of a replacement source by the
distribution utility or the operator is straight
forward;
c fire: the use of residual current devices with
operating currents i 500 mA helps prevent
fires of electrical origin;

c electromagnetic compatibility: insulation
fault currents last only a short time, less than
100 ms (or less than 400 ms on distribution
circuits) and are low in magnitude.
HV/LV
R1 R2 R3
C1 C2 C3
fig. F41: with an IT scheme, fault currents
are limited by the earthing of the neutral
and by the overvoltage limiter.
IT scheme
Characteristics
c earthing method
The neutral point of the transformer is
isolated from earth or earthed through an
impedance and an overvoltage limiter. Under
normal conditions, its potential is maintained
close to that of the exposed conductive parts
by the earth leakage capacitances of the
trunking and equipment.
Exposed conductive parts of equipment and
extraneous conductive parts of the building
are connected to the building’s earth
electrode;
c arrangement of PE protective conductors.
The PE conductors are separate from the
neutral conductors and are sized for the
highest fault current that can occur;
c arrangement of protection against indirect
contact.
The fault current in the event of a single
insulation fault is low and does not represent
a hazard.
The occurrence of a second fault should be
made highly improbable by installing an
insulation monitoring device that will detect
and indicate the occurrence of a first fault that
can then be promptly located and eliminated.
Consequences
c earthing method.
The neutral point of the transformer is
isolated from earth or earthed through an
impedance and an overvoltage limiter. Under
normal conditions, its potential is held close
to that of the exposed conductive parts by the
earth leakage capacitances of the trunking
and equipment.
Exposed conductive parts of equipment and
extraneous conductive parts of the building
are connected to the building’s earth
electrode;
c overvoltages:
v under normal conditions, the neutral
conductor, exposed conductive parts and
earth electrode are at virtually the same
potential,
v an overvoltage limiter should be installed to
prevent a rise in potential between the live
parts and the exposed conductive parts that
could exceed the withstand voltage of the LV
equipment in the event of a fault originating in
the high voltage installation. The protection
against overvoltages should be implemented
according to the criteria common to all the
earthing schemes;
F
c power supply continuity and
electromagnetic compatibility:
v the current of a first insulation fault is low, a
result of the capacitances between the live
conductors and the expoed conductive parts
such as those of the load circuits and HF
filters,
v a first low voltage insulation fault does not
produce any voltage drop on the mains or
electromagnetic disturbance over a wide
frequency range corresponding to the
occurrence of a classical insulation fault
current.
c overvoltages: after a first fault, the
equipment continues to be supplied with
power and the phase-to-phase voltage
gradually appears between the healthy
phases and the exposed conductive parts.
Equipment must be chosen with this
constraint in mind.
Notes:
c standard IEC 950 (or EN 60950) defines a
category of information processing equipment
that can be used on IT systems;
c if lightning arrestors are used, the
standards stipulate that their rated voltages
should be chosen according to the phase-to-
phase voltage.
c power supply continuity and
electromagnetic compatibility: second
insulation fault can occur on a different
phase, creating a short-circuit and the
associated hazards. The user of an IT
system chooses that this situation must never
occur, even if the standards allow for this
possibility for safety reasons;
c arrangement of PE protective conductors.
The PE conductors are separate from the
neutral conductors and are sized for the
highest fault current that can occur;
c electromagnetic compatibility: under normal
conditions, and even when a first insulation
fault occurs, the PE conductors show no
voltage drop. A high level of equipotentiality is
maintained between protective conductors,
functional earthing conductors, exposed
conductive parts and the extraneous
conductive parts of the building to which they
are connected;
c arrangement of protection against indirect
contact.
The fault current in the event of a single
insulation fault is low and does not represent
a hazard.
distribution within a low-voltage installation - F27
 4. earthing schemes (continued)

F
4.3 earthing schemes characteristics (continued)
The occurrence of a second fault should be
made highly improbable by installing an
insulation monitoring device that will detect
and indicate the occurrence of a first fault that
can then be promptly located and eliminated.
The protective devices are designed to
operate in the event of a double fault. If
circuit breakers or fuses are used, the rules
are similar to those for the TN scheme.
Residual current devices can alos be used. If
the two faults occur downstream of the same
residual current device, the device considers
the fault current as a load current and may
not trip. A separate residual current device is
therefore required for each circuit.
If two sites have the same installation using
an IT scheme, and their earth electrode
systems are not connected, a residual current
device must always be included at the head
of each installation. This measure prevents
one insulation fault on phase 1 of the first site
and another on phase 2 of the second site
from creating a dangerous situation;
c fire: the use of an insulation monitoring
device and possibly residual current devices
with operating currents i 500 mA prevents
fires of electrical origin;
c design and operation:
v trained maintenance personnel must be
available for prompt locating and elimination
of the first insulation fault,
v the installation must be designed with great
care: use of the IT scheme where justified by
requirements related to continuity of supply,
isolation of loads with high leakage currents
(certain furnaces and certain types of
computer hardware), examination of the
influence of leakage currents, in particular
with respect to residual current devices,
division of the installation, etc.,
v if 30 mA residual current devices are used
to protect socket circuits:
- the total capacitive earth leakage current
downstream of such a device must not
exceed 10 mA. The value is estimated using
the phase-to-phase voltage for the phase and
for the phase-to-neutral voltage for the
neutral,
- if the loads powered by such a circuit are
not critical, the residual current device can trip
on a first insulation fault, thereby eliminating it
immediately. Otherwise the use of sockets
should be avoided or other measures taken,
v comment: the earth conductor, if distributed,
must be protected by 4-pole devices including
neutral protection or 2-pole devices. In final
distribution boxes, 1-pole + neutral protection
devices are permitted as long as the ratings
for the phase and neutral are the same or
close, and as long as a residual current
device is present upstream.

F28 - distribution within a low-voltage installation


4.4.1 choice criteria
1st criterion
No earthing scheme is universal.
When it is possible to choose the earthing
scheme, analyse every case separately,
basing the final choice on the specific
constraints of the electrical installation, the
needs of the user and the rules laid down by
applicable legislation or by the power
distribution utility.
The best solution often involves several
different earthing schemes for different
parts of the installation.
2nd criterion
These solutions must satisfy the following
fundamental criteria:
c protection against electric shock;
c protection against fire of electric origin;
c power supply continuity;
c protection against overvoltages;
c protection against electromagnetic
disturbances.
3rd criterion: comparison of
earthing schemes
A comparison of the different earthing
schemes leads to the following
recommendations for use:
The TT scheme is recommended for
installations that have only limited
surveillance or installations subject to
extensions or modifications.
The main reason is that it is the simplest
scheme to implement in private or public
distribution.
On the other hand, given the need for two
separate LV earthing electrodes, overvoltage
protection must often be provided.
INFLUENCE OF EARTHING ELECTRODES
Private substation with TN scheme
c the inside of the equipment is not exposed
(U2 = 230 V);
c the incoming systems are exposed to Uf.
LV consumer with TT scheme
c the inside of the equipment is exposed in
the event of nearby lightning strikes (Rb-If).
See the section dealing with lightning
arrestors;
c when correctly implemented, the effects of
an HV insulation fault are eliminated.
The IT scheme is recommended if power
supply continuity is imperative.
The IT scheme offers the best guarantee
concerning the availability of power.
It however requires:
c a detailed study:
v organisation of withstand to overvoltages
and leakage currents;
c trained maintenance personnel available at
all times:
v to promptly eliminate any first fault,
v to supervise extensions to the installation.
The TN-S scheme is recommended for
installations that have a high level of
surveillance or installations not subject to
extensions or modifications.
F
This scheme is generally implemented
without medium-sensitivity residual current
devices.
Drawbacks however include:
c insulation fault currents are high and can
result in:
v transient disturbances,
v high risk of damage,
v even fire!
c a detailed study is required.
If medium-sensitivity residual current
devices are installed, they provide this
scheme with improved protection against fire
and greater flexibility both in design and use.
The TN-C and TN-C-S schemes are not
recommended for use, given the risk of
fire and electromagnetic disturbances due
to:
c voltage drops along the PEN conductors;
c high insulation fault currents;
c currents flowing in the extraneous
conductive parts, shielding, exposed
conductive parts;
c uneliminated impedant faults.
A detailed study is required.
The presence of any length of PEN conductor
in a building leads to the flow of currents in
the exposed conductive parts and the
shielding of equipment supplied by a TN-S
scheme.
4th criterion
In terms of overvoltage withstand and
electromagnetic disturbances, IT, TT and
TN-S schemes are equally satisfactory
if correctly implemented.
5th criterion
When making an economic comparison,
all costs must be taken into account,
including those related to:
c design;
c maintenance;
c modification or extensions;
c production losses.
distribution within a low-voltage installation - F29
 4. earthing schemes (continued)

F
4.4.2 comparison for each criterion
1 - level of protection against
electric shock
All earthing schemes provide equal protection
against electric shock as long as they are
implemented and used in accordance with
applicable standards.
2 - protection against fire of
electrical origin
For TT schemes and IT schemes, in the
event of a single fault, the insulation fault
current is respectively low or very low. The
same is true for the risk of fire.
For TN schemes, protection against
impedant faults is insufficient unless residual
current devices are included:
c in this case, it is recommended to use
the TN-S scheme together with residual
current devices rather than the standard
TN scheme.
For TN type schemes, in the event of a
solid fault, the insulation fault current is high
and major damage can result.
The TN-C scheme presents a higher risk
of fire under normal operating conditions
than the other schemes. It is therefore
prohibited in premises presenting a high risk
of fire or explosion. A load imbalance current
circulates continuously in the PEN
conductors and the connected parts
(e.g. metal frames, exposed conductive parts,
shielding, etc.).
3 - protection against
overvoltages
For all neutral schemes, the following
steps are necessary:
1) Evaluate the disturbances to be taken
into account as a function of:
c site exposure:
v overvoltages due to indirect effects of
lightning,
v nearby direct lightning strikes;
c the type of supply system:
v in particular HV insulation faults;
c the type of premises:
v choose the appropriate level of safety.
This evaluation should be carried out at
power frequency and then at higher
frequencies up to several MHz.
3) Implement the necessary protection
(lightning arrestors, etc.) on the lines of the
different incoming and outgoing electrical
systems.
Comment:
c the use of a TN-S scheme does not
eliminate the need for the above measures;
c TT installations generally require lightning
arrestors (rural).
Furthermore, for IT schemes, protection
against overvoltages due to HV faults must
be provided by an overvoltage limiter.
4 - protection against
electromagnetic disturbances
1) For differential mode disturbances, the
earthing scheme used is of no
importance.
For all common mode or differential mode
disturbances with frequencies greater than
1 MHz, the earthing scheme used is of no
importance.
2) If correctly implemented, TT, TN-S and IT
schemes can satisfy all electromagnetic
compatibility criteria.
Note however that for the TN-S scheme,
major disturbances are produced during an
insulation fault.
3) For TN-C or TN-C-S earthing schemes, a
load imbalance current circulates
continuously in the PEN conductor,
exposed conductive parts of equipment
and cable shielding. The presence of 3rd
order harmonics significantly amplifies this
current in modern installations. This
continuous current creates voltage drops
between the exposed conductive parts of
sensitive equipment connected to the PEN
conductor.
These schemes are therefore not
recommended for use.

2) Decide on the number and quality of

equipotential zones (room, building, site) so
as to organise the protection of each.
In practice, for sites with a number of
buildings supplied by the same source and
interconnected by communications media,
one of the following solutions should be
used:
c equipotentiality by interconnection of the
buildings in one of the two following manners:
v by at least one accompanying conductor
with a cross-sectional area of at least
35 mm2, sized for the possible fault currents,
v by a denser mesh;
c complete isolation, for example by using an
optical fiber communication link without a
conductive sheath.

F30 - distribution within a low-voltage installation


4.5 choice of earthing method - implementation
After consulting local regulations and relevant
codes of practice, etc. the tables F40 and F41
can be used as an aid in deciding on
divisions and possible galvanic isolation of
appropriate sections of a proposed
installation.
Division of source
This technique concerns the use of several
transformers instead of employing one large
unit. This method has already been noted as
a means of de-coupling loads, which would
otherwise cause unacceptable disturbance to
other loads, e.g. voltage depression during
the start-up period of a large motor, and so
on...
The quality and continuity of supply to the
whole installation are thereby improved.
F
The cost of switchgear is reduced (short-
circuit current level is lower). The technical/
economic appraisal must be made case by
case.
Network islands
The creation of galvanically-separated
"islands" by means of LV/LV transformers
allows an open choice of earthing system to
be used on the secondary side, which is
independent of any imposed earthing scheme
in the primary LV network. In this way, the
installation network may be arranged for
optimum performance on different types of
load.

example
overvoltage
HV/LV device

PIM

LV/LV
TN
IT system system

arc furnace
fig. F42: a workshop in which supply continuity is paramount (IT) includes an arc furnace.
The most suitable arrangement is an IT scheme for the workshop, and an isolating LV/LV
transformer to supply the arc furnace, in a TN earthing scheme.

HV/LV

overvoltage
LV/LV device

TN system PIM

IT system
fig. F43: a factory with a load consisting mainly of welding machines requiring a TN
system of earthing, and a painting workshop for which supply continuity has top priority.
The latter supply is shown to be provided by an IT Island system, via a LV/LV transformer.

conclusion
The optimization of the performance of the
whole installation governs the choice of
earthing system (see the following
Sub-clause 4.6).
Including:
c initial investments, and
c future operational expenditure that can
arise from insufficient reliability, quality of
materials, safety, continuity of service, etc.
which is difficult to forecast.
An ideal structure would comprise:
v normal power supply source,
v local reserve power supply source (see
Clause 3 of this chapter) and the appropriate
earthing schemes.

distribution within a low-voltage installation - F31

 4. earthing schemes (continued)
F
4.6 installation and measurements of earth electrodes
a very effective method of obtaining a
low-resistance earth connection is to
bury a conductor in the form of a
closed loop in the soil at the bottom
of the excavation for the building
foundations.
The resistance R of such an
electrode (in homogeneous soil) is
given (approximately) in ohms by:
R = 2ρ
L arranged conductors from the electrode
where
L = the length of the buried conductor
in metres
ρ = soil resistivity in ohm-metres.
care must be taken to avoid the
occurrence of corrosion, notably
where dissimilar metals are buried in
close proximity.
for n rods:
R = ρ ohms
nL
F32 - distribution within a low-voltage installation
A low-impedance earth electrode improves
considerably the protection of the electrical
installation from external electromagnetic
influences, and particularly in the case of
overvoltages caused by lightning. Protection
of the building against direct lightning strokes,
however, requires specialized studies, and is
not dealt with here.
The quality of an earth electrode (resistance
as low as possible) depends essentially on
two factors:
c installation method;
c nature of the earth.
installation methods
Three common types of installation will be
discussed:
A conductor-type electrode forming a ring
beneath the perimeter of the building
which houses the installation concerned
(fig. F44)
This solution is strongly recommended,
particularly in the case of a new building.
The electrode should be buried around the
perimeter of the excavation made for the
foundations. It is important that the bare
conductor be in intimate contact with the soil
(and not placed in the gravel or aggregate
hard-core, often forming a base for concrete).
At least four (widely-spaced) vertically
should be provided for the installation
connections, and where possible any re-
inforcing rods in concrete work should be
connected to the electrode.
The conductor forming the earth electrode,
particularly when it is laid in an excavation for
foundations, must be in the earth, at least
50 cm below the hard-core or aggregate base
for the concrete foundation. Neither the
electrode nor the vertical rising conductors to
the ground floor, should ever be in contact
with the foundation concrete.
For existing buildings, the electrode
conductor should be buried around the
outside wall of the premises to a depth of at
least 1 metre. As a general rule, all vertical
connections from an electrode to above-
ground level should be insulated for the
nominal LV voltage (600-1,000 V).
The conductors may be:
c copper - bare cable or multiple-strip
u 25 mm2;
Earthing rods (fig. F45)
Vertically driven earthing rods are often used
for existing buildings, and for improving (i.e.
reducing the resistance of) earth electrodes in
cases where upper-strata soil-drying can only
be countered by deeper penetration into the
earth.
The rods may be:
c copper or (more commonly) copper-clad
steel. The latter are generally 1 or 2 metres
long and provided with screwed ends and
sockets in order to reach considerable
depths, if necessary (for instance, the water-
table level in areas of high soil resistivity)
c stainless steel cable or multiple strip
u 35 mm2;
c galvanized-steel cable.
Copper is the most expensive material, but
is the most suitable from considerations of
corrosion.
The use of more than one of these materials
in the same soil is deprecated, since the
elementary primary cell (e.g. zinc/copper)
formed in the damp earth "electrolyte" would
result in problems of corrosion.
In the case noted, the zinc would be
sacrificial to the copper, eventually leaving an
uncoated (corroding) steel conductor of high
surface-to-earth contact resistance.
Steel reinforcing rods in concrete, however,
have approximately the same galvanic
potential, in the electro-chemical series, as
copper in soil, so that copper earth electrodes
may be connected to steel reinforcing rods
with no danger of corrosion*. Steel rods in
soil, on the other hand, will corrode if
connected to steel reinforcing rods in
concrete. Aluminium and lead are not suitable
for use as earthing electrodes.
The approximate resistance R of the
electrode in ohms =
2ρ
L
where
L = length of conductor in metres
ρ = resistivity of the soil in ohm-metres (see
tables F47 and F48).
fig. F44: conductor buried below the level
of the foundations, i.e. not in the
concrete.
* Practical experience has shown that corrosion is not a
problem at potential differences of less than 0.3 V.
c galvanized (see note below) steel pipe
u 25 mm diameter, or rod u 15 mm diameter,
u 2 metres long in each case. It is often
necessary to use more than one rod, in
which case the spacing between them
should exceed the depth to which they are
driven, by a factor of 2 to 3.
The total resistance (in homogeneous soil) is
then equal to the resistance of one rod,
divided by the number of rods in question.
 F
The approximate resistance R obtained in Lu3m
ohms =
ρ
n L
if the distance separating the rods > 4L
where:
L = the length of the rod in metres
ρ = the resistivity of the soil in ohm-metres
(see table F47)
n = the number of rods
rods connected in parallel
fig. F45: earthing rods.

Vertical plates (fig. F46)

for a vertical plate electrode:
R ≈ 0.8 ρ ohms
L electrodes, being buried in a vertical plane
Rectangular plates, each side of which
u 0.5 metres, are commonly used as earth
such that the centre of the plate is at least
1 metre below the surface of the soil.
The plates may be:
c copper of 2 mm thickness;
c galvanized* steel of 3 mm thickness. 2 mm thickness (Cu)
The resistance R in ohms is given
(approximately), by:
0.8 ρ
L fig. F46: vertical plate.
where:
ρ = resistivity of the soil in ohm-metres
L = the perimeter of the plate in metres
* Note: Where galvanized conducting
materials are used for earth electrodes,
sacrificial cathodic protection anodes may be
necessary to avoid rapid corrosion of the
electrodes where the soil is aggressive.
Specially prepared magnesium anodes
(in a porous sack filled with a suitable "soil")
are available for direct connection to the
electrodes. In such circumstances specialist
advice is recommended.

data concerning earth resistivities in influence of the nature of the soil

analogous terrains provide a useful nature of the terrain resistivity (in Ω.-m)
base for designing an earth-electrode swampy soil, bogs 1 - 30
system. silt alluvium 20 - 100
humus, leaf mold 10 - 150
peat, turf 5 - 100
soft clay 50
marl and compacted clay 100 - 200
jurassic marl 30 - 40
sandy clay 50 - 500
siliceous sand 200 - 300
stoney ground 1500 - 3000
grass-covered-stoney sub-soil 300 - 500
chalky soil 100 - 300
limestone 1000 - 5000
fissured limestone 500 - 1000
schist, shale 50 - 300
mica schist 800
granite and sandstone 1500 - 10000
decomposed granite and sand stone 100 - 600
table F47: resistivity (Ω-m) for different kinds of terrain.

nature of the terrain mean value of

resistivity (in Ω.-m)
heavy arable land, compacted humid banks 50
light soil arable land, gravel, roughly banked land 500
stoney soil, bare, dry sand, fissured rocks 3000
table F48: mean values of resistivity (Ω-m) for an approximate estimation of an earth-
electrode resistance with respect to zero-potential earth.

distribution within a low-voltage installation - F33

 4. earthing schemes (continued)

F
4.6 installation and measurements of earth electrodes (continued)
measurements and constancy
of the resistance between an
earth electrode and the earth
The resistance of the electrode/earth
interface rarely remains constant
Among the principal factors affecting this
resistance are the following:
c the humidity of the soil: the seasonal
changes in the moisture content of the soil
can be significant at depths of up to 2 meters.
At a depth of 1 metre the value of resistivity
(ρ) can vary in the ratio of 1 to 3 between a
wet Winter and a dry Summer in temperate
regions;
c frost: frozen earth can increase the
resistivity of the soil by several orders of
magnitude. This is one of the reasons,
together with that noted above, for
recommending the installation of deep
electrodes;
c ageing: the materials used for electrodes
will generally deteriorate to some extent for
various reasons, for example:
v chemical reactions (in acidic or alkaline
soils),
v galvanic: due to stray d.c. currents in the
earth from traction systems, etc. or due to
dissimilar metals forming primary cells;
different soils acting on sections of the same
conductor can also form cathodic and anodic
areas with consequent loss of surface metal
from the latter areas. Unfortunately, the most
favourable conditions for low earth-electrode
resistance (i.e. low soil resistivity) are also
those in which galvanic currents can most
easily flow.
c oxidization: brazed and welded joints are
the locations at which oxidization is most
likely to occur. Thorough cleaning of a newly-
made joint, and wrapping with a suitable
greased-tape binding is the preventive
measure commonly adopted.

there must always be a (or a number
of) removable link(s) to isolate an
earth electrode, to allow it to be
tested.
Measurement of the earth-electrode The test electrode (C) furthest from the
resistance electrode (X) under test, passes a current
There must always be removable links which through the earth and the electrode under
allow the earth electrode to be isolated from test, while the second test electrode (P) picks
the installation, so that periodic check tests of up a voltage. This voltage, measured
the earthing resistance can be carried out. between (X) and (P), is due to the test
To make such tests, two auxiliary electrodes current, and is a measure of the contact
are required, each consisting of a vertically resistance (of the electrode under test) with
driven rod. earth. It is clear that the distance (X) to (P)
c ammeter method (fig. F49) must be carefully chosen to give accurate
UTt1 results. If the distance (X) to (C) is increased,
A = RT + Rt1 =
i1 however, the zones of resistance of
Ut1t2 electrodes (X) and (C) become more remote,
B = Rt1 + Rt2 =
i2 one from the other, and the curve of potential
Ut2T (voltage) becomes more nearly horizontal
C = Rt2 + RT =
i3 about the point (O).
A + C - B = 2RT In practical tests, therefore, the distance (X)
When the source voltage U is constant to (C) is increased until readings taken with
(adjusted to be the same value for each test) electrode (P) at three different points viz: at
then: (P) and at approximately 5 metres on either
U
RT =
2
( i11 + i31 - i2
1
) side of (P) give similar values. The distance
(X) to (P) is generally about 0.68 of the
In order to avoid errors due to stray earth distance (X) to (C).
currents (galvanic (d.c.) or leakage currents
from power and communication networks and
U t1
so on) the test current should be a.c., but at a
A
different frequency to that of the power
system or any of its harmonics. Instruments
using hand-driven generators to make these T
measurements usually produce an a.c. t2
voltage at a frequency of between 85 Hz and
135 Hz.
The distances between the electrodes are not
critical and may be in different directions from
the electrode being tested, according to site
convenience. A number of tests at differ- fig. F49: measurement of the resistance to
spacings and directions are generally made earth of the earth electrode of an
for cross-checking the test results. installation by means of an ammeter.
c use of a direct-reading earthing-
resistance ohmmeter (fig. 50)
These instruments use a hand-driven or
electronic-type of a.c. generator, together with
two auxiliary electrodes, the spacing of which
must be such that the zone of influence of the
electrode being tested should not overlap that
of the test electrode (C).

F34 - distribution within a low-voltage installation

 F
VG

G
I
V
X P C

voltage-drop due
to the resistance
of electrode (X)

O VG

voltage-drop due
to the resistance
of electrode (C)

a) the principle of measurement is based on assumed homogeneous soil conditions

where the zones of influence of electrodes C and X everlap, the location of test
electrode P is difficult to determine for satisfactory results.

X P C

b) showing the effect on the potential gradient when (X) and (C) are widely spaced.
The location of test electrode P is not critical and can be easily determined

fig. F50: measurement of the resistance to the mass of earth of electrode (X) using an
earth-electrode-testing ohmmeter.
Simplified measurement (TT-system)
In a TT-earthed system, a simplified
measurement of the earth-electrode
resistance is possible. It consists in
measuring the impedance between the earth-
electrode and the neutral conductor. It equals
the sum of the consumer earth-electrode
resistance and the distributor earth-electrode
resistance. This value is always pessimistic,
but the distributor earth-electrode resistance
is generally less than 5 Ω. In case of doubt,
use the general method.

distribution within a low-voltage installation - F35

 5. distribution boards
F
a distribution board is among the
most important elements in an
installation. Its design and
construction must conform with well-
defined standards.
5.1 types of distribution board
the load requirements dictate the
type of distribution board to be
installed.
F36 - distribution within a low-voltage installation
A main general distribution board is the point
at which the incoming-power supply divides
into separate circuits, each of which is
controlled and protected by the fuses or
switchgear of the board.
In general, the power supply is connected to
a set of busbars via a main switch (a circuit
breaker or switch-fuse).
Individual circuits, which are usually grouped
according to the circuit function (lighting,
heating, power and so on...), are supplied
from the busbars. Some of the circuits feed
directly into the busbars of local distribution
boards, at which a division of circuits is made,
while in extensive installations,
Distribution boards, or an assembly of LV
switchgear, may differ according to the kind of
application, and to the design principle
adopted (notably in the arrangement of the
busbars).
distribution boards according
to specific applications
The principal types of distribution board are:
c main general distribution board
(fig. F53);
c local general distribution board (fig. F52);
c sub-distribution board (fig. F51);
c process-control i.e. "functional" distribution
board. For example MCC (motor-control-
centre), heating circuits control board, and so
on. The local and sub-distribution boards are
dispersed throughout the installation.
fig. F51: typical sub-distribution board.
fig. F53: an example of a large industrial main general distribution board.
sub-distribution boards are sometimes
necessary, thereby creating three levels of
distribution.
Modern practice is to enclose LV distribution
boards in metal housings, which afford
double protection:
c the protection of switchgear, indicating
instruments, relays, fusegear... against
mechanical shocks, vibrations and other
external influences likely to interfere with
operational integrity (EMI*, dust, moisture,
vermin, etc.);
c the protection of personnel against the
possibility of electric shock.
* electromagnetic interference
The process-control boards are either:
c adjacent to the main general distribution
board, or
c in proximity to the process concerned.
Distribution boards are generally referred to
in written texts by the abbreviation DB.
fig. F52: local general distribution board.

a distinction is made between:
c traditional DBs in which switch- and
fusegear, etc. are fixed to a chassis
at the inside-rear part of the housing
c functional DBs for specific
applications.
realization of the two types of DB
Traditional DBs
Switchgear and fusegear, etc. are normally
located on a chassis near the back of the
enclosure. Indications and control devices
(meters, lamps, pushbuttons, etc.) are
mounted on the front face of the board.
The placement of the components within the
enclosure requires very careful study, taking
into account the dimensions of each item, the
connections to be made to it, and the
clearances necessary to ensure safe and
trouble-free operation.
A quick estimation of the area required can
be made by multiplying the sum of the areas
of the individual items by 2.5.
F
Functional DBs
Dedicated to specific functions, recourse is
made to functional modules which include
switchgear and devices, together with
accessories for mounting and connections.
For example, drawer-type motor control units,
which comprise contactor, fuses, isolating
switch, control pushbuttons, indicating lamps,
and so on.
Design of the board is rapid, since it is
sufficient to add the number of modules
required, with vacant spaces for later
additional units if necessary.
Using these prefabricated components
greatly facilitates the assembly of the board.
Moreover, the components of these boards
have benefited from type tests, thereby
ensuring an excellent safety performance.
Figure F54 is an example of an industrial
functional DB.

5.2 the technologies of functional distribution boards

There are three basic technologies in general are mounted on a drawer-type horizontally
use for the realization of functional DBs. withdrawable chassis. The function is
generally complex and often concerns motor
fixed functional units (fig. F54) control.
The board is made up of fixed functional units Isolation is effected on both the upstream and
such as contactors and associated relays, downstream sides by the complete
according to the particular function. These withdrawal of the unit.
units are not suitable for circuit isolation (from
the busbars for example) so that any
intervention for maintenance, modifications
and so on, requires the shutdown of the
entire board.
The use of removable plug-in or withdrawable
units however can minimize shutdown times,
which are then limited to the interval required
only to remove or withdraw the unit of the
circuit concerned.

functional units which have

isolating and disconnecting
features (fig. F55)
Each functional unit is mounted on a
removable panel and provided with a means
of isolation on the upstream (busbars) side fig. F54: board with fixed functional units.
and disconnecting facilities on the
downstream (circuit) side. The complete unit
can therefore be removed for servicing,
without requiring a general shutdown.

withdrawable chassis-mounted
functional units (fig. F56)
The switchgear and associated accessories

fig. F55: board with isolating and

disconnecting features on each functional
unit.

fig. F56: board with withdrawable chassis-

mounted units.
distribution within a low-voltage installation - F37
 5. distribution boards (continued)

F
5.3 standards
conformity with the relevant standards
is essential in order to ensure an
adequate degree of operational safety.
Certains types of distribution boards (in
particular, functional distribution boards) in
which all component parts are individually
subject to IEC 947, also conform to specific
recommendations of IEC 439-1.

two elements of the standard IEC standard 439-1

IEC 439-1 largely contribute to
operational safety:
c forms of separation between adjacent
functional units according to user's
requirements
c clearly defined individual and type
tests.
IEC 439-1 covers LV switchgear and
controlgear assemblies, manufactured and
type-tested as complete units.
IEC 439-1 defines four "forms" of assembly,
according to the degree of internal
separation, by barriers or partitions, into
different compartments.
The separations provide:
c protection against contact with live parts of
adjacent functional units;
c limitation of the probability of initiating
arcing faults;
c protection against the passage of foreign
solid bodies from one unit of the assembly to
an adjacent unit.
The following are typical forms of separation
by barriers or partitions:
v Form 1: no separation;
v Form 2: separation of busbars from the
functional units;
v Form 3: separation of busbars from the
functional units and separation of all
functional units, one from another, except at
their output terminals;
v Form 4: as for Form 3, but including
separation of the outgoing terminals of all
functional units, one from another.
The form of the separation (e.g. metallic or
non-metallic) shall be the subject of
agreement between the manufacturer and
the user.
Forms 2, 3 and 4 are generally used since, in
each case, the busbars are enclosed, thereby
allowing safer intervention on functional units
or their outgoing-circuit components, than
that afforded by Form 1.
Forms 3 and 4 are adopted where the space
available for each functional unit is limited, so
that without complete segregation between
adjacent units, safe intervention for
maintenance, etc., is not possible, unless the
whole distribution board is shut down.
c finally, individual type tests, checks and
functional tests carried out during
manufacture ensure conformity to the
standard of the entire assembly.

form 1 form 2 form 3 form 4

fig. F57: representation of different forms of LV functional distribution boards.

5.4 centralized control

the integration of functional
distribution boards in a system of
centralized technical management
must be taken into account from the
earliest design stage.
The organization of data acquisition from, and Such signal conversions (e.g. analogue-to-
instructions to equipment, in schemes of digital; electrical-to-optical, etc.) to suit the
remote control, is assuming greater data-transmission links must therefore be
importance as Centralized Technical housed, and supplied with suitable pollution-
Management techniques become more free power, at, or very near to the distribution
general. boards or other equipment, concerned.
In the interests of economy (in
communication-cable costs) all data and
control-command signals should be
processed at the equipment (e.g. functional
DBs) in question, for transmission to and
reception from the central command post.

F38 - distribution within a low-voltage installation

6. distributors

6.1 description and choice
two types of distribution are possible:
c by insulated wires and cables,
c by prefabricated pre-wired cable
channels.
The latter are distinguished by their
ease of installation, flexibility, and by
the number of connecting points
possible.
F
types
Two types of distribution are possible:
Distribution by insulated conductors
and cables
Includes the mechanical protection and fixing
of conduits, etc. The method of installation
will affect the maximum current permitted,
as noted in IEC 439 Parts 1 and 2.
Distribution by prefabricated cable
channels
These channels are distinguished by their
ease of installation, flexibility, and by the
number of connecting points possible.

examples

sub-
distribution
board
local general
distribution
board

main general distribution

board (MGDB)

heating, etc.
general utilities
distribution board
fig. F58: example 1: radial distribution wiring scheme for a hotel, using conductors
in conduits and cables.

distribution within a low-voltage installation - F39

 6. distributors (continued)

F
6.1 description and choice (continued)
prefabricated pre-wired
transformer bus-duct cable channels
transformer
to MGDB
mainbusbar
trunking

prefabricated distribution
busbar trunking

MGDB

prefabricated
power and light-current
distribution column

local general
distribution board

offices

prefabricated pre-wired
cable channels
fig. F59: example 2: radial distribution with prefabricated bus trunking and cable channels for an entrepot installation.
selection of method-criteria
The main considerations governing the
choice of one method or the other are the first
cost and the likelihood of extensive and
frequent modifications.
In the case of a fixed installation which is
unlikely to be modified, either frequently or
extensively, then the insulated wires-and-
conduit system is the more-economic
solution.
Where flexibility and ease of circuit
modification are important, then the
prefabricated cable channelling system
should be the first choice.
Design information concerning the smallest
allowable (i.e. the most economic) c.s.a. of
wiring conductors and cables, for the case of
a wires-and-conduit installation, is given in
Sub-clauses 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 of Chapter H1.

F40 - distribution within a low-voltage installation

 F
6.2 conduits, conductors and cables
IEC 364-5-52 provides information on the
selection and erection of wiring systems,
based on the principles described in
IEC 364-1, concerning cables and
conductors, their termination and/or jointing,
their associated supports or suspensions,
and their enclosures or methods of protection
against external influences.

selection of wiring systems and

methods of installation,
according to IEC 364-5-52 (1993)
The selection of a wiring system may be
made from the following table.

conductors method of installation

and cables without clipped conduit cable cable cable on sup-
fixings direct trunking ducting ladder, in- port
(including cable sulators wire
skirting tray,
trunking, cable
flush floor brackets
trunking)
bare
conductors - - - - - - + -
insulated
conductors - - + + + - + -
sheathed
cables
(including
armoured
and
mineral
insulated)
c multi-core + + + + + + 0 +
c single-core 0 + + + + + 0 +
+: Permitted. -: Not permitted. 0: Not applicable, or not normally used in practice.
table F60: selection of wiring systems.
Recommended erection methods are
indicated in the table below.

situations method of installation

without with conduit cable cable cable on sup-
fixings fixings trunking ducting ladder, in- port
(including cable sulators wire
skirting tray,
trunking, cable
flush floor brackets
trunking)
building voids 21, 25 0 22, 73, - 23 12, 13, - -
73, 74 74 14, 15,
16
cable channel 43 43 41, 42 31, 32 4, 23 12, 13, - -
14, 15,
16
buried 62, 63 0 61 - 61 0 - -
in ground
embedded 52, 53 51 1, 2, 5 33 24 0 - -
in structure
surface - 11 3 31, 32 4 12, 13, 18 -
mounted 71, 72 14, 15,
16
overhead - - 0 34 - 12, 13, 18 17
14, 15,
16
immersed 81 81 0 - 0 0 - -
The number in each box indicates the reference number in table H52 (IEC 364-5-52)*.
-: Not permitted. 0: Not applicable, or not normally used in practice.
Note: for current-carrying capacity see IEC 364-5-523.
table F61: erection of wiring systems.
* Table H52 of IEC 364-5-52 fills seven pages. Two of these pages are reproduced below by way of example.

distribution within a low-voltage installation - F41

 6. distributors (continued)

F
6.2 conduits, conductors and cables (continued)
example description reference
1 2 3
insulated conductors in conduits embedded 1
in thermally insulating walls
room

multicore cables in conduits embedded 2

in thermally insulating walls
room

insulated conductors in surface mounted conduits 3

single or multicore cables in surface mounted conduits 3A

insulated conductors in cable ducting on a wall 4

single or multicore cables in cable ducting on a wall 4A

insulated conductors in conduits embedded in masonry 5

single or multicore cables in conduits embedded 5A

in masonry

sheathed and/or armoured cables or sheathed single

or multicore armoured cables
c on a wall 11

c on a ceiling 11A

c on unperforated trays 12

c on perforated trays 13

c on brackets run horizontally or vertically 14

c on cleats, spaced from a wall or a ceiling 15

c on ladders 16

F42 - distribution within a low-voltage installation

 F
example description reference
1 2 3
sheathed single-core or multicore cables suspended 17
from or incorporating suspension wire

bare or insulated conductors on insulators 18

table F62: some examples of installation methods.

Note: the illustrations are not intended to depict actual product or installation practices but are indicative of the method
described.

distribution within a low-voltage installation - F43

 6. distributors (continued)

F
6.2 conduits, conductors and cables (continued)
Designation of conduits according to the
most recent IEC recommendations

new designation code 3 90 3 2 8 6 1 2 25

obligatory marking code
1st numeral:
mechanical properties
average mechanical constraints:
very light 1
light 2
medium 3
high 4
very high 5
2nd and 3rd numerals:
classification according to temperature withstand
capabilities: conduit class:
-5°C 05
-25°C 25
+90°C 90
complementary marking code:
1st complementary numeral:
malleability of conduits:
rigid (slight bends only are possible) 1
malleable ("bendable") 2
transversally flexible (will flatten when bent) 3
flexible 4
2nd complementary numeral:
electrical properties of conduits:
with electrical continuity 1
intended for use as complementary insulation 2
intended for use as complementary insulation
but including electrical continuity 3
3rd complementary numeral: resistance of conduits
to the penetration of water, including:
rain water 3
projections of water (wind-blown rain) 4
jets of water (from hose pipe, etc.) 5
sea spray 6
temporary immersion 7
long-term immersion 8
4th complementary numeral: resistance to the penetration of solid
bodies: conduits providing protection against:
solid bodies greater than 2.5 mm 3
solid bodies greater than 1 mm 4
dust 5
dust-proof (total exclusion) 6
5th complementary numeral: resistance to corrosion:
conduits with protection:
light, internal and external protection 1
medium external, and light internal protection 2
medium external and internal protection 3
heavy external and light internal protection 4
heavy external and medium internal protection 5
heavy external and internal protection 6
6th complementary numeral: resistance to solar radiation:
conduits with protection:
low degree 1
medium degree 2
high degree 3
reference number indicating the exterior diameter in mm
16-20-25-32-40-50-63

table F63: designation code for conduits according to the most recent IEC publications.

F44 - distribution within a low-voltage installation


as referred to in this sub-clause
a conductor comprises a single
metallic core in an insulating
envelope.
a cable is made up of a number of
conductors, electrically separated,
but mechanically solid, and generally
enclosed in a protective flexible
sheath.
the term cable-way refers to
conductors and/or cables together
with the means of support and
protection, etc. for example : cable
trays, ladders, ducts, trenches, and
so on... are all "cable-ways".
F
designation code for LV
conductors and cables
Definitions
c a conductor: as referred to in this sub-
clause a conductor comprises a single
metallic core in an insulating envelope.
c a cable: a cable is made of a number of
conductors, electrically separated, but
mechanically solid, and generally enclosed in
a protective flexible sheath.
c a cable-way: the term cable-way refers to
conductors and/or cables together with the
means of support and protection, etc. for
example: cable trays, ladders, ducts,
trenches, and so on... are all "cable-ways".
Designation
Most countries have national standards of
codification for conductors and cables. In
Europe, a code has been established by
CENELEC* which "harmonizes" the several
codes of member countries, each of which is
progressively replacing its national code by
the CENELEC version. It may be noted, that
at the time of writing, certain cable types
(notably XLPE insulated) have not yet been
included in the harmonized code. Table F64
illustrates the form and significance of the
designation code.
* Comité Européen de Normalisation de
l'Electrotechnique.
designation code (CENELEC) H 07 R N - - F 3 G 1,5
"harmonized" cable H
cable derived from a harmonized cable A
cable according to a national standard FRN
service voltage between conductors
300 volts maximum 03
500 volts maximum 05
750 volts maximum 07
1,000 volts maximum 1
symbols for insulation materials
ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) B
natural rubber or equivalent (Rubber) R
polyvinylchloride (PVC) V
cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) X
polychloroprene (neoprene) (PCP) N
symbol of sheath materials
ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) B
natural rubber or equivalent (Rubber) R
polyvinylchloride (PVC) V
cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) X
polychloroprene (neoprene) (PCP) N
special constructions
flat divisible cable H
flat indivisible cable H2
core metals
copper (no code)
aluminium A
core symbols
solid single core (inflexible) U
core of twisted strands (inflexible) R
flexible core, class 5 F
standard flexible core (fixed installation) K
highly-flexible core, class 6 H
composition of the cables
number of conductors X
multiplication sign if no green/yellow conductor is present X
sign when a green/yellow conductor is present G
cross-sectional area of conductor X
table F64: designation of conductors and cables according to CENELEC code
for harmonized cables.
CENELEC has undertaken a project of harmonization of different national standards, with a view to facilitating exchanges
between European countries.
distribution within a low-voltage installation - F45
 6. distributors (continued)

F
6.2 conduits, conductors and cables (continued)
Example of decoding: H07 RN-F 3G 1,5 : non-metallic
Harmonized cable - Nominal voltage protective
core sheath
450/750 V - Rubber insulated - Neoprene
(PCP) sheathed - Flexible-3 conductors: core insulation
1 green/yellow conductor - All conductors are
1.5 mm2. fig. F65: typical 3-core unarmoured cable.
conductors designation designation number of c.s.a.-voltage
and cables according to the according to conductors mm2 V
French national CENELEC code
standards code
cross-linked U 1000 R12N cable standards 1 to 5 1.5 - 630
polyethylene (XLPE) U 1000 R2V not yet
inflexible cables U 1000 RVFV harmonized 1 to 5 1.5 - 300
U 1000 RGPFV 1 to 5 1.5 - 240
inflexible cables FRN 1X1X2 1 to 5 1.5 - 630
with halogen-free FRN 1X1G1 1 to 5 1.5 - 630
insulation (1) FRN 1X1X2Z4X2 1 to 5 1.5 - 300
FRN 1X1G1Z4G1 1 to 5 1.5 - 300
flexible elastomeric- H 07 RN-F 2 to 5 1.5 - 500
insulated cables FRN 07 RN-7 7 to 37 1.5 - 4
PVC-insulated FRN 05VV-U 2 to 5 1.5 - 35
cables FRN 05VV-R 2 to 5 1.5 - 35
H 05VV-F 2 to 5 0.75 - 2.5
H 05VVH2-F 2 0.75
PVC-insulated H 07V-U 1 1.5 - 400
conductors H 07V-R 1 1.5 - 400
H 07VK 1 1.5 - 240
conductors with FRN 0...-U 1 1.5 - xxx
halogen-free FRN 0...-R 1 1.5 - xxx
insulation FRN 0...- 1 1.5 - xxx
table F66: commonly used conductors and cables.
(1) cable of category C1 (non-fire-propagating cable).

c rule 1 identification marking of LV

The green-and-yellow striped
marking is reserved exclusively for
protective conductors PE or PEN.
c rule 2
Where a circuit includes a neutral
conductor, it must be coloured light-
blue (or marked by the number 1 for
multicore cables of more than
5 conductors).
Where a circuit does not include a
neutral conductor, the light-blue
conductor may be used as a phase
conductor if it is included in a cable of
more than one conductor.
c rule 3
Phase conductors may be identified
by any colour, except:
v green-and-yellow,
v green,
v yellow,
v light-blue (see rule 2).
F46 - distribution within a low-voltage installation
conductors
LV wiring and cable conductors are marked
either by colouring, or by numbers. These
markings, as recommended in IEC 446, are
governed by the following three rules:
c rule 1
The green-and-yellow striped marking is
reserved exclusively for protective conductors
PE or PEN.
c rule 2
Where a circuit includes a neutral conductor,
it must be coloured light-blue (or marked by
the number 1 for multicore cables of more
than 5 conductors).
Where a circuit does not include a neutral
conductor, the light-blue conductor may be
used as a phase conductor if it is included in
a cable of more than one conductor.
c rule 3
Phase conductors may be identified by any
colour, except:
v green-and-yellow,
v green,
v yellow,
v light-blue (see rule 2).
Note: if a circuit requires a protective
conductor, but the cable which is available for
the circuit does not include a green-and-
yellow striped conductor, the protective
conductor may be:
c either a separate conductor with green-and-
yellow striped insulation, or
c a light-blue conductor, if the circuit does not
include a neutral conductor, or
c a black conductor, if the circuit includes a
neutral conductor. In the two last cases, the
conductor used must be marked by bands or
grommets of striped green-and-yellow
colours at the extremities of the cable, and
along any of its exposed lengths.
7. external influences
7.1 classification
external influences shall be taken
into account when choosing:
c the appropriate measures to
ensure the safety of persons (in
particular in special locations or
electrical installations)
c the characteristics of electrical
equipment, such as IP degree,
mechanical withstand, water ingress.
Every electrical installation occupies an
environment which presents a more-or-less
severe degree of risk
c for persons,
c for the materials constituting the installation.
Consequently, environmental conditions
influence the definition and choice
of appropriate installation materials
and the choice of protective measures
for the safety of persons.
The environmental conditions are referred
to collectively as "external influences".
Many national standards concerned with
external influences include a classification
scheme which is based on, or which closely
resembles, that of the international standard
IEC 364-3.
This standard (IEC 364-3) devotes many
pages to detailed explanations of each class
of influence, and for such detail the reader is
referred to the standard. Following the IEC
codification scheme given below, however, a
concise list of external influences, extracted
from Appendix A of the IEC document, is
presented in table F67.
F
Codification
Each condition of external influence is
designated by a code comprising a group of
two capital letters and a number as follows:
The first letter relates to the general category
of external influence.
A = environment
B =utilization
C = construction of buildings
The second letter relates to the nature of the
external influence.
The number relates to the class within each
external influence.
For example the code AC2 signifies:
A = environment
AC = environment-altitude
AC2 = environment-altitude > 2,000 m
Note: the codification given in this chapter is
not intended to be used for marking
equipment.
distribution within a low-voltage installation - F47
 7. external influences (continued)

F
7.1 classification (continued)
A
AA ambient (°C) AE2 small AL fauna
AA1 -60°C +5°C AE3 very small AL1 no hazard
AA2 -40°C +5°C AE4 dust AL2 hazard
AA3 -25°C +5°C AF corrosion AM radiation
AA4 -5°C +40°C AF1 negligible AM1 negligible
AA5 +5°C +40°C AF2 atmospheric AM2 stray currents
AA6 +5°C +60°C AF3 intermittent AM3 electromagnetic
AB humidity AF4 continuous AM4 ionization
AC altitude (m) AG impact AM5 electrostatics
environnement

AC1 ≤ 2000 AG1 low AM6 induction

AC2 > 2000 AG2 medium AN solar
AG3 high AN1 negligible
AD water
AH vibration AN2 significant
AD1 negligible
AD2 drops AH1 low AP seismic
AD3 sprays AH2 medium AP1 negligible
AD4 splashes AH3 high AP2 low
AD5 jets AJ other AP3 medium
AD6 waves mechanical AP4 high
AD7 immersion stresses AQ lightning
AD8 submersion AK flora AQ1 negligible
AE foreign bodies AK1 no hazard AQ2 indirect
AE1 negligible AK2 hazard AR wind
B
BA capability BC2 low BD4 (high density/
BA1 ordinary BC3 frequent difficult exit)
BA2 children BC4 continuous
BE materials
BA3 handicapped BD evacuation
utilization

BE1 no risk
BA4 instructed BD1 (low density/
BE2 fire risk
BA5 skilled easy exit)
BD2 (low density/ BE3 explosion risk
BB resistance BE4 contamination
difficult exit)
BC contact with earth BD3 (high density/ risk
BC1 none easy exit)
C
CA materials CB structure CB3 structure
building

CA1 non-combustible CB1 negligible risk movement

CA2 combustible CB2 fire propagation CB4 flexible

table F67: concise list of important external influences (taken from Appendix A of IEC 364-3).

F48 - distribution within a low-voltage installation

 F
7.2 protection by enclosures: IP code
The degree of protection provided by an c penetration by solid bodies;
enclosure is indicated in the IP code, c protection of persons against access to live
recommended in IEC 529 (1989). parts;
Protection is afforded against the following c protection against the ingress of dust;
external influences: c protection against the ingress of liquids.
IP 2 3 C H

Code letters
(International Protection)

First characteristic numeral

(numerals 0 to 6, or letter X)

Second characteristic numeral

(numerals 0 to 8, or letter X)

Additional letter (optional)

(letters A, B, C, D)

Supplementary letter (optional)

(letters H, M, S, W)

Where a characteristic numeral is not required to be specified, it shall be replaced by the letter "X"
("XX" if both numerals are omitted).
Additional letters and/or supplementary letters may be omitted without replacement.
fig. F68: IP Code arrangement.
Note: the IP code applies to electrical
equipment for voltages up to and including
72.5 kV.

distribution within a low-voltage installation - F49

 7. external influences (continued)

F
7.2 protection by enclosures: IP code (continued)
Elements of the IP Code and their
meanings
A brief description of the IP Code elements is
given in the following chart.
Element Numerals Meaning for the protection Meaning for the
or letters of equipment protection of persons
Code letters IP - -

Against ingress of solid foreign objects Against access to

hazardous parts with
0 (non-protected) (non-protected)
1 u 50 mm diameter back of hand
First
characteristic 2 u 12.5 mm diameter finger
numeral 3 u 2.5 mm diameter tool
4 u 1.0 mm diameter wire
5 dust-protected wire
6 dust-tight wire

Against ingress of water with harmful

effects
0 (non-protected)
1 vertically dripping
2 dripping (15° tilted)
Second
characteristic 3 spraying -
numeral 4 splashing
5 jetting
6 powerful jetting
7 temporary immersion
8 continuous immersion

Against access to
hazardous parts with
A back of hand
Additional letter
(optional) B - finger
C tool
D wire

Supplementary information specific to:

H High-voltage apparatus
Supplementary M
letter (optional) Motion during water test -
S Stationary during water test
W Weather conditions
fig. F69: elements of the IP Code.

F50 - distribution within a low-voltage installation


Examples of the use of letters in the
IP Code
The following examples are to explain the
use and arrangement of letters in the IP
Code.
IP44 - no letters, no options.
IPX5 - omitting first characteristic numeral.
IP2X - omitting second characteristic
numeral.
IP20C - using additional letter.
IPXXC - omitting both characteristics
numerals, using additional letter.
IPX1C - omitting first characteristic numeral,
using additional letter.
IP3XD - omitting second characteristic
numeral, using additional letter.
IP23S - using supplementary letter.
IP21CM - using additional letter and
supplementary letter.
IPX5/IPX7 - giving two different degrees of
protection by an enclosure against both water
jets and temporary immersion for "versatile"
application.
Examples of designations with the
IP Code
c IP Code not using optional letters:
IP 3 4 enclosure
Code letters
1st characteristic numeral
2nd characteristic numeral
An enclosure with this designation (IP Code)
(3) - protects persons, handling tools having a
diameter of 2.5 mm and greater, against
access to hazardous parts
- protects the equipment inside the enclosure
against ingress of solid foreign objects having
a diameter of 2.5 mm and greater.
(4) protects the equipment inside the
enclosure against harmful effects due to
water splashed against the enclosure from
any direction.
c IP Code using optional letters:
IP 2 3 C S
Code letters
1st characteristic numeral
2nd characteristic numeral
Additional letter
Supplementary letter
F
An enclosure with this designation (IP Code)
(2) - protects persons against access to
hazardous parts with fingers
- protects the equipment inside the enclosure
against ingress of solid foreign objects having
a diameter of 12.5 mm and greater.
(3) protects the equipment inside the
enclosure against the harmful effects due to
water sprayed against the enclosure.
(C) protects persons handling tools having a
diameter of 2.5 mm and greater and a length
not exceeding 100 mm against access to
hazardous parts (the tool may penetrate the
enclosure up to its full length).
(S) is tested for protection against harmful
effects due to the ingress of water when all
the parts of the equipment are stationary
(e.g. the rotor of a rotating machine).
An extensive description of the numerous
possible combinations of protective
requirements is beyond the scope of this
guide. For additional information and full
details of application and testing
requirements of the IP Code, the reader is
referred to IEC Publication 529 (1989).
Access to the interior of a protective
In the normal operating state, access doors
and removable panels provided for
maintenance purposes are closed, but the
majority of enclosures are provided with
orifices for ventilation. Adjustments through
orifices by tools (screw drivers, box spanners,
etc.) from the outside are also common, while
limited access to some "safe" sections of an
enclosure are frequently provided in the form
of hand-holes under a removable plate. Such
penetrations could, unless interior
arrangements are carefully designed to
prevent it, lead to accidental contact with live
parts. Figure F70 shows IEC test probes
intended to prove the adequacy of protection
against such dangers, and the corresponding
IP Code for each probe.
distribution within a low-voltage installation - F51
 7. external influences (continued)

F
7.2 protection by enclosures: IP code (continued)
first addit. test
numeral letter access probe
force
1 A sphere 50 mm diameter 50 N ± 10%
approx. 100 4 Ø50
Ø10

rigid test sphere (metal)

handle guard
(insulating material) Ø45
2 B jointed test finger 10 N ± 10%

80
Ø12

jointed test finger (metal)

insulating material stop face (Ø50x20)

3 C test rod 2.5 mm diameter, 100 mm long 3 N ± 10%

approx. 100 100

Ø10 Ø2.5

edges free from burrs

handle stop face Ø35
(insulating material) (insulating material) rigid test rod (metal)

4, 5, 6 D test wire 1.0 mm diameter, 100 mm long 1 N ± 10%

approx. 100 100

Ø10 Ø1

edges free from burrs

handle Ø35
stop face
(insulating material) (insulating material) rigid test wire (metal)

fig. F70: access probes for the tests for protection of persons against access to hazardous parts.

protection against mechanical protection against corrosion

impact
The selection of equipment according to an
adequate IP code can ensure safety only if
the enclosure is sufficiently robust to sustain
anticipated mechanical stresses, notably
impact forces, without distortion which will
adversely affect its IP classification.
Specifications for such equipment should
therefore include the appropriate AG code
(AG1, AG2 or AG3) according to the severity
of possible impact stresses as listed in
table F67.
Tests for standardized impact severities are
being "harmonized" November 1993
internationally, and are based on four levels
of impact energy, viz:
For similar reasons to those mentioned
above (i.e. possible reduction in the degree of
protection required, due to external
influences), the possibility of weakening of
enclosures or enlarging of orifices and so on,
caused by corrosion must also be given due
consideration.
The severity of the corrosive environment
may be indicated in the equipment
specifications by the AF code (AF1, AF2, AF3
or AF4) as listed in table F67, and defined in
sub-clause 321 of IEC 364-3.

level energy in joules

1 0.255
2 2.0
3 6.0
4 20.0
It is recommended that these values be used
in specifications, pending quantification of the
AG code in IEC 364-3.

F52 - distribution within a low-voltage installation

1. general

1.1 electric shock
when a current exceeding 30 mA
passes through a part of a human
body, the person concerned is in
serious danger if the current is not
interrupted in a very short time.
the protection of persons against
electric shock in LV installations must
be provided in conformity with
appropriate national standards and
statutory regulations, codes of
practice, official guides and circulars,
etc.
Relevant IEC standards include:
IEC 364, IEC 479-1, IEC 755,
IEC 1008, IEC 1009
and IEC 947-2 appendix B.
G
electric shock
An electric shock is the pathophysiological Curve C1 (of figure G1) shows that when a
effect of an electric current through the current greater than 30 mA passes through a
human body. part of a human being, the person concerned
Its passage affects essentially the circulatory is likely to be killed, unless the current is
and respiratory functions and sometimes interrupted in a relatively short time.
results in serious burns. The degree of The point 500 ms/100 mA close to the curve
danger for the victim is a function of the C1 corresponds to a probability of heart
magnitude of the current, the parts of the fibrillation of the order of 0.14%.
body through which the current passes, and The protection of persons against electric
the duration of current flow. shock in LV installations must be provided in
IEC Publication 479-1 defines four zones of conformity with appropriate national
current-magnitude/time-duration, in each of standards and statutory regulations, codes of
which the pathophysiological effects are practice, official guides and circulars, etc.
described (fig. G1). Any person coming into Relevant IEC standards include: IEC 364,
contact with live metal risks an electric shock. IEC 479-1, IEC 755, IEC 1008, IEC 1009
and IEC 947-2 appendix B.
duration of current flow t
ms 10000
A B C1 C2 C3
5000
∂ imperceptible
2000
∑ perceptible
∏ reversible effects:
1000 muscular
contraction
500
π possibility of
1 2 3 4 irreversible
200 effects
C1: no heart fibrillation
100 C2: 5% probability
50
of heart fibrillation
C3: 50% probability
of heart fibrillation
20

10
0,1 0,2 0,5 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10000
mA
current passing through the body Is

fig. G1: curve C1 (of IEC 479-1) defines the current-magnitude/time-duration limits which
must not be exceeded.

1.2 direct and indirect contact

standards and regulations distinguish direct contact indirect contact
two kinds of dangerous contact: A direct contact refers to a person coming An indirect contact refers to a person coming
into contact with a conductor which is live in into contact with a conductive part which is
c direct contact, normal circumstances. not normally alive, but has become alive
c indirect contact, accidentally (due to insulation failure or some
and corresponding protective other cause).
measures. insulation
failure
1 2 3 PE conductor
1 2 3 N
Id

busbars
Is Is

fig. G2: direct contact. fig. G3: indirect contact.

Is: touch current Id: insulation fault current

protection against electric shocks - G1

 2. protection against direct contact
G
two measures of protection against
direct-contact hazards are often
imposed, since, in practice, the first
measure may not prove to be
infallible.
2.1 measures of protection against direct contact
IEC and national standards
frequently distinguish between
degrees of protection
c complete (insulation, enclosures)
c partial or particular.
G2 - protection against electric shocks
Two complementary measures are commonly
employed as protection against the dangers
of direct contact:
c the physical prevention of contact with live
parts by barriers, insulation, inaccessibility,
etc.
c additional protection in the event that a
direct contact occurs, despite the above
measures. This protection is based on
residual-current operated high-sensitivity fast-
acting relays, which are highly effective in the
majority of direct contact cases.
measures of complete protection
Protection by the insulation of live parts
This protection consists of an insulation which
conforms to the relevant standards. Paints,
lacquers and varnishes do not provide an
adequate protection.
Protection by means of barriers or
enclosures fig. G4: inherent direct-contact protection
This measure is in widespread use, since by the insulation of a 3-phase cable with
many components and materials are installed outer sheath.
in cabinets, pillars, control panels and
distribution-board enclosures, etc. To be
considered as providing effective protection
against direct-contact hazards, these
equipments must possess a degree of
protection equal to at least IP2X or IPXXB
(see Chapter F Sub-clause 7.2).
Moreover, an opening in an enclosure (door,
panel, drawer, etc.) must only be removable,
opened or withdrawn:
c by means of a key or tool provided for the
purpose, or
c after complete isolation of the live parts in
the enclosure, or
c with the automatic action of an intervening
metal shutter, removable only with a key or
with tools. The metal enclosure and all metal
shutters must be bonded to the protective
earthing conductor for the installation.
partial measures of protection fig. G5: example of direct-contact
Protection by means of obstacles, or by prevention by means of an earthed metal
placing out of reach enclosure.
This practice concerns locations to which
qualified, or otherwise authorized personnel
only, have access.
particular measures
of protection
Protection by the use of extra-low voltage
SELV (Safety Extra Low Voltage) schemes
This measure is used only in low-power
circuits, and in particular circumstances, as
described in Sub-clause G3.5.

2.2 additional measure of protection against direct contact
an additional measure of protection
against the hazards of direct contact
is provided by the use of residual-
current operated devices, which
operate at 30 mA or less, and are
referred to as RCDs of high
sensitivity.
IEC wiring regulations impose the
use of RCDs on circuits supplying
socket outlets, installed in particular
locations considered to be potentially
dangerous, or used for special
purposes. Some national wiring
regulations impose their use on all
circuits supplying socket outlets.
G
All the preceding protective measures are
preventive, but experience has shown that for
various reasons they cannot be regarded as
being infallible. Among these reasons may be
cited:
c lack of proper maintenance,
c imprudence, carelessness,
c normal (or abnormal) wear and tear of
insulation; for example, flexure and abrasion
of connecting leads,
c accidental contact,
c immersion in water, etc. - a situation in
which insulation is no longer effective.
In order to protect users in such
circumstances, highly-sensitive fast-tripping
devices, based on the detection of residual
currents to earth (which may or may not be
through a human being or animal) are used
to disconnect the power supply automatically,
and with sufficient rapidity to prevent
permanent injury to, or death by
electrocution, of a normally healthy human
being.
fig. G6: high-sensitivity RCD.
These devices operate on the principle of
differential current measurement, in which
any difference between the current entering a
circuit and that leaving it, must (on a system
supplied from an earthed source) be flowing
to earth, either through faulty insulation or
through contact of an earthed object, such as
a person, with a live conductor.
Standard residual-current devices, referred to
as RCDs, sufficiently sensitive for direct-
contact protection are rated at 30 mA of
differential current. Other standard IEC
ratings for high-sensitivity RCDs are 10 mA
and 6 mA (generally used for individual
appliance protection).
This additional protection is imposed in
certain countries for circuits supplying socket
outlets of ratings up to 32 A, and even higher
if the location is wet and/or temporary (such
as work-sites for example).
Chapter L section 3 itemizes various common
locations in which RCDs of high sensitivity
are obligatory (in some countries), but in any
case, are highly recommended as an
effective protection against both direct- and
indirect-contact hazards.
protection against electric shocks - G3
 3. protection against indirect contact

G
national regulations covering LV
installations impose, or strongly
recommend, the provision of devices
for indirect-contact protection.
the measures of protection are:
c automatic disconnection of supply
(at the first or second fault detection,
depending on the system of earthing)
c particular measures according to
circumstances.
Conductive material(1) used in the
manufacture of an electrical appliance, but
which is not part of the circuit for the
appliance, is separated from live parts by the
"basic insulation". Failure of the basic
insulation will result in the conductive parts
becoming live.
Touching a normally-dead part of an electrical
appliance which has become live due to the
failure of its insulation, is referred to as an
indirect contact.
Various measures are adopted to protect
against this hazard, and include:
c automatic disconnection of power supply to
the appliance concerned,
c special arrangements such as:
v the use of class II insulation materials, or an
equivalent degree of insulation,
v non-conducting location(2) - out-of-reach or
interposition of barriers,
v equipotential locality,
v electrical separation by means of isolating
transformers.
(1) Conductive material (usually metal) which may be
touched, without dismantling the appliance, is referred to as
"exposed conductive parts".
(2) The definition of resistances of the walls, floor and ceiling
of a non-conducting location is given in Sub-clause G3.5

3.1 measure of protection by automatic disconnection of the supply

protection against indirect-contact
hazards by automatic disconnection
of the supply can be achieved if the
exposed conductive parts of
appliances are properly earthed.
principle
This protective measure depends on two
fundamental requirements:
c the earthing of all exposed conductive parts
of equipment in the installation and the
constitution of an equipotential bonding
network (see Sub-clause F4-1),
c automatic disconnection of the section of
the installation concerned, in such a way that
the touch-voltage/time safety requirements
are respected for any level of touch voltage
Uc(3).
(3) touch voltage Uc:
Touch voltage Uc is the voltage existing (as the result of
insulation failure) between an exposed conductive part and
any conductive element within reach which is at a different
(generally earth) potential.
The greater the value of Uc, the greater the rapidity of
supply disconnection required to provide protection (see
Tables G8 and G9). The highest value of Uc that can be
tolerated indefinitely without danger to human beings is
installation
called the "conventional touch-voltage limit" (UL). earth
electrode Uc

fig. G7: in this illustration the dangerous

touch voltage Uc is from hand to hand.

in practice the disconnecting times reminder of the theoretical

and the choice of protection schemes disconnecting-time limits*
to use depend on the kind of earthing assumed maximum disconnecting assumed maximum disconnecting
system concerned; TT, TN or IT. touch time for the protective touch time for the protective
voltage device (seconds) voltage device (seconds)
Precise indications are given in the
(V) alternating direct (V) alternating direct
corresponding paragraphs. current current current current
< 50 5 5 25 5 5
50 5 5 50 0.48 5
75 0.60 5 75 0.30 2
90 0.45 5 90 0.25 0.80
120 0.34 5 110 0.18 0.50
150 0.27 1 150 0.12 0.25
220 0.17 0.40 230 0.05 0.06
280 0.12 0.30 280 0.02 0.02
350 0.08 0.20
table G9: maximum safe duration of the
500 0.04 0.10
assumed values of touch voltage in
table G8: maximum safe duration of the conditions where UL = 25 V.
assumed values of touch voltage in
conditions where UL = 50 V(1).
(1) The resistance of the floor and the wearing of shoes are
taken into account in these values.
* For most locations, the maximum permitted touch voltage
(UL) is 50 V. For special locations, the limit is reduced to
25 V. See G4-1 and Clause L3.

G4 - protection against electric shocks


3.2 automatic disconnection for a TT-earthed installation
automatic disconnection for a
TT-earthed installation is effected by
a RCD having a sensitivity of
U 50 V*
I∆n i L =
RA RA
where RA = resistance of the
installation earth electrode
* 25 V in some particular cases.
G
principle
In this scheme all the exposed and Automatic protection for a TT-earthed
extraneous conductive parts of the installation installation is assured by the use of a RCD of
must be connected to a common earth sensitivity:
electrode. The supply system neutral is I∆n i UL = 50 V
normally earthed at a point outside the area RA RA
of influence of the electrode for the where
installation, but need not be so. RA = the resistance of the earth electrode for
The impedance of the earth-fault loop the installation.
therefore consists mainly of the two earth I∆n = rated differential current operating level.
electrodes (i.e. the source and installation For temporary supplies (to work-sites etc.)
electrodes) in series, so that the magnitude of and agricultural and horticultural
the earth-fault current is generally too small to establishments, the value of UL in the above-
operate overcurrent relays or fuses, and the mentioned formula must be replaced by 25 V.
use of a differential-current form of protection
is essential.
This principle of protection is also valid if one
common earth electrode only is used, notably
in the case of a consumer-type substation
within the installation area, where space
limitations may impose the adoption of a TN
earthing scheme, but where all other
conditions required by the TN system cannot
be fulfilled.
example
The resistance of the substation neutral earth
electrode Rn is 10 ohms.
The resistance of the installation earth
electrode RA is 20 ohms.
The earth-fault current Id = 7.7 A.
The touch-voltage Uc = IdRA = 154 V and
therefore dangerous, but,
I∆n = 50 = 2.5 A so that a standard 300 mA
20
RCD will operate in 30 ms to clear a condition
in which 50 V touch voltage, or more,
appears on an exposed conductive part.
HV/400V
1
2
3
4
installation
substation earth Uc
earth electrode
electrode
Rn : 10 Ω RA : 20 Ω
fig. G10: automatic disconnection for a TT-earthed installation.
protection against electric shocks - G5
 3. protection against indirect contact (continued)
G
3.2 automatic disconnection for a TT-earthed installation (continued)
the tripping times of RCDs are
generally lower than those
prescribed in the majority of national
standards; this feature facilitates their
use and allows the adoption of an
effective scheme of discriminative
protection.
3.3 automatic disconnection for a TN-earthed installation
the principle of the TN scheme of
earthing is to ensure that earth-fault
current will be sufficient to operate
overcurrent protective devices
(direct-acting tripping, overcurrent
relays and fuses) so that
Uo Uo*
Ia i
Zs
or 0.8
Zc
G6 - protection against electric shocks
specified disconnection time
RCD is a general term for all devices
operating on the residual-current principle.
RCCB* (residual current circuit breaker) as
defined in IEC 1008 is a specific class of
RCD.
Type G (general) and type S (selective) have
tripping time/current characteristics as shown
in table G11. These characteristics allow a
certain degree of selective tripping between
the several combinations of rating and type,
as shown later in Sub-clause 4.3.
principle
In this scheme all exposed and extraneous
conductive parts of the installation are
connected directly to the earthed point of the
power supply by protective conductors.
As noted in Chapter F Sub-clause 4.2, the
way in which this direct connection is carried
out depends on whether the TN-C, TN-S, or
TN-C-S method of implementing the TN
principle is used. In figure G12 the method
TN-C is shown, in which the neutral
conductor acts as both the Protective-Earth
and Neutral (PEN) conductor. In all TN
arrangements, any insulation fault to earth
constitutes a phase-neutral short-circuit.
High fault current levels simplify protection
requirements but can give rise to touch
voltages exceeding 50% of the phase-to-
neutral voltage at the fault position during the
brief disconnection time.
In practice, therefore, earth electrodes are
normally installed at intervals along the
neutral of the supply network, while the
consumer is generally required to instal an
earth electrode at the service position. On
large installations additional earth electrodes
dispersed around the premises are often
example
B
A
F 1
N E
NS160
35 50 m
mm2 35 mm2
D C
RnA
Uc
fig. G12: automatic disconnection for a TN-earthed installation.
In figure G12 the touch voltage
230
Uc = = 115 V
2 Note: some authorities base such
and is therefore dangerous.
The impedance Zs of the loop = ZAB + ZBC +
ZDE + ZEN + ZNA.
If ZBC and ZDE are predominant, then:
ZS = 2ρ x L = 64.3 milli-ohm, so that
S "conventional method" and, in this example,
Id = 230/64.3 = 3,576 A (≈ 22 In based on a
160 A circuit breaker).
The "instantaneous" magnetic tripping device
setting of the circuit breaker is many times
x I∆n 1 2 5 >5
instantaneous (ms) 300 150 40 40
domestic
type S (ms) 500 200 150 150
industrial
setting I** (ms) 150 150 150 150
* Merlin Gerin
table G11: maximum operating times of
RCCBs (IEC 1008).
** Note : the use of the term "circuit breaker" does not mean
that a RCCB can break short-circuit currents. For such
duties RCDs known as RCBOs ("O" for overcurrent) as
defined in IEC 1009 must be employed.
provided, in order to reduce the touch voltage
as much as possible.
In high-rise apartment blocks, all extraneous
conductive parts are connected to the
protective conductor at each level.
In order to ensure adequate protection, the
earth-fault current
Id = Uo or 0.8 Uo u Ia where
Zs Zc
Uo = nominal phase-neutral voltage.
Zs = earth-fault current loop impedance,
equal to the sum of the impedances of: the
source, the live phase conductors to the fault
position, the protective conductors from the
fault position back to the source.
Zc = the faulty-circuit loop impedance (see
"conventional method" Sub-clause 5.2).
Note: the path through earth electrodes back
to the source will have (generally) much
higher impedance values than those listed
above, and need not be considered.
Id = the fault current.
Ia = a current equal to the value required to
operate the protective device in the time
specified.
3
2
PEN
less than this value, so that positive operation
in the shortest possible time is assured.
calculations on the assumption that a voltage
drop of 20% occurs in the part of the
impedance loop BANE.
This method, which is recommended, is
explained in chapter G Sub-clause 5.2
will give a fault current of
230 x 0.8 x 103 = 2,816 A (≈ 18 In)
64.3

for TN earthing, the maximum
allowable disconnection time
depends on the nominal voltage of
the system.
if the protection is to be provided by a
circuit breaker, it is sufficient to verify
that the fault current will always
exceed the current-setting level of
the instantaneous or short-time delay
tripping unit (Im):
Im < Uo or 0.8*
Zs Zc
* according to the "conventional" method of
calculation (see sub-clause 5.2).
Ia can be determined from the fuse
performance curve. In any case,
protection cannot be achieved if the
loop impedance Zs or Zc exceeds a
certain value.
G
specified maximum certain national regulations impose, the
disconnection times provision of equipotential bonding of all
extraneous and exposed conductive parts
The times specified are a function of the
nominal voltage phase/earth, which, for all that are simultaneously accessible, in any
practical purposes on TN systems, is the area where socket-outlets are installed, from
phase/neutral voltage. which portable or mobile equipment might be
supplied. The common equipotential busbar
Uo (volts) disconnection time is installed in the distribution-board cabinet
phase/neutral (seconds) UL=50 V for the area concerned.
(see note 2) Note 2: when the conventional voltage limit is
127 0.8 25 V, the specified disconnection times are:
230 0.4 0.35 s. for 127 V
400 0.2 0.2 s. for 230 V
> 400 0.1 0.05 s. for 400 V
If the circuits concerned are final circuits, then
table G13: maximum disconnection times these times can easily be achieved by the
specified for TN earthing schemes use of RCDs.
(IEC 364-4-41).
Note 3: the use of RCDs may, as mentioned
Note 1: a longer time interval than those in note 2, be necessary on TN-earthed
specified in the table (but in any case less systems. Use of RCDs on TN-C-S systems
than 5 seconds) is allowed under certain means that the protective conductor and the
circumstances for distribution circuits, as well neutral conductor must (evidently) be
as for final circuits supplying a fixed separated upstream of the RCD. This
appliance, on condition that a dangerous separation is commonly made at the service
touch voltage is not thereby caused to appear position.
on another appliance. IEC recommends, and
protection by means of a circuit t 1 : instantaneous trip
2 : short time-delayed trip
breaker
The instantaneous trip unit of a circuit breaker
will eliminate a short-circuit to earth fault in
less than 0.1 second.
In consequence, automatic disconnection
within the maximum allowable time will
always be assured, since all types of trip unit,
magnetic or electronic, instantaneous or
2
1
slightly retarded, are suitable: Ia = Im.
The maximum tolerance authorized by the
relevant standard, however, must always be Im Uo/Zs I
taken into consideration.
fig. G14: disconnection by circuit breaker
It is sufficient therefore that the fault current
for a TN-earthed installation.
Uo / Zs or 0.8 Uo / Zc determined by
calculation (or established on site) be greater
than the instantaneous trip-setting current, or
than the very short-time tripping threshold
level, to be sure of tripping whithin the
permitted time limit.
protection by means of fuses t
The value of current which assures the
correct operation of a fuse can be
accertained from a current/time performance
graph for the fuse concerned. = 0,4 s
The fault current Uo/Zs or 0.8 Uo/Zc as tc
determined above, must largely exceed that
necessary to ensure positive operation of the
fuse. Ia Uo/Zs I
The condition to observe therefore is that:
Ia < Uo or 0.8 Uo as indicated in figure G15. fig. G15: disconnection by fuses
Zs Zc for a TN-earthed installation.
Example:
The nominal phase-neutral voltage of the
network is 230 V and the maximum
disconnection time given by the graph in
figure G15 is 0.4 seconds. The corresponding
value of Ia can be read from the graph.
Using the voltage (230 V) and the current Ia,
the complete loop impedance or the circuit
loop impedance can be calculated from
Zs = 230/Ia or Zc = 0.8 x 230/Ia.This
impedance value must never be exceeded
and should preferably be substantially less to
ensure satisfactory fuse operation.
protection against electric shocks - G7
 3. protection against indirect contact (continued)

G
3.4 automatic disconnection on a second earth fault in an IT-earthed system
In this type of system: c all exposed and extraneous conductive
c the installation is isolated from earth, or the parts are earthed via an installation earth
neutral point of its power-supply source is electrode.
connected to earth through a high
impedance,

in an IT scheme it is intended that a first fault

first fault to earth will not cause any
disconnection.
On the occurrence of a short-circuit fault to
earth, referred to as a "first fault", the fault
current is very small, such that the rule
Id x RA i 50 V (see G3.2)
is respected and no dangerous touch
voltages can occur.
In practice the current Id is feeble, a condition
that is neither dangerous to personnel, nor
harmful to the installation.
However, in this scheme: fig. G16: phases to earth insulation
c a permanent surveillance of the condition of monitoring relay (obligatory on IT-earthed
the insulation to earth must be provided, installation).
together with an alarm signal (audio and/or
flashing lights, etc.) in the event of a first
earth fault occurring,
c the rapid location and repair of a first fault is
imperative if the full benefits of the IT system
are to be realized. Continuity of service is the
great advantage afforded by the scheme.
Id2 Id1
HV/400 V
3
2
1
B PE
Id2
Id1 Id1

Zct Id2 Id2 ZF

1500 Ω
Id1
A

Uc
RnA = 5 Ω Id2

fig. G17: fault-current paths for a first (earth) fault on an IT-earthed installation.
Example:
For a network formed from 1 km of
conductors, the leakage (capacitive)
impedance to earth ZF is of the order of
3,500 ohms per phase. In normal (unfaulted)
operation, the capacitive current* to earth is
therefore
Uo = 230 = 66 mA per phase
ZF 3,500
During a phase-to-earth fault, as shown in
figure G17, the current passing through the
electrode resistance RnA is the vector sum of
the capacitive currents in the two healthy
phases. The voltages of the two healthy
phases have (because of the fault) increased
to √3 the normal phase voltage, so that the
capacitive currents increase by the same
amount. These currents are displaced, one
from the other by 60°, so that when added
vectorially, this amounts to 3 x 66 mA =
198 mA i.e. Id2 in the present example.
The touch voltage Uc is therefore
198 x 5 x 10-3 = 0.99 V, which is evidently
harmless.
The current through the short-circuit is given
by the vector sum of the neutral-resistor
current Id1 (= 153 mA) and the capacitive
current (Id2).
Since the exposed conductive parts of the
installation are connected directly to earth,
the neutral impedance Zct plays practically no
part in the production of touch voltages to
earth.
* Resistive leakage current to earth through the insulation is
assumed to be negligibly small in the example.

the simultaneous existence of two second fault situation

earth faults (if not both on the same
phase) is dangerous, and rapid
clearance by fuses or automatic
circuit breaker tripping depends on
the type of earth-bonding scheme,
and whether separate earthing
electrodes are used or not, in the
installation concerned.
On the appearance of a second fault, on a
different phase, or on a neutral conductor,
a rapid disconnection becomes imperative.
Fault clearance is carried out differently in
each of the following cases:
1st case: concerns an installation in which all
exposed conductive parts are bonded to a
common PE conductor, as shown in figure
G19.
In this case no earth electrodes are included
in the fault current path, so that a high level of
fault current is assured, and conventional
overcurrent protective devices are used, i.e.
circuit breakers and fuses.
The first fault could occur at the end of a
circuit in a remote part of the installation,
while the second fault could feasibly be
located at the opposite end of the installation.
For this reason, it is conventional to double
the loop impedance of a circuit, when
calculating the anticipated fault setting level
for its overcurrent protective device(s).

G8 - protection against electric shocks


1st case: where all exposed
conductive parts are connected to a
common PE conductor conventional
overcurrent protection schemes
(such as those used in TN systems)
are applicable, with fault-level
calculations and tripping/fuse-
operating times suitably adapted.
c where the system includes a neutral
conductor in addition to the 3 phase
conductors, the lowest short-circuit fault
currents will occur if one of the (two) faults is
from the neutral conductor to earth (all four
conductors are insulated from earth in an IT
scheme). In four-wire IT installations,
therefore, the phase-to-neutral voltage must
be used to calculate short-circuit protective
levels i.e.
(1) 0.8 Uo* u Ia where
2 Zc
Uo = phase/neutral voltage
Zc = impedance of the circuit fault-current
loop (see G3.3)
Ia = current level for trip setting
Uo/U (volts) disconnection time (seconds) UL = 50 V (1)
Uo = phase-neutral volts 3-phase 3-wires
U = phase-phase volts
127/220 0.8
230/400 0.4
400/690 0.2
580/1000 0.1
table G18: maximum disconnection times specified for an IT-earthed installation
(IEC 364-4-41).
(1) When the conventional voltage limit is
25 V, the disconnecting times become:
c in the case of a 3-phase 3-wire scheme,
0.4 seconds at 127/220 V; 0.2 seconds at
230/400 V and 0.06 seconds at 400/690 V,
Example
HV/400 V A Id
J 2
K PE
F E
NS160
160 A
50 m
Zct 35 mm2
H G
Rn RA
fig. G19: circuit breaker tripping on second (earth) fault when exposed conductive parts
are connected to a common protective conductor.
The current levels and protective measures
depend on the switchgear and fusegear
concerned:
c circuit breakers
In the case shown in figure G19, the levels of
instantaneous and short time-delay
overcurrent-trip settings must be decided.
The times recommended in table G18 can be
readily complied with.
Example: from the case shown in figure G19,
determine that the short-circuit protection
provided by the 160 A circuit breaker is
suitable to clear a phase-to-phase short-
circuit occurring at the load ends of the
circuits concerned.
Reminder: In an IT system, the two circuits
involved in a phase-to-phase short circuit are
assumed to be of equal length, with the same
sized conductors; the PE conductors being
the same size as the phase conductors.
In such a case, the impedance of the circuit
loop when using the "conventional method"
(Sub-clause 5.2 of this chapter) will be twice
that calculated for one of the circuits in the
TN case, shown in Sub-clause 3.3.
G
c if no neutral conductor is provided, then the
voltage to use for the fault-current calculation
is the phase-to-phase value, i.e.
(2) 0.8 e Uo* u Ia
2 Zc
Specified tripping/fuse-clearance times
Disconnecting times for 3-wire 3-phase IT
schemes differ from those adopted for 4-wire
3-phase IT schemes, and are given for both
cases in table G18.
* based on the "conventional method" noted in the first
example of Sub-clause 3.3.
3-phase 4-wires
5
0.8
0.4
0.2
c in the case of a 3-phase 4-wire scheme,
1.0 second at 127/220 V; 0.5 seconds at
230/400 V and 0.2 seconds at 400/690 V.
B
3
1
busbars
50 m
35 mm2
D C
So that the resistance of circuit 1 loop FGHJ
= 2 RHJ = 2 ρ l mΩ
a
where: ρ = the resistance in milli-ohm of a
copper rod 1 metre long of c.s.a. 1 mm2
l = length of the circuit in metres
a = c.s.a. of the conductor in mm2
= 2 x 22.5 x 50 = 64.3 mΩ
35
and the loop resistance B, C, D, E, F, G, H, J
will be 2 x 64.3 = 129 mΩ
The fault current will therefore be:
0.8 x ex 230 x 103 = 2.470 A
129
c fuses
The current Ia for which fuse operation must
be assured in a time specified according to
table G18 can be found from fuse operating
curves, as described in figure G15.
The current indicated should be significantly
lower than the fault currents calculated for the
circuit concerned,
c RCCBs
In particular cases, RCCBs are necessary. In
this case, protection against indirect contact
hazards can be achieved by using one RCCB
for each circuit.
protection against electric shocks - G9
 3. protection against indirect contact (continued)
G
3.4 automatic disconnection on a second earth fault in an IT-earthed system (continued)
2nd case: where exposed conductive
parts of appliances are earthed
individually or in separate groups,
each appliance or each group must
(in addition to overcurrent protection)
be protected by a RCD.
3.5 measures of protection against direct or indirect contact without circuit disconnection
extra-low voltage is used where the
risks are great: swimming pools,
wandering-lead hand lamps, and
other portable appliances for outdoor
use, etc.
G10 - protection against electric shocks
2nd case: concerns exposed conductive
parts which are earthed either individually
(each part having its own earth electrode) or
in separate groups (one electrode for each
group).
If all exposed conductive parts are not
bonded to a common electrode system, then
it is possible for the second earth fault to
occur in a different group or in a separately-
earthed individual apparatus. Additional
protection to that described above for case 1,
is required, and consists of a RCD placed at
the circuit breaker controlling each group and
each individually-earthed apparatus.
The reason for this requirement is that the
separate-group electrodes are "bonded"
through the earth so that the phase-to-phase
short-circuit current will generally be limited
when passing through the earth bond, by the
case 1
HV/LV
RCD
N N
PIM
group
earth
Rn RA
fig. G20: the application of RCDs when exposed conductive parts are earthed individually
or by groups, on IT-earthed systems.
the use of SELV (Safety by Extra
Low Voltage)
Safety by extra low voltage SELV is used in
situations where the operation of electrical
equipment presents a serious hazard
(swimming pools, amusement parks, etc.).
This measure depends on supplying power at
very low voltage from the secondary windings
of isolating transformers especially designed
according to national or to international
(IEC 742) standards.
The impulse withstand level of insulation
between the primary and secondary windings
is very high, and/or an earthed metal screen
is sometimes incorporated between the
windings. The secondary voltage never
exceeds 50 V rms.
Three conditions of exploitation must be
respected in order to provide satisfactory
protection against indirect contact:
c no live conductor at SELV must be
connected to earth,
c exposed conductive parts of SELV-supplied
the use of PELV (Protection by
Extra Low Voltage)
This system is for general use where low
voltage is required, or preferred for safety
reasons, other than in the high-risk locations
noted above. The conception is similar to that
of the SELV system, but the secondary circuit
is earthed at one point.
IEC 364-4-41 defines precisely the
significance of the reference PELV. Protection
against direct-contact hazards is generally
necessary, except when the equipment is in
the zone of equipotential bonding, and the
nominal voltage does not exceed 25 V rms,
electrode contact resistances with the earth,
thereby making protection by overcurrent
devices unreliable. The more sensitive RCDs
are therefore necessary, but the operating
current of the RCDs must evidently exceed
that which occurs for a first fault.
For a second fault occurring within a group
having a common earth-electrode system,
the overcurrent protection operates, as
described above for case 1.
Note 1: see also Chapter H1 Sub-clause 7.2,
protection of the neutral conductor.
Note 2: in 3-phase 4-wire installations
protection against overcurrent in the neutral
conductor is sometimes more conveniently
achieved by using a ring-type current
transformer over the single-core neutral
conductor, as shown in figure G20 (see also
Table H1-65c).
case 2
HV/LV
RCD
RCD RCD
PIM
group 1 group 2
earth earth
Rn RA 1 RA 2
equipment must not be connected to earth, to
other exposed conductive parts, or to
extraneous conductive parts,
c all live parts of SELV circuits and of other
circuits of higher voltage must be separated
by a distance at least equal to that between
the primary and secondary windings of a
safety isolating transformer.
These measures require that:
c SELV circuits must use conduits exclusively
provided for them, unless cables which are
insulated for the highest voltage of the other
circuits are used for the SELV circuits,
c socket outlets for the SELV system must
not have an earth-pin contact. The SELV
circuit plugs and sockets must be special, so
that inadvertent connection to a different
voltage level is not possible.
Note: In normal conditions, when the SELV
voltage is less than 25 V, there is no need to
provide protection against direct-contact
hazards. Particular requirements are
indicated in Chapter L, Clause 3: "special
locations".
and the equipment is used in normally dry
locations only, and large-area contact with the
human body is not expected.
In all other cases, 6 V rms is the maximum
permitted voltage, where no direct-contact
protection is provided.
230 V / 24 V
fig. G21: low-voltage supplies from a safety
isolating transformer, as defined in IEC 742.

the separation of electric circuits is
suitable for relatively short cable
lengths and high levels of insulation
resistance. It is preferably used for
an individual appliance.
FELV system (Functional Extra
Low Voltage)
Where, for functional reasons, a voltage of
50 V or less is used, but not all of the
requirements relating to SELV or PELV are
fulfilled, appropriate measures described in
IEC 364-4-41 must be taken to ensure
protection against both direct and indirect
contact hazards, according to the location
and use of these circuits.
the separation of electric circuits
The principle of separation of circuits
(generally single-phase circuits) for safety
purposes is based on the following
reasoning.
The two conductors from the unearthed
single-phase secondary winding of a
separation transformer are insulated from
earth.
If a direct contact is made with one conductor,
a very small current only will flow into the
person making contact, through the earth and
back to the other conductor, via the inherent
capacitance of that conductor with respect to
earth. Since the conductor capacitance to
earth is very small, the current is generally
below the level of perception.
As the length of circuit cable increases, the
direct contact current will progressively
increase to a point where a dangerous
electric shock will be experienced.
Even if a short length of cable precludes any
danger from capacitive current, a low value of
insulation resistance with respect to earth can
result in danger, since the current path is then
via the person making contact, through the
earth and back to the other conductor
through the low conductor-to-earth insulation
resistance.
For these reasons, relatively short lengths of
well-insulated cable are essential in
separation schemes.
Transformers are specially designed for this
duty, with a high degree of insulation between
primary and secondary windings, or with
equivalent protection, such as an earthed
metal screen between the windings.
Construction of the transformer is to class II
insulation standards.
As indicated above, successful exploitation of
the principle requires that:
class II appliances
symbol
These appliances are also referred to as
having "double insulation" since in class II
appliances a supplementary insulation is
added to the basic insulation. No conductive
parts of a class II appliance must be
connected to a protective conductor:
c most portable or semi-fixed appliances,
certain lamps, and some types of transformer
are designed to have double insulation. It is
important to take particular care in the
exploitation of class II equipment and to verify
regularly and often that the class II standard
is maintained (no broken outer envelope,
etc.). Electronic devices, radio and television
sets have safety levels equivalent to class II,
but are not formally class II appliances,
c supplementary insulation in an electrical
installation (IEC 364-4-41: Sub-clause 413-2).
Some national standards such as
NF C 15-100 (France) (annex to 413.5
G
Note: Such conditions may, for example, be
encountered when the circuit contains
equipment (such as transformers, relays,
remote-control switches, contactors)
insufficiently insulated with respect to circuits
at higher voltages.
c no conductor or exposed conductive part of
the secondary circuit must be connected to
earth,
c the length of secondary cabling must be
limited to avoid large capacitance values*,
c a high insulation-resistance value must be
maintained for the cabling and appliances.
These conditions generally limit the
application of this safety measure to an
individual appliance.
In the case where several appliances are
supplied from a separation transformer, it is
necessary to observe the following
requirements:
c the exposed conductive parts of all
appliances must be connected together by an
insulated protective conductor, but not
connected to earth,
c the socket outlets must be provided with an
earth-pin connection. The earth-pin
connection is used in this case only to ensure
the interconnection (bonding) of all exposed
conductive parts.
In the case of a second fault, overcurrent
protection must provide automatic
disconnection in the same conditions as
those required for an IT scheme of power
system earthing.
* It is recommended in IEC 364-4-41 that the product of the
nominal voltage of the circuit in volts and length in metres of
the wiring system should not exceed 100 000, and that the
length of the wiring system should not exceed 500 m.
separation
transformer
230 V / 230 V
class II
fig. G22: safety supplies from a separation
transformer.
active part
basic
insulation
supplementary
insulation
fig. G23: principle of class II insulation
level.
Chapter 41) describe in more detail the
necessary measures to achieve the
supplementary insulation during installation
work.
A simple example is that of drawing a cable
into a PVC conduit. Methods are also
described for distribution boards.
c for distribution boards and similar
equipment, IEC 439-1 describes a set of
requirements, for what is referred to as "total
insulation", equivalent to class II,
c some cables are recognized as being
equivalent to class II by many national
standards.
protection against electric shocks - G11
 3. protection against indirect contact (continued)
G
3.5 measures of protection against direct or indirect contact without circuit disconnection
(continued)
in principle, safety by placing
simultaneously-accessible
conductive parts out-of-reach, or by
interposing obstacles, requires also a
non-conducting floor, and so is not an
easily applied principle
earth-free equipotential chambers
are associated with particular
installations (laboratories, etc.) and
give rise to a number of practical
installation difficulties.
insulating
material
fig. G25: equipotential bonding of all exposed conductive parts
simultaneously accessible.
G12 - protection against electric shocks
out-of-reach or interposition
of obstacles.
By these means, the probability of touching a
live exposed conductive part, while at the
same time touching an extraneous
conductive part at earth potential, is
extremely low. In practice, this measure can
only be applied in a dry location, and is
implemented according to the following
conditions:
c the floor and the walls of the chamber must
be non-conducting, i.e. the resistance to earth
at any point must be:
> 50 kΩ (installation voltages i 500 V),
> 100 kΩ (500 V < installation voltages
i 1000 V).
Resistance is measured by means of
"MEGGER" type instruments (hand-operated
generator or battery-operated electronic
model) between an electrode placed on the
floor or against the wall, and earth (i.e. the
nearest protective earth-conductor).
The electrode contact area and pressure
2.5 m
electrical
apparatus
insulated floor
>2m
fig. G24: protection by out-of-reach arrangements and the interposition of non-conducting
obstacles.
earth-free equipotential
chambers
In this scheme, all exposed conductive parts,
including the floor (see *Note) are bonded by
suitably large conductors, such that no
significant difference of potential can exist
between any two points. A failure of insulation
conductive floor
must evidently be the same for all tests.
Different instrument suppliers provide
electrodes specific to their own product, so
that care should be taken to ensure that the
electrodes used are those supplied with the
instrument. There are no universally
recognized standards established for these
tests at the time of writing.
c the placing of equipment and obstacles
must be such that simultaneous contact with
two exposed conductive parts or with an
exposed conductive part and an extraneous
conductive part by an individual person is not
possible.
c no exposed protective conductor must be
introduced into the chamber concerned.
c entrances to the chamber must be
arranged so that persons entering are not at
risk, e.g. a person standing on a conducting
floor outside the chamber must not be able to
reach through the doorway to touch an
exposed conductive part, such as a lighting
switch mounted in an industrial-type cast-iron
conduit box, for example.
insulated
insulated walls
obstacles
electrical electrical
apparatus apparatus
<2m
between a live conductor and the metal
envelope of an appliance will result in the
whole "cage" being raised to phase-to-earth
voltage, but no fault current will flow. In such
conditions, a person entering the chamber
would be at risk (since he/she would be
stepping on to a live floor). Suitable
precautions must be taken to protect
personnel from this danger (e.g. non-
conducting floor at entrances, etc.).
Special protective devices are also necessary
to detect insulation failure, in the absence of
significant fault current.
*Note: extraneous conductive parts entering (or leaving) the
equipotential space (such as water pipes, etc.) must be
encased in suitable insulating material and excluded from
the equipotential network, since such parts are likely to be
bonded to protective (earthed) conductors elsewhere in the
installation.
4. implementation of the TT system

G
4.1 protective measures
the application to living quarters is protection against indirect
covered in Chapter L Clause 1. contact
General case I∆n maximum resistance
Protection against indirect contact is assured of the earth electrode
by RCDs, the sensitivity I∆n of which (50 V) (25 V)
complies with the condition: 3A 16 Ω 8Ω
I∆n i
50 V (1) 1A 50 Ω 25 Ω
RA 500 mA 100 Ω 50 Ω
(1) 25 V for work-site installations, agricultural 300 mA 166 Ω 83 Ω
establishments, etc. 30 mA 1666 Ω 833 Ω
The choice of sensitivity of the differential table G26: the upper limit of resistance for
device is a function of the resistance RA of an installation earthing electrode which
the earth electrode for the installation, and is must not be exceeded, for given
given in table G26. sensitivity levels of RCDs at UL voltage
limits of 50 V and 25 V.

Case of distribution circuits

IEC 364-4-41 and a number of national
standards recognize a maximum tripping time A
of 1 second in installation distribution circuits
(as opposed to final circuits). This allows a
degree of selective discrimination to be
achieved:
c at level A: RCD time-delayed, e.g. "S" type, B
c at level B: RCD instantaneous.

fig. G27: distribution circuits.

Case where the exposed conductive parts

of an appliance, or group of appliances,
are connected to a separate earth
electrode
Protection against indirect contact by a RCD
at the circuit breaker controlling each group
or separately-earthed individual appliance.
In each case, the sensitivity must be
compatible with the resistance of the earth
electrode concerned. RA 1 RA 2
a distant location

fig. G28: separate earth electrode.

high-sensitivity RCDs
IEC 364-4-471 strongly recommends the use
of a RCD of high sensitivity (i 30 mA) in the
following cases:
c socket-outlet circuits for rated currents
of i 32 A at any location(1),
c socket-outlet circuits in wet locations at all
current ratings(1),
c socket-outlet circuits in temporary
installations(1),
c circuits supplying laundry rooms and fig. G29: circuit supplying socket-outlets.
swimming pools(1),
c supply circuits to work-sites, caravans,
pleasure boats, and travelling fairs(1).
This protection may be for individual circuits
or for groups of circuits,
c strongly recommended for circuits of socket
outlets u 20 A (mandatory if they are
expected to supply portable equipment for
outdoor use),
c in some countries, this requirement is
mandatory for all socket-outlet circuits
rated i 32 A.
(1) these cases are treated in delail in Chapter L Clause 3.

protection against electric shocks - G13

 4. implementation of the TT system (continued)

G
4.1 protective measures (continued)
in areas of high fire risk
RCD protection at the circuit breaker
controlling all supplies to the area at risk is
necessary in some locations, and mandatory
in many countries.
The sensitivity of the RCD must be i 500 mA.
fire-risk
area

fig. G30: fire-risk location.

protection when exposed

conductive parts are not
connected to earth
(in the case of an existing installation where
the location is dry and provision of an
earthing connection is not possible, or in the
event that a protective earth wire becomes
broken)
RCDs of high sensitivity (i 30 mA) will afford
both protection against indirect-contact fig. G31: unearthed exposed conductive
hazards, and the additional protection against parts (A).
the dangers of direct-contact .

4.2 types of RCD

RCDs are commonly incorporated in the
following components:
c industrial-type moulded-case differential
circuit breakers conforming to IEC 947-2 and
its appendix B,
c domestic-type differential circuit breakers
(RCCBs)* conforming to IEC 755, 1008, and
1009 (RCBOs),
*see NOTE concerning RCCBs at the end of
Sub-clause 3.2.
c differential switches conforming to particular
national standards,
c relays with separate toroidal (ring-type)
current transformers, conforming to IEC 755.
RCDs are mandatorily used at the origin of
TT-earthed installations, where their ability to
discriminate with other RCDs allows selective
tripping, thereby ensuring the level of service
continuity required.

DIN-rail circuit breaker with RCD module

the international standard for
industrial differential circuit breakers
is IEC 947-2 and its appendix B.
fig. G32: industrial-type CB with RCD module.
Adaptable differential circuit breakers,
including DIN-rail mounted units, are
available, to which may be associated an
auxiliary module. The ensemble provides a
comprehensive range of protective functions
(isolation, short-circuit, overload, and
sensitive earth-fault protection).

G14 - protection against electric shocks


the international standards for
domestic circuit breakers (RCBOs) is
IEC 1009.
The incoming-supply circuit breaker can also have time-
delayed characteristics (type S).
fig. G33: domestic earth-fault differential circuit breakers.
In addition to the adaptable industrial circuit
breakers which comply to industrial and
domestic standards, there are ranges of
differential switches are covered by
particular national standards
(NF C 61-140 for France).
RCDs with separate toroidal current
transformers are standardized
in IEC 755.
Differential switches (RCCBs) are used for the protection of
distribution or sub-distribution boards.
fig. G34: differential switches (RCCBs).
RCCBs, RCBOs and CBRs
RCCBs (Residual Current Circuit Breakers)
These devices are more-accurately described
in the French version of IEC 1008 as
"interrupteurs" which is generally translated
into English by "load-break switches".
"Residual-current load-break switches" would
be a more accurate description of a RCCB,
which, although assigned a rated making and
breaking capacity, is not designed to break
short-circuit currents (the unique feature of a
circuit breaker) so that the term RCCB can be
misleading.
As noted in sub-clause 7.3 a SCPD (Short-
Circuit Protective Device) must always be
series-connected with a RCCB.
RCBOs
The "O" stands for "Overcurrent" which refers
to the fact that, in addition to sensitive
differential earth-fault protection, overcurrent
protection is provided. The RCBO has a rated
short-circuit breaking capability and is
properly referred to as a circuit breaker.
IEC 1009 is the international reference
standard.
4.3 coordination of differential protective devices
Discriminative-tripping coordination is
achieved either by time-delay or by
subdivision of circuits, which are then
protected individually or by groups, or by a
combination of both methods.
Such discrimination avoids the tripping of any
circuit breaker, other than that immediately
upstream of a fault position
c with equipment currently available,
discrimination is possible at three or four
different levels of distribution, viz:
v at the main general distribution board,
G
"Monobloc" type of earth-fault differential circuit breakers
designed for the protection of socket-outlet circuits and final
circuit protection.
"monobloc" differential circuit breakers
intended for domestic and tertiary sector
applications.
RCDs with separate toroidal CTs can be used in association
with circuit breakers or contactors.
fig. G35: RCDs with separate toroidal
current transformers.
Note: Both RCCBs and RCBOs as
standardized in IEC 1008 and 1009
respectively, provide complete isolation when
opened. These units are designed for
domestic and similar installations.
CBRs
Amendment 1 (1992) of the product standard
IEC 947-Part 2: "Circuit Breakers" includes
Appendix B, which covers the incorporation
of residual-current protection into industrial-
type LV circuit breakers. The Appendix is
based on the relevant requirements of IEC
755,
IEC 1008 and IEC 1009. Circuit breakers so
equipped are referred to as CBRs.
v at local general distribution boards,
v at sub-distribution boards,
v at socket outlets for individual appliance
protection
c in general, at distribution boards (and sub-
distribution boards, if existing) and on
individual-appliance protection, devices for
automatic disconnection in the event of an
indirect-contact hazard occurring are installed
together with additional protection against
direct-contact hazards.
protection against electric shocks - G15
 4. implementation of the TT system (continued)

G
4.3 coordination of differential protective devices (continued)
discrimination between RCDs
Discrimination is achieved by exploiting the
several levels of standardized sensitivity:
30 mA, 100 mA, 300 mA and 1 A and the
corresponding tripping times, as shown below
in figure G36.
time
(ms)

10000

1000

500
300 II 300 mA
250 selective RCDs
200
(i.e. time-delayed)
150 industrial
130
100 (settings I and II)
I domestic S
60 time delayed
40
RCD 30 mA
general domestic
and industrial setting 0

10
current
100
150

300
500
600
1000

15 30 60
(mA)

1 1,5 10 100 500 1000 (A)

fig. G36: discrimination between RCDs.

discrimination at 2 levels A
Protection:
RCD 300 mA
c level A: RCD time-delayed setting 1 (for type S
industrial device) type S (for domestic device)
for protection against indirect contacts, B
RCD
c level B: RCD instantaneous, with high 30 mA
sensitivity on circuits supplying socket-outlets
or appliances at high risk (washing machines,
etc. See also Chapter L Clause 3).
fig. G37.

discrimination at 3 or 4 levels A relay with separate

toroidal CT 3 A
Protection: delay time 500 ms
c level A: RCD time-delayed (setting III),
c level B: RCD time-delayed (setting II), B RCCB 1 A
c level C: RCD time-delayed (setting I) or delay time 250 ms
type S,
c level D: RCD instantaneous.
C RCCB 300 mA
delay time 50 ms
or type S

D
RCCB
30 mA

fig. G38: discrimination at 3 or 4 levels.

G16 - protection against electric shocks

 G
discriminative protection at three levels

main circuit breaker

HV/LV

MERLIN GERIN

differential relay
with separate toroidal
CT setting level ≤ 50/RA
time-delay setting level II

Rp
3
2
1
Rn N
PE

RA NS400 NS80H-MA

MERLIN GERIN

differential
relay with
separate CT

discontactor

N
1 Vigi
MERLIN GERIN
2 compact SM20

3 NS100
IN OUT
PE setting level
300 mA
instantaneous M
300 mA
earth leakage
T T current monitor

300 mA RCD
MCB type S MCB
time-
delayed
RCD
discontactor

distribution
box

N
Ph
PE

DPN Vigi
XC40 30 mA
diff.
30 mA
RCD T
TEST

MCB + RCD
30 mA

remotely-
controlled
actuator

fig. G39: typical 3-level installation, showing the protection of distribution circuits in a TT-earthed system.
One motor is provided with specific protection.

protection against electric shocks - G17

 5. implementation of the TN system
G
5.1 preliminary conditions
5.2 protection against indirect contact
Three methods of calculation are
commonly used:
c the method of impedances, based
on the trigonometric addition of the
system resistances and inductive
reactances.
c the method of composition.
c the conventional method, based on
an assumed voltage drop and the
use of prepared tables.
G18 - protection against electric shocks
At the design stage, the maximum permitted
lengths of cable downstream of a controlling
circuit breaker (or set of fuses) must be
calculated, while during the installation work
certain rules must be fully respected.
imposed conditions
Certain conditions must be observed, as
listed below and illustrated in figure G40.
1. earth electrodes should be provided at
evenly-spaced points (as far as practical
conditions allow) along the PE conductor.
Note : This is not normally done for a single
domestic installation; one earth electrode only
is usually required at the service position.
2. the PE conductor must not pass through
ferro-magnetic conduit, ducts, etc. or be
mounted on steel work, since inductive and/
or proximity effects can increase the effective
impedance of the conductor.
3. in the case of a PEN conductor (a neutral
conductor which is also used as a protective
conductor), connection must be made directly
to the earth terminal of an appliance (see 3 in
figure G40) before being looped to the neutral
terminal of the appliance.
4. where the conductor i 6 mm2 for copper or
10 mm2 for aluminium, or where a cable is
movable, the neutral and protective
conductors should be separated (i.e. a
TN-S scheme should be adopted within the
installation).
5. earth faults should be cleared by
overcurrent-protection devices, i.e. by fuses
and circuit breakers.
The foregoing list indicates the conditions to
be respected in the implementation of a
TN scheme for the protection against indirect
contacts.
methods of determining levels of
short-circuit current
In TN-earthed systems, a short-circuit to
earth will, in principle, always provide
sufficient current to operate an overcurrent
device. The source and supply mains
impedances are much lower that those of the
installation circuits, so that any restriction in
the magnitude of earth-fault currents will be
mainly caused by the installation conductors
(long flexible leads to appliances greatly
increase the "fault-loop" impedance, with a
corresponding reduction of short-circuit
current).
The most recent IEC recommendations for
indirect-contact protection on TN earthing
schemes only relates maximum allowable
tripping times to the nominal system voltage
(see table G13 in Sub-clause 3.3).
The reasoning behind these
recommendations is that, for TN systems, the
current which must pass in order to raise the
potential of an exposed conductive part to
50 V or more is so high that one of two
possibilities will occur:
c either the fault path will blow itself clear,
practically instantaneously, or
c the conductor will weld itself into a solid
fault and provide adequate current to operate
overcurrent devices.
To ensure correct operation of overcurrent
devices in the latter case, a reasonably
accurate assessment of short-circuit earth-
5
2 2
5 5
PEN PE N
4
1 3
TN-C TN-C-S
RpnA
fig. G40: implementation of the TN system
of earthing.
note
(1) the TN scheme requires that the LV neutral of the HV/LV
transformer, the exposed conductive parts of the substation
and of the installation, and the extraneous conductive parts
in the sub-station and installation, all be earthed to a
common earthing system.
(2) for a substation in which the metering is at low-voltage, a
means of isolation is required at the origin of the LV
installation, and the isolation must be clearly visible.
(3) a PEN conductor must never be interrupted under any
circumstances. Control and protective switchgear for the
several TN arrangements will be:
c 3-pole when the circuit includes a PEN conductor,
c preferably 4-pole (3 phases + neutral) when the circuit
includes a neutral with a separate PE conductor.
fault current levels must be determined at the
design stage of a project.
A rigorous analysis requires the use of phase-
sequence-component techniques applied to
every circuit in turn. The principle is
straightforward, but the amount of
computation is not considered justifiable,
especially since the zero-phase-sequence
impedances are extremely difficult to
determine with any resonable degree of
accuracy in an average LV installation.
Other simpler methods of adequate accuracy
are preferred. Three practical methods are:
c the "method of impedances", based on the
summation of all the impedances (positive-
phase-sequence only) around the fault loop,
for each circuit,
c the "method of composition", which is an
estimation of short-circuit current at the
remote end of a loop, when the short-circuit
current level at the near end of the loop is
known,
c the "conventional method" of calculating the
minimum levels of earth-fault currents,
together with the use of tables of values for
obtaining rapid results.
These methods are only reliable for the case
in which the cables that make up the earth-
fault-current loop are in close proximity (to
each other) and not separated by ferro-
magnetic materials.

for calculations, modern practice is to
use software agreed by National
Authorities, and based on the
method of impedances, such as
ECODIAL 2 (Merlin Gerin).
National Authorities generally also
publish Guides, which include typical
values, conductor lengths, etc.
the maximum length of any circuit of
a TN-earthed installation is:
0.8 Uo Sph
Lmax =
ρ (1+m) Ia
method of impedances
This method summates the positive-
sequence impedances of each item (cable,
PE conductor, transformer, etc.) included in
the earth-fault loop circuit from which the
short-circuit earth-fault current is calculated,
using the formula:
2 2
I =U/ (∑R) +(∑X)
where (∑R)2 = (the sum of all resistances in
the loop)2
method of composition
This method permits the determination of the
short-circuit current at the end of a loop from
the known value of S.C. at the sending end,
by means of the approximate formula:
I= U Isc where
U + Zsc Isc
Isc = upstream short-circuit current
I = end-of-loop short-circuit current
U = nominal system phase voltage
Zsc = impedance of loop
conventional method
This method is generally considered to be
sufficiently accurate to fix the upper limit of
cable lengths.
Principle:
The principle bases the short-circuit current
calculation on the assumption that the
voltage at the origin of the circuit concerned
(i.e. at the point at which the circuit protective
device is located) remains at 80% or more of
the nominal phase to neutral voltage. The
80% value is used, together with the circuit
loop impedance, to compute the short-circuit
current.
This coefficient takes account of all voltage
drops upstream of the point considered. In LV
cables, when all conductors of a 3-phase
4-wire circuit are in close proximity (which is
the normal case), the inductive reactance
internal to* and between conductors is
negligibly small compared to the cable
resistance.
Example:
B ρ (1+m) Ia
A
PE
Id
L in ohm-mm2/metre
SPE Sph
C Ia = the current which assures operation of
fig. G41: calculation of L max. for a
TN-earthed system, using the
conventional method.
G
and (∑X)2 = (the sum of all inductive
reactances in the loop)2
and U = nominal system phase-to-neutral
voltage
The application of the method is not always
easy, because it supposes a knowledge of all
parameter values and characteristics of the
elements in the loop. In many cases, a
national guide can supply typical values for
estimation purposes.
Note: in this method the individual
impedances are added arithmetically* as
opposed to the previous "method of
impedances" procedure.
* This results in a calculated current value which is less than
that which would actually flow. If the overcurrent settings are
based on this calculated value, then operation of the relay,
or fuse, is assured.
This approximation is considered to be valid
for cable sizes up to 120 mm2.
Above that size, the resistance value R is
increased as follows:
core size (mm2) value of resistance
S = 150 mm2 R+15%
S = 185 mm2 R+20%
S = 240 mm2 R+25%
* causes proximity and skin effects, i.e. an apparent
increase in resistance.
The maximum length of a circuit in a TN-
earthed installation is given by the formula:
0.8 Uo Sph
Lmax = metres, where:
Lmax = maximum length in metres
Uo = phase volts = 230 V for a 230/400 V
system
ρ = resistivity at normal working temperature
= 22.5 10-3 for copper
= 36 10-3 for aluminium
Ia = trip current setting for the instantaneous
operation of a circuit breaker, or
the protective fuse concerned, in the
specified time.
m = Sph / SPE
Sph = cross-sectional area of the phase
conductors of the circuit concerned in mm2
SPE = cross-sectional area of the protective
conductor concerned in mm2
protection against electric shocks - G19
 5. implementation of the TN system (continued)

G
5.2 protection against indirect contact (continued)
the following tables* give the length
of circuit which must not be
exceeded, in order that persons be
protected against indirect contact
hazards by protective devices.
* Based on tables given in the guide UTE C15-105.
tables
The following tables, applicable to TN
systems, have been established according to
the "conventional method" described above.
The tables give maximum circuit lengths,
beyond which the ohmic resistance of the
conductors will limit the magnitude of the
short-circuit current to a level below that
required to trip the circuit breaker (or to blow
the fuse) protecting the circuit, with sufficient
rapidity to ensure safety against indirect
contact.
Correction factor m
Table G42 indicates the correction factor to
apply to the values given in tables G43 to
G46 according to the ratio SPH/SPE, the type
of circuit, and the conductor materials.
The tables take into account:
c the type of protection: circuit breakers or
fuses,
c operating-current settings,
c cross-sectional area of phase conductors
and protective conductors,
c type of earthing scheme (see fig. G47),
c type of circuit breaker (i.e. B, C or D).
The tables may be used for 230/400 V
systems.
Equivalent tables for protection by Compact
and Multi 9 circuit breakers (Merlin Gerin) are
included in the relevant catalogues.

circuit conductor m = SPH/SPE (or PEN)

material m=1 m=2 m=3 m=4
3P + N or P + N copper 1 0.67 0.50 0.40
aluminium 0.62 0.42 0.31 0.25
table G42: correction factor to apply to the lengths given in tables G43 to G46 for
TN systems.
Circuits protected by general-purpose
circuit-breakers

nominal cross- instantaneous or short-time-delayed tripping current Im (amperes)

sectional area
of conductors
mm2 50 63 80 100 125 160 200 250 320 400 500 560 630 700 800 875 1000 1120 1250 1600 2000 2500 3200 4000 5000 6300 8000 10000 12500
1.5 103 81 64 51 41 32 25 20 16 13 10 9 8 7 6 6 5
2.5 171 136 107 85 66 53 42 34 26 21 17 15 13 12 10 10 8 8 7 5
4 274 217 171 137 109 85 68 54 43 34 27 24 21 19 17 16 14 12 11 8 7 5
6 410 326 256 205 164 126 102 82 64 51 41 36 32 29 25 23 20 18 16 13 10 8 6 5
10 427 342 273 214 171 137 107 85 68 61 54 49 42 39 34 30 27 21 17 14 10 8 7 5
16 436 342 274 219 171 137 109 97 87 78 68 62 55 49 44 34 27 21 17 13 11 8 7 5
25 428 342 267 213 171 152 135 122 107 98 85 76 66 53 43 34 27 21 17 13 10 8 7
35 479 374 299 239 214 190 171 150 136 120 107 96 75 80 48 37 30 24 19 15 12 9
50 406 325 290 258 232 203 185 162 145 130 101 81 65 50 40 32 26 20 16 12
70 479 427 380 342 299 274 239 214 191 150 120 96 75 60 48 38 30 24 19
95 464 406 371 325 290 260 203 162 130 101 81 65 51 40 32 26
120 469 410 366 328 256 205 165 128 102 82 65 51 41 33
150 446 398 357 279 223 178 139 111 89 71 56 44 36
185 471 422 329 264 211 165 132 105 84 66 53 42
240 410 328 263 205 164 131 104 82 66 52

table G43: maximum circuit lengths for different sizes of conductor and instantaneous-tripping-current settings for general-purpose
circuit breakers.

Circuits protected by Compact* or Multi 9*

circuit breakers for industrial or domestic
use
SPH rated current (A)
mm2 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 13 16 20 25 32 40 45 50 63 80 100
1.5 1227 613 409 307 204 153 123 94 77 61 49 38 31 27 25 19 15 12
2.5 681 511 341 256 204 157 128 102 82 64 51 45 41 32 28 20
4 1090 818 545 409 327 252 204 164 131 102 82 73 65 52 41 33
6 818 613 491 377 307 245 196 153 123 109 98 78 61 49
10 1022 818 629 511 409 327 256 204 182 164 130 102 82
16 1006 818 654 523 409 327 291 262 208 164 131
25 1022 818 639 511 454 409 325 258 204
35 894 716 636 572 454 358 288
50 777 617 485 388

table G44: maximum circuit lengths for different sizes of conductor and rated currents for
type B (1) circuit breakers.
* Merlin Gerin products.
(1) For the definition of type B circuit breaker refer to chapter H2 Sub-clause 4.2.

G20 - protection against electric shocks

 G
SPH rated current (A)
mm2 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 13 16 20 25 32 40 45 50 63 80 100
1.5 613 307 204 153 102 77 61 47 38 31 25 19 15 14 12 10 8 6
2.5 1022 511 341 256 170 128 102 79 64 51 41 32 26 23 20 16 13 10
4 818 545 409 273 204 164 126 102 82 65 51 41 36 33 26 20 16
6 818 613 409 307 245 189 153 123 98 77 61 55 49 39 31 25
10 1022 681 511 409 315 256 204 164 128 102 91 82 65 51 41
16 818 654 503 409 327 262 204 164 145 131 104 82 65
25 1022 786 639 511 409 319 256 227 204 162 128 102
35 894 716 572 447 358 318 286 227 179 143
50 777 607 485 431 389 309 243 194
table G45: maximum circuit lengths for different conductor sizes and for rated currents
of circuit breakers of type C (1).
(1) For the definition of type C circuit breakers refer to chapter H2 Sub-clause 4.2.

SPH rated current (A)

mm2 1 1.6 2 2.5 3 4 6 6.3 8 10 12.5 13 16 20 25 32 40 45 50 63 80 100
1.5 438 274 219 175 146 110 73 70 53 44 35 34 27 22 18 14 11 10 9 7 5 4
2.5 730 456 365 292 243 183 122 116 88 73 58 56 46 37 29 23 18 16 15 12 9 7
4 730 584 467 389 292 195 186 141 117 93 90 73 58 47 37 29 26 23 19 14 12
6 876 701 584 438 292 279 211 175 140 135 110 88 70 55 44 39 35 28 21 18
10 974 730 487 465 352 292 234 225 183 146 117 91 73 65 58 46 35 29
16 779 743 564 467 374 359 292 234 187 146 117 104 93 74 58 47
25 881 730 584 562 456 365 292 228 183 162 146 116 88 73
35 1022 818 786 639 511 409 319 258 227 204 162 123 102
50 867 692 558 432 347 308 277 220 174 139

table G46: maximum circuit lengths for different conductor sizes and for rated currents
of circuit breakers of type D or MA Merlin Gerin (1).
(1) For the definition of type D circuit breakers refer to chapter H2 Sub-clause 4.2.
For typical use of an MA circuit breaker, refer to Chapter J figure J5-3.

Example:
A 3-phase 4-wire (230/400 V) installation is
TN-C earthed. A circuit is protected by a
circuit breaker rated at 63 A, and consists of
an aluminium cored cable with 50 mm2 phase
conductors and a neutral conductor (PEN) of
25 mm2.
What is the maximum length of circuit, below
which protection of persons against indirect-
contact hazards is assured by the
instantaneous magnetic tripping relay of the
circuit breaker?
Table G44 gives 617 metres, to which must
be applied a factor of 0.42 (table G42 for
m = SPH/SPE = 2).
The maximum length of circuit is therefore:
617 x 0.42 = 259 metres.

particular case where one

or more exposed conductive
part(s) is (are) earthed to a
separate earth electrode
Protection must be provided against indirect
contact by a RCD at the origin of any circuit
supplying an appliance or group of
appliances, the exposed conductive parts of
which are connected to an independent earth RA 1 RA 2
electrode. a distant location
The sensitivity of the RCD must be adapted
to the earth electrode resistance (RA2 in fig. G47: separate earth electrode.
figure G47).
Downstream of the RCD, the earthing
scheme must be TN-S.

protection against electric shocks - G21

 5. implementation of the TN system (continued)

G
5.3 high-sensitivity RCDs
IEC 364-4-471 strongly recommends the use
of a RCD of high sensitivity (i 30 mA) in the
following cases:
c socket-outlet circuits for rated currents
of i 32 A at any location(1),
c socket-outlet circuits in wet locations at all
current ratings(1),
c socket-outlet circuits in temporary
installations(1),
c circuits supplying laundry rooms and
swimming pools(1), fig. G48: circuit supplying socket-outlets.
c supply circuits to work-sites, caravans,
pleasure boats, and travelling fairs(1).
This protection may be for individual circuits
or for groups of circuits,
c strongly recommended for circuits of socket
outlets u 20 A (mandatory if they are
expected to supply portable equipment for
outdoor use),
c in some countries, this requirement is
mandatory for all socket-outlet circuits
rated i 32 A.
(1) these cases are treated in delail in Chapter L Clause 3.

5.4 protection in high fire-risk locations

In locations where the risk of fire is high, the
TN-C scheme of earthing is often prohibited,
and the TN-S arrangement must be adopted.
Protection by a RCD of sensitivity 500 mA at
the origin of the circuit supplying the fire-risk
location is mandatory in some countries.

fire-risk
area

fig. G49: fire-risk location.

G22 - protection against electric shocks

 G
5.5 when the fault-current-loop impedance is particularly high
When the earth-fault current is restricted due
to an inevitably high fault-loop impedance, so
that the overcurrent protection cannot be
relied upon to trip the circuit within the
prescribed time, the following possibilities
should be considered:

Suggestion 1:
install a circuit breaker which has an PE or PEN
instantaneous magnetic tripping element with 2 i Irm i 4In
an operation level which is lower than the
usual setting, for example: unusually
long cable
2In i Irm i 4In
This affords protection for persons on circuits
which are abnormally long. It must be
checked, however, that high transient
fig. G50: a circuit breaker with low-set
currents such as the starting currents of
instantaneous magnetic trip.
motors will not cause nuisance trip-outs.

Suggestion 2: phases
install a RCD on the circuit. The device need neutral
PE
not be highly-sensitive (HS) (several amps to
a few tens of amps). Where socket-outlets
are involved, the particular circuits must, in
any case, be protected by HS (i 30 mA) TN-S
RCDs; generally one RCD for a number of
socket outlets on a common circuit.

phases
PEN

TN-C

fig. G51: RCD protection on TN systems

with high earth-fault-loop impedance.

Suggestion 3:
increase the size of the PE or PEN
conductors and/or the phase conductors, to
reduce the loop impedance.

Suggestion 4:
add supplementary equipotential conductors.
This will have a similar effect to that of
suggestion 3, i.e. a reduction in the earth-
fault-loop resistance, while at the same time
improving the existing touch-voltage
protection measures. The effectiveness of
this improvement may be checked by a
resistance test between each exposed
conductive part and the local main protective
fig. G52: improved equipotential bonding.
conductor.
For TN-C installations, bonding as shown in
figure G52 is not allowed, and Suggestion 3
should be adopted.

protection against electric shocks - G23

 6. implementation of the IT system

G
The basic feature of the IT scheme of
earthing is that, in the event of a short-circuit
to earth fault, the system can continue to
function without interruption.
Such a fault is referred to as a "first fault". In
this scheme, all exposed conductive parts of
an installation are connected via PE
conductors to an earth electrode at the
installation, while the neutral point of the
supply transformer is isolated from earth or
connected to earth through a high resistance
(commonly 1,000 ohms or more).
This means that the current through an earth
fault will be measured in milli-amps, which will
not cause serious damage at the fault
position, or give rise to dangerous touch
voltages, or present a fire hazard. The
system may therefore be allowed to function
normally until it is convenient to isolate the
faulty section for repair work.
In practice, the scheme requires certain
specific measures for its satisfactory
exploitation:
c permanent monitoring of the insulation with
respect to earth, which must signal (audibly
or visually) the occurrence of the first fault,
c a device for limiting the voltage which the
neutral point of the supply transformer can
attain with respect to earth,
c a "first-fault" location routine by an efficient
maintenance staff. Fault location is greatly
facilitated by automatic devices which are
currently available,
c automatic high-speed tripping of
appropriate circuit breakers must take place
in the event of a "second fault" occurring
before the first fault is repaired. The second
fault (by definition) is an earth fault affecting a
different phase than that of the first fault or a
neutral conductor*.
The second fault results in a short-circuit
through the earth and/or through PE bonding
conductors.
* on systems where the neutral is distributed, as shown in
figure G58.

6.1 preliminary conditions

Preliminary conditions are summarized in
table G53 and fig. G54.
minimum functions components examples
required and devices (MG)
protection against overvoltages (1) voltage limiter Cardew C
at system frequency
neutral earthing resistor (2) resistor impedance Zx
(for impedance earthing variation)
overall earth-fault monitor (3) permanent insulation Vigilohm TR22A
with alarm for first fault condition monitor PIM with alarm feature or XM 200
automatic fault clearance (4) four-pole circuit breakers Compact circuit breaker
on second fault and (if the neutral is distributed) or RCD-MS
protection of the neutral all 4 poles + trip
conductor against overcurrent
location of first fault (5) with device for fault-location Vigilohm system
on live system, or by successive
opening of circuits
table G53: essential functions in IT schemes.
HV/LV 4
L1
L2
L3
N

4 4

2 1 3
5

fig. G54: 3-phase 3-wire IT-earthed

system.

G24 - protection against electric shocks


6.2 protection against indirect contact
modern monitoring systems greatly
facilitate first-fault location and repair.
first-fault condition
The earth-fault current which flows under a
first-fault condition is measured in milli-amps.
The touch voltage with respect to earth is the
product of this current and the resistance of
the installation earth electrode and PE
conductor (from the faulted component to the
electrode). This value of voltage is clearly
harmless and could amount to several volts
only in the worst case (1,000 Ω earthing
resistor will pass 230 mA* and a poor
installation earth-electrode of 50 ohms, would
give 12.5 V, for example).
An alarm is given by the permanent earth-
fault monitoring.
Principle of earth-fault monitoring
A generator of very low frequency a.c.
current, or of d.c. current, (to reduce the
effects of cable capacitance to negligible
levels) applies a voltage between the neutral
point of the supply transformer and earth.
This voltage causes a small current to flow
according to the insulation resistance to earth
of the whole installation, plus that of any
connected appliance.
G
Low-frequency instruments can be used on
a.c. systems which generate transient d.c.
components under fault conditions. Certain
versions can distinguish between resistive
and capacitive components of the leakage
current.
Modern developments permit the
measurement of leakage-current evolution,
so that prevention of a first fault can be
achieved.
Examples of equipment and devices**
c manual fault-location (fig. G55).
The generator may be fixed (example:
XM200) or portable (example: XGR
permitting the checking of dead circuits) and
the receiver, together with the magnetic tong-
type pick-up sensor, are portable.
* On a 230/400 V 3-phase system.
** The equipment and devices described to illustrate the
principles of fault location, are manufactured by M.G.

MERLIN GERIN
XM100

XM200
P50 ON/O
FF
P12 P100

XGR
XRM

fig. G55: non-automatic (manual) fault location.

c fixed automatic fault location (fig. G56)

The monitoring relay XM200, together with
the fixed detectors XD301 (each supplied
from a toroidal CT embracing the conductors
of the circuit concerned) provide a system of
automatic fault location on a live installation.
Moreover, the level of insulation is indicated
for each monitored circuit, and two levels are
checked: the first level warns of unusually low
insulation resistance so that preventive
measures may be taken, while the second
level indicates a fault condition and gives an
alarm.

MERLIN GERIN
XM100

toroidal CTs

XM200 1 to 12 circuits

XD301

XD301 XD301 XD312

fig. G56: fixed automatic fault location.

protection against electric shocks - G25

 6. implementation of the IT system (continued)

G
6.2 protection against indirect contact (continued)
c automatic monitoring, logging, and fault
location.
The Vigilohm System also allows access to a
printer and/or a PC which provides a global
review of the insulation level of an entire
installation, and records the chronological
evolution of the insulation level of each
circuit.
The central monitor XM300C, together with
the localization detectors XL308 and XL316,
associated with toroidal CTs from several
circuits, as shown below in figure G57,
provide the means for this automatic
exploitation.

MERLIN GERIN
XM100

XM300 C
MERLIN GERIN MERLIN GERIN
XL08 XL16

897 678

XL308 XL316

fig. G57: automatic fault location and insulation-resistance data logging.

Implementation of permanent insulation- By way of an example, the two levels might

monitoring (PIM) devices
c connection
The PIM device is normally connected
between the neutral (or articificial neutral)
point of the power-supply transformer and its
earth electrode,
c supply
Power supply to the PIM device should be
taken from a highly reliable source. In
practice, this is generally directly from the
installation being monitored, through
overcurrent protective devices of suitable
short-circuit current rating,
c impedance of the PIM device
In order to maintain the level of earth-fault
within safe limits, the current passing through
a PIM device during a short-circuit to earth is
normally limited to a value < 30 mA.
Where the neutral point is earthed through an
impedance, the total current passing through
the PIM device and the impedance (in
parallel with it) must be < 500 mA.
This means that a touch voltage of less than
50 V will occur in the installation as long as
the installation earth-electrode resistance is
less than 100 ohms, and that fire risk of
electrical origin is avoided,
c level settings
Certain national standards recommend a first
setting at 20% below the insulation level of
the new installation. This value allows the
detection of a reduction of the insulation
quality, necessitating preventive maintenance
measures in a situation of incipient failure.
The detection level for earth-fault alarm will
be set at a much lower level.
be:
v new installation insulation level: 100 kΩ
v leakage current without danger: 500 mA
(fire risk at > 500 mA)
v indication levels set by the consumer:
- threshold for preventive maintenance:
0.8 x 100 = 80 kΩ
- threshold for short-circuit alarm: 300 mA.
Notes:
v following a long period of shutdown, during
which the whole, or part of, the installation
remains de-energized, humidity can reduce
the general level of insulation resistance. This
situation, which is mainly due to leakage
current over the damp surface of healthy
insulation, does not constitute a fault
condition, and will improve rapidly as the
normal temperature rise of current-carrying
conductors reduces the surface humidity.
v the PIM device (XM) can measure the
resistive and the capacitive current
components of the leakage current to earth,
separately, thereby deriving the true
insulation resistance from the total permanent
current leakage.

G26 - protection against electric shocks


three methods of calculating short-
circuit current levels are commonly
employed:
c method of impedances, which
takes account of complex
representation of impedances,
c method of composition, is a
conservatively approximate method,
which combines impedances
arithmetically,
c conventional method, is a
simplified method based on an
assumed minimum voltage during
fault, and the use of tables.
the software Ecodial 2 (Merlin Gerin)
is based on the "method of
impedances".
the maximum length of an IT earthed
circuit is:
c for a 3-phase 3-wire scheme
0.8 Uo ex Sph
L max =
2 ρ Ia (1+m)
c for a 3-phase 4-wire scheme
0.8 Uo S1
L max =
2 ρ Ia (1+m)
the case of a second fault
A second earth fault on an IT system (unless
occurring on the same conductor as the first
fault) constitutes a phase-phase or phase-to-
neutral fault, and whether occurring on the
same circuit as the first fault, or on a different
circuit, overcurrent protective devices (fuses
or circuit breakers) would normally operate to
effect an automatic fault clearance.
The settings of overcurrent tripping relays
and the ratings of fuses are the basic
parameters that decide the maximum
practical length of circuit that can be
satisfactorily protected, as discussed in
Sub-clause 5.2.
Note: in normal circumstances, the fault
current path is through common PE
conductors, bonding all exposed conductive
A reasonably accurate assessment of short-
circuit current levels must be carried out at
the design stage of a project.
A rigorous analysis is not necessary, since
current magnitudes only are important for the
protective devices concerned (i.e. phase
angles need not be determined) so that
simplified conservatively approximate
methods are normally used. Three practical
methods are:
c the method of impedances, based on the
vectorial summation of all the (positive-
phase-sequence) impedances around a fault-
current loop,
c the method of composition, which is an
approximate estimation of short-circuit current
Method of impedances
This method as described in Sub-clause 5.2,
is identical for both the IT and TN systems of
earthing.
Method of composition
This method as described in Sub-clause 5.2,
is identical for both the IT and TN systems of
earthing.
Conventional method
The principle is the same for an IT system as
that described in Sub-clause 5.2 for a TN
system, viz: the calculation of maximum
circuit lengths which should not be exceeded
downstream of a circuit breaker or fuses, to
ensure protection by overcurrent devices.
It is clearly impossible to check circuit lengths
for every feasible combination of two
concurrent faults.
All cases are covered, however, if the
overcurrent trip setting is based on the
assumption that a first fault occurs at the
remote end of the circuit concerned, while the
second fault occurs at the remote end of an
identical circuit, as already mentioned in Sub-
clause 3.4. This may result, in general, in one
trip-out only occurring (on the circuit with the
lower trip-setting level), thereby leaving the
system in a first-fault situation, but with one
faulty circuit switched out of service.
c for the case of a 3-phase 3-wire installation
the second fault can only cause a phase/
phase short-circuit, so that the voltage to use
in the formula for maximum circuit length is
eUo.
The maximum circuit length is given by:
0.8 e Uo Sph
Lm = metres
2 ρ (1+m) Ia
G
parts of an installation, and so the fault loop
impedance is sufficiently low to ensure an
adequate level of fault current.
Where circuit lengths are unavoidably long, and
especially if the appliances of a circuit are
earthed separately (so that the fault current
passes through two earth electrodes), reliable
tripping on overcurrent may not be possible.
In this case, an RCD is recommended on
each circuit of the installation.
Where an IT system is resistance earthed,
however, care must be taken to ensure that
the RCD is not too sensitive, or a first fault
may cause an unwanted trip-out. Tripping of
residual current devices which satisfy IEC
standards may occur at values of 0.5 I∆n to
I∆n, where I∆n is the nominal residual-current
setting level.
at the remote end of a loop, when the level of
short-circuit current at the near end of the
loop is known. Complex impedances are
combined arithmetically in this method,
c the conventional method, in which the
minimum value of voltage at the origin of a
faulty circuit is assumed to be 80% of the
nominal circuit voltage, and tables are used
based on this assumption, to give direct
readings of circuit lengths.
These methods are reliable only for the cases
in which wiring and cables which make up the
fault-current loop are in close proximity (to
each other) and are not separated by ferro-
magnetic materials.
For the case of a 3-phase 4-wire installation
the lowest value of fault current will occur if
one of the faults is on a neutral conductor. In
this case, Uo is the value to use for
computing the maximum cable length, and,
Lm =
0.8 Uo S1
metres
2 ρ (1+m) Ia
(i.e. 50% only of the length permitted for a TN
scheme). Reminder: there is no length limit
for earth-fault protection on a TT scheme,
since protection is provided by RCDs of high
sensitivity.
In the preceding formulae:
Lmax = longest circuit in metres
Uo = phase-to-neutral voltage (230 V on a
230/400 V system)
ρ = resistivity at normal operating
temperature
= 22.5 x 10-3 ohms-mm2/m for copper
= 36 x 10-3 ohms-mm2/m for aluminium
Ia = overcurrent trip-setting level in amps
or Ia = current in amps required to clear the
fuse in the specified time
m = Sph/SPE
SPE = cross-sectional area of PE conductor
in mm2
S1 = S neutral if the circuit includes a neutral
conductor.
protection against electric shocks - G27
 6. implementation of the IT system (continued)

G
6.2 protection against indirect contact (continued)
N N

D B
PE C A PE

Id Id

Id Id

the following tables* give the length
of circuit which must not be
exceeded, in order that persons be
protected against indirect contact
hazards by protective devices.
* The tables are those shown in Sub-clause 5.2 (tables G43
to G46).
However, the table of correction factors (table G59) which
takes into account the ratio Sph/SPE, and of the type of
circuit (3-ph 3-wire; 3-ph 4-wire; 1-ph 2-wire) as well as
conductor material, is specific to the IT system, and differs
from that for TN.
fig. G58: calculation of Lmax. for an IT-earthed system, showing fault-current path for a
double-fault condition.
Tables
The following tables have been established
according to the "conventional method"
described above.
The tables give maximum circuit lengths,
beyond which the ohmic resistance of the
conductors will limit the magnitude of the
short-circuit current to a level below that
required to trip the circuit breaker (or to blow
the fuse) protecting the circuit, with sufficient
rapidity to ensure safety against indirect
contact. The tables take into account:
c the type of protection: circuit breakers or
fuses,
c operating-current settings,
c cross-sectional area of phase conductors
and protective conductors,
c type of earthing scheme,
c correction factor: table G59 indicates the
correction factor to apply to the lengths given
in tables G43 to G46, when considering an IT
system.

circuit conductor material m = S ph/SPE (or PEN)

m=1 m=2 m=3 m=4
3 phases copper 0.86 0.57 0.43 0.34
aluminium 0.54 0.36 0.27 0.21
3ph + N or 1ph + N copper 0.50 0.33 0.25 0.20
aluminium 0.31 0.21 0.16 0.12
table G59: correction factors, for IT-earthed systems, to apply to the circuit lengths given
in tables G43 to G46.
Example
A 3-phase 3-wire 230/400 V installation is
IT-earthed.
One of its circuits is protected by a circuit
breaker rated at 63 A, and consists of an
aluminium-cored cable with 50 mm2 phase
conductors. The 25 mm2 PE conductor is also
aluminum. What is the maximum length of
circuit, below which protection of persons
against indirect-contact hazards is assured by
the instantaneous magnetic tripping relay of
the circuit breaker?
Table G44 indicates 617 metres, to which
must be applied a correction factor of 0.36
(m = 2 for aluminium cable).
The maximum length is therefore 222 metres.

G28 - protection against electric shocks

 G
6.3 high-sensitivity RCDs
IEC 364-4-471 strongly recommends the use
of a RCD of high sensitivity (i 30 mA) in the
following cases:
c socket-outlet circuits for rated currents
of i 32 A at any location(1),
c socket-outlet circuits in wet locations at all
current ratings(1),
c socket-outlet circuits in temporary
installations(1),
c circuits supplying laundry rooms and
swimming pools(1), fig. G60: circuit supplying socket-outlets.
c supply circuits to work-sites, caravans,
pleasure boats, and travelling fairs(1).
This protection may be for individual circuits
or for groups of circuits,
c strongly recommended for circuits of socket
outlets u 20 A (mandatory if they are
expected to supply portable equipment for
outdoor use),
c in some countries, this requirement is
mandatory for all socket-outlet circuits
rated i 32 A.
(1) these cases are treated in delail in Chapter L Clause 3.

6.4 in areas of high fire-risk

RCD protection at the circuit breaker
controlling all supplies to the area at risk, is
mandatory in many countries. The sensitivity
of the RCD must be i 500 mA.

fire-risk
area

fig. G61: fire-risk location.

protection against electric shocks - G29

 6. implementation of the IT system (continued)

G
6.5 when the fault-current-loop impedance is particularly high
When, during the design stage of the Note: this is also the case when one (of two)
installation, it is found that the fault-current earth faults occurs at the end of a long
loop impedance of a circuit will be inevitably flexible lead, for example.
high, so that the overcurrent protection
cannot be relied upon to operate within the
prescribed time, the following possibilities
should be considered:

Suggestion 1:
instal a circuit breaker which has an PE or PEN
instantaneous magnetic tripping element with 2In i Irm i 4In
an operation level which is lower than the
usual setting, for example: 2In i Irm i 4 In. unusually
long cable
This affords protection on circuits which are
abnormally long. It must be checked,
however, that high transient currents such as
the starting currents of motors will not cause
nuisance trip-outs. fig. G62: a circuit breaker with low-set
instantaneous magnetic trip.

Suggestion 2: phases
neutral
instal a RCD on the circuit of low sensitivity PE
(several amps to a few tens of amps, since it
must not operate for a first fault).
If the circuit is supplying socket outlets, it will,
in any case, be protected by a high-sensitivity TN-S
RCD (i 30 mA).

fig. G63: RCD protection.

Suggestion 3:
increase the size of the PE conductors and/or
the phase conductors, to reduce the loop
impedance.

Suggestion 4:
add supplementary equipotential conductors.
This will have a similar effect to that of
suggestion 3, i.e. a reduction in the earth-
fault-loop resistance, while at the same time
improving the existing touch-voltage
protection measures. The effectiveness of
this improvement may be checked by a
resistance test between each exposed
conductive part and the local main protective
fig. G64: improved equipotential bonding.
conductor.
For TN-C installations, bonding as shown in
figure G52 is not allowed, and Suggestion 3
should be adopted.

G30 - protection against electric shocks

7. residual current differential devices (RCDs)
7.1 description
7.2 application of RCDs
earth-leakage currents exist which
are not due to a fault, as well as
transient overvoltages, either or both
of which can lead to unwanted
tripping by RCDs.
Certain techniques have been
developed to overcome these
operational problems.
principle
The essential features are shown
diagrammatically in figure G65 below. A
magnetic core encompasses all the current-
carrying conductors of an electric circuit and
the magnetic flux generated in the core will
depend at every instant on the arithmetical
sum of the currents; the currents passing in
one direction being considered as positive,
while those passing in the opposite direction
will be negative.
In a normally healthy circuit (figure G65)
i1 + i2 = 0 and there will be no flux in the
magnetic core, and zero e.m.f. in its coil. An
earth-fault current id will pass through the
core to the fault, but will return to the source
N
i1
i2
i3
id
fig. G65: the principle of RCD operation.
permanent earth leakage
currents
Every LV installation has a permanent
leakage current to earth, which is mainly due
to imperfect insulation, and to the intrinsic
capacitance between live conductors and
earth.
The larger the installation the lower its
insulation resistance and the greater its
capacitance with consequently increased
leakage current.
On 3-phase systems the capacitive leakage
current to earth would be zero if the
conductors of all three phases had equal
capacitance to earth, a condition that cannot
be realized in practical installations. The
capacitive current to earth is sometimes
increased significantly by filtering capacitors
associated with electronic equipment
(automation, informatics and computer-based
systems, etc.). In the absence of more-
precise data, permanent leakage current in a
given installation can be estimated from the
following values, measured at 230 V 50 Hz,
and abstracted from "Bulletin de l'UTE"
April 1992.
Fax terminal 0.5 to 1.0 mA
IT* workstation 1 to 2 mA
Printer (IT*) < 1 mA
IT* terminal 1 to 2 mA
Photocopier 0.5 to 1.5 mA
* Information Technology.
G
via the earth, or via protective conductors in a
TN-earthed system. The current balance in
the conductors passing through the magnetic
core therefore no longer exists, and the
difference gives rise to a magnetic flux in the
core.
The difference current is known as the
"residual" current and the principle is referred
to as the "differential current" principle.
The resultant alternating flux in the core
induces an e.m.f. in its coil, so that a current
i3 flows in the tripping-device operating coil. If
the residual current exceeds the value
required to operate the tripping device, then
the associated circuit breaker will trip.
S
transient leakage currents
The initial energization of the capacitances
mentioned above gives rise to high-frequency
transient currents of very short duration,
similar to that shown in figure G66. The
sudden occurrence of a first-fault on an IT-
earthed system also causes transient earth-
leakage currents at high frequency, due to the
sudden rise of the two healthy phases to
phase/phase voltage above earth.
100%
90%
10 µs (f = 100 kHz)
10%
t
ca.0.5 µs
60%
fig. G66: standardized 0.5 µs/100 kHz
current transient wave.
protection against electric shocks - G31
 7. residual current differential devices (RCDs) (continued)

G
7.2 application of RCDs (continued)
influence of overvoltages U
Electrical power networks are subjected to U max
overvoltages of various origins; atmospheric,
or due to abrupt changes of system operating
conditions (faults, fuse operation, switching,
etc.). These sudden changes often cause
0.5 U
large transient voltages and currents in
system inductive and capacitive circuits,
before a new stable state is reached.
Records have established that, on LV
systems, overvoltages remain generally 1.2 µs 50 µs t
below 6 kV, and that they can be adequately
represented by the conventional 1.2/50 µs fig. G67: standardized voltage-impulse
impulse wave (figure G67). wave 1.2/50 µs.
These overvoltages give rise to transient
I
currents represented by a current impulse
wave of the conventional 8/20 µs form,
having a peak value of several tens of 0.9
amperes (figure G68). The transient currents
flow to earth via the capacitances of the
installation surge arresters or through an
insulation failure. 0.5

electromagnetic compatibility
0.1
The high-frequency (or unidirectional
impulse) transient overvoltages and currents t
mentioned above, together with other 8 µs
electromagnetic disturbance sources 20 µs
(contactor coils, relays, dry contacts),
electrostatic discharges, and radiated fig. G68: standardized current-impulse
electromagnetic waves (radio, ignition wave 8/20 µs.
systems, etc.) are part of the increasingly
important field of EMC (electromagnetic
compatibility). For further details, the
Technical publications nos. 120 and 149, by
Merlin Gerin, may be consulted. fig. G69: standardized symbol used in
It is essential that RCDs be immune to some countries, to indicate proof against
possible malfunction from the effects of incorrect operation due to transients.
electromagnetic-surge disturbances. In
practice, the levels shown in table G70 are current for the choice of the sensitivity of a
complied with in design and manufacturing RCD is: i mA* = 0.072 C at 50 Hz
specifications*. i mA = 0.086 C at 60 Hz
* Merlin Gerin products. where C = capacity (in n F) of one phase to
earth.
implementation Since RCDs complying with IEC and many
national standards may operate within the
c every RCD installed must have a minimum
range 0.5 I∆n - I∆n for a nominal rating of I∆n,
level of immunity to unwanted tripping in
the leakage current downstream of a RCD
conformity with the requirements of table
must not exceed 0.5 I∆n.
G70. RCDs type "S" or time-delay setting
The limitation of permanent leakage current
levels I or II (see figure G36) cover all
to 0.25 I∆n, by sub-division of circuits, will, in
transient leakage currents, including those of
practice, eliminate the influence of all
lightning arresters (see installation layouts in
corresponding current transients.
Chapter L, Sub-clause 1.3) of a duration less
For very particular cases, such as the
than 40 ms,
extension, or partial renovation of extended
c permanent leakage currents downstream of
IT-earthed installations, the manufacturers
a RCD must be studied, particularly in the
must be consulted.
case of large installations and/or where filter
i mA* = 230 V x 1009π x 10 C (n F)
3
circuits are present, or again, in the case of 10
an IT-earthed installation. If the capacitance i mA* = 0.072 C (n F) at 50 Hz
values are known, the equivalent leakage

disturbance type of test required withstand quantity

overvoltage 1.2/50 µs impulse 6 kV peak
transient current 0.5 µs/100 kHz impulse 200 A peak*
8/20 µs impulse 200 A peak
60 A peak for 10 mA RCDs
5 kA peak for types "S"
or time-delayed models (see note)
switching repetitive transient bursts IEC 801-4 4 kV
static electricity electrostatic discharges IEC 801-2 8 kV
radiated waves radiated electromagnetic fields IEC 801-3 3 V/m
table G70: electromagnetic compatibility withstand-level tests for RCDs.
* for RCDs having I∆n < 10 mA this test is not required (IEC 1008-1).
Note: Time-delayed RCDs are normally installed near the service position of installations, where current surges of external origin
are the most severe. The 5 kA peak test reflects this high-performance duty requirement.

G32 - protection against electric shocks

 G
direct current components
Auxiliary d.c. supplies for control and 3 classes are distinguished:
indication of electrical and mechanical Class AC: operates due to a.c. current only.
equipment are common, and certain Class A: operates if residual current consists
appliances include rectifiers (diodes, triacs, of uni-directional pulses.
thyristors). Class B: operates on pure d.c.
In the event of an earth fault downstream of a Note:
rectifier, the fault current can include a d.c. For general use Class AC RCDs are normally installed.
Class A are available for specific requirements as a special
component. variation of Class AC devices.
The risk depends on the level of insulation of
the d.c. circuits in an appliance, and each
case must be considered individually.
Problems of this kind generally concern
industrial applications.
The IEC classifies RCDs according to their
ability to function correctly in the presence of
d.c. components in the residual current.

recommendations concerning
the installation of RCDs with
separate toroidal current
transformers
The detector of residual current is a closed Centralize the cables in the ring core
magnetic circuit (usually circular) of very high
magnetic permeability, on which is wound a
coil of wire, the ensemble constituting a
toroidal (or ring-type) current transformer.
Because of its high permeability, any small
deviation from perfect symmetry of the
conductors encompassed by the core, and Use an oversized magnetic ring core
the proximity of ferrous material (steel
enclosure, chassis members, etc.) can affect
the balance of magnetic forces sufficiently, at
times of large load currents (motor-starting
current, transformer energizing current surge,
etc.) to cause unwanted tripping of the RCD.
Unless particular measures are taken, the
ratio of operating current I∆n to maximum Insert a tubular magnetic screen.
phase current Iph (max.) is generally less
than 1/1,000.
This limit can be increased substantially
(i.e. the response can be desensitized) by
adopting the measures shown in fig. G71,
and summarized in table G72.
L

L = twice the diameter of the magnetic ring core

fig. G71: means of reducing the ratio
I∆n/Iph (max.).

measures diameter (mm) sensitivity

diminution
factor
careful centralizing of cables through the ring core 3
oversizing of the ring core ø 50 > ø 100 2
ø 80 > ø 200 2
ø 120 > ø 200 6
use of a steel or soft-iron shielding sleeve ø 50 4
c of wall thickness 0.5 mm ø 80 3
c of length 2 x inside diameter of ring core
c completely surrounding the conductors and overlapping ø 120 3
the circular core equally at both ends ø 200 2
These measures can be combined. By carefully centralizing the cables in a ring core of 200 mm
diameter, where a 50 mm core would be large enough, and using a sleeve, the ratio 1/1,000
could become 1/30,000.
table G72: means of reducing the ratio I∆n/Iph (max.).

protection against electric shocks - G33

 7. residual current differential devices (RCDs) (continued)

G
7.3 choice of characteristics of a residual-current circuit breaker (RCCB - IEC 1008)
rated current (a) (b)
The rated current of a RCCB is chosen
according to the maximum sustained load
In1
current it will carry, estimated in accordance
with the methods described in Chapter B In
Sub-clause 4.3.
c if the RCCB is connected in series with, In
and downstream of a circuit breaker, the
rated current of both items will be the same,
i.e. In u In1* (fig. G73 (a)), In1 In2 In3 In4
c if the RCCB is located upstream of a group
of circuits, protected by circuit breakers, as
shown in fig. G73 (b), then the RCCB rated fig. G73: residual current circuit breakers
current will be given by (RCCBs).
In u ku x ks (In1 + In2 + In3 + In4).
* Some national standards include a thermal withstand test
at a current greater than In in order to ensure correct
coordination of protection.

electrodynamic withstand
requirements
Protection against short-circuits must be
provided by an upstream SCPD (Short-Circuit
Protective Device) but it is considered that
where the RCCB is located in the same
distribution box (complying with the
appropriate standards) as the downstream
circuit breakers (or fuses), the short-circuit
protection afforded by these (outgoing-circuit)
SCPDs is an adequate alternative.
Coordination between the RCCB and the
SCPDs is necessary, and manufacturers
generally provide tables associating RCCBs
and circuit breakers or fuses (see table G74).
Coordination of circuit breakers and RCCBs- max. short-circuit current in kA (r.m.s.)
upstream circuit breaker type C60a C60N C60H C60L NC100H NC100L
downstream 2 p 25 A 10 16 20 45 45
RCCB 40 A 10 16 20 40 45
63 A 16 20 30 5 45
80 A 5
4 p 25 A 5 8 10 25 22
40 A 5 8 10 25 22
63 A 8 10 15 5 22
Coordination of fuses and RCCBs- max. short-circuit (not applicable to aM fuses)
upstream fuses gl
(not applicable to aM fuses) 16 A 25 A 32 A 40 A 50 A 63 A 80 A 100 A
downstream 2 p 25 A 100 100 100
RCCB 40 A 100 100 80 10 (1)
63 A 80 50 30 20 10 (1)
80 A 30 20
4 p 25 A 100 100 100 10 (1)
40 A 100 100 80 10 (1)
63 A 80 50 30 20 10 (1)
80 A 30 20 10 (1)
table G74: typical manufacturers coordination table for RCCBs, circuit breakers,
and fuses.
(1) A 100 A fuse with several RCCBs downstream: the thermal withstand of the RCCBs is not certain.

G34 - protection against electric shocks

1. general

1.1 methodology and definitions
component parts of an electric circuit
and its protection are determined
such, that all normal and abnormal
operating constraints are satisfied.
methodology
Following a preliminary analysis of the power
requirements of the installation, as decribed
in Chapter B Clause 4, a study of cabling*
and its electrical protection is undertaken,
starting at the origin of the installation,
through the intermediate stages to the final
circuits.
The cabling and its protection at each level
must satisfy several conditions at the same
time, in order to ensure a safe and reliable
installation, e.g. it must:
c carry the permanent full load current, and
normal short-time overcurrents,
c not cause voltage drops likely to result in an
inferior performance of certain loads, for
example: an excessively long acceleration
period when starting a motor, etc.
Moreover, the protective devices (circuit
breakers or fuses) must:
c protect the cabling and busbars for all
levels of overcurrent, up to and including
short-circuit currents,
H1
c ensure protection of persons against
indirect contact hazards, particularly in
TN- and IT- earthed systems, where the
length of circuits may limit the magnitude
of short-circuit currents, thereby delaying
automatic disconnection (it may be
remembered that TT- earthed installations are
obligatorily protected at the origin by a RCD,
generally rated at 500 mA).
The cross-sectional areas of conductors are
determined by the general method described
in Sub-clause 1.2 of this Chapter. Apart from
this method some national standards may
prescribe a minimum cross-sectional area to
be observed for reasons of mechanical
endurance. Particular loads (as noted in
Chapter J) require that the cable supplying
them be oversized, and that the protection of
the circuit be likewise modified.
* the term "cabling" in this chapter, covers all insulated
conductors, including multi-core and single-core cables and
insulated wires drawn into conduits, etc.

kVA to be supplied short-circuit MVA

at the origin
upstream or of the circuit
downstream network

maximum load short-circuit

current current
IB Isc
rated current of protective short-circuit current-breaking
device (C.B. or fuses) rating of C.B. or fuses
In I scb
choice
choice of of C.B.
protective or fuses
device

conditions of cross-sectional area of verification of thermal

installation conductors of the circuit withstand requirements

verification of the IT or TN scheme

maximum voltage
drop
verification of the
maximum length
of the circuit
TT scheme

determination of the confirmation of the cross-sectional area of the

cross-sectional area cabling, and the choice of its electrical protection
of the conductors

table H1-1: logigram for the selection of cable size and protective-device rating
for a given circuit.

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H1-1

 1. general (continued)

H1
1.1 methodology and definitions (continued)
definitions
Maximum load current: IB main
c at the final circuits level, this current distribution
corresponds to the rated kVA of the load. In board
the case of motor-starting, or other loads
which take an initially-high current,
particularly where frequent starting is combined factors
concerned (e.g. lift motors, resistance-type of simultaneity
spot welding, and so on) the cumulative (or diversity) IB = 290 x 0.69 = 200 A
and utilization
thermal effects of the overcurrents must be ks x ku = 0.69
taken into account. Both cables and thermal-
type relays are affected; sub-distribution
c at all upstream circuit levels this current board
corresponds to the kVA to be supplied, which
takes account of the factors of simultaneity
(diversity) and utilization, ks and ku 80 A 60 A 100 A IB = 50 A
respectively, as shown in figure H1-2.
Maximum permissible current: IZ normal load
This is the maximum value of current that the M motor current
cabling for the circuit can carry indefinitely, 50 A
without reducing its normal life expectancy.
The current depends, for a given cross- fig. H1-2: calculation of maximum load
sectional area of conductors, on several current IB.
parameters:
c constitution of the cable and cable-way
(Cu or Alu conductors; PVC or EPR etc.
insulation; number of active conductors);
c ambient temperature;
c method of installation;
c influence of neighbouring circuits.

overcurrents
An overcurrent occurs each time the value of Short-circuit currents
current exceeds the maximum load current IB These currents result from the failure of
for the load concerned. insulation between live conductors or/and
This current must be cut off with a rapidity between live conductors and earth (on
that depends upon its magnitude, if systems having low-impedance-earthed
permanent damage to the cabling (and neutrals) in any combination, viz:
appliance if the overcurrent is due to a c 3 phases short-circuited (and to neutral
defective load component) is to be avoided. and/or earth, or not);
Overcurrents of relatively short duration can c 2 phases short-circuited (and to neutral
however, occur in normal operation; two and/or earth, or not);
types of overcurrent are distinguished: c 1 phase short-circuited to neutral (and/or to
Overloads earth).
These overcurrents can occur in healthy
electric circuits, for example, due to a number
of small short-duration loads which
occasionally occur co-incidentally; motor-
starting loads, and so on.
If either of these conditions persists however
beyond a given period (depending on
protective-relay settings or fuse ratings) the
circuit will be automatically cut off.

H1-2 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear

 H1
1.2 overcurrent protection principles
A protective device is provided at the origin of t
the circuit concerned. maximum I2t cable
c acting to cut-off the current in a time shorter load characteristic
than that given by the I2t characteristic of the current
circuit cabling;
c but allowing the maximum load current IB to
flow indefinitely.
The characteristics of insulated conductors
when carrying short-circuit currents can, for
temporary circuit-breaker
periods up to 5 seconds following short-circuit tripping curve
overload
initiation, be determined approximately by the
formula:
Is2 x t = k2 x S2 which shows that the
allowable heat generated is proportional to
the cross-sectional-area of the condutor
squared. IB Ir Iz ISCB PdC I
Where: fig. H1-3: circuit protection by circuit
t: duration of short-circuit current (seconds); breaker.
S: c.s.a. of insulated conductor (mm2);
t
Is: short-circuit current (A r.m.s.);
k: insulated conductor constant (values
of k2 are given in table H1-54). I2t cable
For a given insulated conductor, the characteristic
maximum permissible current varies
according to the environment. For instance,
for a high ambient temperature (θa1 > θa2),
IZ1 is less than IZ2 (fig. H1-5).
θ means "temperature". fuse
temporary curve
overload
Note:
Isc means 3-phase short-circuit current.
IscB means rated 3-ph. short-circuit breaking
current of the circuit breaker.
Ir (or Irth)* means regulated "nominal" current IB Ir cIz Iz I
level; e.g. a 50 A nominal circuit breaker can
be regulated to have a protective range, i.e. fig. H1-4: circuit protection by fuses.
a conventional overcurrent tripping level t 1 2
(see figure H1-6) similar to that of a 30 A
circuit breaker.
* both designations are commonly used in different
standards. θa1 > θa2

5s
I2t = k2S2

Iz1 < Iz2 I

fig. H1-5: I2t characteristic of an insulated
conductor at two different ambient
temperatures.

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H1-3

 1. general (continued)

H1
1.3 practical values for a protection scheme
The following methods are based on rules representative of the practices in many
laid down in the IEC standards, and are countries.

loads circuit cabling

e
ax

bl
i
im

Iz iss
um

nt rm

Iz
rre pe
lo

x
a

45
cu m
d

u
cu

1.
m
rre

i
ax
n

m
t IB
1.45 Iz ISC
IB Iz
In I2 ISCB
zone a zone c
zone b

t
en
g

nt or
t
ui atin

I2 urr
Ir
rre In irc ng r

nt rc
cu t
c

rre ve
d en
t - i
or ak

cu l o
te rr

sh t bre
la cu

p na
gu al

tri tio
p n
3- urre
re in

en
its om

nv
-c
ult
n

co

fa
protective device

fig. H1-6: current levels for determining circuit breaker or fuse characteristics.

IB i In i Iz zone a general rules

A protective device (circuit breaker or fuse) The "conventional" setting tripping time may
I2 i 1,45 Iz zone b functions correctly if: be 1 hour or 2 hours according to local
ISCB u ISC zone c c its nominal current or its setting current In is standards and the actual value selected for
greater than the maximum load current IB but I2.
less than the maximum permissible current IZ For fuses, I2 is the current (denoted If) which
for the circuit, i.e. IB i In i IZ corresponding to will operate the fuse in the conventional time;
zone "a" in figure H1-6; c its 3-phase short-circuit fault-current
c its tripping current I2 "conventional" setting breaking rating is greater than the 3-phase
is less than 1.45 IZ which corresponds to short-circuit current existing at its point of
zone "b" in figure H1-6. installation.
This corresponds to zone "c" in figure H1-6.

criteria for a circuit breaker: applications

Protection by circuit breaker Particular case:
IB i In (or Ir) i Iz
By virtue of its high level of precision the if the circuit breaker itself does not protect
and, current I2 is always less than 1.45 In (or against overloads, it is necessary to ensure
rated short-circuit breaking current 1.45 Ir) so that the condition, that I2 i 1.45 IZ that, at a time of lowest value of short-circuit
ISCB u ISC the 3-ph. short-circuit (as noted in the "general rules" above) will current, the overcurrent device protecting the
current level at the point of CB always be respected. circuit will operate correctly. This particular
case is examined in Sub-clause 5.1.
installation.

Protection by fuses
criteria for fuses:
The condition I2 i 1.45 IZ must also be taken
IB i In i IZ into account, where I2 is the fusing (melting-
k3 level) current, equal to k2 x In (k2 ranges from
and, 1.6 to 1.9) according to the particular fuse
the rated short-circuit current concerned.
A further factor k3 has been introduced (in the
breaking capacity of the fuse national standards from which these notes
ISCF u ISC the 3-ph. short-circuit have been abstracted) such that I2 i 1.45 IZ
current level at the point of fuse will be valid if In i IZ/k3.
installation.
Association of different protective devices
The use of protective devices which have
fault-current ratings lower than the fault level
existing at their point of installation are
permitted by IEC and many national
standards in the following conditions:
c there exists upstream, another protective
device which has the necessary short-circuit
rating, and
c the amount of energy allowed to pass
through the upstream device is less than that
which the downstream device and all
H1-4 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear
For fuses type gl:
In i 10 A k3 = 1.31
10 A < In i 25 A k3 = 1.21
In > 25 A k3 = 1.10
Moreover, the short-circuit current breaking
capacity of the fuse ISCF must exceed the
level of 3-phase short-circuit current at the
point of installation of the fuse(s).
associated cabling and appliances can
withstand without damage.
In pratice this arrangement is generally
exploited in:
c the association of circuit breakers/fuses;
c the technique known as "cascading" in
which the strong current-limiting performance
of certain circuit breakers effectively reduces
the severity of downstream short-circuits.
Possible combinations which have been
tested in laboratories are indicated in certain
manufacturers catalogues.

1.4 location of protective devices
a protective device is, in general,
required at the origin of each circuit.
H1
general rule
A protective device is necessary at the origin P
of each circuit where a reduction of
permissible maximum current level occurs.

P2 P3 P4

50 mm2 10 mm2 25 mm2

possible alternative locations in

certain circumstances P1
The protective device may be placed part
way along the circuit: A
c if AB is not in proximity to combustible short-circuit
<3m
material, and sc protective
c if no socket-outlets or branch connections device
are taken from AB.
B B
Three cases may be useful in practice. s overload
P2 B protective
Consider case (1) in the diagram device3
c AB i 3 metres, and P3
c AB has been installed to reduce to a
practical minimum the risk of a short-circuit case (1) case (2) case (3)
(wires in heavy steel conduit for example).
Consider case (2)
c the upstream device P1 protects the length
AB against short-circuits in accordance with
Sub-clause H1-5.1.
Consider case (3)
c the overload device (S) is located adjacent
to the load. This arrangement is convenient
for motor circuits. The device (S) constitutes
the control (start/stop) and overload
protection of the motor while (SC) is: either a
circuit breaker (designed for motor protection)
or fuses type aM,
c the short-circuit protection (SC) located at
the origin of the circuit conforms with the
principles of Sub-clause H1-5.1.

circuits with no protection

Either P1: C60 calibre 15 A
c the protective device P1 is calibrated to
2,5 mm2
protect the cable S2 against overloads and
short-circuits; S2:
1,5 mm2
Or
c where the breaking of a circuit constitutes a
risk, e.g.
v excitation circuits of rotating machines,
v circuits of large lifting electromagnets,
v the secondary circuits of current
transformers.
No circuit interruption can be tolerated, and
the protection of the cabling is of secondary
importance.

table H1-7: general rules and exceptions concerning the location of protective devices.

1.5 cables in parallel

Conductors of the same cross-sectional-area,
the same length, and of the same material,
can be connected in parallel.
The maximum permissible current is the sum
of the individual-core maximum currents,
taking into account the mutual heating
effects, method of installation, etc.
Protection against overload and short-circuits
is identical to that for a single-cable circuit.
The following precautions should be taken to
avoid the risk of short-circuits on the
paralleled cables:
c additional protection against mechanical
damage and against humidity, by the
introduction of supplementary protection;
c the cable route should be chosen so as to
avoid close proximity to combustible
materials.

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H1-5

 1. general (continued)

H1
1.6 worked example of cable calculations
installation scheme
The installation is supplied through a
1,000 kVA transformer. The process requires
a high degree of supply continuity and this is
provided by the installation of a 500 kVA
400 V standby generator, and by the adoption
of a 3-phase 3-wire IT-system at the main
general distribution board from which the
processing plant is supplied. The remainder
of the installation is isolated by a 315 kVA
400/400V transformer: the isolated network is
a TT-earthed 3-phase 4-wire system.
Following the one-line diagram of the system
shown in figure H1-8 below, a reproduction of
the results of a computer study for the circuit
C1 and its circuit breaker Q1, and C2 with
associated circuit breaker Q2 are presented.
These studies were carried out with
ECODIAL 2.2 software (a Merlin Gerin
product).
This is followed by the same calculations
carried out by the methods described in this
guide.

TR1
1000 kVA
5%
400 V
26. 44 kA
C1
8m
.18%
3x (3 x 240)

Q1
M16 N1
STR 38
1600 A

B1 G1
500 kVA
721 A

Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6
C801N
STR35SE
800 A
C2 C3 C4
15m
.7%
3x (1 x 240)

I1 I2
T1
315 kVA
400 V
B2

Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10
NS630N
STR35SE
630 A

Q11 Q12 Q13

NS250N NS160N NS100N
TMD TMD TMD
250 A 160 A 80 A

fig. H1-8: one-line diagram of the installation.

H1-6 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear

 H1
calculations using software Ecodial 2.2
General network characteristics
earthing system IT
neutral distributed N
voltage (V) 400
frequency (Hz) 50
Transformer TR 1 input data output
number of transformers 1
upstream fault level (MVA) 500
rating (kVA) 1000
short-circuit impedance voltage (%) 5
remarks
nominal current (A) 1374
resistance of transformer (mΩ) 2.13
reactance of transformer (mΩ) 8.55
running total of impedance RT (mΩ) 2.18
running total of impedance XT (mΩ) 8.9
3-phase short-circuit current (kA) 26.44
short-circuit power factor .23
Cable C 1 input data output
maximum load current (A) 1374
type of insulation PRC
conductor material Cu
ambient temperature (°C) 30
single-core or multi-core cable UNI
installation method 13
number of circuits in close proximity
(table H1-14) 1
other coefficient 1
number of phases 3
selected cross-sectional area (mm2) 3 x 240
protective conductor 1 x 240
neutral conductor
length (m) 8
voltage drop ∆U (%) .18
running total of impedance RT (mΩ) 2.43
running total of impedance XT (mΩ) 9.11
voltage drop ∆U total (%) .18
3-phase short-circuit current (kA) 25.7
1-phase-to-earth fault current (A) 20334
resistance of protective conductor RPE (mΩ) .75
touch voltage (V) 15
Circuit breaker Q 1 input data output
voltage (V) 400
3-ph short-circuit current upstream
of the circuit breaker (kA) 25.7
maximum load current (A) 1374
ambient temperature (°C) 40
number of poles 3
circuit breaker M 16
type N1
tripping unit type STR 38
rated current (A) 1600
Busbars B 1
maximum load current (A) 1374
number of phases 3
number of bars per phase 1
width (mm) 125
thickness (mm) 5
length (m) 3
remarks
impedance of busbars R (mΩ) .1
impedance of busbars X (mΩ) .45
voltage drop ∆U(%) .16
running total of impedance RT (mΩ) 2.53
running total of impedance XT (mΩ) 9.55
voltage drop ∆U total (%) .34
3-ph short-circuit current (kA) 24.53

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H1-7

 1. general (continued)

H1
1.6 worked example of cable calculations (continued)
Circuit breaker Q 2 input data output
voltage (V) 400
3-ph short-circuit current upstream
of the circuit breaker (kA) 24.53
maximum load current (A) 433
ambient temperature (°C) 40
number of poles 3
circuit breaker NS630
type N
tripping unit type STR23SE
rated current (A) 630
3-phase fault current (A) 13221
protection against indirect contact assured
upstream circuit breaker M16 N1 STR38
absolute discrimination
Cable C 2 input data output
maximum load current (A) 433
type of insulation PRC
conductor material Cu
ambient temperature (°C) 30
single-core or multi-core cable UNI
installation method 13
number of circuits in close proximity
(table H1-14) 1
other coefficient 1
number of phases 3
selected cross-sectional area (mm2) 1 x 240
protective conductor 1 x 70
neutral conductor
length (m) 15
voltage drop ∆U (%) .33
running total of impedance RT (mΩ) 3.93
running total of impedance XT (mΩ) 10.75
voltage drop ∆U total (%) .67
3-phase short-circuit current (kA) 21.18
1-phase-to-earth fault current (A) 13221
resistance of protective conductor RPE (mΩ) 5.57
touch voltage (V) 73
table H1-9: calculations carried out with ECODIAL software (M.G).
the same calculations using The resistances and the inductive reactances
the methods recommended in for the three conductors in parallel are, for a
length of 8 metres (see H1-4.2):
this guide 22.5 x 8
Dimensioning circuit C 1 R= = 0.25 mΩ per phase
240 x 3
The HV/LV 1,000 kVA transformer has a rated 0.12 x 8
no-load voltage of 420 V. Circuit C 1 must be X= = 0.32 mΩ per phase
3
suitable for a current of (0.12 mΩ/metre was advised by the cable
In = 1,000 = In = 1,374 A per phase maker).
ex 0.42
Dimensioning circuit C 2
Three single-core XLPE-insulated copper
Circuit C 2 supplies a 315 kVA 3-phase
cables in parallel will be used for each phase;
400/400 V isolating transformer
these cables will be laid on cable trays
corresponding with reference F (see tables in Ib = 315 = 433 A.
0.42 x e
Clause H1 2.2). The "K" correction factors are
A multi-core XLPE cable laid on a cable tray
as follows:
(together with two other cables) in an ambient
K1=1
air temperature of 30 °C is proposed.
K 2 = 0.82 ( 3 three-phase groups in a single
The circuit breaker is regulated to 433 A.
layer)
Iz = 433 A
K 3 = 1 (temperature 30 °C).
The method of installation is characterized by
If the circuit breaker is a withdrawable or
the reference letter E, and the "K" correcting
unpluggable* type, which can be regulated,
factors are:
one might choose:
K1=1
Iz = 1,374 A applying H1.2.1
K 2 = 0.82
Iz
I’z = = 1,676 A. K 3 = 1.
K1xK2xK3
433
Each conductor will therefore carry 558 A. I’z = = 528 A so that
1 x 0.82 x 1
Table H1-17 indicates that the c.s.a. is
a c.s.a. of 240 mm2 is appropriate.
240 mm2.
The resistance and inductive reactance are
* Withdrawable, CBs are generally mounted in drawers for
maintenance purposes. Plug-in type CBs are generally
respectively:
moulded-case units, which may be completely removed 22.5 x 15
from the fixed-base sockets. R= = 1.4 mΩ per phase
240
X = 0.08 x 15 = 1.2 mΩ per phase.

H1-8 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear


Calculation of short-circuit currents for
the selection of circuit breakers Q 1 and
Q2
*all values are to a 420 voltage base
e conductor mentioned above, generally
circuits R* X* Z* Isc*
components parts mΩ mΩ mΩ kA
500 kVA at the
HV source network 0.050 0.35
HV/LV transformer 2.24 8.10
cable C 1 0.25 0.32
sub-total for Q1 2.54 8.77 9.13 26.5
busbars B1 - 0.75 9.85 24.6
cable C 2 1.40 1.2
sub-total for Q2 3.94 10.72 11.42 21.2
table H1-10: example of short-circuit
current evaluation.
Sub-clause H1-4.2 shows the formula for
calculating the short-circuit current Isc at a
given point in the system.
If the rated no-load voltage of the transformer
is 420 V:
420
Isc =
3 2.542 + 8.772
= 26.5 kA at Q 1.
The inductive reactance of busbars B1 is
estimated to be 0.15 x 5 = 0.75 mΩ - its
resistance being negligibly small.
The Isc at the location of Q 2 is computed as
for Q 1, and found to be 21 kA.
In order to make the final choice, features
such as selectivity, isolating capability,
withdrawal or unplugging facility and general
ease of maintenance, and so on, must be
considered, with the aid of manufacturers
catalogues.
The protective conductor
Thermal requirements.
Tables H1.60 and H1.61 show that, when
using the adiabatic method (IEC 724 (1984)
Clause 2) the c.s.a. for the protective earth
(PE) conductor for circuit C1 will be:
26500 x √0.1
u = 47.6 mm2
176
a single 240 mm2 conductor dimensioned for
other reasons mentioned later is therefore
largely sufficient, provided that it also satisfies
the requirements for indirect-contact
protection (i.e. that its impedance is
sufficiently low).
For the circuit C2, the c.s.a. of its PE
conductor should be:
21,000 x √0.1
u = 37.7 mm2
176
In this case a 70 mm2 conductor may be
adequate if the indirect-contact protection
conditions are also satisfied.
Protection against indirect-contact
hazards
Reminder: the LV neutral point of an
IT-scheme transformer is isolated from earth,
or is earthed through a high resistance
(1-2 kΩ) so that an indirect-contact hazard
can only exist if two earth faults occur
concurrently, each on a different phase (or on
one phase and a neutral conductor).
Overcurrent protective devices must then be
relied upon to cut-off the faulty circuits, except
in particular circumstances i.e. where the
resistance of P.E. conductors is too high, as
noted in Chapter G Sub-clauses 6.3 to
6.5. RCDs are often employed in such cases.
H1
Circuit C 1 will be of class 2 insulation i.e.
double insulation and no earthed exposed
conductive parts. The only indirect-contact
requirement for this circuit, therefore, is at the
transformer tank. The 240 mm2 P.E.
connects the tank of the HV/LV transformer to
the earth electrode for the installation at a
common earthing busbar in the main general
distribution board. This means that if one (of
the two) concurrent LV phase-to-earth faults
should occur in the transformer, an indirect
contact danger will exist at the transformer
tank.
In such a case, the HV overcurrent protection
for the transformer is unlikely to operate, but
the protection on the second faulty LV circuit
must do so infallibly to ensure protection
against the indirect contact danger, as
described.
Since a HV fault to earth at the transformer is
also always possible, and very often HV
lightning arresters on the transformer are
connected to earth through the P.E.
conductor in question, a conductor of large
c.s.a. is invariably selected for this section
of the installation. Dimensioning
considerations for this conductor are given
in Sub-clause 6.3.
For circuit C2, tables G.43 and G.59, or the
formula given in Sub-clause G.6.2 may be
used for a 3-phase 3-wire circuit.
The maximum permitted length of the circuit
is given by:
Lmax = 0.8 x 230 x 240 x ex 103
2 x 22.5 x (1.25 + 240/70) x 630 x 11.5
= 76,487 = 50 metres.
1,530
The factor 1.25 in the denominator is a 25%
increase in resistance for a 240 mm2
conductor, in accordance with Chapter G
Sub-clause 5.2.
(The value in the denominator
630 x 11.5 = Im i.e. the current level at which
the instantaneous short-circuit magnetic trip
of the 630 A circuit breaker operates). This
value is equal to 10 In + 15 % (the highest
positive manufacturing tolerance for the
tripping device). For further details of
magnetic tripping devices, please refer to
Chapter H2 Sub-clause 4.2.
The length of 15 metres is therefore fully
protected by "instantaneous" overcurrent
devices.
Voltage drop
From table H1.29 it can be seen that:
for C1 (3 x 240 mm2 per phase)
0.21 V/A/km x 1,374 A x 0.008 km
∆U =
3
= 0.77 V
∆U % = 100 x 0.77 = 0.19 %;
400
for C2
∆U = 0.21 V/A/km x 433 A x 0.015 km
= 1.36 V
∆U % = 100 x 1.36 = 0.34 %;
400
At the circuit terminals of the LV/LV
transformer the percentage volt-drop
∆U % = 0.53 %.
the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H1-9
 2. practical method for determining the smallest allowable
cross-sectional-area of circuit conductors

H1
2.1 general
installation maximum load current IB
conditions IB
for the conductors
rated current In of the protective device must
be equal to or greater than the maximum load
current IB

determination of K In
factors and of the choice of maximum permissible current IZ for the
appropriate letter circuit, corresponding to a conductor size that the
code protective device is capable of protecting

fuse circuit breaker

IZ = 1.31 In if In 10 A*
IZ = 1.21 In if In 10 A*
and In 25 A* I Z = I n*
IZ = 1.10 In if In 25 A*

I Z1 I Z2

Determination of the size (c.s.a.) of the conductors of the circuit

capable of carrying IZ1 or IZ2, by use of an equivalent current I'Z,
which takes into account the influences of factor K (I'Z = IZ/K), of
the letter code, and of the insulating sheath of the conductors
(refer to tables H1-17 or H1-24)
I 'Z I 'Z
S1 S2

verification of other conditions that may be required-see figure H1.1

* or slightly greater

table H1-11: logigram for the determination of minimum conductor size for a circuit.
The first step is to determine the size of the reference which takes into account:
phase conductors. The dimensioning of the v the type of circuit (single-phase; three-
neutral and protective conductors is phase, etc.) and
explained in H1-6 and H1-7. v the kind of installation: and then
In this clause the following cases are c determine the factor K of the circuit
considered: considered, which covers the following
c unburied conductors, influences:
c buried conductors. v installation method,
The tables in this clause permit the v circuit grouping,
determination of the size of phase conductors v ambient temperature.
for a circuit of given current magnitude.
The procedure is as follows:
c determine an appropriate code-letter

2.2 determination of conductor size for unburied circuits

the size of a phase conductor is
given in tables which relate:
c the code letter symbolizing the
method of installation, and
c the factor of influence K.
These tables distinguish unburied
circuits from buried circuits.
determination of the code-letter installation are numerous, but the most
reference common of them have been grouped
according to four classes of similar
The letter of reference (B to F) depends on environmental conditions, as shown below in
the type of conductor used and its method of table H1-12.
installation. The possible methods of
types of conductor method of installation letter code
single-core wires and c under decorative moulding with or
multi-core cables without a removable cover, surface
or flush-mounting, or under plaster
c in underfloor cavity or behind B
false ceiling
c in a trench, moulding or wainscoting
c surface-mounted in contact with
wall or ceiling
c on non-perforated cable trays C
multi-core cables c cable ladders, perforated trays, E
or on supporting brackets
c surface-mounted clear of the surface
(e.g. on cleats)
c catenary cables

single-core cables F

table H1-12: code-letter reference, depending on type of conductor and method of

installation.

H1-10 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear


for circuits which are not buried,
factor k characteristizes the
conditions of installation, and is given
by: K = K1 x K2 x K3
the three component factors
depending on different features
of the installation.
H1
determination of the factor K
The factor k summarizes the several features
which characterize the conditions of
installation.
It is obtained by multiplying three correction
factors K1, K2 and K3.
The values of these factors are given in
tables H1.13 to H1.15 below.
correction factor K1
Factor K1 is a measure of the influence of the
method of installation.

factor K1 is a measure of the code letter installation details example K1

influence of the method of B - cables installed directly in 0.70
thermal-insulation materials
installation.

- conduits installed in thermal- 0.77

insulation materials

- multi-core cables 0.90

- construction cavities and closed 0.95

cables trenches

C - surface mounted on ceiling 0.95

B, C, E, F - other cases 1

table H1-13: factor K1 according to method of circuit installation (for further examples
refer to IEC 364-5-52 table 52H).
Correction factor K2 Two circuits are considered to be in close
Factor K2 is a measure of the mutual proximity when L, the distance between
influence of two circuits side-by-side in close two cables, is less than double the diameter
proximity. of the larger of the two cables.

factor K2 is a measure of the mutual code location of correction factor K2

letter cables in close number of circuits or multicore cables
influence of two circuits side-by-side proximity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12 16 20
in close proximity.
B,C embedded 1.00 0.80 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.57 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.45 0.41 0.38
or buried
in the walls
C single layer 1.00 0.85 0.79 0.75 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.70 0.70
on walls or
floors, or on
unperforated
cables trays
single layer 0.95 0.81 0.72 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.63 0.62 0.61 0.61
on ceiling
E,F single layer 1.00 0.88 0.82 0.77 0.75 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.72
on horizontal
perforated
trays, or on
vertical trays
single layer 1.00 0.87 0.82 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.78
on cable ladders,
brackets, etc
table H1-14: correction factor K2 for a group of conductors in a single layer

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H1-11

 2. practical method for determining the smallest allowable
cross-sectional-area of circuit conductors (continued)

H1
2.2 determination of conductor size for unburied circuits (continued)
When cables are installed in more than one
layer a further factor, by which K2 must be
multiplied, will have the following values :
2 layers : 0.80
3 layers : 0.73
4 or 5 layers : 0.70.
Correction factor K3
Factor K3 is a measure of the influence of the
temperature, according to the type of
insulation.

factor K3 is a measure of the ambient insulation

influence of the temperature temperatures elastomer polyvinylchloride cross-linked-
(rubber) (PVC) polyethylene (XLPE)
according to the type of insulation. butyl, ethylene-
propylene-rubber (EPR)
10 1.29 1.22 1.15
15 1.22 1.17 1.12
20 1.15 1.12 1.08
25 1.07 1.07 1.04
30 1.00 1.00 1.00
35 0.93 0.93 0.96
40 0.82 0.87 0.91
45 0.71 0.79 0.87
50 0.58 0.71 0.82
55 - 0.61 0.76
60 - 0.50 0.71
65 - - 0.65
70 - - 0.58
75 - - -
80 - - -
table H1-15: correction factor K3 for ambient temperatures other than 30 °C.
Example: 1 2 3
A 3-phase 3-core XLPE cable is laid on a
perforated cable-tray in close proximity to
three other circuits, consisting of:
c a 3-phase 3-core cable (circuit no. 1),
c three single-core cables (circuit no. 2),
c six single-core cables (circuit no. 3),
circuit no. 2 and no. 3 are 3-phase circuits,
θa = 40°C XLPE
the latter comprising 2 cables per phase.
There are, therefore, effectively 5 3-phase
circuits to be considered, as shown in figure fig. H1-16: example in the determination of
H1-16. The ambient temperature is 40 °C. factors K1, K2 and K3.
The code letter indicated in table H1-12 is E.
K1 given by table H1-13 = 1.
K2 given by table H1-14 = 0.75.
K3 given by table H1-15 = 0.91.
K = K1 x K2 x K3 = 1 x 0.75 x 0.91 = 0.68.

H1-12 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear

 H1
determination of the minimum
cross-sectional area of a
conductor
The current Iz when divided by K gives a
fictitious current I'z. Values of I'z are given in
table H1-17 below, together with
corresponding cable sizes for different types
of insulation and core material (copper or
aluminium).
insulation and number of conductors (2 or 3)
rubber butyl or XLPE or EPR
or PVC
code B PVC3 PVC2 PR3 PR2 B code
letter C PVC3 PVC2 PR3 PR2 C letter
E PVC3 PVC2 PR3 PR2 E
F PVC3 PVC2 PR3 PR2 F
c.s.a. 1.5 15.5 17.5 18.5 19.5 22 23 24 26 1.5 c.s.a.
copper 2.5 21 24 25 27 30 31 33 36 2.5 copper
(mm2) 4 28 32 34 36 40 42 45 49 4 (mm2)
6 36 41 43 48 51 54 58 63 6
10 50 57 60 63 70 75 80 86 10
16 68 76 80 85 94 100 107 115 16
25 89 96 101 112 119 127 138 149 161 25
35 110 119 126 138 147 158 169 185 200 35
50 134 144 153 168 179 192 207 225 242 50
70 171 184 196 213 229 246 268 289 310 70
95 207 223 238 258 278 298 328 352 377 95
120 239 259 276 299 322 346 382 410 437 120
150 299 319 344 371 395 441 473 504 150
185 341 364 392 424 450 506 542 575 185
240 403 430 461 500 538 599 641 679 240
300 464 497 530 576 621 693 741 783 300
400 656 754 825 940 400
500 749 868 946 1083 500
630 855 1005 1088 1254 630
c.s.a. 2.5 16.5 18.5 19.5 21 23 25 26 28 2.5 c.s.a.
aluminium 4 22 25 26 28 31 33 35 38 4 alu
(mm2) 6 28 32 33 36 39 43 45 49 6 (mm2)
10 39 44 46 49 54 59 62 67 10
16 53 59 61 66 73 79 84 91 16
25 70 73 78 83 90 98 101 108 121 25
35 86 90 96 103 112 122 126 135 150 35
50 104 110 117 125 136 149 154 164 184 50
70 133 140 150 160 174 192 198 211 237 70
95 161 170 183 195 211 235 241 257 289 95
120 186 197 212 226 245 273 280 300 337 120
150 227 245 261 283 316 324 346 389 150
185 259 280 298 323 363 371 397 447 185
240 305 330 352 382 430 439 470 530 240
300 351 381 406 440 497 508 543 613 300
400 526 600 663 740 400
500 610 694 770 856 500
630 711 808 899 996 630
table H1-17: case of an unburied circuit: determination of the minimum cable size (c.s.a.),
derived from the code letter; conductor material; insulation material and the fictitious
current I'z.

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H1-13

 2. practical method for determining the smallest allowable
cross-sectional-area of circuit conductors (continued)

H1
2.2 determination of conductor size for unburied circuits (continued)
Example
The example shown in figure H1-16 for
determining the value of K, will also be used
to illustrate the way in which the minimum
cross-sectional-area (c.s.a.) of conductors
may be found, by using the table H1-17.
The XLPE cable to be installed will carry
23 amps per phase.
Previous examples show that:
c the appropriate code letter is E,
c the factor K = 0.68.
1 2 3
θa = 40°C XLPE
fig. H1-18: example for the determination
of minimum cable sizes.
Determination of the cross-sectional areas
A standard value of In nearest to, but higher
than 23 A is required.
Two solutions are possible, one based on
protection by a circuit breaker and the second
on protection by fuses.
c circuit breaker: In = 25 A
v permissible current Iz = 25 A
v fictitious current
I'z = 25 = 36.8 A
0.68
v cross-sectional-area of conductors is found
as follows:
In the column PR3 corresponding to code
letter E the value of 42 A (the nearest value
greater than 36.8 A) is shown to require a
copper conductor c.s.a. of 4 mm2.
For an aluminium conductor the
corresponding values are 43 A and 6 mm2.
c fuses: In = 25 A
v permissible current Iz = K3
In = 1.21 x 25 = Iz = 30.3 A
v the fictitious current I'z = 30.3 = 40.6 A
0.68
v the cross-sectional-areas, of copper or
aluminium conductors are (in this case) found
to be the same as those noted above for a
circuit-breaker-protected circuit.

2.3 determination of conductor size for buried circuits

In the case of buried circuits the A code letter corresponding to a method of
determination of minimum conductor sizes, installation is not necessary.
necessitates the establishement of a factor K.

for buried circuits the value of factor determination of factor K

K characteristizes the conditions of
installation, and is obtained from the
following factors:
K4 x K5 x K6 x K7 = K
each of which depends on a
particular feature of installation.
Factor K summarizes the global influence of
different conditions of installation, and is
obtained by multiplying together correction
factors K4, K5, K6 and K7.
The values of these several factors are given
in tables H1-19 to H1-22.
Correction factor K4
Factor K4 is a measure of the influence of the
method of installation.

factor K4 measures the influence of method of installation K4

the method of installation.
factor K5 measures the mutual
influence of circuits placed side-by-
side in close proximity.
placed in earthenware ducts; in 0.8
conduits, or in decorative mouldings
other cases 1
table H1-19: correction factor K4 related to
the method of installation.
Correction factor K5
Factor K5 is a measure of the mutual
influence of circuits placed side-by-side in
close proximity.
Cables are in close proximity when the
distance L separating them is less than
double the diameter of the larger of the two
cables concerned.

location of correction factor K5

cables side-by-side number of circuits or of multicore cables
in close proximity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12 16 20
buried 1.00 0.80 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.57 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.45 0.41 0.38
table H1-20: correction factor K5 for the grouping of several circuits in one layer.
When cables are laid in several layers,
multiply K5 by 0.8 for 2 layers, 0.73 for
3 layers, 0.7 for 4 layers or 5 layers.

H1-14 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear


factor K6 is a measure of the
influence of the earth in which the
cable is buried.
H1
Correction factor K6
This factor takes into account the nature and
condition of the soil in which a cable (or
cables) is (are) buried; notably its thermal
conductivity.

nature of soil K6
very wet soil (saturated) 1.21
wet soil 1.13
damp soil 1.05
dry soil 1.00
very dry soil (sunbaked) 0.86
table H1-21: correction factor K6 for the
nature of the soil.
Correction factor K7
factor K7 is a measure of the
This factor takes into account the influence of
influence of the soil temperature. soil temperature if it differs from 20 °C.

soil temperature insulation

°C polyvinyl-chloride cross-linked polyethylene
(PVC) (XLPE)
ethylene-propylene
rubber (EPR)
10 1.10 1.07
15 1.05 1.04
20 1.00 1.00
25 0.95 0.96
30 0.89 0.93
35 0.84 0.89
40 0.77 0.85
45 0.71 0.80
50 0.63 0.76
55 0.55 0.71
60 0.45 0.65
table H1-22: correction factor K7 for soil temperatures different than 20 °C.
Example
A single-phase 230 V circuit is included with
θa = 20°C
four other loaded circuits in a buried conduit.
The soil temperature is 20 °C. The
conductors are PVC insulated and supply a 5 kW
230 V
5 kW lighting load. The circuit is protected by
a circuit breaker.
fig. H1-23: example for the determination
of K4, K5, K6 and K7.
K4 from table H1-19 = 0.8.
K5 from table H1- 20 = 0.6.
K6 from table H1- 21 = 1.0.
K7 from table H1- 22 = 1.0.
K = K4 x K5 x K6 x K7 = 0.48.

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H1-15

 2. practical method for determining the smallest allowable
cross-sectional-area of circuit conductors (continued)

H1
2.3 determination of conductor size for buried circuits (continued)
determination of the smallest
c.s.a. (cross-sectional-area) of a
conductor, for buried circuits
Knowing Iz and K, the corresponding cross-
sectional-areas are given in table H1-24
below.
insulation and number of loaded conductors
rubber or PVC Butyl, or cross-linked polyethylene
XLPE, or ethylene-propylene rubber
EPR
3 conductors 2 conductors 3 conductors 2 conductors
c.s.a. 1.5 26 32 31 37
copper 2.5 34 42 41 48
(mm2) 4 44 54 53 63
6 56 67 66 80
10 74 90 87 104
16 96 116 113 136
25 123 148 144 173
35 147 178 174 208
50 174 211 206 247
70 216 261 254 304
95 256 308 301 360
120 290 351 343 410
150 328 397 387 463
185 367 445 434 518
240 424 514 501 598
300 480 581 565 677
c.s.a. 10 57 68 67 80
aluminium 16 74 88 87 104
2
(mm ) 25 94 114 111 133
35 114 137 134 160
50 134 161 160 188
70 167 200 197 233
95 197 237 234 275
120 224 270 266 314
150 254 304 300 359
185 285 343 337 398
240 328 396 388 458
300 371 447 440 520
table H1-24: case of a buried circuit: minimum c.s.a. in terms of type of conductor; type of
insulation; and value of fictitious current I'z (I'z = Iz ).
K
Example
This is a continuation of the previous
θa = 20°C
example, for which the factors K4, K5, K6
and K7 were determined, and the factor K
was found to be 0.48. 5 kW
230 V
Full load current
5.000
IB = = 22 A fig. H1-25: example for determination of
230
the minimum c.s.a. of the circuit
Selection of protection conductors.
A circuit-breaker rated at 25 A would be
appropriate.
Maximum permanent current permitted
Iz = 25 A (i.e. the circuit-breaker rating In)
Fictitious current
Iz 25
I'z = = = 52.1 A
K 0.48
C.s.a. of circuit conductors
In the column PVC, 2 conductors, a current of
54 A corresponds to a 4 mm2 copper
conductor.
In the case where the circuit conductors are
in aluminium, the same fictitious current
(52 A) would require the choice of 10 mm2
corresponding to a fictitious current value
(for aluminium) of 68 A.

H1-16 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear

3. determination of voltage drop
The impedance of circuit conductors is low
but not negligible: when carrying load current
there is a fall in voltage between the origin of
the circuit and the load terminals. The correct
operation of an item of load (a motor; lighting
circuit; etc.) depends on the voltage at its
terminals being maintained at a value close to
its rated value. It is necessary therefore to
dimension the circuit conductors such, that at
full-load current, the load terminal voltage is
3.1 maximum voltage-drop limit
Maximum allowable voltage-drop limits vary
from one country to another. Typical values
for LV installations are given below in table
H1-26.
maximum voltage-drop between the service-connection point and the point of utilization
a low-voltage service connection from a LV
public power distribution network
consumers HV/LV substation supplied from
a public distribution HV system
table H1-26: maximum voltage-drop limits.
These voltage-drop limits refer to normal
steady-state operating conditions and do not
apply at times of motor starting; simultaneous
switching (by chance) of several loads, etc.
as mentioned in Chapter B Sub-clause 4.3
(factor of simultaneity, etc.).
When voltage drops exceed the values
shown in table H1-26 larger cables (wires)
must be used to correct the condition.
The value of 8%, while permitted, can lead to
problems for motor loads; for example:
c in general, satisfactory motor performance
requires a voltage within ± 5% of its rated
nominal value in steady-state operation,
c starting current of a motor can be 5 to
7 times its full-load value (or even higher). If
8% voltage drop occurs at full-load current,
then a drop of 40% or more will occur during
start-up. In such conditions the motor will
either:
v stall (i.e. remain stationary due to
insufficient torque to overcome the load
torque) with consequent over-heating and
eventual trip-out,
v or accelerate very slowly, so that the heavy
current loading (with possibly undesirable
low-voltage effects on other equipment) will
continue beyond the normal start-up period;
c finally an 8% voltage drop represents a
continuous (E2/R watts) of power loss, which,
for continuous loads will be a significant
waste of (metered) energy. For these reasons
it is recommended that the maximum value of
HV consumer
LV consumer
8%(1)
5%(1)
load (1) between the LV
supply point and
the load
fig. H1-27: maximum voltage drop.
H1
maintained within the limits required for
correct performance.
This section deals with methods of
determining voltage drops, in order to check
that:
c they conform to the particular standards
and regulations in force,
c they can be tolerated by the load,
c they satisfy the essential operational
requirements.
lighting other uses
(heating and power)
3% 5%
6% 8%
8% in steady operating conditions should not
be reached on circuits which are sensitive to
under-voltage problems.
Important:
In a number of countries the existing
220/380 V 3-phase systems are being
uprated to operate eventually at nominal
230/400 V (the recommended IEC standard).
Transformer manufacturers in these countries
have recently increased the no-load
secondary voltage of their distribution
transformers accordingly, to 237/410 V.
After several years of transition in the
appliances industry, distribution transformers
will be manufactured with no-load ratios of
242/420 V.
The rated voltage of consumer appliances will
evolve in the same time-scale.
From now on, therefore, voltage-drop
calculations must take account of these
changes.
Dangerous possible consequences for
motors are:
c a lightly-loaded "new" transformer and an
"old" motor: risk of overvoltage on the motor,
c a fully-loaded "old" transformer and a "new"
motor: risk of undervoltage at the motor.
Similar (but inverse) problems will arise in
countries which presently operate 240/415 V
systems, if the IEC 230/400 V standard is
adopted by them.
the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H1-17
 3. determination of voltage drop (continued)

H1
3.2 calculation of voltage drops in steady load conditions
use of formulae
The table below gives formulae commonly X: inductive reactance of a conductor in Ω/km
used to calculate voltage drop in a given Note: X is negligible for conductors of c.s.a. less than
circuit per kilometre of length. 50 mm2. In the absence of any other information, take X as
being equal to 0.08 Ω/km.
If:
ϕ: phase angle between voltage and current
IB: the full load current in amps
in the circuit considered, generally:
L: length of the cable in kilometres
c lighting: cos ϕ = 1
R: resistance of the cable conductor in Ω/km
c motor power:
22,5 Ω.mm2/km
R= for copper v at start-up: cos ϕ = 0.35
S (c.s.a. in mm2)
v in normal service: cos ϕ = 0.8
36 Ω.mm /km2
R= for aluminium Un: phase-to-phase voltage.
S (c.s.a. in mm2)
Vn: phase-to-neutral voltage.
Note: R is negligible above a c.s.a. of 500 mm2.
For prefabricated pre-wired ducts and bus-
trunking, resistance and inductive reactance
values are given by the manufacturer.
circuit voltage drop (∆ U)
in volts in %
single phase: phase/phase ∆U = 2 IB (R cos ϕ + X sin ϕ) L 100 ∆U
Un
single phase: phase/neutral ∆U = 2 IB (R cos ϕ + X sin ϕ) L 100 ∆U
Vn
balanced 3-phase: 3 phases ∆U = eIB (R cos ϕ + X sin ϕ) L 100 ∆U
(with or without neutral) Un
table H1-28: voltage-drop formulae.

simplified table
Calculations may be avoided by using the
table H1-29 below, which gives, with an
adequate approximation, the phase-to-phase
voltage drop per km of cable per ampere, in
terms of:
c kinds of circuit use: motor circuits with
cos ϕ close to 0.8, or lighting with a cos ϕ in
the neighbourhood of unity;
c of the type of cable; single-phase or
3-phase.
Voltage drop in a cable is then given by:
K x IB x L
K is given by the table,
IB is the full-load current in amps,
L is the length of cable in km.
The column motor power cos ϕ = 0.35" of
table H1-29 may be used to compute the
voltage drop occurring during the start-up
period of a motor (see example (1) after the
table H1-29).

c.s.a. in mm2 single-phase circuit balanced three-phase circuit

motor power lighting motor power lighting
normal service start-up normal service start-up
Cu Al cos ϕ = 0.8 cos ϕ = 0.35 cos ϕ = 1 cos ϕ = 0.8 cos ϕ = 0.35 cos ϕ = 1
1.5 24 10.6 30 20 9.4 25
2.5 14.4 6.4 18 12 5.7 15
4 9.1 4.1 11.2 8 3.6 9.5
6 10 6.1 2.9 7.5 5.3 2.5 6.2
10 16 3.7 1.7 4.5 3.2 1.5 3.6
16 25 2.36 1.15 2.8 2.05 1 2.4
25 35 1.5 0.75 1.8 1.3 0.65 1.5
35 50 1.15 0.6 1.29 1 0.52 1.1
50 70 0.86 0.47 0.95 0.75 0.41 0.77
70 120 0.64 0.37 0.64 0.56 0.32 0.55
95 150 0.48 0.30 0.47 0.42 0.26 0.4
120 185 0.39 0.26 0.37 0.34 0.23 0.31
150 240 0.33 0.24 0.30 0.29 0.21 0.27
185 300 0.29 0.22 0.24 0.25 0.19 0.2
240 400 0.24 0.2 0.19 0.21 0.17 0.16
300 500 0.21 0.19 0.15 0.18 0.16 0.13
table H1-29: phase-to-phase voltage drop ∆U for a circuit, in volts per ampere per km.

H1-18 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear

 H1
examples:
Example 1 (figure H1-30) 1000 A
A three-phase 35 mm2 copper cable
50 metres long supplies a 400 V motor
taking: 400 V
c 100 A at a cos ϕ = 0.8 on normal
permanent load;
c 500 A (5 In) at a cos ϕ = 0.35 during
start-up.
The voltage drop at the origin of the motor
cable in normal circumstances (i.e. with the
50 m / 35 mm2 Cu
distribution board of figure H1-30 distributing IB = 100 A
a total of 1.000 A) is 10 V phase-to-phase. (500 A during
What is the volt drop at the motor terminals: start-up)
c in normal service?
c during start-up?
Solution:
c voltage drop in normal service conditions:
∆U % = 100 ∆U/Un
Table H1-29 shows 1 V/A/km so that:
∆U for the cable = 1 x 100 x 0.05 = 5 V
∆U total = 10 + 5 = 15 V = i.e.
15
x 100 = 3.75 % fig. H1-30: example 1.
400
This value is less than that authorized (8%)
and is satisfactory.
c voltage drop during motor start-up:
∆U cable = 0.52 x 500 x 0.05 = 13 V
Owing to the additional current taken by the
motor when starting, the volt drop at the
distribution board will exceed 10 Volts.
Supposing that the infeed to the distribution
board during motor starting is 900 + 500 =
1.400 A then the volt-drop at the distribution
board will increase approximately pro rata,
i.e.
10 x 1400
= 14 V
1000
∆U distribution board = 14 V
∆U for the motor cable = 13 V
∆U total = 13 + 14 = 27 V i.e.
27 x 100
= 6.75 %
400
a value which is satisfactory during motor
starting.

Example 2
A 3-phase 4-wire copper line of 70 mm2 c.s.a.
and a length of 50 m passes a current of
150 A. The line supplies, among other loads,
3 single-phase lighting circuits, each of
2.5 mm2 c.s.a. copper 20 m long, and each
passing 20 A.
It is assumed that the currents in the 70 mm2
line are balanced and that the three lighting
circuits are all connected to it at the same 50 m / 70 mm2 Cu
IB = 150 A
point.
What is the voltage drop at the end of the
lighting circuits?
Solution:
c voltage drop in the 4-wire line:
∆U % = 100 ∆U/Un
Table H1-29 shows 0.55 V/A/km. 20 m / 2.5 mm2 Cu
∆U line = 0.55 x 150 x 0.05 = 4.125 V IB = 20 A
phase-to-phase
which: 4.125 V = 2.38 V phase to neutral.
e fig. H1-31: example 2.
c voltage drop in any one of the lighting
single-phase circuits:
∆U for a single-phase circuit = 18 x 20 x 0.02
= 7.2 V
The total volt-drop is therefore
7.2 + 2.38 = 9.6 V
9.6 V
x 100 = 4.2 %
230 V
This value is satisfactory, being less than the
maximum permitted voltage drop of 6%.
the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H1-19
 4. short-circuit current calculations

H1
knowing the levels of 3-phase
symmetrical short-circuit currents
(Isc) at different points in an
installation is an essential feature of
its design.
A knowledge of 3-phase symmetrical short-
circuit current values (Isc) at strategic points
of an installation is necessary in order to
dimension switchgear (fault current rating);
cables (thermal withstand rating); protective
devices (discriminative trip settings) and so
on...
In the following notes a 3-phase short-circuit
of zero impedance (the so-called bolted
short-circuit) fed through a typical HV/LV
distribution transformer will be examined.
Except in very unusual circumstances, this
type of fault is the most severe, and is
certainly the simplest to calculate.
Short-circuit currents occurring in a network
supplied from an alternator and also in d.c.
systems are dealt with in Chapter J
Sub-clauses 1.1 and 6.1.
The simplified calculations and practical rules
which follow give conservative results of
sufficient accuracy, in the large majority of
cases, for installation design purposes.

4.1 short-circuit current at the secondary terminals of a HV/LV distribution transformer

the case of one transformer transformer Usc in %
c as a first approximation the impedance of rating type of transformer
the HV system is assumed to be negligibly oil-immersed cast-resin
small, so that: 50 to 630 4% 6%
In x 100 800 to 2500 6% 6%
Isc = where
Usc
P x 103 table H1-32: typical values of Usc for
In = and: different kVA ratings of transformers with
eU20
P = kVA rating of the transformer, HV windings i 20 kV.
U20 = phase-to-phase secondary volts on
open circuit,
In = nominal current in amps
Isc = short-circuit fault current in amps,
Usc = short-circuit impedance voltage of the
transformer in %.
Typical values of Usc for distribution
transformers are given in the table H1-32.
Example:
400 kVA transformer, 242/420 V at no load
Usc = 4%
In = 400 x 103 = 550 A
÷ex 420
550 x 100
Isc = = 13.75 kA
4
c in practice Isc is slightly less than that
calculated by this method, as shown in the
following table (H1-33) since the HV system
impedance is such that its fault level at the
HV terminals of the transformer rarely
exceeds 500 MVA. A level of 250 MVA, or
less, is more common.
transformer rated power (kVA) 50 100 160 250 315 400 500 630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 2500
transformer current Ir (A) 69 137 220 344 433 550 687 866 1100 1375 1718 2199 2749 3437
oil-immersed transformer Isc (kA) Psc = 250 MVA 1.71 3.40 5.41 8.38 10.5 13.2 16.4 20.4 17.4 21.5 26.4 33.1 40.4 49.1
Psc = 500 MVA 1.71 3.42 5.45 8.49 10.7 13.5 16.8 21.0 17.9 22.2 27.5 34.8 43.0 52.9
cast-resin transformer Isc (kA) Psc = 250 MVA 1.14 2.28 3.63 5.63 7.07 8.93 11.1 13.9 17.4 21.5 26.4 33.1 40.4 49.1
Psc = 500 MVA 1.14 2.28 3.65 5.68 7.14 9.04 11.3 14.1 17.9 22.2 27.5 34.8 43.0 52.9
tables H1-33: Isc at the LV terminals of 3-phase HV/LV transformers supplied from a HV system with a 3-phase fault level of 500 MVA, or
250 MVA.

the case of several transformers The choice of circuit breakers and

in parallel feeding a busbar incorporated protective devices against
short-circuit fault currents is described in
The value of fault current on an outgoing Chapter H2 Sub-clause 4.4.
circuit immediately downstream of the
busbars (figure H1-34) can be estimated as
the sum of the Isc from each transformer
calculated separately.
It is assumed that all transformers are
supplied from the same HV network, in which
case the values obtained from table H1-33
Isc1 Isc2 Isc3
when added together will give a slightly
higher fault-level value than would actually
occur. Isc1 + Isc2 + Isc3
Other factors which have not been taken into
account are the impedance of the busbars
and of the circuit breakers.
The conservative fault-current value obtained fig. H1-34.
however, is sufficiently accurate for basic
installation design purposes.

H1-20 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear

 H1
4.2 3-phase short-circuit current (Isc) at any point within a LV installation
In a 3-phase installation Isc at any point is
given by:
Isc = U20 (amps)
eZT
U20 = phase-to-phase voltage of the open-
circuited secondary windings of the power-
supply transformer(s).
ZT = total impedance per phase of the
installation upstream of the fault location
(in ohms).

method of calculating ZT
Each component of an installation (HV
network, transformer, cable, circuit breaker,
busbar, and so on...) is characterized by its
impedance Z, comprising an element of
resistance (R) and an inductive reactance Z
X
(X). It may be noted that capacitive
reactances are not important in short-circuit
current calculations.
The parameters R, X and Z are expressed in ϕ
ohms, and are related by the sides of a right- R
angled triangle, as shown in the impedance fig. H1-35: impedance diagram.
diagram of figure H1-35.
The method consists in dividing the network R1 R2 X1 X2
R3 = or for reactances X3 =
into convenient sections, and to calculate the R1 + R2 X1 + X2
R and X values for each. Combining two or more dissimilar circuits in
Where sections are connected in series in the parallel is (fortunately) seldom required in
network all the resistive elements in the normal radial-type installation networks and
section are added arithmetically; likewise for will not be demonstrated in the main text.
the reactances, to give RT and XT. The General methods for reducing impedances to
impedance (Z) for the combined sections a single equivalent impedance are given,
concerned is then calculated from however, in Appendix H1.
ZT = RT 2 + XT 2
Any two sections of the network which are
connected in parallel, can, if, predominantly
both resistive (or both inductive) be combined
to give a single equivalent resistance (or
reactance) as follows:
Let R1 and R2 be the two resistances
connected in parallel, then the equivalent
resistance R3 wil be given by:

determination of the impedance Psc = HV 3-phase short-circuit fault level,

of the HV network
c network upstream of the HV/LV
transformer (table H1-36)
The 3-phase short-circuit fault level in kA or in
MVA* is given by the power supply authority
concerned, from which an equivalent
impedance can be deduced.
A formula which makes this deduction and at
the same time converts the impedance to an
equivalent value at LV is given, as follows
Uo2
Zs = where:
Psc
Zs = impedance of the HV voltage network,
expessed in milli-ohms,
Uo = phase-to-phase no-load LV voltage,
expressed in volts.
expressed in kVA.
*Short-circuit MVA: eEL Isc where:
EL = phase-to-phase nominal system voltage expressed in
kV (r.m.s.).
Isc = 3-phase short-circuit current expressed in kA (r.m.s.).
The upstream (HV) resistance Ra is generally
found to be negligible compared with the
corresponding Xa, the latter then being taken
as the ohmic value for Za. If more accurate
calculations are necessary, Ra may be taken
to be equal to 0.15 Xa.
Table H1-36 gives values for Ra and Xa
corresponding to the most common HV*
short-circuit levels in public power-supply
networks, namely, 250 MVA and 500 MVA.
* up to 36 kV

Psc Uo (V) Ra (mΩ) Xa (mΩ)

250 MVA 420 0.106 0.71
500 MVA 420 0.053 0.353
table H1-36: the impedance of the HV network referred to the LV side of the HV/LV
transformer.

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H1-21

 4. short-circuit current calculations (continued)

H1
4.2. 3-phase short-circuit current (Isc) at any point within a LV installation (continued)
c transformers (table H1-37)
The impedance Ztr of a transformer, viewed
from the LV terminals, is given by the formula:
U22O Usc
Ztr = x milli-ohms where:
Pn 100
U2 o = open-circuit secondary phase-to-
phase voltage expressed in volts.
Pn = rating of the transformer (in kVA).
Usc = the short-circuit impedance voltage of
the transformer expressed in %.
The transformer windings resistance Rtr can
be derived from the total losses as follows:
Pcu x 103
Pcu = 3 In2 Rtr so that Rtr =
3 In2
in milli-ohms where
Pcu = total losses in watts.
In = nominal full-load current in amps.
Rtr = resistance of one phase of the
transformer in milli-ohms (the LV and
corresponding HV winding for one LV phase
are included in this resistance value).
Xtr = Ztr 2 − Rtr 2
For an approximate calculation Rtr may be
ignored since X ≈ Z in standard distribution-
type transformers.

transformer rated power kVA 50 100 160 250 315 400 500 630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 2500
oil-immersed transformer Usc % 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 6 6 6 6 6
Rtr mΩ 95.3 37.9 16.2 9.2 6.9 5.1 3.9 2.9 2.9 2.3 1.8 1.4 1.1 0.9
Xtr mΩ 104.1 59.5 41.0 26.7 21.3 16.9 13.6 10.8 12.9 10.3 8.3 6.5 5.2 4.1
Ztr mΩ 141.1 70.5 44.1 28.2 22.4 17.7 14.1 11.2 13.2 10.6 8.5 6.6 5.3 4.2
cast-resin transformer Usc % 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Rtr mΩ 33.5 18.6 10.7 8.2 6.1 4.6 3.5 2.6 1.9 1.5 1.1 0.8 0.6
Xtr mΩ 100.4 63.5 41.0 32.6 25.8 20.7 16.4 13.0 10.4 8.3 6.5 5.2 4.2
Ztr mΩ 105.8 66.2 42.4 33.6 26.5 21.2 16.8 13.3 10.6 8.4 6.6 5.3 4.2
table H1-37: resistance, reactance and impedance values for typical distribution transformers with HV windings i 20 kV.
c circuit breakers c motors
In LV circuits, the impedance of circuit At the instant of short-circuit, a running motor
breakers upstream of the fault location must will act (for a brief period) as a generator, and
be taken into account. The reactance value feed current into the fault.
conventionally assumed is 0.15 mΩ per CB, In general, this fault-current contribution may
while the resistance is neglected. be ignored. However, for more precise
c busbars calculation, particularly in the case of large
The resistance of busbars is generally motors and/or numerous smaller motors, the
negligible, so that the impedance is total contribution can be estimated from the
practically all reactive, and amounts to formula:
approximately 0.15 mΩ/metre* length for LV Iscm = 3.5 In from each motor
busbars (doubling the spacing between the i.e. 3.5 m In for m similar motors operating
bars increases the reactance by about 10% concurrently.
only). The motors concerned will be the 3-phase
* for 50 Hz systems, but 0.18 mΩ/metre length at 60 Hz. motors only; single-phase-motor contribution
being insignificant.
c circuit conductors For HV circuit breakers, the contribution from
The resistance of a conductor is given by the motors is often reduced to very low values at
formula: the instant of contact separation, and for that
ρx L reason is frequently ignored, but with low-
Rc = where
S inertia high-speed LV CBs* the value given in
ρ = the resistivity constant of the conductor the above formula is recommended.
material at the normal operating temperature Note: for circuit breaker fault-current making-
being: duty however, no account can be taken of
22.5 mΩ.mm2/m for copper, diminution of fault current contribution, and
36 mΩ.mm2/m for aluminium, each running motor will initially feed current
S = c.s.a. of conductor in mm2. into the fault at a level approaching its own
Cable reactance values can be obtained from starting current, i.e. 4 or 5 In.
the manufacturers. For c.s.a. of less than * and fuses
50 mm2 reactance may be ignored. In the
absence of other information, a value of c fault-arc resistance
0.08 mΩ/metre may be used (for 50 Hz Short-circuit faults generally form an arc
systems) or 0.096 mΩ/metre (for 60 Hz which has the properties of resistance. The
systems). For prefabricated bus-trunking and resistance is not stable and its average value
similar pre-wired ducting systems, the is low, but at low voltage this resistance is
manufacturer should be consulted. sufficient to reduce the fault-current to some
extent. Experience has shown that a
reduction of the order of 20% may be
expected. This phenomenon will effectively
ease the current-breaking duty of a CB, but
affords no relief for its fault-current making
duty.

H1-22 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear

 H1
recapitulation table
system elements considered resistance R in milli-ohms reactance X in milli-ohms
supply network Ra ≈ 0,15 U22 0
table H1-33 Xa Xa ≈ Za =
Psc
R can therefore be neglected in comparison with X
3
transformer Rtr = Pcu x 10
table H1-34 3In2
Ztr 2 − Rtr 2
Rtr = is often negligible compared to Xtr U2 Usc
avec Ztr = 2 0 x
for transformers > 100 kVA Pn 100
circuit breaker negligible XD = 0.15 mΩ/pole
busbars negligible for S > 200 mm2 in the formula XB = 0.15 mΩ/m
below:
R = ρ L (1)
S
circuit conductors (2) R = ρ L (1) cables : Xc = 0.08 mΩ/m
S
motors M
see Sub-clause 4.2 "motors"
(often negligible at LV))
three-phase short-circuit current in kA Isc = U2o
2 2
3 RT + XT
table H1-38: recapitulation table of impedances for different parts of a power-supply system.
U20: phase-to-phase no-load secondary RT : total resistance. XT: total reactance
voltage of HV/LV transformer (in volts). (1) ρ = resistivity at normal temperature of
Psc: 3-phase short-circuit power at HV conductors in service
terminals of the HV/LV transformers (in kVA). ρ = 22.5 milli-ohms x mm2/metre for copper
Pcu: 3-phase total losses of the HV/LV ρ = 36 milli-ohms x mm2/metre for aluminium.
transformer (in watts). (2) If there are several conductors in parallel
Pn: rating of the HV/LV transformer (in kVA). per phase, then divide the resistance of one
Usc: short-circuit impedance voltage of the conductor by the number of conductors. The
HV/LV transfomer (in %). reactance remains practically unchanged.
R (mΩ) X (mΩ) RT (mΩ) XT (mΩ) 420
Isc =
2 2
3 RT + XT
HV network 0.053 0.353
Psc = 500 MVA
transformer 2.35 10.34
20 kV/420 V
Pn = 1000 kVA
Usc = 6%
Pcu = 13.3 x 103 watts
single-core cables Rc = 22.5 x 5 Xc = 0.08 x 5 2.523 11.1
5 m copper 4 240
4 x 240 mm2/phase = 0.12 = 0.40 Isc1 = 21.3 kA
main RD = 0 XD = 0.15
circuit breaker
busbars RB = 0 XB = 1.5 2.523 12.75 Isc2 = 18.6 kA
10 m
three-core cable Rc = 22.5 x 100 Xc = 100 x 0.08
100 m 95
95 mm2 copper = 23.68 =8 26.2 20.75 Isc3 = 7.24 kA
three-core cable Rc = 22.5 x 20 Xc = 20 x 0.08
20 m 10
10 mm2 copper = 45 = 1.6 71.2 22.35 Isc4 = 3.24 kA
final circuits
table H1-39: example of short-circuit current calculations for a LV installation supplied at 400 V (nominal) from a 1,000 kVA HV/LV
transformer.

4.3 Isc at the receiving end of a feeder in terms of the Isc at its sending end
The following tables, derived by the "method
of composition" (mentioned in Chapter G
Sub-clause 5.2) give a rapid and sufficiently
accurate value of short-circuit current at a
point in a network, knowing:
c the value of short-circuit current upstream
of the point considered
c the length and composition of the circuit
between the point at which the short-circuit
current level is known, and the point at which
the level is to be determined.
It is then sufficient to select a circuit breaker with
an appropriate short-circuit fault rating
immediately above that indicated in the tables.
If more precise values are required, it is
possible to make a detailled calculation (see
Sub-Clause 4.2 above) or to use a software
package, such as Ecodial*.
In such a case, moreover, the possibility of
using the cascading technique should be
considered, in which the use of a current-
limiting circuit breaker at the upstream
position would allow all circuit breakers
downstream of the limiter to have a short-
circuit-current rating much lower than would
otherwise be necessary (see Chapter H2
Sub-clause 4.5).
* a Merlin Gerin product (see Chapter B, Clause 1,
Methodology).

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H1-23

 4. short-circuit current calculations (continued)

H1
4.3 Isc at the receiving end of a feeder in terms of the Isc at its sending end (continued)
copper c.s.a. of length of circuit (in metres)
230 V / phase
400 V conductors
(in mm2)
1.5 0.8 1 1.3 1.6 3
2.5 1 1.3 1.6 2.1 2.6 5
4 0.8 1.7 2.1 2.5 3.5 4 8.5
6 1.3 2.5 3 4 5 6.5 13
10 0.8 1.1 2.1 4 5.5 6.5 8.5 11 21
16 0.9 1 1.4 1.7 3.5 7 8.5 10 14 17 34
25 1 1.3 1.6 2.1 2.6 5 10 13 16 21 26 50
35 1.5 1.9 2.2 3 3.5 7.5 15 19 22 30 37 75
50 1.1 2.1 2.7 3 4 5.5 11 21 27 32 40 55 110
70 1.5 3 3.5 4.5 6 7.5 15 30 37 44 60 75 150
95 0.9 1 2 4 5 6 8 10 20 40 50 60 80 100 200
120 0.9 1 1.1 1.3 2.5 5 6.5 7.5 10 13 25 50 65 75 100 130 250
150 0.8 1 1.1 1.2 1.4 2.7 5.5 7 8 11 14 27 55 70 80 110 140 270
185 1 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.6 3 6.5 8 9.5 13 16 32 65 80 95 130 160 320
240 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 4 8 10 12 16 20 40 80 100 120 160 200 400
300 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.4 5 9.5 12 15 19 24 49 95 120 150 190 240
2 x 120 1.5 1.8 2 2.3 2.5 5.1 10 13 15 20 25 50 100 130 150 200 250
2 x 150 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.8 5.5 11 14 17 22 28 55 110 140 170 220 280
2 x 185 2 2.3 2.6 2.9 3.5 6.5 13 16 20 26 33 65 130 160 200 260 330
3 x 120 2.3 2.7 3 3.5 4 7.5 15 19 23 30 38 75 150 190 230 300 380
3 x 150 2.5 2.9 3.5 3.5 4 8 16 21 25 33 41 80 160 210 250 330 410
3 x 185 2.9 3.5 4 4.5 5 9.5 20 24 29 39 49 95 190 240 290 390
Isc upstream Isc downstream
(in kA) (in Ka)
100 94 94 93 92 91 83 71 67 63 56 50 33 20 17 14 11 9 5
90 85 85 84 83 83 76 66 62 58 52 47 32 20 16 14 11 9 4.5
80 76 76 75 75 74 69 61 57 54 49 44 31 19 16 14 11 9 4.5
70 67 67 66 66 65 61 55 52 49 45 41 29 18 16 14 11 5 4.5
60 58 58 57 57 57 54 48 46 44 41 38 27 18 15 13 10 8.5 4.5
50 49 48 48 48 48 46 42 40 39 36 33 25 17 14 13 10 8.5 4.5
40 39 39 39 39 39 37 35 33 32 30 29 22 15 13 12 9.5 8 4.5
35 34 34 34 34 34 33 31 30 29 27 26 21 15 13 11 9 8 4.5
30 30 29 29 29 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 19 14 12 11 9 7.5 4.5
25 25 25 25 24 24 24 23 22 22 21 20 17 13 11 10 8.5 7 4
20 20 20 20 20 20 19 19 18 18 17 17 14 11 10 9 7.5 6.5 4
15 15 15 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 13 13 12 9.5 8.5 8 7 6 4
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 9 8.5 7 6.5 6.5 5.5 5 3.5
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 6.5 6.5 6.5 6 5.5 5 5 4.5 4 2.9
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4.5 4 4 4 3.5 3.5 2.5
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3.5 3.5 3.5 3 3 2.9 2.2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3 1.9
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.7 1.4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8
aluminium c.s.a. of length of circuit (in metres)
230 V / phase
400 V conductors
(in mm2)
2.5 0.8 1 1.3 1.6 3
4 1 1.3 1.6 2.1 2.6 5
6 0.8 1.6 2 2.4 3 4 8
10 1.3 2.6 3.5 4 5.5 6.5 13
16 0.8 1.1 2.1 4 5.5 6.5 8.5 11 21
25 0.8 1 1.3 1.7 3.5 6.5 8.5 10 13 17 33
35 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.8 2.3 4.5 9 12 14 18 23 46
50 1.3 1.7 2 2.6 3.5 6.5 13 17 20 26 33 65
70 0.9 1.8 2.3 2.8 3.5 4.5 9 18 23 28 37 46 90
95 1.3 2.5 3 4 5 6.5 13 25 32 38 50 65 130
120 0.8 1.7 3 4 4.5 6.5 8 17 32 40 47 65 80 160
150 0.9 1.7 3.5 4.5 5 7 8.5 17 34 43 50 70 85 170
185 0.9 1 2 4 5 6 8 10 20 40 50 60 80 100 240
240 0.9 1 1.1 1.3 2.5 5 6.5 7.5 10 13 25 50 65 75 100 130 250
300 0.9 1 1.2 1.4 1.5 3 6 7.5 9 12 15 30 60 75 90 120 150 300
2 x 120 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.6 3 6.5 8 9.5 13 16 32 65 80 95 130 160 320
2 x 150 1 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 3.5 7 9 10 14 17 35 70 85 100 140 170
2 x 185 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 4.1 8 10 12 16 20 41 80 100 120 160 200
2 x 240 1.5 1.8 2 2.3 2.5 5 10 13 15 20 25 50 100 130 150 200 250
3 x 120 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.4 4.5 9.5 12 14 19 24 48 95 120 140 190 240
3 x 150 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.3 2.6 5 10 13 15 21 26 50 100 130 150 210 260
3 x 185 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3 6 12 15 18 24 30 60 120 150 180 240 300
3 x 240 2.3 2.7 3 3.5 4 7.5 15 19 23 30 38 75 150 190 230 300 380
table H1-40: Isc at a point downstream, in terms of a known upstream fault-current value and the length and c.s.a. of the intervening
conductors, in a 230/400 V 3-phase system.
Note: for a 3-phase system having 230 V between phases, divide the above lengths by e= 1.732

H1-24 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear

 H1
Example:
The network shown in figure H1-41 typifies a
400 V
case for the application of table H1-40. Icc = 28 kA
Select the c.s.a. of the conductor in the
column for copper conductors (in this
example the c.s.a. is 50 mm2).
Search along the row corresponding to
50 mm2 for the length of conductor equal to
that of the circuit concerned (or the nearest
possible on the low side). Descend vertically 50 mm2, Cu
the column in which the length is located, and 11 m
stop at a row in the middle section (of the
3 sections of the table) corresponding to the Icc = ?
known fault-current level (or the nearest to it
on the high side).
In this case 30 kA is the nearest to 28 kA on
the high side. The value of short-circuit IB = 55 A IB = 160 A
current at the downstream end of the
11 metre circuit is given at the intersection of fig. H1-41: determination of downstream
the vertical column in which the length is short-circuit current level Isc using table
located, and the horizontal row corresponding H1-40.
to the upstream Isc (or nearest to it on the
high side).
This value in the example is seen to be
19 kA.
The procedure for aluminium conductors is
similar, but the vertical column must be
ascended into the middle section of the table.
In consequence, a DIN-rail-mounted circuit
breaker rated at 63 A and Isc of 50 kA (such
as a NC100LH unit*) can be used for the
55 A circuit in figure H1-41.
A Compact* rated at 260 A with an Isc
capacity of 25 kA (such as a NS160N unit*)
can be used to protect the 160 A circuit.
* Merlin Gerin product.

4.4 short-circuit current supplied by an alternator or an inverter

Please refer to Chapter J.

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H1-25

 5. particular cases of short-circuit current

H1
5.1 calculation of minimum levels of short-circuit current
if a protective device in a circuit is
intended only to protect against
short-circuit faults, it is essential that
it will operate with certainty at the
lowest possible level of short-circuit
current that can occur on the circuit.
In general, on LV circuits, a single protective In certain cases, however, overload protective
device protects against all levels of current, devices and separate short-circuit protective
from the overload threshold through the devices are used.
maximum rated short-circuit current-breaking
capability of the device.
examples of such arrangements
Figures H1-42 to H1-44 show some common aM fuses
(no protection
arrangements where overload and short- against overload)
circuit protections are effected by separate
devices.
As shown in figures H1-42 and H1-43, the
most common circuits using separate devices
control and protect motors.
Figure H1-44 constitutes a derogation in the load-breaking
basic protection rules, and is generally used contactor with thermal
on circuits of prefabricated bustrunking, overload relay
lighting rails, etc.

fig. H1-42: circuit protected by aM fuses.

circuit breaker
with instantaneous
magnetic short-circuit
protective relay only

load-breaking
contactor with thermal
overload relay

fig. H1-43: circuit protected by circuit

breaker without thermal overload relay.

circuit breaker D

S1

S2 < S1
load with
incorporated
overload
protection
fig. H1-44: circuit breaker D provides
protection against short-circuit faults as
far as and including the load.

H1-26 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear


it is necessary that the protective
device instantaneous-trip setting
c Im < Isc (min)
for protection by a circuit breaker;
or fusion current
c Ia < Isc (min)
for protection by fuses.
in practice this means that the length
of circuit downstream of the
protective device must not exceed a
calculated maximum length:
Lmax = 0.8 x U x Sph
2 x ρ x Im
i f
H1
conditions to be respected t
The protective device must therefore satisfy
the two following conditions:
c its fault-current breaking rating > Isc the
3-phase short-circuit current at its point of
installation, k2 S2
c elimination of the minimum short-circuit t=
I2
current possible in the circuit, in a time tc
compatible with the thermal constraints of the
circuit conductors, where:
K2 S2 Im I
tc = (tc < 5 seconds)
Isc (min) fig. H1-45: protection by circuit breaker.
Comparison of the tripping or fusing
performance curve of protective devices, with t
the limit curves of thermal constraint for a
conductor shows that this condition is
satisfied if:
c Isc (min) > Im (instantaneous or short time-
delay circuit-breaker trip setting current level). k2 S2
See figure H1-45. t=
I2
c Isc (min) > Ia for protection by fuses. The
value of the current Ia corresponds to the
crossing point of the fuse curve and the cable
thermal withstand curve (figures H1-46 and Ia I
H1-47). fig. H1-46: protection by aM-type fuses.
t
k2 S2
t=
I2
Ia I
fig. H1-47: protection by gl-type fuses.
practical method of calculating
Lmax
The limiting effect of the impedance of long where ρ = resistivity of copper* at the average
circuit conductors on the value of short-circuit temperature during a short-circuit, and
currents must be checked and the length of a Sph : c.s.a. of a phase conductor in mm2
circuit must be restricted accordingly. L = length in metres
The method of calculating the maximum In order that the cable will not be damaged by
permitted length has already been heat Isc u Im
demonstrated in TN- and IT- earthed 2L Im
0.8 U u ρ or
schemes for single and double earth faults, Sph
respectively (see Chapter G Sub-clauses 5.2 0.8 U Sph
Lmax =
and 6.2). 2 ρ Im
Two cases are considered below: with: U = 400 V
1. calculation of Lmax for a 3-phase 3-wire ρ = 1.5 x 0.018 = 0.027 Ω.mm2/m**.
circuit Im = magnetic trip current setting for the CB
The minimum short-circuit current will occur Lmax = maximum circuit length in metres.
when two phase wires are short circuited at 5.926 Sph
Lmax =
the remote end of the circuit. Im
* or for aluminium according to conductor material
** the high value for resistivity is due to the elevated
temperature of the conductor when passing short-circuit
current.
P
load
0.8 U L
Using the "conventional method", the voltage
at the point of protection P is assumed to be
80% of the nominal voltage during a short-
circuit fault, so that 0.8 U = Isc Zd, where:
Zd = impedance of the fault loop
Isc = short-circuit current (ph/ph)
U = phase-to-phase nominal voltage.
For cables i 120 mm2, reactance may be
neglected, so that
2L
Zd = ρ
Sph
the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H1-27
 5. particular cases of short-circuit current (continued)

H1
5.1 calculation of minimum levels of short-circuit current (continued)
2. calculation of Lmax for a 3-phase 4-wire current density in the conductor (due to "skin"
230/400 V circuit and "proximity" effects, previously noted in
The minimum Isc will occur when the short- Chapter G Sub-clause 5.2).
circuit is between a phase conductor and the Suitable values (taken from French standard
neutral. NF 15-100) are as follows:
A calculation similar to that of example 1 150 mm2 : R + 15%
above is required, but using the following 185 mm2 : R + 20%
formulae (for cable i 120 mm2 (1)). 240 mm2 : R + 25%
c where Sn for the neutral conductor = Sph 300 mm2 : R + 30%
for the phase conductor where R is the value calculated from
Sph ρ 2L
Lmax = 3,421 R=
Im Sph
c If Sn for the neutral conductor < Sph, then For larger c.s.a.'s than those listed, reactance
6,842 Sph Sph values must be combined with those of
Lmax = where m =
(1+m) Im Sn resistance to give an impedance. Reactance
(1) for larger c.s.a.'s, the resistance may be taken as 0.08mΩ/metre for cables
calculated for the conductors must be (at 50 Hz). At 60Hz the constant is
increased to account for the non-uniform 0.096 mΩ/metre.

tabulated values for Lmax

Table H1-49 below gives maximum circuit
lengths (Lmax) in metres, for:
c 3-phase 3-wire 400 V circuits (i.e. without
neutral) and
c 1-phase 2-wire 400 V circuits, without
neutral, protected by general-purpose circuit
breakers.
In other cases, apply correction factors (given
in table H1-53) to the lengths obtained.
The calculations are based on the foregoing
methods, with Im = 1.2 Irm
Irm = regulated short-circuit current trip
setting. Irm is guaranteed to be within ± 20%
of the regulated value; hence the worst-case
factor of 1.2 (i.e. 120%).
Refer to Chapter H2 Sub-clause 4.2 for
details of regulation of circuit-breaker
protective elements.

operating current c.s.a. (nominal cross-sectional-area) of conductors (in mm2)

level Im of the
instantaneous
magnetic tripping
element
(in A) 1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25 35 50 70 95 120 150 185 240
50 148 246 394
63 117 195 313 470
80 92 154 246 370
100 74 123 197 296 493
125 59 99 158 237 395
160 46 77 123 185 308 494
200 37 62 99 148 247 395
250 30 49 79 118 197 316 494
320 23 38 62 92 154 247 386
400 18 31 49 74 123 197 308 432
500 15 25 39 59 99 158 247 345 494
560 13 22 35 53 88 141 220 308 441
630 12 19 31 47 78 125 196 274 392
700 11 18 28 42 70 113 176 247 353 494
800 9 15 25 37 61 98 154 215 308 432
875 8 14 22 34 56 90 141 197 282 395
1000 7 12 20 30 49 79 123 173 247 345 469
1120 6 11 17 26 44 70 110 154 220 308 419
1250 6 10 16 24 39 63 99 138 197 276 375 474
1600 7 12 18 31 49 77 108 154 216 293 370 532
2000 6 10 15 24 39 62 86 123 173 234 296 425 570
2500 8 12 20 31 49 69 99 138 188 237 340 438 592
3200 6 9 15 25 38 54 77 108 146 185 265 340 462
4000 7 12 20 31 43 62 86 117 148 212 273 370
5000 6 10 16 25 34 49 69 94 118 170 218 296
6300 8 12 20 27 39 55 74 94 134 175 235
8000 6 10 15 21 31 43 59 74 105 136 185
10000 8 12 17 25 35 47 59 85 109 147
12500 6 10 14 20 28 37 47 67 87 118
table H1-49: maximum circuit lengths in metres for copper conductors (for aluminium, the lengths must be multiplied by 0.62).

H1-28 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear

 H1
Tables H1-50 to H1-52 below give maximum according to the method described above,
circuit length (Lmax) in metres for: again, with Im = 1.2 Irm as previously noted.
c 3-phase 3-wire 400 V circuits (i.e. without These circuit breakers have fixed overload
neutral) and (thermal) tripping elements and fixed short-
c 1-phase 2-wire 400 V circuits, without circuit (magnetic) tripping elements.
neutral, Categories B, C and D differ only in the levels
protected in both cases by domestic-type of short-circuit-current trip setting Im.
circuit breakers or with circuit breakers having IEC 898 is the relevant international standard
similar tripping/current characteristics. for these circuit breakers.
In other cases, apply correction factors to the See also table H2-28 for tripping ranges.
lengths indicated. These factors are given in
table H1-53. The calculations are carried out
rated current cross-sectional-area (c.s.a.) of conductors (in mm2)
of circuit
breakers
(in A) 1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25 35 50
6 296 494 790
10 178 296 474 711
13 137 228 385 547 912
16 111 185 296 444 741
20 89 148 237 356 593 948
25 71 119 190 284 474 759
32 56 93 148 222 370 593 926
40 44 74 119 178 296 474 741
50 36 59 95 142 237 379 593 830
63 28 47 75 113 188 301 470 658 854
80 22 37 59 89 148 237 370 519 704
100 18 30 47 71 119 190 296 415 563
125 14 24 38 57 95 152 237 331 450
table H1-50: maximum length of copper-conductored circuits in metres protected by
B-type circuit breakers.

rated current cross-sectional-area (c.s.a.) of conductors (in mm2)

of circuit
breakers
(in A) 1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25 35 50
6 148 247 395 593 988
10 89 148 237 356 593 948
13 68 114 182 274 456 729
16 56 93 148 222 370 593 926
20 44 74 119 178 296 474 741
25 36 59 95 142 237 379 593 830
32 28 46 74 111 185 296 463 648 880
40 22 37 59 89 148 237 370 519 704
50 18 30 47 71 119 190 296 415 563
63 14 24 38 56 94 150 235 329 446
80 11 19 30 44 74 119 185 259 351
100 9 15 24 36 59 95 148 207 281
125 7 12 19 28 47 76 119 166 225
table H1-51: maximum length of copper-conductored circuits in metres protected by
C-type circuit breakers.

rated current cross-sectional-area (c.s.a.) of conductors (in mm2)

of circuit
breakers
(in A) 1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25 35 50
6 105 176 283 423 706 1129
10 63 105 170 254 423 639 1058
13 48 81 130 195 325 521 814 1140
16 40 65 105 158 264 422 661 925 1255
20 32 52 84 126 211 337 528 740 1004
25 25 41 67 101 169 270 423 592 803
32 20 32 52 79 132 211 330 462 627
40 16 26 42 63 105 168 264 370 502
50 12 20 33 50 84 135 211 296 401
63 10 16 26 40 67 107 167 234 318
80 8 13 21 31 52 84 132 185 251
100 6 10 16 25 42 67 105 148 200
125 5 8 13 20 33 54 84 118 160
table H1-52: maximum length of copper-conductored circuits in metres protected by
D-type circuit breakers (Merlin Gerin).
Note: IEC 898 provides for an upper short- based on a range of 10-20 In, a range which
circuit-current tripping range of 10-50 In for covers the vast majority of domestic and
type D circuit breakers. European standards, similar installations.
and the above table H1-52 however, are

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H1-29

 5. particular cases of short-circuit current (continued)

H1
5.1 calculation of minimum levels of short-circuit current (continued)
circuit details Sph =1 Sph =2
S neutral S neutral
3-phase 3-wire or 1 ph 2-wire 1
400 V circuit 400V circuit (no neutral)
3-phase 4-wire or 2 ph 3-wire 0.58 0.39 (1)
230/400 V circuit 230/400 V circuit
(i.e. with neutral)
1-phase 2-wire 0.58
(phase and neutral)
230 V circuit
table H1-53: correction factors to apply to lengths obtained from tables H1-49 to H1-52.
(1) 0.77 for the c.s.a. of the neutral conductor.

examples
Example 1
In a 3-phase 3-wire installation the protection
is provided by a 250 A industrial-type circuit
breaker, the instantaneous short-circuit-
current trip setting of which, is set at
2,000 A (accuracy of ± 20%), i.e. in the worst
case would require 2,000 x 1,2 = 2,400 A to
trip. The cable c.s.a. = 120 mm2 and the
conductor material is copper.
In table H1-49, the row Im = 2,000 A crosses
the column c.s.a. = 120 mm2 at the value for
Lmax of 296 m.
The circuit breaker protects the cable against
short-circuit faults, therefore, provided that its
length does not exceed 296 metres.
Example 2
In a single-phase 230 V (phase to neutral)
system, the protection is provided by a circuit
breaker with an instantaneous short-circuit-
current trip setting of 500 A (± 20%), i.e.
a worst case of 600 A to be certain of tripping.
The cable c.s.a. = 10 mm2 and the conductor
material is copper.
In table H1-49 the row Im = 500 A crosses
the column c.s.a. = 10 mm2 at the value for
Lmax of 99 m.
Being a 230 V single-phase circuit, a
correction factor from table H1-53 must be
applied. This factor is seen to be 0.58.
The circuit breaker will therefore protect the
cable against short-circuit current, provided
that its length does not exceed
99 x 0.58 = 57 metres.

H1-30 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear


5.2 verification of the withstand capabilities of cables under short-circuit conditions
in general verification of the
thermal-withstand capability of a
cable is not necessary, except in
cases where cables of small c.s.a.
are installed close to, or feeding
directly from, the main general
distribution board.
H1
thermal constraints The factor k2 is given in table H1-54 below,
When the duration of short-circuit current is and is abstracted from the French standards
brief (several tenths of a second up to five NF C 15-100.
seconds maximum) all of the heat produced The method of verification consists in
is assumed to remain in the conductor, checking that the thermal energy I2t per ohm
causing its temperature to rise. The heating of conductor material, allowed to pass by the
process is said to be adiabatic, an protecting circuit-breaker (from manufacturers
catalogues) is less than that permitted for the
assumption that simplifies the calculation and
gives a pessimistic result, i.e. a higher particular conductor (as given in table H1-55
conductor temperature than that which would below).
actually occur, since in practice, some heat
would leave the conductor and pass into the
insulation.
For a period of 5 seconds or less, the
relationship I2t = k2 S2 characterizes the time
in seconds during which a conductor of c.s.a.
S (in mm2) can be allowed to carry a current
I amps, before its temperature reaches a
level which would damage the surrounding
insulation.

insulation conductor conductor

copper (Cu) aluminium (Al)
PVC 13225 5776
PR 20449 8836
table H1-54: value of the constant k2.

S (mm2) PVC XLPE

copper aluminium copper aluminium
k 115 76 143 94
k2 13225 5776 20449 8836
1.5 0.0297 0.0130 0.0460 0.0199
2.5 0.0826 0.0361 0.1278 0.0552
4 0.2116 0.0924 0.3272 0.1414
6 0.4761 0.2079 0.7362 0.3181
10 1.3225 0.5776 2.0450 0.8836
16 3.3856 1.4786 5.2350 2.2620
25 8.2656 3.6100 12.7806 5.5225
35 16.2006 7.0756 25.0500 10.8241
50 29.839 13.032 46.133 19.936
table H1-55: maximum allowable thermal stress for cables
(expressed in amperes2 x seconds x 106).
Example:
Is a copper-cored XLPE cable of 4 mm2 c.s.a.
adequately protected by a C60N circuit
breaker (Merlin Gerin)?
The above table shows that the I2t value for
the cable is 0.3272 x 106, while the maximum
"let-through" value by the circuit breaker, as
given in the manufacturer's catalogue, is
considerably less, and amounts to
0.094 x 106 ampere2-seconds.
The cable is therefore adequately protected
by the circuit breaker up to its full rated
breaking capability.

electrodynamic constraints
For bus-trunking and other kinds of
prefabricated pre-conductored channels,
rails, etc. it is necessary to verify that the
electrodynamic withstand performance when
carrying short-circuit currents is satisfactory.
The peak value of current, limited by the
circuit breaker or fuse, must be less than that
for which the pre-conductored system is
rated.
Tables of coordination ensuring adequate
protection of their products are generally
published by the manufacturers of such
systems.

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H1-31

 6. protective earthing conductors (PE)

H1
6.1 connection and choice Protective (PE) conductors provide the
bonding connection between all exposed and
connection, choice and dimensioning extraneous conductive parts of an installation,
to create the main equipotential bonding
of PE conductors (extracted from system. These conductors conduct fault
IEC standards and the French current due to insulation failure (between a
standard NF C 15-100) phase conductor and an exposed conductive
part) to the earthed neutral of the source. P.E.
conductors are connected to the main
earthing terminal of the installation.
The main earthing terminal is connected to
the earthing electrode (see Chapter F) by the
earthing conductor (grounding electrode
conductor in USA).
PE conductors must be:
c insulated and coloured yellow and green
(stripes);
c be protected against mechanical and
chemical damage.
In IT and TN-earthed schemes it is strongly
recommended that PE conductors should be
installed in close proximity (i.e. in the same
conduits, on the same cable tray, etc.) as the
live cables of the related circuit. This
arrangement ensures the minimum possible
inductive reactance in the earth-fault current-
carrying circuits.

connection PE
PE conductors must:
c not include any means of breaking the
continuity of the circuit (such as a switch,
removable links, etc.);
c connect exposed conductive parts
individually to the main PE conductor, i.e. correct
in parallel, not in series, as shown in figure
H1-56; PE
c have an individual terminal on common
earthing bars in distribution boards.
TT scheme
The PE conductor need not necessarily be
installed in close proximity to the live
conductors of the corresponding circuit, since
high values of earth-fault current are not incorrect
needed to operate the RCD-type of protection fig. H1-56: a poor connection in a series
used in TT installations. arrangement will leave all downstream
IT and TN schemes appliances unprotected.
The PE or PEN conductor, as previously
noted, must be installed as close by as PEN
possible to the corresponding live conductors
of the circuit and no ferro-magnetic material
must be interposed between them. A PEN
conductor must always be connected directly
to the earth terminal of an appliance, with a
looped connection from the earth terminal to
the neutral terminal of the appliance
(figure H1-57). fig. H1-57: direct connection of the PEN
c TN-C scheme (the neutral and PE conductor to the earth terminal of an
conductor are one and the same, referred to appliance.
as a PEN conductor). The protective function PEN PE
of a PEN conductor has priority, so that all
rules governing PE conductors apply strictly
to PEN conductors; N
c TN-C to TN-S transition
fig. H1-58: the TN-C-S scheme.
The PE conductor for the installlation is
connected to the PEN terminal or bar
(figure H1-58) generally at the origin of the
installation. Downstream of the point of
separation, no PE conductor can be
connected to the neutral conductor.

H1-32 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear

 H1
types of materials
Materials of the kinds mentioned below in
table H1-59 can be used for PE conductors,
provided that the conditions mentioned in the
last column are satisfied.

type of protective earthing IT scheme TN scheme TT scheme conditions to be

conductor (PE) respected
supplementary in the same strongly strongly correct the PE conductor must
conductor cable as the recommended recommended be insulated to
phases, or in the the same level
same cable run as the phases
independent of the possible (1) possible (1) (2) correct c the PE conductor may
phase conductors be bare or insulated (2)
c the electrical continuity
metallic housing of bus-trunking or of possible (3) PE possible (3) correct must be assured by
other prefabricated prewired ducting (5) PEN (8) protection against
external sheath of extruded, mineral- insulated possible (3) PE possible (3) possible deterioration by
conductors (e.g. "pyrotenax" type systems) PEN not mechanical, chemical and
recommended (2) (3) electrochemical hazards
certain extraneous conductive elements (6) possible (4) PE possible (4) possible c their conductance
such as: PEN forbidden must be adequate
c steel building structures
c machine frames
c water pipes (7)
metallic cable ways, such as, conduits*, ducts, possible (4)
PE possible (4) possible
trunking, trays, ladders, and so on… PEN not
recommended (2) (4)
forbidden for use as PE conductors, are: metal conduits*, gas pipes, hot-water pipes, cable-armouring tapes* or wires*.
* forbidden in some countries only-universally allowed to be used for supplementary equipotential conductors.
table H1-59: choice of protective conductors (PE).
(1) In schemes TN and IT, fault clearance is loop impedance.
generally effected by overcurrent devices (4) Possible, but not recomended, since the
(fuses or circuit breakers) so that the impedance of the earth-fault loop cannot be
impedance of the fault-current loop must be known at the design stage. Measurements on
sufficiently low to assure positive protective the completed installation are the only
device operation. The surest means of practical means of assuring adequate
achieving a low loop impedance is to use a protection for persons.
supplementary core in the same cable as the (5) It must allow the connection of other PE
circuit conductors (or taking the same route conductors.
as the circuit conductors). This stratagem NB: these elements must carry an indivual
minimizes the inductive reactance and green/yellow striped visual indication, 15 to
therefore the impedance of the loop. 100 mm long (or the letters PE at less than
(2) The PEN conductor is a neutral conductor 15 cm from each extremity).
that is also used as a protective earth (6) These elements must be demountable
conductor. This means that a current may be only if other means have been provided to
flowing through it at any time (in the absence ensure uninterrupted continuity of protection.
of an earth fault). For this reason an insulated (7) With the agreement of the appropriate
conductor is recommended for PEN water authorities.
operation. (8) In the prefabricated pre-wired trunking
(3) The manufacturer provides the necessary and similar elements, the metallic housing
values of R and X components of the may be used as a PEN conductor, in parallel
impedances (phase/PE, phase/PEN) to with the corresponding bar, or other PE
include in the calculation of the earth-fault conductor in the housing.

6.2 conductor dimensioning

Table H1-60 below is based on the French
national standard NF C 15-100 for LV
installations. This table provides two methods
of determining the appropriate c.s.a. for both
PE or PEN conductors, and also for the
conductor to the earth electrode.
The two methods are:
c adiabatic (which corresponds with that
described in IEC 724)
This method, while being economical and
assuring protection of the conductor against
overheating, leads to small c.s.a.'s compared
to those of the corresponding-circuit phase
conductors. The result is sometimes
incompatible with the necessity in IT and TN
schemes to minimize the impedance of the
circuit earth-fault loop, to ensure positive
operation by instantaneous overcurrent
tripping devices. This method is used in
practice, therefore, for TT installations, and
for dimensioning an earthing conductor*.
c simplified
This method is based on PE conductor sizes
being related to those of the corresponding-
circuit phase conductors, assuming that the
same conductor material is used in each
case.
Thus, in table H1-60 for:
Sph i 16 mm2 SPE = Sph
16 < Sph i 35 mm2 SPE = 16 mm2
Sph > 35 mm2 SPE = Sph/2
c note: when, in a TT scheme, the
installation earth electrode is beyond the
zone of influence of the source earthing
electrode, the c.s.a. of the PE conductor can
be limited to 25 mm2 (for copper) or 35 mm2
(for aluminium).
* grounding electrode conductor.

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H1-33

 6. protective earthing conductors (PE) (continued)

H1
6.2 conductor dimensioning (continued)
The neutral cannot be used as a PEN
conductor unless its c.s.a. is equal to or
larger than 10 mm2 (copper) or 16 mm2
(aluminium).
Moreover, a PEN conductor is not allowed in
a flexible cable. Since a PEN conductor
functions also as a neutral conductor, its
c.s.a. cannot, in any case, be less than that
necessary for the neutral, as discuss in Sub-
clause 7.1 of this Chapter.
This c.s.a. cannot be less than that of the
phase conductors unless:
c the kVA rating of single-phase loads is less
than 10% of the total kVA load, and
c Imax likely to pass through the neutral in
normal circumstances, is less than the
current permitted for the cable size selected.
Furthermore, protection of the neutral
conductor must be assured by the protective
devices provided for phase-conductor
protection (described in Sub-clause 7.2
of this Chapter).

c.s.a. of phase c.s.a. of c.s.a. of c.s.a. of earthing conductor between

conductors Sph (mm2) PE conductor PEN conductor the installation earth electrode
Cu Alu and the main earth terminal
simplified i 16 i 16 SPE = Sph (1) SPEN = Sph with minimum c when protected against mechanical
method 25 10/mm2 Cu, 16/mm2 Alu damage: S = I √t (2)
SPE = 16
25,35 35 SPEN = Sph/2 à Sph (3) with k
2 2
> 35 > 35 SPE = Sph/2 minimum 16/mm Cu, 25/mm Alu c without mechanical protection, but
SPE = I √t (1) (2)
adiabatic any size protected against corrosion by
method k impermeable cable sheath. Minimum
16 mm2 for copper or galvanized steel.
c without either of the above protections;
minimum of 25 mm2 for bare copper and
50 mm2 for bare galvanized steel.
table H1-60: minimum c.s.a.'s for PE conductors and earthing conductors (to the installation earth electrode).
(1) When the PE conductor is separated from the circuit phase conductors, the following
minimum values must be respected:
c 2.5 mm2 if the PE is mechanically protected
c 4 mm2 if the PE is not mechanically protected.
(2) Refer to table H1-55 for the application of this formula.
(3) According to the conditions prescribed in the introduction to this table.

values of factor k to be used in

the formulae (2)
These values are identical in several national The data presented in table H1-61 are those
standards, and the temperature rise ranges, most commonly needed for LV installation
together with factor k values and the upper design.
temperature limits for the different classes
of insulation, correspond with those published
in IEC 724 (1984).

k values nature of insulation

polyvinylchloride (PVC) cross-linked-polyethylene
(XLPE)
ethylene-propylene-rubber
(EPR)
final 160 250
temperature (°C)
insulated conductors initial temperature initial temperature
not incoporated in cables θ initial = 30 °C θ initial = 30 °C
or bare conductors
in contact with
cable jackets
copper 143 176
aluminium 95 116
steel 52 64
conductors of a initial temperature initial temperature
multi-core-cable θ initial = 30 °C θ initial = 30 °C
copper 115 143
aluminium 76 94
table H1-61: k factor values for LV PE conductors, commonly used in national standards
and complying with IEC 724.

H1-34 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear

 H1
6.3 protective conductor between the HV/LV transformer and the main general distribution
board (MGDB)
All phase and neutral conductors upstream of
these conductors must be
the main incoming circuit breaker controlling
dimensioned according to national and protecting the MGDB are protected by
practices. devices at the HV side of the transformer. PE
The conductors in question, together with the MGDB
PE conductor, must be dimensioned
accordingly. Dimensioning of the phase and main earth bar
neutral conductors from the transformer is for the LV installation
exemplified in Sub-clause 1.6 of this chapter
(for circuit C1 of the system illustrated in
fig. H1-8). fig. H1-62: PE conductor to the main earth
Recommended conductor sizes for bare and bar in the MGDB.
insulated PE conductors from the transformer
neutral point, shown in figure H1-62, are c the kinds of insulation and conductor
indicated below in table H1-63. The kVA materials.
rating to consider is the sum of all (if more If the HV protection is by fuses, then use the
than one) transformers connected to the 0.2 seconds columns.
MGDB. In IT schemes, if an overvoltage protection
The table indicates the c.s.a. of the device is installed (between the transformer
conductors in mm2 according to: neutral point and earth) the conductors for
c the nominal rating of the HV/LV connection of the device should also be
transformer(s) in kVA; dimensioned in the same way as that
c the fault-current clearance time by the HV described above for PE conductors.
protective devices, in seconds,
P conductor conductors conductors conductors
(kVA) material bare PVC-insulated XLPE-insulated
LV voltages copper t(s) 0.2 s 0.5 s - 0.2 s 0.5 s - 0.2 s 0.5 s -
127/ 230/ aluminium t(s) - 0.2 s 0.5 s - 0.2 s 0.5 s - 0.2 s 0.5 s
220 V 400 V
i 63 i 100 c.s.a. of PE 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25
100 160 conductors 25 25 35 25 25 50 25 25 35
125 200 SPE (mm2) 25 35 50 25 35 50 25 25 50
160 250 25 35 70 35 50 70 25 35 50
200 315 35 50 70 35 50 95 35 50 70
250 400 50 70 95 50 70 95 35 50 95
315 500 50 70 120 70 95 120 50 70 95
400 630 70 95 150 70 95 150 70 95 120
500 800 70 120 150 95 120 185 70 95 150
630 1000 95 120 185 95 120 185 70 120 150
800 1250 95 150 185 120 150 240 95 120 185
table H1-63: c.s.a. of PE conductor between the HV/LV transformer and the MGDB, in
terms of transformer ratings and fault-clearance times used in France.

6.4 equipotential conductor

The main equipotential conductor – between two exposed conductive parts,
This conductor must, in general, have a c.s.a. if SPE1 i SPE2
if SLS = SPE1
at least equal to a half of that of the largest
PE conductor, but in no case need exceed SPE1 SPE2
25 mm2 (copper) or 35 mm2 (aluminium) SLS
while its minimum c.s.a. is 6 mm2 (copper) or
10 mm2 (aluminium).
Supplementary equipotential conductor M1 M2
This conductor allows an exposed conductive
part which is remote from the nearest main – between an exposed conductive part
equipotential conductor (PE conductor) to be and a metallic structure
connected to a local protective conductor. Its S
SLS = PE
c.s.a. must be at least a half of that of the 2
SPE1
protective conductor to which it is connected.
SLS
If it connects two exposed conductive parts
(M1 and M2 in figure H1-64) its c.s.a. must be metal structures
at least equal to that of the smaller of the two (conduits, girders, …)
PE conductors (for M1 and M2). Equipotential M1
conductors which are not incorporated in a
cable, should be protected mechanically by (*) with a minimum of 2.5 mm2 for mechanically
conduits, ducting, etc. wherever possible. protected conductors ;
Other important uses for supplementary 4 mm2 for conductors not mechanically protected
copper equivalent
equipotential conductors concern the
reduction of the earth-fault-loop impedance, fig. H1-64: supplementary equipotential
particulary for indirect-contact protection conductors.
schemes in TN- or IT-earthed installations,
and in special locations with increased
electrical risk (IEC 364-4-41 refers).
the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H1-35
 7. the neutral conductor

H1
The c.s.a. and the protection of the neutral
conductor, apart from its current-carrying
requirement, depend on several factors,
namely:
c the type of earthing system, TT, TN, etc.;
c method of protection against indirect-
contact hazards according to the methods
described below.

7.1 dimensioning the neutral conductor

influence of the type of earthing
system
TT, TN-S and IT schemes
c single-phase circuits or those of c.s.a.
i 16 mm2 (copper) 25 mm2 (aluminium): the
c.s.a. of the neutral conductor must be equal
to that of the phases;
c three-phase circuits of c.s.a. > 16 mm2
copper or 25 mm2 aluminium:
the c.s.a. of the neutral may be chosen to be:
v equal to that of the phase conductors, or
v smaller, on condition that:
- the current likely to flow through the neutral
in normal conditions is less than the permitted
value Iz. The influence of triplen* harmonics
must be given particular consideration, as
previously noted in Chapter F Sub-clause
2.2, or:
- the single-phase power of the circuit is less
than 10% of the balanced 3-phase power of
the circuit, or:
- the neutral conductor is protected against
short-circuit, in accordance with the following
Sub-clause H1-7.2.
* the 3rd and multiples of the 3rd harmonic.
TN-C scheme
The same conditions apply in theory as those
mentioned above, but in practice, the neutral
conductor must not be open-circuited under
any circumstances since it constitutes a PE
as well as a neutral conductor (see table H1-
60 "c.s.a. of PEN conductor" column).
IT scheme
In general, it is not recommended to distribute
the neutral conductor, i.e. a 3-phase 3-wire
scheme is preferred.
When a 3-phase 4-wire installation is
necesssary, however, the conditions
described above for TT and TN-S schemes
are applicable.

7.2 protection of the neutral conductor

Table H1-65 summarizes the several possible
cases. The table has been based on French
national standards (NF C 15-100). The
following points however, should be
considered when referring to the table.
Circuit isolation
It is considered to be good practice that every
circuit be provided with the means for its
isolation.
Circuit breaking
Table H1-65 is based on circuit breakers,
which in the event of a fault, will open all
poles, including the neutral pole, i.e. the
circuit breakers are omnipolar. This table can
also be used for fuses able to emulate this
omnipolar opening.
The action can only be achieved with fuses in
an indirect way, in which the operation of one
or more fuses provokes a mechanical trip-out
of all poles of an associated series-connected
load-break switch.
The action is commonly caused by a striker-
pin which is projected by means of an
explosive cartridge (triggered by the blowing
fuse) against the switch tripping mechanism.
Reclosing of the switch however, must be
possible only when the used cartridge has
been replaced by a new one.
Protection against electric shocks
Table H1-65 takes into account the fact that
protection against indirect-contact dangers
depend either on 300 mA RCDs (TT system)
or on circuit breakers (TN and IT systems).

H1-36 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear

 H1
earthing systems
TT TN-C TN-S IT
reminder: protection by RCD provided by circuit according to the provided by circuit breakers
against indirect breakers or fuses with method of protection or fuses and one RCD at least
contact Ia (fuses) or Im (CB) chosen for each group of appliances
< Isc (min) connected to an earth
electrode (see figure G20)
protected circuit
1-phase P-N
phase/neutral

(C)

1-phase 2P (A) (A)

phase/phase

3-phase 3P
3-wire

3-phase 3P-N
4-wire Sn = Sph*

(C)
* Sn = c.s.a. of neutral conductor
Sph = c.s.a. of phase
3P-N
Sn < Sph

(B) (B) (C)

table H1-65: table of protection schemes for neutral conductors in different earthing systems.
thermal magnetic Symbol for overcurrent and short-circuit
tripping devices.
(A) authorized for TT and TN schemes if a
RCD is installed at the origin of the circuit or
upstream of it, and if no artificial neutral is
distributed downstream of its location.
(B) authorized for TT and TN schemes if the
neutral conductor is protected against short-
circuits by protective arrangements made for
the phases, and if the normal service current
is substantially less than the maximum
permissible for the neutral conductor
concerned.
(C) authorized for IT schemes in certain
conditions, viz: if the circuit breaker
controlling a number of homogeneous (i.e.
similar) final circuits, of which the ratio of the
extreme circuit ratings does not exceed 2,
and which are protected against a second
fault occurring elsewhere in the installation by
a RCD of sensitivity i 15% of that of the
calibration of the final circuit having the
smallest c.s.a.
Refer to example 2 for CB 5.

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H1-37

 7. the neutral conductor

H1
7.2 protection of the neutral conductor (continued)
examples N
Example 1: (figure H1-66) 4-pole CB
3-phase 4-wire circuit with 3 x 95 mm2 copper 3 - 250 A trip units
phase conductors and 1 x 50 mm2 copper 1 - 125 A
neutral conductor. The installation is
TT-earthed with RCD protection upstream.
Single-phase power of load: 70 kVA 50 mm2
(connected phase-neutral). Three-phase 3-phase power
3 x 95 mm2
power of load: 140 kVA. The condition of 140 kVA
single-phase power being < 10% of the
3-phase power delivered (Sub-clause 7.1 TT 1-phase power
and TN-S schemes) is not satisfied in this 70 kVA
case, since 70/140 = 50%. A reduced neutral
c.s.a. may however, be used, provided that it
is correctly protected. A suitable circuit
breaker for this purpose would be a 4-pole 3-phase 1-phase
loads loads
unit rated at 250 A with 3 trip units (1 for each
phase) set at 250 A and 1 trip unit (for the fig. H1-66: example 1.
neutral) set at 125 A. The operation of any
one (or more) of these tripping units will trip
all four poles of the circuit breaker.

Example 2: (fig. H1-67) Circuit breaker 5

An installation is IT-earthed with a distributed This arrangement corresponds with that
neutral (i.e. a 3-phase 4-wire system in which described in (C) of table H1-65 concerning a
the neutral is not earthed). This arrangement circuit breaker connected directly to, and
is not recommended, particularly for small or controlling the busbars from which a number
medium-sized installations, but it does of similar final circuits, (protected by 2-pole,
provide two levels of voltage, e.g. 230 V and 1-phase and neutral CBs) are supplied.
400 V. The interposition of a LV/LV Overcurrent tripping is provided on all out-
transformer in a 3-phase 3-wire IT scheme going CBs, but the 4-pole incoming CB (no 5)
(as shown in figure H1-8) is a preferred has only the (300 mA) RCD protection
method of obtaining the two levels of voltage, (mentioned in (C) of table H1-65) the
and in such a case, the neutral conductor magnetic core of which embraces all
may be earthed. 4 conductors.
Circuit breaker 1, 2 and 3 It may be noted that circuit breaker 12
As in example 1, the circuits protected by supplies a long lighting circuit, the neutral and
these CBs have a neutral conductor of 50% phase conductors of which have the same
of the c.s.a. of the phase conductors. The c.s.a. A 4-pole circuit breaker having 3
circuit breakers will therefore be 4-pole units, tripping devices is therefore suitable (1 device
with tripping devices similar to those per phase).
mentioned in example 1.
400 kVA
HV LV
2 single-core cables 120 mm2 per phase - 1 x 120 mm2 (neutral)

PE

compact NS250N compact NS400N

PIM 4-pole 4-pole
3d 250 A 3d 250 A
1d 125 A 1d 125 A

PE PE
3 x 120 mm2 3 x 185 mm2
+1 x 70 mm2 +1 x 95 mm2

NS100N NS100N C60N NS160N C60N NS160N NS80HMA NS160N

3-pole 4-pole 32 A 4-pole 4-pole 4-pole 3-pole 4-pole + MT100/160
3d 100 A 300 mA 4d 32 A 4d 125 A 4d 32 A 3d 125 A 3d 160 A
diff. HS diff. BS
4 PE 5 PE 7 300 mA 8 9 10 12 10 A
3 x 35 mm2 11
6
contactor
4 x 6 mm2 4 x 50 mm2 4 x 6 mm2 3 x 50 mm2 LC1 D63
N 4 x 70 mm2
PE thermal
PE
overload
relay

3 x 16 mm2
DPN DPN DPN DPN DPN
2 x 2.5 mm2

2 x 1.5 mm2

4 x 2.5 mm2
2 x 1.5 mm2

3d = 3 tripping units
4d = 4 tripping units outdoor
diff. HS = high-sensitivity differential tripping lighting
diff. BS = low-sensitivity differential tripping 30 kW
58 A
fig. H1-67: example 2.
H1-38 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear

Example 3: (figure H1-68)
TN-C/TN-S installation
Three-pole circuit breakers only must be
used for nos. 1, 2, 3 and 7, since no
switchgear of any kind must be included in
the combined protective and neutral
conductor (PEN) associated with them.
The total single-phase power of the load is
less than 10% of the 3-phase power, so that
the c.s.a. of the PEN conductor from the
source (i.e. circuit 1) may be half that of the
phase conductors of the circuit. The
protection against indirect contact for this
circuit (1) is provided by CB1 if the maximum
length of the circuit is less than Lmax (see
Chapter G Sub-clause 5.2).
For a 630 A CB, regulated to trip
instantaneously at a current level of 4 In
L max = 0.8 x 230 x 240 x 103
22.5 (1.25 + 2) x Ia
The 1.25 factor in the denominator is a 25%
increase in resistance for a 240 mm2 c.s.a.
conductor*, while Ia = 630 x 4 x 1.15 where
the factor 1.15 allows for the guaranteed
± 15% tolerance of the instantaneous
magnetic tripping element of the circuit
breaker (i.e. the worst case, requiring the
shortest Lmax).
Lmax = 208 metres.
* Chapter G Sub-clause 5.2
t
minimum
pre-arcing
time curve
fuse-blown
curve
4In x In
fig. H1-68: example 3.
H1
Section of the installation which is TN-S
connected (PE conductor and neutral
conductor separated at a point upstream)
Circuit breaker 4
c.s.a. neutral = c.s.a. phase, so that a tripping
device for the neutral current is not
necessary. A 4-pole circuit breaker with one
tripping device per phase is therefore
appropriate.
Circuit breaker 5
c.s.a. neutral = 50% c.s.a. phase, so that a
tripping device for the neutral is required.
A 4-pole circuit breaker with 3 tripping
devices (set at 160 A) for the phases, and
1 tripping device for the neutral (set at 80 A)
is required, as noted in (B) of table H1-65.
Circuit breaker 6
The protection of a circuit supplying socket
outlets, as mentioned frequently in earlier
Chapters, must include a RCD of high
sensitivity (generally of 30 mA).
Associated circuit breaker and contactor 8
This combination provides short-circuit
protection (circuit breaker) and overload
protection (thermal relays on contactor to suit
motor characteristics). The circuit breaker has
no thermal tripping devices, while the
contactor has three (one for each phase).
Circuit breaker 9
Controls and protects an extensive lighting
circuit, and since the phase and neutral
conductors have the same c.s.a. a 4-pole
circuit breaker is suitable, having 3 tripping
devices (1 for each phase).
the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H1-39
1. the basic functions of LV switchgear
the role of switchgear is that of:
c electrical protection;
c safe isolation from live parts;
c local or remote switching.
1.1 electrical protection
electrical protection assures:
c protection of circuit elements
against the thermal and mechanical
stresses of short-circuit currents;
c protection of persons in the event
of insulation failure;
c protection of appliances and
apparatus being supplied (e.g
motors, etc.).
1.2 isolation
a state of isolation clearly indicated
by an approved "fail-proof" indicator,
or the visible separation of contacts,
are both deemed to satisfy the
national standards of many
countries.
National and international standards define
the manner in which electric circuits of LV
installations must be realized, and the
capabilities and limitations of the various
switching devices which are collectively
referred to as switchgear.
The main functions of switchgear are:
c electrical protection;
c electrical isolation of sections of an
installation;
c local or remote switching.
These functions are summarized below in
table H2-1.
Electrical protection at low voltage is (apart
from fuses) normally incorporated in circuit
electrical protection isolation
against
overload currents - isolation clearly indicated
short-circuit currents by an authorized fail-proof
insulation failure mechanical indicator
- a gap or interposed insulating
barrier between the open
contacts, clearly visible.
table H2-1: basic functions of LV switchgear.
The aim is to avoid or to limit the destructive
or dangerous consequences of excessive
(short-circuit) currents, or those due to
overloading and insulation failure, and to
separate the defective circuit from the rest of
the installation.
A distinction is made between the protection
of:
c the elements of the installation (cables,
wires, switchgear…);
c persons and animals;
c equipment and appliances supplied from
the installation;
c the protection of circuits
(see chapter H1):
v against overload; a condition of excessive
current being drawn from a healthy
(unfaulted) installation,
v against short-circuit currents due to
complete failure of insulation between
conductors of different phases or (in TN
systems) between a phase and neutral (or
PE) conductor.
Protection in these cases is provided either
by fuses or circuit breaker, at the distribution
board from which the final circuit (i.e. the
The aim of isolation is to separate a circuit or
apparatus, or an item of plant (such as a
motor, etc.) from the remainder of a system
which is energized, in order that personnel
may carry out work on the isolated part in
perfect safety.
In principle, all circuits of an LV installation
shall have means to be isolated. In practice,
in order to maintain an optimum continuity of
service, it is preferred to provide a means of
isolation at the origin of each circuit.
An isolating device must fulfil the following
requirements:
c all poles of a circuit, including the neutral
(except where the neutral is a PEN
conductor) must be open (1);
H2
breakers, in the form of thermal-magnetic
devices and/or residual-current-operated
tripping devices (less-commonly, residual-
voltage-operated devices - acceptable to, but
not recommended by IEC).
In addition to those functions shown in table
H2-1, other functions, namely:
c over-voltage protection;
c under-voltage protection are provided by
specific devices (lightning and various other
types of voltage-surge arrester; relays
associated with: contactors, remotely-
controlled circuit breakers, and with combined
circuit breaker/isolators… and so on).
control
- functional switching
- emergency switching
- emergency stopping
- switching off for
mechanical maintenance
circuit to which the load is connected)
originates. Certain derogations to this rule are
authorized in some national standards, as
noted in chapter H1 sub-clause 1.4.
c the protection of persons against
insulation failures (see chapter G).
According to the system of earthing for the
installation (TN, TT or IT) the protection will
be provided by fuses or circuit breakers,
residual current devices, and/or permanent
monitoring of the insulation resistance of the
installation to earth.
c the protection of electric motors
(see chapter J clause 5) against overheating,
due, for example, to long term overloading;
stalled rotor; single-phasing, etc. Thermal
relays, specially designed to match the
particular characteristics of motors are used.
Such relays may, if required, also protect the
motor-circuit cable against overload. Short-
circuit protection is provided either by type
aM fuses or by a circuit breaker from which
the thermal (overload) protective element has
been removed, or otherwise made
inoperative.
c it must be provided with a means of locking
open with a key (e.g. by means of a padlock)
in order to avoid an unauthorized reclosure
by inadvertence;
c it must conform to a recognized national or
international standard (e.g. IEC 947-3)
concerning clearance between contacts,
creepage distances, overvoltage withstand
capability, etc. and also:
(1) the concurrent opening of all live conductors, while not
always obligatory, is however, strongly recommended (for
reasons of greater safety and facility of operation). The
neutral contact opens after the phase contacts, and closes
before them (IEC 947-1).
the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H2-1
 1. the basic functions of LV switchgear (continued)

H2
1.2 isolation (continued)
v verification that the contacts of the isolating Industrial LV switchgear which affords
device are, in fact, open. The verification may isolation when open is marked on the front
be: face by the symbol .
- either visual, where the device is suitably This symbol may be combined with those
designed to allow the contacts to be seen indicating other features where a device also
(some national standards impose this performs other functions as shown in figure
condition for an isolating device located at the H2-4.
origin of a LV installation supplied directly
from a HV/LV transformer),
- or mechanical, by means of an indicator fig. H2-3: symbol for a disconnector* also
solidly welded to the operating shaft of the commonly referred to as an isolator.
device. In this case the construction of the
device must be such that, in the eventuality
that the contacts become welded together in switch-disconnector*, also
referred to as a load-break
the closed position, the indicator cannot isolating switch
possibly indicate that it is in the open position.
v leakage currents. With the isolating device
open, leakage currents between the open
circuit breaker suitable
contacts of each phase must not exceed: for circuit isolation
- 0.5 mA for a new device,
fig. H2-4: symbols for circuit isolation
- 6.0 mA at the end of its useful life.
capability incorporated in other switching
v voltage-surge withstand capability, across
devices.
open contacts. The isolating device, when
open must withstand a 1.2/50 µs impulse, * IEC 617-7 and 947-3.
having a peak value of 5, 8 or 10 kV
according to its service voltage, as shown in Note. In this guide the terms "disconnector"
table H2-2. The device must satisfy these and "isolator" have the same meaning.
conditions for altitudes up to 2,000 metres.
Consequently, if tests are carried out at sea
level, the test values must be increased by
23% to take into account the effect of altitude.
See standard IEC 947 and the Note
immediately preceding table F-10.

service (nominal) impulse withstand

voltage peak voltage
(V) (kV)
230/400 5 kV
400/690 8 kV
1,000 10 kV
table H2-2: peak value of impulse voltage
according to normal service voltage of
test specimen.

1.3 switchgear control

switchgear-control functions allow
system operating personnel to
modify a loaded system at any
moment, according to requirements,
and include:
c functional control (routine
switching, etc.);
c emergency switching;
c maintenance operations on the
power system.
In broad terms "control" signifies any facility
for safely modifying a load-carrying power
system at all levels of an installation. The
functional control
This control relates to all switching operations
in normal service conditions for energizing or
de-energizing a part of a system or
installation, or an individual piece of
equipment, item of plant, etc.
Switchgear intended for such duty must be
installed at least:
c at the origin of any installation;
c at the final load circuit or circuits (one
switch may control several loads).
Marking (of the circuits being controlled) must
be clear and unambiguous.
In order to provide the maximum flexibility
and continuity of operation, particularly where
the switching device also constitutes the
protection (e.g. a circuit breaker or
switch-fuse) it is preferable to include a
switch at each level of distribution, i.e. on
operation of switchgear is an important part of
power-system control.
each outgoing way of all distribution and sub-
distribution boards.
The manœuvre may be:
c either manual (by means of an operating
lever on the switch) or;
c electric, by push-button on the switch or at
a remote location (load-shedding and re-
connection, for example).
These switches operate instantaneously (i.e.
with no deliberate delay), and those that
provide protection are invariably omni-polar*.
The main circuit breaker for the entire
installation, as well as any circuit breakers
used for change-over (from one source to
another) must be omni-polar units.
* one break in each phase and (where appropriate) one
break in the neutral (see table H1-65).

H2-2 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear


emergency switching -
emergency stop
An emergency switching is intended to
de-energize a live circuit which is, or could
become, dangerous (electric shock or fire).
An emergency stop is intended to arrest a
movement which has become dangerous. In
the two cases:
c the emergency control device or its means
of operation (local or at remote location(s))
such as a large red mushroom-headed
emergency-stop pushbutton must be
recognizable and readily accessible, in
proximity to any position at which danger
could arise or be seen;
c a single action must result in a complete
switching-off of all live conductors (1) (2);
H2
c a "break glass" emergency switching
initiation device is authorized, but in
unmanned installations the re-energizing of
the circuit can only be achieved by means of
a key held by an authorized person.
It should be noted that in certain cases, an
emergency system of braking, may require
that the auxiliary supply to the braking-system
circuits be maintained until final stoppage of
the machinery.
(1) Taking into account stalled motors.
(2) In a TN schema the PEN conductor must never be
opened, since it functions as a protective earthing wire as
well as the system neutral conductor.

switching-off for mechanical

maintenance work
This operation assures the stopping of a
machine and its impossibility to be
inadvertently restarted while mechanical
maintenance work is being carried out on the
driven machinery. The shutdown is generally
carried out at the functional switching device,
with the use of a suitable safety lock and
warning notice at the switch mechanism.

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H2-3

 2. the switchgear and fusegear

H2
2.1 elementary switching devices
disconnector (or isolator)
This switch is a manually-operated, lockable,
two-position device (open/closed) which
provides safe isolation of a circuit when
locked in the open position. Its characteristics
are defined in IEC 947-3. fig. H2-5: symbol for a disconnector
A disconnector is not designed to make or to (or isolator).
break current* and no rated values for these
functions are given in standards. It must,
however, be capable of withstanding the
passage of short-circuit currents and is
assigned a rated short-time withstand
capability; generally for 1 second, unless
otherwise agreed between user and
manufacturer. This capability is normally
more than adequate for longer periods of
(lower-valued) operational overcurrents, such
as those of motor-starting.
Standardized mechanical-endurance,
overvoltage, and leakage-current tests, must
also be satisfied.
* i.e. a LV disconnector is essentially a dead-
system switching device to be operated with
no voltage on either side of it, particularly
when closing, because of the possibility of an
unsuspected short-circuit on the downstream
side. Interlocking with an upstream switch or
circuit breaker is frequently used.

load-breaking switch
This control switch is generally operated
manually (but is sometimes provided with
electrical tripping for operator convenience)
and is a non-automatic two-position device
(open/closed).
It is used to close and open loaded circuits
under normal unfaulted circuit conditions.
It does not consequently, provide any
protection for the circuit it controls.
IEC standard 947-3 defines:
c the frequency of switch operation
(600 close/open cycles per hour maximum);
c mechanical and electrical endurance
(generally less than that of a contactor);
c current making and breaking ratings for
normal and infrequent situations.
IEC 947-3 also recognizes 3 categories of
load-breaking switch, each of which is
suitable for a different range of load power
factors, as shown in table H2-7.

fig. H2-6: symbol for a load-breaking

switch.
When closing a switch to energize a circuit
there is always the possibility that an
(unsuspected) short circuit exists on the
circuit. For this reason, load-break switches
are assigned a fault-current making rating,
i.e. successful closure against the
electrodynamic forces of short-circuit current
is assured. Such switches are commonly
referred to as "fault-make load-break"
switches.
Upstream protective devices are relied upon
to clear the short-circuit fault.

H2-4 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear

 H2
nature utilization category typical applications
of frequent infrequent
current operation operation
alternating AC-20A AC-20B connecting and disconnecting
current under no-load conditions
AC-21A AC-21B switching of resistive loads
including moderate overloads
AC-22A AC-22B switching of mixed resistive
and inductive loads, including
moderate overloads
AC-23A AC-23B switching of motor loads or
other highly inductive loads
table H2-7: utilization categories of LV a.c. switches according to IEC 947-3.
Category AC-23 includes occasional
switching of individual motors. The switching
of capacitors or of tungsten filament lamps
shall be subject to agreement between
manufacturer and user.
The utilization categories referred to in table
H2-7 do not apply to an equipment normally
used to start, accelerate and/or stop
individual motors. The utilization categories
for such an equipment are dealt with in
chapter J, table J5-4.
Example:
A 100 A load-break switch of category AC-23
(inductive load) must be able:
c to make a current of 10 In (= 1,000 A) at a
power factor of 0.35 lagging;
c to break a current of 8 In (= 800 A) at a
power factor of 0.35 lagging;
c to withstand short-circuit currents (not less
than 12 In) passing through it for 1 second,
where 12 In equals the r.m.s. value of the a.c.
component, while the peak value (expressed
in kA) is given by a factor "n" in table XVI of
IEC 947- Part 1, reproduced below for reader
convenience (table H2-8).

test current I power-factor time-constant n

(A) (ms)
I i 01 500 0.95 5 1.41
1 500 < I i 3 000 0.9 5 1.42
3 000 < I i 4 500 0.8 5 1.47
4 500 < I i 6 000 0.7 5 1.53
6 000 < I i 10 000 0.5 5 1.7
10 000 < I i 20 000 0.3 10 2.0
20 000 < I i 50 000 0.25 15 2.1
50 000 < I 0.2 15 2.2
table H2-8: factor "n" used for peak-to-rms value (IEC 947-part1).

bistable switch (télérupteur)

This device is extensively used in the control
of lighting circuits where the depression of a
pushbutton (at a remote control position) will
open an already-closed switch or close an
open switch in a bistable sequence. fig. H2-9: symbol for a bistable remotely-
Typical applications are: operated switch (télérupteur).
c two-way switching on stairways of large
buildings;
c stage-lighting schemes;
c factory illumination, etc.
Auxiliary devices are available to provide:
c remote indication of its state at any instant;
c time-delay functions;
c maintained-contact features.

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H2-5

 2. the switchgear and fusegear (continued)
H2
2.1 elementary switching devices (continued)
two classes of LV cartridge fuse are
very widely used:
c for domestic and similar
installations type gG
c for industrial installations type gG,
gM or aM.
H2-6 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear
contactor
The contactor is a solenoid-operated
switching device which is generally held
closed by (a reduced) current through the
closing solenoid (although various
mechanically-latched types exist for specific
duties). Contactors are designed to carry out
numerous close/open cycles and are
commonly controlled remotely by on-off
pushbuttons.
The large number of repetitive operating
cycles is standardized in table VIII of IEC
947-4-1 by:
c the operating duration: 8 hours;
uninterrupted; intermittent; temporary of 3,
10, 30, 60 and 90 minutes;
c utilization category: (for definition see table
J5-4) for example, a contactor of category
AC3 can be used for the starting and
stopping of a cage motor;
c the start-stop cycles (1 to 1,200 cyles per
hour);
c mechanical endurance (number of off-load
manœuvres);
c electrical endurance (number of on-load
manœuvres);
discontactor*
A contactor equipped with a thermal-type
relay for protection against overloading
defines a "discontactor". Discontactors are
used extensively for remote push-button
control of lighting circuits, etc., and may also
be considered as an essential element in a
motor controller, as noted in sub-clause 2.2.
"combined switchgear elements".
The discontactor is not the equivalent of a
fuses
Fuses exist with and without "fuse-blown"
mechanical indicators.
Fuses break a circuit by controlled melting of
the fuse element when a current exceeds a
given value for a corresponding period of
time; the current/time relationship being
presented in the form of a performance curve
for each type of fuse.
Standards define two classes of fuse:
c those intended for domestic installations,
manufactured in the form of a cartridge for
rated currents up to 100 A and designated
type gG in IEC 269-3;
c those for industrial use, with cartridge types
designated gG (general use); and gM and aM
(for motor-circuits) in IEC 269-1 and 2.
The main differences between domestic and
industrial fuses are the nominal voltage and
current levels (which require much larger
physical dimensions) and their fault-current
breaking capabilities.
Type gG fuse-links are often used for the
protection of motor circuits, which is possible
when their characteristics are capable of
withstanding the motor-starting current
without deterioration.
A more recent development has been the
adoption by the IEC of a fuse-type gM for
motor protection, designed to cover starting,
and short-circuit conditions. This type of fuse
is more popular in some countries than in
others, but at the present time the aM fuse in
combination with a thermal overload relay is
more-widely used.
c a rated current making and breaking
performance according to the category of
utilization concerned.
Example:
A 150 A contactor of category AC3 must have
a minimum current-breaking capability of 8 In
(= 1,200 A) and a minimum current-making
rating of 10 In (= 1,500 A) at a power factor
(lagging) of 0.35.
control power
circuit circuit
fig. H2-10: symbol for a contactor.
circuit breaker, since its short-circuit current-
breaking capability is limited to 8 or 10 In. For
short-circuit protection therefore, it is
necessary to include either fuses or a circuit
breaker in series with, and upstream of, the
discontactor contacts.
*This term is not defined in IEC publications
but is commonly used in some countries.
A gM fuse-link, which has a dual rating is
characterized by two current values. The first
value In denotes both the rated current of the
fuse-link and the rated current of the fuse-
holder; the second value Ich denotes the
time-current characteristic of the fuse-link as
defined by the gates in Tables II, III and VI of
IEC 269-1.
These two ratings are separated by a letter
which defines the applications.
For example: In M Ich denotes a fuse
intended to be used for protection of motor
circuits and having the characteristic G. The
first value In corresponds to the maximum
continuous current for the whole fuse and the
second value Ich corresponds to the G
characteristic of the fuse link. For further
details see note at the end of sub-clause 2.1.
An aM fuse-link is characterized by one
current value In and time-current
characteristic as shown in figure H2-14.
Important: Some national standards use a gI
(industrial) type fuse, similar in all main
essentails to type gG fuses.
Type gI fuses should never be used,
however, in domestic and similar installations.
fig. H2-11: symbol for fuses.

gM fuses require a separate overload
relay, as described in the note at the
end of sub-clause 2.1.
H2
fusing zones -
conventional currents
The conditions of fusing (melting) of a fuse these fuses have a poor performance in the
are defined by standards, according to their low overload range.
class. v it is therefore necessary to install a cable
c class gG fuses larger in ampacity than that normally required
These fuses provide protection against for a circuit, in order to avoid the
overloads and short-circuits. consequences of possible long term
Conventional non-fusing and fusing currents overloading (60% overload for up to one hour
are standardized, as shown in figure H2-12 in the worst case).
and in table H2-13. By way of comparison, a circuit breaker of
v the conventional non-fusing current Inf is similar current rating:
the value of current that the fusible element v which passes 1.05 In must not trip in less
can carry for a specified time without melting. than one hour; and
Example: a 32 A fuse carrying a current of v when passing 1.25 In it must trip in one
1.25 In (i.e. 40 A) must not melt in less than hour, or less
one hour (table H2-13) (25% overload for up to one hour in the worst
v the conventional fusing current If (=I2 in case).
fig.H2-12) is the value of current which will
cause melting of the fusible element before t
the expiration of the specified time.
Example: a 32 A fuse carrying a current of 1h.
minimum
1.6 In (i.e. 52.1 A) must melt in one hour or pre-arcing
time curve
less (table H2-13).
IEC 269-1 standardized tests require that a
fuse-operating characteristic lies between the
two limiting curves (shown in figure H2-12) for
the particular fuse under test. This means
that two fuses which satisfy the test can have fuse-blown
curve
significantly different operating times at low
levels of overloading.
v the two examples given above for a 32 A I
Inf I2
fuse, together with the foregoing notes on
standard test requirements, explain why fig. H2-12: zones of fusing and non-fusing
for gG and gM fuses.

class rated current* conventional non- conventional fusing conventional

In (A) fusing current current If time h
Inf I2
gG In i 4 A 1.5 In 2.1 In 1
gM 4 < In < 16 A 1.5 In 1.9 In 1
16 < In i 63 A 1.25 In 1.6 In 1
63 < In i 160 A 1.25 In 1.6 In 2
160 < In i 400 A 1.25 In 1.6 In 3
400 < In 1.25 In 1.6 In 4
table H2-13: zones of fusing and non-fusing for LV types gG and gM class fuses (IEC 269-1
and 269-2-1).
* Ich for gM fuses

c class aM (motor) fuses t

class aM fuses protect against
short-circuit currents only, and must
always be associated with another
device which protects against
overload.
These fuses afford protection against short-
circuit currents only and must necessarily be
associated with other switchgear (such as minimum
discontactors or circuit breakers) in order to pre-arcing
ensure overload protection < 4 In. They are time curve
not therefore autonomous. Since aM fuses
are not intended to protect against low values fuse-blown
curve
of overload current, no levels of conventional
non-fusing and fusing currents are fixed. The
characteristic curves for testing these fuses
are given for values of fault current exceeding
approximately 4 In (see figure H2-14), and
fuses tested to IEC 269 must give operating 4In x In
curves which fall within the shaded area. fig. H2-14: standardized zones of fusing
Note: the small "arrowheads" in the diagram for type aM fuses (all current ratings).
indicate the current/time "gate" values for the
different fuses to be tested (IEC 269).

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H2-7

 2. the switchgear and fusegear (continued)

H2
2.1 elementary switching devices (continued)
rated short-circuit breaking I
currents
prospective
A characteristic of modern cartridge fuses is fault-current peak
that, owing to the rapidity of fusion in the case rms value of the a.c.
of high short-circuit current levels*, a current component of the
cut-off begins before the occurrence of the prospective fault current
current peak
first major peak, so that the fault current limited by the fuse
never reaches its prospective peak value
(fig. H2-15).
0.01s
This limitation of current reduces significantly t
Tf Ta 0.005s
the thermal and dynamic stresses which
Ttc
would otherwise occur, thereby minimizing
danger and damage at the fault position.
The rated short-circuit breaking current of the
fuse is therefore based on the r.m.s. value of 0.02s
the a.c. component of the prospective fault
current.
No short-circuit current-making rating is Tf: fuse pre-arc fusing time
assigned to fuses. Ta: arcing time
*for currents exceeding a certain level, depending on the Ttc: total fault-clearance time
fuse nominal current rating, as shown below in figure
H2-15A. fig. H2-15: current limitation by a fuse.
Reminder maximum possible current
Short-circuit currents initially contain d.c. prospective fault peak characteristic
current (kA) peak i.e. 2.5Ir.m.s. (IEC)
components, the magnitude and duration of
which depend on the XL/R ratio of the fault- 100

current loop. (c)

Close to the source (HV/LV transformer) the 50

relationship I peak / Irms (of a.c. component)

immediately following the instant of fault, can 160A
be as high as 2.5 (standardized by IEC, and 20 nominal
100A fuse
shown in figure H2-15A). (b) ratings
50A
At lower levels of distribution in an 10

installation, as previously noted, XL is small (a)

compared with R and so for final circuits I 5
peak current
peak / I rms ~ 1.41, a condition which cut-off
characteristic
corresponds with figure H2-15 above and curves
2
with the "n" value corresponding to a power
factor of 0.95 in table H2-8.
1
1 2 5 10 20 50 100

The peak-current-limitation effect occurs only a.c. component of prospective

fault current (kA) r.m.s.
when the prospective r.m.s. a.c. component
of fault current attains a certain level. For fig. H2-15A: limited peak current versus
example, in the above graph the 100 A fuse prospective r.m.s. values of the a.c.
will begin to cut off the peak at a prospective component of fault current for LV fuses.
fault current (r.m.s.) of 2 kA (a). The same
fuse for a condition of 20 kA r.m.s.
prospective current will limit the peak current
to 10 kA (b). Without a current-limiting fuse
the peak current could attain 50 kA (c) in this
particular case.
As already mentioned, at lower distribution
levels in an installation, R greatly
predominates XL, and fault levels are
generally low.
This means that the level of fault current may
not attain values high enough to cause peak-
current limitation. On the other hand, the d.c.
transients (in this case) have an insignificant
effect on the magnitude of the current peak,
as previously mentioned.

Note on gM fuse ratings.

A gM type fuse is essentially a gG fuse, the
fusible element of which corresponds to the
current value Ich (ch = characteristic) which
may be, for example, 63 A.
This is the IEC testing value, so that its time/
current characteristic is identical to that of a
63 A gG fuse.
This value (63 A) is selected to withstand the
high starting currents of a motor, the steady-
state operating current (In) of which may be
in the 10-20 A range.

H2-8 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear

 H2
This means that a physically smaller fuse
barrel and metallic parts can be used, since
the heat dissipation required in normal
service is related to the lower figures
(10-20 A).
A standard gM fuse, suitable for this situation
would be designated 32M63 (i.e. In M Ich).
The first current rating In concerns the
steady-load thermal performance of the fuse-
link, while the second current rating (Ich)
relates to its (short-time) starting-current
performance.
It is evident that, although suitable for short-
circuit protection, overload protection for the
motor is not provided by the fuse, and so a
separate thermal-type relay is always
necessary when using gM fuses.
The only advantage offered by gM fuses,
therefore, when compared with aM fuses, are
reduced physical dimensions and slightly
lower cost.

2.2 combined switchgear elements

Single units of switchgear do not, in general,
fulfil all the requirements of the three basic
functions, viz: protection, control and
isolation.
Where the installation of a circuit breaker is
not appropriate (notably where the switching
rate is high, over extended periods)
combinations of units specifically designed for
such a performance are employed.
The most commonly-used combinations are
described below:

switch and fuse combinations

Two cases are distinguished:
c the type in which the operation of one
(or more) fuse(s) causes the switch to open.
This is achieved by the use of fuses fitted
with striker pins, and a system of switch
tripping springs and toggle mechanisms.
This type of combination is generally used for
current levels exceeding 100 A, and is
commonly associated with a thermal-type
overcurrent relay for overload protection (for
which the fuses alone may not be suitable). fig. H2-16: symbol for an automatic-
If the switch is classified as AC22 or AC23, tripping switch-fuse, with a thermal
and associated with a motor-overload type of overload relay.
thermal relay, the ensemble, i.e. switch,
striker-pin fuses and overload relay, is
suitable for the control and protection of a
motor circuit,
and:
c the type in which a non-automatic switch is
associated with a set of fuses in a common
enclosure.
In some countries, and in IEC 947-3, the fig. H2-17 (a): symbol for a non-automatic
terms "switch-fuse" and "fuse-switch" have switch-fuse.
specific meanings, viz:
v a switch-fuse comprises a switch (generally
2 breaks per pole) on the upstream side of
three fixed fuse-bases, into which the fuse
carriers are inserted (figure H2-17(a)),
v a fuse-switch consists of three switch
blades each constituting a double-break per
phase. fig. H2-17 (b): symbol for a non-automatic
These blades are not continuous throughout fuse-switch.
their length, but each has a gap in the centre
which is bridged by the fuse cartridge. Some
designs have only a single break per phase,
as shown in figures H2-17(a) and (b).

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H2-9

 2. the switchgear and fusegear (continued)

H2
2.2 combined switchgear elements (continued)
The current range for these devices is limited
to 100 A maximum at 400 V 3-phase, while
their principal use is in domestic and similar
installations.
To avoid confusion between the first group
(i.e. automatic tripping) and the second
group, the term "switch-fuse" should be
qualified by the adjectives "automatic" or
"non-automatic".

fuse - disconnector
+ discontactor
fuse - switch-disconnector
+ discontactor
As previously mentioned, a discontactor does
not provide protection against short-circuit
faults. It is necessary, therefore, to add fuses
(generally of type aM) to perform this
function.
The combination is used mainly for motor-
control circuits, where the disconnector or fig. H2-18 (a): symbol for a fuse-
switch-disconnector allows safe operations disconnector + discontactor.
such as:
c the changing of fuse links (with the circuit
isolated);
c work on the circuit downstream of the
discontactor (risk of remote closure of the
discontactor).
The fuse-disconnector must be interlocked
with the discontactor such that no opening or
closing manœuvre of the fuse-disconnector is
possible unless the discontactor is open
(figure H2-18 (a)), since the fuse-
disconnector has no load-switching capability.
A fuse-switch-disconnector (evidently) fig. H2-18 (b): symbol for a fuse-switch-
requires no interlocking (figure H2-18 (b)). disconnector + discontactor.
The switch must be of class AC22 or AC23 if
the circuit supplies a motor.

circuit-breaker + contactor
circuit-breaker + discontactor
These combinations are used in remotely-
controlled distribution systems in which the
rate of switching is high, or for control and
protection of a circuit supplying motors.
The protection of induction motors is
considered in chapter J, clause J5.

H2-10 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear

3. choice of switchgear

H2
3.1 tabulated functional capabilities
After having studied the basic functions of LV
switchgear (clause 1, table H2-1) and the
different components of switchgear
(clause 2), table H2-19 summarizes the
capabilities of the various components
to perform the basic functions.

isolation control electrical protection

switchgear functional emergency switching emergency stop switching for overload short-circuit differential
item (mechanical) mechanical
maintenance
isolator (or c
disconnector)
(4)
switch (5) c c c (1) c (1) (2) c
residual c c c (1) c (1) (2) c c
device
(RCCB) (5)
switch- c c c (1) c (1) (2) c
disconnector
contactor c c (1) c (1) (2) c c (3)
bistable-switch c c (1) c
(telerupteur)
fuse c c c
circuit c c (1) c (1) (2) c c c
breaker (5)
circuit breaker c c c (1) c (1) (2) c c c
disconnector
(5)
residual c c c (1) c (1) (2) c c c c
and
overcurrent
circuit breaker
(RCBO) (5)
point of origin of all points where, in general at the at the supply at the supply origin origin origin of
installation each for operational incoming circuit point to each point to each of each of each circuits where
(general circuit reasons it may to every distribution machine machine circuit circuit the earthing
principle) be necessary board and/or on the system is
to stop the machine appropriate
process concerned TN-S, IT, TT
table H2-19: functions fulfilled by different items of switchgear.
(1) Where cut-off of all active conductors is provided
(2) It may be necessary to maintain supply to a braking system
(3) If it is associated with a thermal relay (the combination is commonly referred to as a "discontactor")
(4) In certain countries a disconnector with visible contacts is mandatory at the origin of a LV installation supplied directly from a HV/LV transformer
(5) Certain items of switchgear are suitable for isolation duties (e.g. RCCBs according to IEC 1008) without being explicitly marked as such.

3.2 switchgear selection

Software is being used more and more in the In order to determine the number of poles for
field of optimal selection of switchgear. an item of switchgear, reference is made to
Each circuit is considered one at a time, and chapter H1, clause 7, table H1-65.
a list is drawn up of the required protection Multifunction switchgear, initially more costly,
functions and exploitation of the installation, reduces installation costs and problems of
among those mentioned in table H2-19 and installation or exploitation. It is often found
summarized in table H2-1. that such switchgear provides the best
A number of switchgear combinations are solution.
studied and compared with each other
against relevant criteria, with the aim of
achieving:
c satisfactory performance;
c compatibility among the individual items;
from the rated current In to the fault-level
rating Icu;
c compatibility with upstream switchgear or
taking into account its contribution;
c conformity with all regulations and
specifications concerning safe and reliable
circuit performance.

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H2-11

 4. circuit breakers
H2
the circuit breaker/disconnector fulfills
all of the basic switchgear functions,
while, by means of accessories,
numerous other possibilities exist.
4.1 standards and descriptions
industrial circuit breakers must
conform with IEC 947-1 and 947-2 or
other equivalent standards.
Corresponding European standards
are presently being developed.
Domestic-type circuit breakers
should conform to IEC standard 898,
or an equivalent national standard.
H2-12 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear
As shown in table H2-19 the circuit breaker/
disconnector is the only item of switchgear
capable of simultaneously satisfying all the
basic functions necessary in an electrical
installation.
Moreover, it can, by means of auxiliary units,
provide a wide range of other functions, for
example: indication (on-off - tripped on fault);
undervoltage tripping; remote control… etc.
These features make a circuit-breaker/
disconnector the basic unit of switchgear for
any electrical installation.
functions possible conditions
isolation c
control functional c
emergency switching c (with the possibility of a tripping
coil for remote control)
switching-off for mechanical c
maintenance
protection overload c
short-circuit c
insulation faulty c (with differential-current relay)
undervoltage c (with undervoltage-trip coil)
remote control c added or incorporated
indication and measurement c (generally optional with an electronic
tripping device)
table H2.20: functions performed by a circuit-breaker/disconnector.
standards
For industrial LV installations the relevant IEC
standards are, or are due to be:
c 947-1: general rules;
c 947-2: part 2: circuit breakers;
c 947-3: part 3: switches, disconnectors,
switch-disconnectors and fuse combination
units;
c 947-4: part 4: contactors and motor-
starters;
c 947-5: part 5: control-circuit devices and
switching elements;
c 947-6: part 6: multiple function switching
devices;
c 947-7: part 7: ancillary equipment.
Corresponding European and many national
standards are presently in the course of
harmonization with the IEC standards, with
which they will be in very close agreement.
For domestic and similar LV installations, the
appropriate standard is IEC 898, or an
equivalent national standard.

description
Figure H2-21 shows schematically the
principal parts of a LV circuit breaker and its
four essential functions:
1 - the circuit-breaking components,
comprising the fixed and moving contacts
and the arc-dividing chamber.
2 - the latching mechanism which
becomes unlatched by the tripping device
on detection of abnormal current
conditions.
This mechanism is also linked to the
operation handle of the breaker.
H2
3 - a trip-mechanism actuating device:
c either: a thermal-magnetic device, in which
a thermally-operated bi-metal strip detects an
overload condition, while an electromagnetic
striker pin operates at current levels reached
in short-circuit conditions, or:
c an electronic relay operated from current
transformers, one of which is installed on
each phase.
4 - a space allocated to the several types of
terminal currently used for the main power-
circuit conductors.

power circuit terminals

contacts and
arc-dividing chamber

fool-proof mechanical indicator

latching mechanism

trip mechanism and protective devices

fig. H2-21: principal parts of a circuit breaker.

domestic circuit breakers conforming

to IEC 898 and similar national
standards perform the basic
functions of:
c isolation
c protection against overcurrent.

fig. H2-22: domestic-type circuit breaker

providing overcurrent protection and
circuit isolation features.

some models can be adapted to

provide sensitive detection (30 mA)
of earth-leakage current with CB
tripping, by the addition of a modular
block, as shown in figure H2-23,
while other models (complying with
IEC 1009) have this residual-current
feature incorporated, viz. RCBOs.,
and, more recently, IEC 947-2
(appendix B) CBRs.
fig. H2-23: domestic-type circuit breaker
as above (H2-22) plus protection against
electric shocks by the addition of a
modular block.

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H2-13

 4. circuit breakers (continued)

H2
4.1 standards and descriptions (continued)
apart from the above-mentioned 1
functions further features can be
associated with the basic circuit
breaker by means of additional 2
modules, as shown in figure H2-24; 3
4
notably remote control and indication
5
(on-off-fault).

-OFF
O-O
O FF

O-OFF
O-OFF

fig. H2-24: "Multi 9" system* of LV modular switchgear components.

moulded-case type industrial circuit

breakers conforming to IEC 947-2
are now available, which, by means
of associated adaptable blocks SDE
OF2

provide a similar range of auxiliary OF1

SD

functions to those described above

OF2
(figure H2-25). SDE
SD
OF1

fig. H2-25: example of a modular (Compact NS*) industrial type of circuit breaker capable
of numerous auxiliary functions.
* Merlin Gerin product.

H2-14 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear


heavy-duty industrial circuit breakers
of large current ratings, conforming to
IEC 947-2, have numerous built-in
communication and electronic
functions (figure H2-26).
4.2 fundamental characteristics of a circuit breaker
the fundamental characteristics of a
circuit breaker are:
c its rated voltage Ue
c its rated current In
c its tripping-current-level adjustment
ranges for overload protection (Ir** or
Irth**) and for short-circuit protection
(Im)**
c its short-circuit current breaking
rating (Icu for industrial CBs; Icn for
domestic-type CBs).
H2
fig. H2-26: examples of heavy-duty industrial circuit breakers. The "Masterpact"* provides
many automation features in its tripping module.
These circuit breakers are provided with
means to adjust protective-device settings
over a wide range, and also with:
c a 20 mA output loop;
c remote indication contacts;
c load indication at the CB.
rated operational voltage (Ue)
This is the voltage at which the circuit breaker
has been designed to operate, in normal
(undisturbed) conditions.
Other values of voltage are also assigned to
the circuit breaker, corresponding to disturbed
conditions, as noted in sub-clause 4.3.
rated current (In) frame-size rating
This is the maximum value of current that a A circuit breaker which can be fitted with
circuit breaker, fitted with a specified over- overcurrent tripping units of different current-
current tripping relay, can carry indefinitely at level-setting ranges, is assigned a rating
an ambient temperature stated by the which corresponds with that of the highest
manufacturer, without exceeding the current-level-setting tripping unit that can be
specified temperature limits of the current- fitted.
carrying parts.
Example:
A circuit breaker rated at In = 125 A for an
ambient temperature of 40 °C will be
equipped with a suitably calibrated
overcurrent tripping relay (set at 125 A).
The same circuit breaker can be used at
higher values of ambient temperature
however, if suitably "derated".
Thus, the circuit breaker in an ambient
temperature of 50 °C could carry only 117 A
indefinitely, or again, only 109 A at 60 °C,
while complying with the specified
temperature limit.
Derating a circuit breaker is achieved
therefore, by reducing the trip-current setting
of its overload relay, and marking the CB
accordingly. The use of an electronic-type of
tripping unit, designed to withstand high
temperatures, allows circuit breakers (derated
as described) to operate at 60 °C (or even at
70 °C) ambient.
Note: In for circuit breakers (in IEC 947-2) is
equal to Iu for switchgear generally, Iu being
rated uninterrupted current.
* Merlin Gerin products.
** Current-level setting values which refer to the current-operated thermal and "instantaneous" magnetic tripping devices for
over-load and short-circuit protection.
the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H2-15
 4. circuit breakers (continued)

H2
4.2 fundamental characteristics of a circuit breaker (continued)
overload relay trip-current
setting (Irth or Ir)
Apart from small circuit breakers which are
very easily replaced, industrial circuit
breakers are equipped with removable, i.e.
exchangeable, overcurrent-trip relays.
Moreover, in order to adapt a circuit breaker
to the requirements of the circuit it controls,
and to avoid the need to install over-sized
cables, the trip relays are generally
adjustable.
The trip-current setting Ir or Irth (both
designations are in common use) is the
current above which the circuit breaker will
trip. It also represents the maximum current
that the circuit breaker can carry without
tripping.
That value must be greater than the
maximum load current IB, but less than the
maximum current permitted in the circuit Iz
(see chapter H1, sub-clause 1.3).
The thermal-trip relays are generally
adjustable from 0.7 to 1.0 times In, but when
electronic devices are used for this duty, the
adjustment range is greater; typically 0.4 to
1 times In.
Example (figure H2-27): a circuit breaker
equipped with a 320 A overcurrent trip relay,
set at 0.9, will have a trip-current setting:
Ir = 320 x 0.9 = 288 A
Note: for circuit breakers equipped with non-adjustable
overcurrent-trip relays, Ir = In.

rated current of the tripping unit

to suit the circumstances
0.7 In In
adjustment range

overload trip current setting

to suit the circuit circuit-breaker
Ir frame-size rating

224 A 288 A 320 A 400 A I

fig. H2-27: example of a 400 A circuit breaker equipped with a 320 A overload trip unit
adjusted to 0.9, to give Ir = 288 A.

short-circuit relay trip-current

setting (Im)
Short-circuit tripping relays (instantaneous or For the latter circuit breakers there exists a
slightly time-delayed) are intended to trip the wide variety of tripping devices which allow a
circuit breaker rapidly on the occurrence of user to adapt the protective performance of
high values of fault current. the circuit breaker to the particular
Their tripping threshold Im is: requirements of a load.
c either fixed by standards for domestic type
CBs, e.g. IEC 898, or,
c indicated by the manufacturer for industrial-
type CBs according to related standards,
notably IEC 947-2.

type of pro- overload short-circuit

tective relay protection protection
domestic thermal- Ir = In low setting standard setting high setting circuit
breakers magnetic type B type C type D
IEC 898 3 In i Im < 5 In 5 In i Im < 10 In 10 In i Im < 20 In (1)
modular thermal- Ir = In low setting standard setting high setting
industrial (2) magnetic fixed type B or Z type C type D or K
circuit breakers 3.2 In < fixed < 4.8 In 7 In < fixed < 10 In 10 In < fixed < 14 In
industrial (2) thermal- Ir = In fixed fixed: Im ≈ 7 to 10 In
circuit breakers magnetic adjustable: adjustable:
IEC 947-2 0.7 In i Ir < In - low setting : 2 to 5 In
- standard setting: 5 to 10 In
electronic long delay short-delay, adjustable
0.4 In i Ir < In 1.5 Ir i Im < 10Ir
instantaneous (I) fixed
I ≈ 12 to 15 In
table H2.28: tripping-current ranges of overload and short-circuit protective devices for LV
circuit breakers.
(1) 50 In in IEC 898, which is considered to be unrealistically high by most European manufacturers (M-G = 10 to 14 In).
(2) For industrial use, IEC standards do not specify values. The above values are given only as being those in common use.

H2-16 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear


the short-circuit current-breaking
performance of a LV circuit breaker is
related (approximately) to the cos ϕ
of the fault-current loop. Standard
values for this relationship have been
established in some standards.
t (s)
I(A)
Ir Im PdC
fig. H2-29: performance curve of a circuit
breaker thermal-magnetic protective
scheme.
Ir: overload (thermal or short-delay) relay trip-current setting.
Im: short-circuit (magnetic or long-delay) relay trip-current setting.
I: short-circuit instantaneous relay trip-current setting.
PdC: breaking capacity.
isolating feature
A circuit breaker is suitable for isolating a
circuit if it fulfills all the conditions prescribed
for a disconnector (at its rated voltage) in the
relevant standard (see sub-clause 1.2).
In such a case it is referred to as a circuit
breaker-disconnector and marked on its front
face with the symbol
rated short-circuit breaking
capacity (Icu or Icn)
The short-circuit current-breaking rating of a
CB is the highest (prospective) value of
current that the CB is capable of breaking
without being damaged.
The value of current quoted in the standards
is the r.m.s. value of the a.c. component of
the fault current, i.e. the d.c. transient
component (which is always present in the
worst possible case of short-circuit) is
assumed to be zero for calculating the
standardized value. This rated value (Icu) for
industrial CBs and (Icn) for domestic-type
CBs is normally given in kA r.m.s.
Icu (rated ultimate s.c. breaking capacity) and
Ics (rated service s.c. breaking capacity) are
defined in IEC 947-2 together with a table
relating Ics with Icu for different categories of
utilization A (instantaneous tripping) and B
(time-delayed tripping) as discussed in sub-
clause 4.3.
Tests for proving the rated s.c. breaking
capacities of CBs are governed by standards,
and include:
c operating sequences, comprising a
succession of manœuvres, i.e. closing and
opening on short-circuit;
c current and voltage phase displacement.
When the current is in phase with the supply
voltage (cos ϕ for the circuit = 1), interruption
of the current is easier than that at any other
power factor.
Breaking a current at low lagging* values of
cos ϕ is considerably more difficult to
achieve; a zero power-factor circuit being
(theoretically) the most onerous case.
H2
t (s)
I(A)
Ir Im I PdC
fig. H2-30 : performance curve of a circuit
breaker electronic protective scheme.
All Multi 9, Compact NS and Masterpact LV
switchgear of Merlin Gerin manufacture is in
this category.
In practice, all power-system short-circuit fault
currents are (more-or-less) at lagging power
factors, and standards are based on values
commonly considered to be representative of
the majority of power systems.
In general, the greater the level of fault
current (at a given voltage), the lower the
power factor of the fault-current loop, for
example, close to generators or large
transformers.
Table H2-31 below extracted from IEC 947-2
relates standardized values of cos ϕ to
industrial circuit breakers according to their
rated Icu.
Icu cos ϕ
6 kA < Icu i 10 kA 0.5
10 kA < Icu i 20 kA 0.3
20 kA < Icu i 50 kA 0.25
50 kA i Icu 0.2
table H2-31: Icu related to power factor
(cos ϕ) of fault-current circuit. (IEC 947-2).
c following an open - time delay - close/open
sequence to test the Icu capacity of a CB,
further tests are made to ensure that
v the dielectric withstand capability;
v the disconnection (isolation) performance
and
v the correct operation of the overload
protection,
have not been impaired by the test.
the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H2-17
 4. circuit breakers (continued)

H2
4.3 other characteristics of a circuit breaker
Familiarity with the following less-important
characteristics of LV circuit breakers is,
however, often necessary when making a
final choice.

rated insulation voltage (Ui)

This is the value of voltage to which the
dielectric tests voltage (generally greater
than 2 Ui) and creepage distances are
referred.
The maximum value of rated operational
voltage must never exceed that of the rated
insulation voltage, i.e. Ue i Ui.

rated impulse-withstand voltage

(Uimp)
This characteristic expresses, in kV peak (of
a prescribed form and polarity) the value of
voltage which the equipment is capable of
withstanding without failure, under test
conditions.
For further details see chapter F, clause 2.

category (A or B) and rated t (s)

short-time withstand current
(Icw)
As already briefly mentioned (sub-clause 4.2)
there are two categories of LV industrial
switchgear, A and B, according to IEC 947-2:
c those of category A, for which there is no
deliberate delay in the operation of the
"instantaneous" short-circuit magnetic-
tripping device (figure H2-32), are generally
moulded-case type circuit breakers, and,
c those of category B for which, in order to
discriminate with other circuit breakers on a
time basis, it is possible to delay the tripping
of the CB, where the fault-current level is I(A)
lower than that of the short-time withstand Im
current rating (Icw) of the CB (figure H2-23). fig. H2-32: category A circuit breaker.
This is generally applied to large open-type
t (s)
circuit breakers and to certain heavy-duty
moulded-case types. Icw is the maximum
current that the B category CB can withstand,
thermally and electrodynamically, without
sustaining damage, for a period of time given
by the manufacturer.

I(A)
Im I Icw PdC
fig. H2-33: category B circuit breaker.

H2-18 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear

 H2
rated making capacity (Icm) Icu cos ϕ Icm = kIcu
Icm is the highest instantaneous value of 6 kA < Icu i 10 kA 0.5 1.7 x Icu
current that the circuit breaker can establish 10 kA < Icu i 20 kA 0.3 2 x Icu
at rated voltage in specified conditions. In a.c. 20 kA < Icu i 50 kA 0.25 2.1 x Icu
systems this instantaneous peak value is 50 kA i Icu 0.2 2.2 x Icu
related to Icu (i.e. to the rated breaking
current) by the factor k, which depends on the table H2.34: relation between rated
power factor (cos ϕ) of the short-circuit breaking capacity Icu and rated making
current loop (as shown in table H2-34). capacity Icm at different power-factor
values of short-circuit current, as
Example: a LV circuit breaker has a rated
standardized in IEC 947-2.
breaking capacity Icu of 100 kA r.m.s.
Its rated making capacity Icm will be
100 x 2.2 = 220 kA peak.

in a correctly designed installation, rated service short-circuit

a circuit breaker is never required to
operate at its maximum breaking
current Icu.
For this reason a new characteristic
Ics has been introduced.
It is expressed in IEC 947-2 as a
percentage of Icu (25, 50, 75, 100%).
breaking capacity (Ics)
The rated breaking capacity (Icu) or (Icn) is
the maximum fault-current a circuit breaker
can successfully interrupt without being
damaged. The probability of such a current
occurring is extremely low, and in normal
circumstances the fault-currents are
considerably less than the rated breaking
capacity (Icu) of the CB. On the other hand it
is important that high currents (of low
probability) be interrupted under good
conditions, so that the CB is immediately
available for reclosure, after the faulty circuit
has been repaired.
It is for these reasons that a new
characteristic (Ics) has been created,
expressed as a percentage of Icu, viz: 25, 50,
75, 100% for industrial circuit breakers.
The standard test sequence is as follows:
c O - CO - CO* (at Ics);
c tests carried out following this sequence
are intended to verify that the CB is in a good
state and available for normal service.
For domestic CBs, Ics = k Icn. The factor k
values are given in IEC 898 table XIV.
In Europe it is the industrial practice to use a
k factor of 100% so that Ics = Icu.
Note: O represents an opening operation.
CO represents a closing operation followed by an opening
operation.

many designs of LV circuit breakers fault-current limitation

feature a short-circuit current
limitation capability, whereby the
current is reduced and prevented
from reaching its (otherwise)
maximum peak value (figure H2-35).
The current-limitation performance of
these CBs is presented in the form of
graphs, typified by that shown in
figure H2-36, diagram (a).
The fault-current limitation capacity of a CB current limiters) have standardized limiting I2t
concerns its ability, more or less effective, in let-through characteristics defined by that
preventing the passage of the maximum class.
prospective fault-current, permitting only a In these cases, manufacturers do not
limited amount of current to flow, as shown in normally provide characteristic performance
figure H2-35. curves.
The current-limitation performance is given by
the CB manufacturer in the form of curves Icc
(figure H2-36 diagrams (a) and (b)). prospectice
c diagram (a) shows the limited peak value of fault-current peak
current plotted against the r.m.s. value of the
a.c. component of the prospective fault
current ("prospective" fault-current refers to prospectice
the fault-current which would flow if the CB fault-current
had no current-limiting capability);
c limitation of the current greatly reduces the
thermal stresses (proportional I2t) and this is limited
current peak
shown by the curve of diagram (b) of figure
H2-36, again, versus the r.m.s. value of the limited
a.c. component of the prospective fault current
current.
LV circuit breakers for domestic and similar tc t
installations are classified in certain
standards (notably European Standard fig. H2-35: prospective and actual
EN 60 898). CBs belonging to a class (of currents.

nt
limited rre limited
peak cu s peak
current d i c
ite st current
(kA) m ri
n -li cte (A2 x s)
a
no har 4,5.105
c
22

2.105

(a) prospective a.c. (b) prospective a.c.

component (r.m.s.) component (r.m.s.)

150
150 kA
fig. H2-36: performance curves of a typical LV current-limiting circuit breaker.

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H2-19

 4. circuit breakers (continued)
H2
4.3 other characteristics of a circuit breaker (continued)
current limitation reduces both
thermal and electrodynamic stresses
on all circuit elements through which
the current passes, thereby
prolonging the useful life of these
elements. Furthermore, the limitation
feature allows "cascading"
techniques to be used (see 4.5)
thereby significantly reducing design
and installation costs.
4.4 selection of a circuit breaker
the choice of a range of circuit
breakers is determined by:
the electrical characteristics of the
installation, the environment, the
loads and a need for remote control,
together with the type of
telecommunications system
envisaged.
H2-20 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear
the advantages
of current limitation
The use of current-limiting CBs affords
numerous advantages:
c better conservation of installation networks:
current-limiting CBs strongly attenuate all
harmful effects associated with short-circuit
currents;
c reduction of thermal effects:
conductors (and therefore insulation) heating
is significantly reduced, so that the life of
cables is correspondingly increased;
c reduction of mechanical effects:
forces due to electromagnetic repulsion are
lower, with less risk of deformation and
possible rupture, excessive burning of
contacts, etc.;
c reduction of electromagnetic-interference
effects:
less influence on measuring instruments and
associated circuits, telecommunication
systems, etc.
These circuit breakers therefore contribute
towards an improved exploitation of:
c cables and wiring;
c prefabricated cable-trunking systems;
c switchgear, thereby reducing the ageing of
the installation.
choice of a circuit breaker
The choice of a CB is made in terms of:
c electrical characteristics of the installation
for which the CB is destined;
c its eventual environment: ambient
temperature, in a kiosk or switchboard
enclosure, climatic conditions, etc.;
c short-circuit current breaking and making
requirements;
c operational specifications: discriminative
tripping, requirements (or not) for remote
control and indication and related auxiliary
contacts, auxiliary tripping coils, connection
into a local network (communication or
control and indication) etc.,
choice of rated current in terms
of ambient temperature
The rated current of a circuit breaker is
defined for operation at a given ambient
temperature, in general:
c 30 °C for domestic-type CBs;
c 40 °C for industrial-type CBs.
Performance of these CBs in a different
ambient temperature depends principally on
the technology of their tripping units.
Example:
On a system having a prospective short-
circuit current of 150 kA r.m.s., a circuit
breaker limits the peak current to less than
10% of the calculated prospective peak
value, and the thermal effects to less than 1%
of those calculated.
Cascading of the several levels of distribution
in an installation, downstream of a limiting
CB, will also result in important economies.
The technique of cascading, described in
sub-clause 4.5 allows, in fact, substantial
savings on switchgear (lower performance
permissible downstream of the limiting CB(s))
enclosures, and design studies, of up to 20%
(overall).
Discriminative protection schemes and
cascading are compatible, in the range
Compact NS*, up to the full short-circuit
breaking capacity of the switchgear.
* A Merlin Gerin product.
c installation regulations; in particular:
protection of persons;
c load characteristics, such as motors,
fluorescent lighting, LV/LV transformers, etc.
Problems concerning specific loads are
examined in chapter J.
The following notes relate to the choice of a
LV circuit breaker for use in distribution
systems.
temperature of air
surrounding the
circuit breakers
ambient ambient
temperature temperature
single CB circuit breakers installed
in free air in an enclosure
fig. H2-37: ambient temperature.

circuit breakers with uncompensated
thermal tripping units have a trip-
current level that depends on the
surrounding temperature.
uncompensated thermal-
magnetic tripping units
Circuit breakers with uncompensated thermal
tripping elements have a tripping-current level
that depends on the surrounding
temperature. If the CB is installed in an
enclosure, or in a hot location (boiler room,
etc.), the current required to trip the CB on
overload will be sensibly reduced. When the
temperature in which the CB is located
exceeds its reference temperature, it will
therefore be "derated". For this reason, CB
manufacturers provide tables which indicate
factors to apply at temperatures different to
H2
the CB reference temperature. It may be
noted from typical examples of such tables
(tables H2-38) that a lower temperature than
the reference value produces an up-rating of
the CB.
Moreover, small modular-type CBs mounted
in juxtaposition, as shown typically in figure
H2-24, are usually mounted in a small closed
metal case. In this situation, mutual heating,
when passing normal load currents, generally
requires them to be derated by a factor of 0.8.

C60a. C60H: curve C. C60N: curves B and C (reference temperature: 30 °C)

rating (A) 20 °C 25 °C 30 °C 35 °C 40 °C 45 °C 50 °C 55 °C 60 °C
1 1.05 1.02 1.00 0.98 0.95 0.93 0.90 0.88 0.85
2 2.08 2.04 2.00 1.96 1.92 1.88 1.84 1.80 1.74
3 3.18 3.09 3.00 2.91 2.82 2.70 2.61 2.49 2.37
4 4.24 4.12 4.00 3.88 3.76 3.64 3.52 3.36 3.24
6 6.24 6.12 6.00 5.88 5.76 5.64 5.52 5.40 5.30
10 10.6 10.3 10.0 9.70 9.30 9.00 8.60 8.20 7.80
16 16.8 16.5 16.0 15.5 15.2 14.7 14.2 13.8 13.5
20 21.0 20.6 20.0 19.4 19.0 18.4 17.8 17.4 16.8
25 26.2 25.7 25.0 24.2 23.7 23.0 22.2 21.5 20.7
32 33.5 32.9 32.0 31.4 30.4 29.8 28.4 28.2 27.5
40 42.0 41.2 40.0 38.8 38.0 36.8 35.6 34.4 33.2
50 52.5 51.5 50.0 48.5 47.4 45.5 44.0 42.5 40.5
63 66.2 64.9 63.0 61.1 58.0 56.7 54.2 51.7 49.2

NS250N/H/L (reference temperature: 40 °C)

rating (A) 40 °C 45 °C 50 °C 55 °C 60 °C
TM160D 160 156 152 147 144
TM200D 200 195 190 185 180
TM250D 250 244 238 231 225
tables H2-38: examples of tables for the determination of derating/uprating factors to
apply to CBs with uncompensated thermal tripping units, according to temperature.
Example table H2-38). To allow for mutual heating in
What rating (In) should be selected for a CB the enclosed space, however, the 0.8 factor
c protecting a circuit, the maximum load noted above must be employed, so that,
current of which is estimated to be 34 A; 35.6 x 0.8 = 28.5 A, which is not suitable for
c installed side-by-side with other CBs in a the 34 A load.
closed distribution box; A 50 A circuit breaker would therefore be
c in an ambient temperature of 50 °C. selected, giving a (derated) current rating of
A circuit breaker rated at 40 A would be 44 x 0.8 = 35.2 A.
derated to 35.6 A in ambient air at 50 °C (see

compensated thermal-magnetic
tripping units
These tripping units include a bi-metal
compensating strip which allows the overload
trip-current setting (Ir or Irth) to be adjusted,
within a specified range, irrespective of the
ambient temperature.
For example:
c in certain countries, the TT system is
standard on LV distribution systems, and
domestic (and similar) installations are
protected at the service position by a circuit
breaker provided by the supply authority.
This CB, besides affording protection against
indirect-contact hazard, will trip on overload;
in this case, if the consumer exceeds the
current level stated in his supply contract with
the power authority.
The circuit breaker (i 60 A) is compensated
for a temperature range of - 5 °C to + 40 °C.
c LV circuit breakers at ratings i 630 A are
commonly equipped with compensated
tripping units for this range (- 5 °C to + 40 °C).

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H2-21

 4. circuit breakers (continued)

H2
4.4 selection of a circuit breaker (continued)
general note concerning derating
of circuit breakers
It is evident that a CB rated to carry a current
In at its reference ambient temperature
(30 °C) would overheat when carrying the
same current at (say) 50 °C.
Since LV CBs are provided with overcurrent
protective devices which (if not compensated)
will operate for lower levels of current in
higher ambient temperatures, the CB is
automatically derated by the overload tripping
device, as shown in the tables H2-38.
Where the thermal tripping units are
temperature-compensated, the tripping
current level may be set at any value
between 0.7 to 1 x In in the ambient
temperature range of - 5 °C to + 40 °C.
The reference ambient temperature in this
case is 40 °C (i.e. on which the rating In is
based).
For these compensated units, manufacturers'
catalogues generally also give derated values
of In for ambient temperatures above the
compensated range, e.g. at + 50 °C and
+ 60 °C; typically, 95 A at + 50 °C and 90 A at
+ 60 °C, for a 100 A circuit breaker.

H2-22 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear

 H2
electronic tripping units are highly electronic tripping units
stable in changing temperature An important advantage with electronic as mentioned in the general note above, so
tripping units is their stable performance in that manufacturers generally provide an
levels. changing temperature conditions. operating chart relating the maximum values
However, the switchgear itself often imposes of permissible trip-current levels to the
operational limits in elevated temperatures, ambient temperature (figure H2-39).
M25N/H/L i 40 °C 45 °C 50 °C 55 °C 60 °C
circuit breaker A In (A) 2500 2500 2500 2450 2400
maximum adjustment Ir 1 1 1 0.98 0.96
circuit breaker B In (A) 2500 2500 2500 2350 2200
maximum adjustement Ir 1 1 1 0.94 0.88

coeff. In (A)

1 2500

circuit breaker A
0.96 2400

0.94 2350
circuit breaker B

0.88 2200
θ °C
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
fig. H2-39: derating of two circuit breakers having different characteristics, according to
the temperature.

selection of an instantaneous, or
short-time-delay, tripping
threshold
Principal charasteristics of magnetic or short-
time-delay tripping units. Type classification
according to IEC 898. See also table H2-28.
type tripping unit applications
t low setting c sources producing low-short-circuit-current levels
type B (standby generators)
c long lengths of line or cable

I
t standard setting c protection of circuits: general case
type C

I
t high setting c protection of circuits having high initial transient
type D or K current levels (e.g. motors, transformers, resistive
loads)

I
t 12 In c protection of motors in association with
type MA discontactors (contactors with overload protection)

table H2-40: different tripping units, instantaneous or short-time-delayed.

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H2-23

 4. circuit breakers (continued)

H2
4.4 selection of a circuit breaker (continued)
the installation of a LV circuit breaker
requires that its short-circuit breaking
capacity (or that of the CB together
with an associated device) be equal
to or exceeds the calculated
prospective short-circuit current at its
point of installation.
selection of a circuit breaker
according to the short-circuit
breaking capacity requirements
The installation of a circuit breaker in a LV
installation must fulfil one of the two following
conditions:
c either have a rated short-circuit breaking
capacity Icu (or Icn) which is equal to or
exceeds the prospective short-circuit current
calculated for its point of installation, or
c if this is not the case, be associated with
another device which is located upstream,
and which has the required short-circuit
breaking capacity.
In the second case, the characteristics of the
two devices must be co-ordinated such that
the energy permitted to pass through the
upstream device must not exceed that which
the downstream device and all associated
cables, wires and other components can
withstand, without being damaged in any
way.
This technique is profitably employed in:
c associations of fuses and circuit breakers;
c associations of current-limiting circuit
breakers and standard circuit breakers.
The technique is known as "cascading" (see
sub-clause 4.5 of this chapter).

The selection of main and principal circuit

the circuit breaker at the output of the
smallest transformer must have a
short-circuit capacity adequate for a
fault current which is higher than that
through any of the other transformer
LV circuit breakers (fig. H2-42).
H2-24 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear
breakers
c a single transformer 250 kVA
Table C-13 (in chapter C) gives the short- 20 kV/400 V
circuit current level on the downstream side
of a commonly-used type of HV/LV
Visucompact
distribution transformer. If the transformer is NS400N
located in a consumer's substation, certain
national standards require a LV circuit
breaker in which the open contacts are fig. H2-41: example of a transformer in a
clearly visible*. consumer's substation.
Example (figure H2-41):
What type of circuit breaker is suitable for the
main circuit breaker of an installation supplied
through a 250 kVA HV/LV (400 V) 3-phase
transformer in a consumer's substation?
In transformer = 360 A
Isc (3-phase) = 8.9 kA.
A 400 A CB with an adjustable tripping-unit
range of 250 A-400 A and a short-circuit
breaking capacity (Icu) of 35 kA* would be a
suitable choice for this duty.
* A type Visucompact NS400N of Merlin Gerin manufacture
is recommended for the case investigated.
c several transformers in parallel
(figure H2-42) HV HV HV
v the circuit breakers CBP outgoing from the
Tr1 Tr2 Tr3
LV distribution board must each be capable of
breaking the total fault current from all
LV LV LV
transformers connected to the busbars, viz:
A1 A2 A3
Isc1 + Isc2 + Isc3, CBM CBM CBM
v the circuit breakers CBM, each controlling
the output of a transformer, must be capable B1 B2 B3
of dealing with a maximum short-circuit
current of (for example) Isc2 + Isc3 only, for a CBP CBP
short-circuit located on the upstream side of
CBM1. E
From these considerations, it will be seen that
the circuit breaker of the smallest transformer fig. H2-42: transformers in parallel.
will be subjected to the highest level of fault
current in these circumstances, while the
circuit breaker of the largest transformer will
pass the lowest level of short-circuit current.
v the ratings of CBMs must be chosen
according to the kVA ratings of the associated
transformers.
Note: the essential conditions for the share the load correctly with a 1,000 kVA
successful operation of 3-phase transformers transformer having a Zsc of 6%, i.e. the
in parallel may be summarized as follows: transformers will be loaded automatically in
1. the phase shift of the voltages, primary to proportion to their kVA ratings.
secondary, must be the same in all units to be For transformers having a ratio of kVA ratings
paralleled. exceeding 2, parallel operation is not
2. the open-circuit voltage ratios, primary to recommended, since the resistance/
secondary, must be the same in all units. reactance ratios of each transformer will
3. the short-circuit impedance voltage (Zsc%) generally be different to the extent that the
must be the same for all units. For example, a resulting circulating currrent may overload the
750 kVA transformer with a Zsc = 6% will smaller transformer.
 H2
Table H2-43 indicates, for the most usual
arrangement (2 or 3 transformers of equal
kVA ratings) the maximum short-circuit
currents to which main and principal CBs
(CBM and CBP respectively, in figure H2-42)
are subjected. The table is based on the
following hypotheses:
c the short-circuit 3-phase power on the HV
side of the transformer is 500 MVA;
c the transformers are standard 20/0.4 kV
distribution-type units rated as listed;
c the cables from each transformer to its LV
circuit breaker comprise 5 metres of single-
core conductors;
c between each incoming-circuit CBM and
each outgoing-circuit CBP there is 1 metre of
busbar;
c the switchgear is installed in a floor-
mounted enclosed switchboard, in an
ambient-air temperature of 30 °C.
Moreover, this table shows selected circuit
breakers of M-G manufacture recommended
for main and principal circuit breakers in each
case.
number and minimum S.C. main circuit breakers minimum S.C. rated current
kVA ratings of breaking (CBM) total discrimination breaking cap. In of principal
20/0.4 kV capacity of main with out going-circuit of principal circuit breaker
transformers CBs (Icu)* kA breakers (CBP) CBs (Icu)* kA (CPB) 250 A
2 x 400 14 M08 N1/C 801 N ST 27 NS 250 N
3 x 400 27 M08 N1/C 801 N ST 40 NS 250 H
2 x 630 22 M10N1/CM1250/C 1001 N 42 NS 250 H
3 x 630 43 M10H1/CM1250/C 1001 N 64 NS 250 H
2 x 800 24 M12N1/CM1250/C 1251 N 48 NS 250 H
3 x 800 48 M12H1/CM1250/C 1251 N 71 NS 250 L
2 x 1000 27 M16N1/CM1600 54 NS 250 H
3 x 1000 54 M16H2/CM1600 80 NS 250 L
2 x 1250 31 M20N1/CM2000 60 NS 250 H
3 x 1250 62 M20H1/CM2000 91 NS 250 L
2 x 1600 36 M25N1/CM2500 70 NS 250 H
3 x 1600 72 M20H2/CM2500H 105 NS 250 L
2 x 2000 39 M32H1/CM3200 75 NS 250 L
3 x 2000 77 M32H2/CM3200H 112 NS 250 L
table H2-43: maximum values of short-circuit current to be interrupted by main and
principal circuit breakers (CBM and CBP respectively), for several transformers in parallel.
* or Ics in countries where this alternative is practised.

Example: (figure H2-44)

c circuit breaker selection for CBM duty:
In for an 800 kVA transformer = 1.126 A (at 3 Tr
410 V, i.e. no-load voltage) Icu (minimum) = 800 kVA
48 kA (from table H2-43), the CBM indicated 20 kV/400V
in the table is a Compact C1251 N
(Icu = 50 kA) (by Merlin Gerin) or its CBM
equivalent;
c circuit breaker selection for CBP duty:
The s.c. breaking capacity (Icu) required for
these circuit breakers is given in the table CBP1 CBP2 CBP3
(H2-43) as 71 kA.
A recommended choice for the three outgoing
circuits 1, 2 and 3 would be current-limiting 400 A 100 A 200 A
circuit breakers types NS 400 L, NS 100 L fig H2-44: transformers in parallel.
and NS 250 L respectively (by MG) or their
equivalents. The Icu rating in each case =
150 kA.
These circuit breakers provide the
advantages of:
v absolute discrimination with the upstream
(CBM) breakers,
v exploitation of the "cascading" technique,
with its attendant economy for all
downstream components.

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H2-25

 4. circuit breakers (continued)
H2
4.4 selection of a circuit breaker (continued)
short-circuit fault-current levels at any
point in an installation may be
obtained from tables.
cascading: a particular solution to
problems of CBs insufficiently rated
for S.C. breaking duty.
associating fuses with CBs avoids
the need for a fuse in the neutral,
except in particular circumstances on
some IT systems.
H2-26 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear
Choice of outgoing-circuit CBs v solution 2: install a range of CBs having a
and final-circuit CBs higher rating. This solution is economically
c use of table H1-40 interesting only where one or two CBs are
From this table, the value of 3-phase short- affected;
circuit current can be determined rapidly for v solution 3: associate current-limiting fuses
any point in the installation, knowing: (gG or aM) with the CBs concerned, on the
v the value of short-circuit current at a point upstream side. This arrangement must,
upstream of that intended for the CB however, respect the following rules:
concerned; - the fuse rating must be appropriate
v the length, c.s.a., and the composition of - no fuse in the neutral conductor, except in
the conductors between the two points. certain IT installations where a double fault
A circuit breaker rated for a short-circuit produces a current in the neutral which
breaking capacity exceeding the tabulated exceeds the short-circuit breaking rating of
value may then be selected. the CB. In this case, the blowing of the
c detailed calculation of the short-circuit neutral fuse must cause the CB to trip on all
current level phases.
In order to calculate more precisely the short-
circuit current, notably, when the short-circuit
current-breaking capacity of a CB is slightly
less than that derived from the table, it is
necessary to use the method indicated in
chapter H1 clause 4.
c two-pole circuit breakers (for phase and
neutral) with one protected pole only
These CBs are generally provided with an
overcurrent protective device on the phase
pole only, and may be used in TT, TN-S and
IT schemes. In an IT scheme, however, the
following conditions must be respected:
v condition (c) of table H1-65 for the
protection of the neutral conductor against
overcurrent in the case of a double fault;
v short-circuit current-breaking rating:
A 2-pole phase-neutral CB must, by
convention, be capable of breaking on one
pole (at the phase-to-phase voltage) the
current of a double fault equal to 15% of the
3-phase short-circuit current at the point of its
installation, if that current is i 10 kA; or 25%
of the 3-phase short-circuit current if it
exceeds 10 kA;
v protection against indirect contact: this
protection is provided according to the rules
for IT schemes, as described in chapter G
sub-clause 6.2.
c insufficient short-circuit current-
breaking rating
In low-voltage distribution systems it
sometimes happens, especially in heavy-duty
networks, that the Isc calculated exceeds the
Icu rating of the CBs available for installation,
or system changes upstream result in lower-
level CB ratings being exceeded.
v solution 1: check whether or not
appropriate CBs upstream of the CBs
affected are of the current-limiting type,
allowing the principle of cascading (described
in sub-clause 4.5) to be applied;

4.5 coordination between circuit breakers
Preliminary note on the essential function
of current limiting circuit breakers
Low-voltage current-limiting CBs exploit the
resistance of the short-circuit current arc in
the CB to limit the value of current.
An improved method of achieving current-
level limitation is to associate a separate
current-limiting module (in series) with a
standard CB.
A contact bar (per phase) in the module
bridges two (specially-designed heavy-duty)
contacts, the contact pressure of which is
accurately maintained by springs. Other
rigidly-fixed conductors are arranged in series
with, and close to the contact bar, such that
when current is passed through the
ensemble, the electromagnetic force tends to
move the contact bar to open its contacts.
This occurs at relatively low values of short-
circuit current, which then passes through the
arcs formed at each contact. The resistance
of the arcs is comparable with system
impedances at low voltage, so that the
current is correspondingly restricted.
H2
Furthermore, the higher the current, the more
the repulsive force on the bar and the greater
the arc resistance as its path lengthens, i.e.
the current magnitude is (to some extent)
self-regulating.
The circuit breaker is easily able to break the
resulting low value of current, particularly
since the power factor of the fault-current
loop is increased by the resistive impedance
of the arcs.
When used in a cascading scheme as
described below, the tripping of the limiting
CB main contacts is briefly delayed, to allow
downstream high-speed circuit breakers to
clear the (limited) current, i.e. the current-
limiter CB remains closed.
The contact bar in the limiter module resets
under the influence of its pressure springs
when the flow of short-circuit current ceases.
Failure of downstream CBs to trip will result in
the tripping of the current-limiting CB, after its
brief time delay.

the technique of "cascading" uses cascading

the properties of current-limiting
circuit breakers to permit the
installation of all downstream
switchgear, cables and other circuit
components of significantly lower
performance than would otherwise
be necessary, thereby simplifying
and reducing the cost of an
installation.
in general, laboratory tests are
necessary to ensure that the
conditions of exploitation required by
national standards are met and
compatible switchgear combinations
must be provided by the
manufacturer.
Definition of the cascading technique
By limiting the peak value of short-circuit
current passing through it, a current-limiting
CB permits the use, in all circuits downstream
of its location, of switchgear and circuit
components having much lower short-circuit
breaking capacities, and thermal and
electromechanical withstand capabilities than
would otherwise be the case.
Reduced physical size and lower
performance requirements lead to substantial
economies and to the simplification of
installation work.
It may be noted that, while a current-limiting
circuit breaker has the effect on downstream
circuits of (apparently) increasing the source
impedance during short-circuit conditions, it
has no such effect at any other time; for
example, during the starting of a large motor
(where a low source impedance is highly
desirable).
A new range of Compact* current-limiting
circuit breakers with powerful limiting
performances (namely: NS 100, NS 160,
NS 250 and NS 400) is particularly
interesting.
Conditions of exploitation
Most national standards permit use of the
cascading technique, on condition that the
amount of energy "let through" by the limiting
CB is less than that which all downstream
CBs and components are able to withstand
without damage.
In practice this can only be verified for CBs by
tests performed in a laboratory. Such tests
are carried out by manufacturers who provide
the information in the form of tables, so that
users can confidently design a cascading
scheme based on the combination of circuit
breaker types recommended.
By way of an example, table H2-45 indicates
the possibilities of cascading circuit breaker
types* C 60 and NC 100 when installed
downstream of current-limiting CBs
NS 250 N, H or L for a 230/400 V or
240/415 V 3-phase installation.

* Merlin Gerin products

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H2-27

 4. circuit breakers (continued)

H2
4.5 coordination between circuit breakers (continued)
Advantages of cascading Short-circuit breaking capacity of the
The limitation of current benefits all upstream (limiter) CBs
downstream circuits that are controlled by the kA r.m.s.
current-limiting CB concerned. 150 NS250L
The principle is not restrictive, i.e. current-
100
limiting CBs can be installed at any point in
70 NS250H
an installation where the downstream circuits
would otherwise be inadequately rated. 36 NS250N
The result is: 25
c simplified short-circuit current calculations; 22
c simplification, i.e. a wider choice of Short-circuit breaking capacity of the
downstream switchgear and appliances; downstream CBs (benefiting from the
c the use of lighter-duty switchgear and cascading technique)
appliances, with consequently lower cost;
c economy of space requirements, since kA r.m.s.
light-duty equipment is generally less 150 NC100LH
voluminous. NC100LMA
100 NC100LS
70 NC100LS NC100L
NC100LH
NC100LMA
50 NC100L
40 C60L i 40 C60L i 40
30 C60H C60N C60N
C60L C60H C60H
C60L C60L
(50 to 63) (50 to 63)
NC100H NC100H
25 C60N
NC100H
20 C60a C60a
15 C60a
tables H2-45: example of cascading
possibilities on a 230/400 V or 240/415 V
3-phase installation.

discrimination may be absolute or discriminative tripping IscA

partial, and based on the principles of (selectivity) A
current levels, or time-delays, or a Discrimination is achieved by automatic
protective devices if a fault condition,
combination of both. A more recent occurring at any point in the installation, is
development is based on the IscB
cleared by the protective device located B
principles of logic. immediately upstream of the fault, while all
A (patented) system by Merlin Gerin other protective devices remain unaffected
exploits the advantages of both (figure H2-46).
Discrimination between circuit breakers A and
current-limitation and discrimination. B is absolute if the maximum value of short- absolute discrimination Icc
circuit-current on circuit B does not exceed IrB IccB
the short-circuit trip setting of circuit breaker
A. For this condition, B only will trip (figure partial discrimination
H2-47). B only open A and B opens Icc
Discrimination is partial if the maximum
IrB Ic IccB
possible short-circuit current on circuit B
exceeds the short-circuit trip-current setting of fig. H2-46: absolute and partial
circuit breaker A. For this maximum condition, discrimination.
both A and B will trip (figure H2-48).

H2-28 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear

 H2
t t

B A B A

Isc downstream of B
Ir B Ir A Icc B Irm A I Ir B Ir A Irm A Isc B IscA I

B only A and B
opens open
fig. H2-47: absolute discrimination fig. H2-48: partial discrimination
between CBs A and B. between CBs A and B.

1. discrimination based on current levels. Discrimination is absolute or partial, t

This method is realized by setting successive
relay tripping thresholds at stepped levels,
from downstream relays (lower settings)
towards the source (higher settings).
according to the particular conditions, as
noted in the above examples.
B A

Irm B Irm A Isc B I

2. discrimination based on stepped time In the two-level arrangement shown, A

delays. upstream circuit breaker A is delayed t
This method is implemented by adjusting the sufficiently to ensure absolute discrimination
time-delayed tripping units, such that with B (for example: Masterpact electronic). B
downstream relays have the shortest
operating times, with progressively longer
A
delays towards the source.
∆t
B
Isc B I

3. discrimination based on a combination Discrimination is absolute if t

of methods 1 and 2.
A mechanical time-delay added to a current-
level scheme can improve the overall
discrimination performance.
Isc B < Irm A (instantaneous).
The upstream CB has two high-speed B A
magnetic tripping thresholds:
- Irm A (delayed) or a SD* electronic timer Isc B
- Irm A (instantaneous) standard (Compact
type SA)

* short-delay. Irm A Irm A I

delayed instantaneo
us

4. discrimination based on arc-energy chambers of the CBs. The heated-air t

levels (Merlin Gerin patent) pressure level depends on the energy level of
In the range of short-circuit currents, this the arc, as described in the following pages
system provides absolute discrimination (figures H2-54 and H2-55). conventional
between two circuit breakers passing the instantaneous
magnetic-trip
same fault current. This is achieved by using characteristic
current-limiting CBs and initiating CB tripping
by pressure-sensitive detectors in the arcing pressure
operated
magnetic-trip
characteristic

Irm B Irm A Isc

table H2-49: summary of methods and components used in order to achieve discriminative tripping.

the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H2-29

 4. circuit breakers (continued)
H2
4.5 coordination between circuit breakers (continued)
current-level discrimination is
achieved with stepped current-level
settings of the instantaneous
magnetic-trip elements.
discrimination based on time-delayed
tripping uses CBs referred to as
"selective" (in certain countries).
Application of these CBs is relatively
simple and consists in delaying the
instant of tripping of the several
series-connected circuit breakers in a
stepped time sequence.
H2-30 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear
Current-level discrimination Example:
Current-level discrimination is achieved with circuit breaker A: Compact NS250 N fitted
circuits breakers, preferably limiters, and with a trip unit which includes a SD feature.
stepped current-level settings of the Ir = 250 A, magnetic trip set at 2,000 A
instantaneous magnetic-trip elements. circuit breaker B: Compact NS100N
c the downstream circuit breaker is not a Ir = 100 A
current-limiter. The Merlin Gerin distribution catalogue
The discrimination may be absolute or partial indicates a discrimination limit of 3,000 A
for a short-circuit fault downstream of B, as (an improvement over the limit of 2,500 A
previously noted in 1, above. obtained when using a standard tripping unit).
Absolute discrimination in this situation is
practically impossible because Isc A z Isc B,
so that both circuit breakers will generally trip
in unison.
In this case discrimination is partial, and
limited to the Irm of the upstream circuit
breaker.
c the downstream circuit breaker is a I peak
current limiter. A
Improvement in discriminative tripping can be fault current limitation
obtained by using a current limiter in a upstream curve for
of B circuit breaker
downstream location, e.g. for circuit (see note) B
breaker B. fault
For a short-circuit downstream of B, the downstream
limited level of peak current IB would operate of B
the (suitably adjusted) magnetic trip unit of B,
but would be insufficient to cause circuit
breaker A to trip.
Note: All LV breakers (considered here) have
some inherent degree of current limitation,
Isc Isc I
even those that are not classified as current-
limiters. This accounts for the curved prospective (rms)
characteristic shown for the standard circuit fig. H2-50: downstream limiting circuit
breaker A in figure H2-50. breaker B.
Careful calculation and testing is necessary,
t
however, to ensure satisfactory performance
A (compact S)
of this arrangement.
B
c the upstream circuit breaker is high-
speed with a short-delay (SD) feature.
These circuit breakers are fitted with trip units
which include a non-adjustable mechanical
short-time-delay feature. The delay is
sufficient to ensure absolute discrimination
with any downstream high-speed CB at any
value of s.c. current up to Irms (figure H2-51).
only B opens A and B open
Irm A Irm S I
delayed instantaneous
fig. H2-51: use of a "selective" circuit
breaker upstream.
Time-based discrimination c the delay corresponding to the first step is
This technique requires: greater than the total current-breaking time of
c the introduction of "timers" into the tripping a high-speed CB (type Compact for example)
mechanisms of CBs; or of fuses (figure H2-52).
c CBs with adequate thermal and mechanical
withstand capabilities at the elevated current t
levels and time delays envisaged.
Two circuit breakers A and B in series (i.e. A
passing the same current) are discriminative B non tripping
time of A
if the current-breaking period of downstream
breaker B is less than the non-tripping time of
circuit breaker A. current-breaking
time for B
Discrimination at several levels
An example of a practical scheme with (MG)
circuit breakers Masterpact (electronic
protection devices).
These CBs can be equipped with adjustable only B open
timers which allow 4 time-step selections,
Ir B Isc B Isc I
such as:
c the delay corresponding to a given step is fig. H2-52: discrimination by time delay.
greater than the total current breaking time of
the next lower step;

discrimination schemes based on
logic techniques are possible, using
CBs equipped with electronic tripping
units designed for the purpose
(Compact, Masterpact by MG) and
interconnected with pilot wires.
recently-introduced circuit breakers
such as Merlin Gerin type NS, use
the principle of arc-energy levels to
obtain discrimination.
H2
Discrimination logic
This discrimination system requires CBs
equipped with electronic tripping units,
designed for this application, together with
A pilot wires
interconnecting pilot wires for data exchange
between the CBs.
With 2 levels A and B (figure H2-53), circuit
breaker A is set to trip instantaneously, unless
the relay of circuit breaker B sends a signal to
confirm that the fault is downstream of B. This B
signal causes the tripping unit of A to be
delayed, thereby ensuring back-up protection fig. H2-53: discrimination logic.
in the event that B fails to clear the fault, and
so on…
This system (patented by Merlin Gerin) also
allows rapid localization of the fault.
Limitation and discrimination by
exploitation of arc energy
The technique of "arc-energy discrimination" CB (A) Compact NS
(Merlin Gerin patent) is applied on circuits (a)
having a short-circuit current level u 25 In and
ensures absolute selectivity between two
CBs carrying the same short-circuit current. CB (B) Compact NS
Discrimination requires that the energy
allowed to pass by the downstream CB (B) is
Isc = 50 kA
less than that which will cause the upstream
CB (A) to trip (fig. H2-54 (a)). I
Isc (prospective)
Operation principle
Both CBs are current limiters, so that the CB (A) only
electromagnetic forces due to a short-circuit
downstream of CB (B) will cause the current- (b)
CB (A) and CB (B)
limiting arcing contacts of both CBs to open in series
simultaneously. The fault current will be very
strongly limited by the resistance of the two Isc (limited)
series arcs. The intense heat of the current t
arc in each CB causes a rapid expansion of
Pressure
the air in the confined space of the arcing in arcing
chambers, thereby producing a chamber
correspondingly rapid pressure rise.
Above a certain level of current, the pressure
CB (A) setting
rise can be reliably detected and used to
initiate instantaneous tripping. (c)
Discrimination principle CB (B) setting
If both CBs include a pressure tripping device
suitably regulated, then absolute
discrimination between two CBs of different t
current ratings can be achieved by setting
fig. H2-54: arc-energy discrimination
CB (B) to trip at a lower pressure level than
principles.
that of CB (A) (fig. H2-54). If a short-circuit
occurs downstream of CB (A) but upstream
of CB (B), then the arc resistance of CB (A) NS250N
only will limit the current. The resulting current CB (A)
TM260D
will therefore be significantly greater than that
occurring for a short-circuit downstream of
CB (B) (where the two arcs in series cause a
very strong limitation, as previously mentioned). CB (B) NS100N
TM100D
The larger current through CB (A) will
produce a correspondingly greater pressure,
which will be sufficient to operate its fig. H2-55: ratio of rated currents of CBs
pressure-sensitive tripping unit (diagrams (b) and of tripping units, must comply with
and (c) of fig. H2-54). limits stated in the text, to ensure
As can be seen from figure H2-49 (4), the larger discrimination.
the short-circuit current, the faster the CB will
trip.
Discrimination is assured with this particular
switchgear if:
c the ratio of rated currents of the two
CBs u 2.5;
c the ratio of the two trip-unit current ratings
is > 1.6, as shown (typically) in figure H2-55.
For overcurrent conditions less than those of
short-circuits i 25 In, the conventional
protection schemes are employed, as
previously described in this chapter.
the protection of circuits - the switchgear - H2-31
 4. circuit breakers (continued)

H2
4.6 discrimination HV/LV in a consumer's substation
In general the transformer in a consumer's
substation is protected by HV fuses, suitably
rated to match the transformer, in accordance
with the principles laid down in IEC 787 and
IEC 420, by following the advice of the fuse
manufacturer.
The basic requirement is that a HV fuse will
not operate for LV faults occurring
downstream of the transformer LV circuit
breaker, so that the tripping characteristic
curve of the latter must be to the left of that of
the HV fuse pre-arcing curve.
This requirement generally fixes the
maximum settings for the LV circuit breaker
protection:
c maximum short-circuit current-level setting
of the magnetic tripping element;
c maximum time-delay allowable for the
short-circuit current tripping element.
See also Chapter C sub-clause 3.2.7, and
Appendix C1, for further details.

63 A

1250 kVA
20 kV / 400 V
full-load current
1760 A
3-phase
short-circuit
current level Visucompact
31.4 kA CM 2000
set at 1800 A

fig. H2-56: example.

c short-circuit level at HV terminals of t
transformer: 250 MVA; (ms)
CM 2000
c transformer HL/LV: 1,250 kVA 20/0.4 kV; set at
c HV fuses: 63 A (table C 11); 1000 1800 A
c cabling, transformer - LV circuit breaker: minimum
pre-arcing
10 metres single-core cables; 200 curve for 63 A HV
c LV circuit breaker: Visucompact CM 2000 100 fuses (current
set at 1,800 A (Ir). referred to the
secondary side
What is the maximum short-circuit trip current of the transformer)
setting and its maximum time delay
allowable? 10
The curves of figure H2-57 show that 1 4 6
Ir Ir Ir
discrimination is assured if the short-time
delay tripping unit of the CB is set at: 8
Ir
c a level i 6 Ir = 10.8 kA;
c a time-delay setting of step O or A. step C
220 step B
A general policy for HV fuse/LV circuit step A
1
breaker discrimination, adopted in some
countries, which is based on standardized 50 step 0
manufacturing tolerance limits, is mentioned
in chapter C sub-clause 3.2.7, and illustrated 0,01
in figure C-21. 1800 A 10 kA Isc maxi I
Ir 31,4 kA
Where a transformer is controlled and
protected on the high-voltage side by a circuit fig. H2-57: curves of HV fuses and LV
breaker, it is usual to install separate CT- and/ circuit breaker.
or VT- operated relays, which energize a
shunt-trip coil of the circuit breaker.
Discrimination can be achieved, together with
high-speed tripping for faults on the
transformer, by using the methods described
in chapter C sub-clause 3.2.

H2-32 - the protection of circuits - the switchgear

1. protection of circuits supplied by an alternator
a major difficulty encountered when
an installation may be supplied from
alternative sources (e.g. a HV/LV
transformer or a LV generator) is the
provision of electrical protection
which operates satisfactorily on
either source. The crux of the
problem is the great difference in the
source impedances; that of the
generator being much higher than
that of the transformer, resulting in a
corresponding difference in the
magnitudes of fault currents.
1.1 an alternator on short-circuit
Most industrial and large commercial
electrical installations include certain
important loads for which a power supply
must be maintained, in the event that the
public electricity supply fails:
c either, because safety systems are involved
(emergency lighting, automatic fire-protection
equipment, smoke dispersal fans, alarms and
signalization, and so on...) or:
c because it concerns priority circuits, such
HV
LV
non essential loads
fig. J1-1: example of circuits supplied from a transformer or from an alternator.
the establishment of short-circuit
current (fig. J1-2)
Apart from the limited magnitude of fault
current from a standby alternator, a further
difficulty (from the electrical-protection point
of view) is that during the period in which
LV circuit breakers are normally intended to
operate, the value of short-circuit current
changes drastically.
For example, on the occurrence of a short-
circuit at the three phase terminals of an
alternator, the r.m.s. value of current will
immediately rise to a value of 3 In to 5 In*.
An interval of 10 ms to 20 ms following the
instant of short-circuit is referred to as the
“sub-transient” period, in which the current
decreases rapidly from its initial value. The
current continues to decrease during the
ensuing “transient” interval which may last for
80 ms to 280 ms depending on the machine
type, size, etc. The overall phenomenon is
referred to as the “a.c. decrement”. The
current will finally stabilize in about
subtransient transient
r.m.s. period period
3 In
In
0.3
In
instant 10 to
of fault 20 ms
fig. J1-2: establishment of short-circuit current for a three-phase short circuit at the
terminals of an alternator.
* depending on the characteristics of the particular machine.
J
as certain equipment, the stoppage of which
would entail a loss of production, or the
destruction of a machine tool, etc.
One of the current means of maintaining a
supply to the so-called “essential” loads, in
the event that other sources fail, is to install a
diesel-generator set connected, via a
changeover switch, to an emergency-power
standby switchboard, from which the
essential services are fed (figure J1-1).
G
standby supply
change-over switch
essential loads
0.5 seconds, or more, at a value which
depends mainly on the type of excitation
system, viz:
c manual;
c automatic
(see figure J1-2).
Almost all modern generator sets have
automatic voltage regulators, compounded to
maintain the terminal voltage sensibly
constant, by overcoming the synchronous
impedance of the machine as reactive current
demand changes.
This results in an increase in the level of fault
current during the transient period to give a
steady fault current in the order of 2.5 In to
4 In* (figure J1-2).
In the (rare) case of manual control of the
excitation, the synchronous impedance of the
machine will reduce the short-circuit current
to a value which can be as low as 0.3 In, but
is often close to In*.
alternator
with automatic
voltage regulator
alternator
with manual
excitation control
0.1 to t
0.3 s
particular supply sources and loads - J1
 1. protection of circuits supplied by an alternator (continued)

J
1.1 an alternator on short-circuit (continued)
Figure J1-2 shows the r.m.s. values of
current, on the assumption that no d.c.
transient components exist. In practice, d.c.
components of current are always present to
some degree in at least two phases, being
maximum when the short-circuit occurs at the
alternator terminals.
This feature would appear to complicate still
further the matter of electrical protection, but,
in fact, the d.c. component in each phase
simply increases the r.m.s. values already
mentioned, so that calculations and tripping-
current settings for protective devices based
only on the a.c. components, as indicated
below, will be conservative, i.e. the actual
currents will always be either equal to or
higher than those calculated.
The further the point of short-circuit from the
generator the lower the fault current, and the
more rapidly the transient d.c. components
disappear. Furthermore, the a.c. decrement
also becomes negligible when the network
impedance to the fault position attains ohmic
values which are high compared with the
reactance values of the alternator (since the
overall change in impedance is then relatively
small).

alternator impedance data

Manufacturers furnish values of the several
impedances mentioned below. Resistances
are negligibly small compared to the
reactances.
It can be seen from the constantly-changing
value of r.m.s. current that the effective
reactance* changes constantly from a low
value (sub-transient reactance) to a high
value (synchronous reactance) in a smooth
progression.
The values discussed below are derived from
test curves and correspond with current
values measured at the instant of short-
circuit.
* An explanation of the significance of the
fixed reactance values and how they relate to
a smooth variation of current is briefly
described in Appendix J1.
c the sub-transient reactance x”d is
expressed in % by the manufacturer
(analogous to the short-circuit impedance
voltage of a transformer). The ohmic value
X”d is therefore calculated as follows:
x”d Un2 10-5
X”d (ohms) =
Pn
where:
x”d is in %
Un is in volts (phase/phase)
Pn is in kVA
c the % transient reactance x’d is given in
ohms by:
x'd Un2 10-5
X'd (ohms) =
Pn
c the % zero-phase-sequence reactance x’o
is given in ohms by:
x'o Un2 10-5
X'o (ohms) =
Pn
In the absence of more precise information,
the following representative values may be
used:
x”d = 20% ; x’d = 30 % ; x’o = 6%
Pn and Un being, respectively, the rated
3-phase power (kVA) and the rated
phase/phase voltage of the alternator (volts).
The sub-transient reactance is used when
calculating the short-circuit current-breaking
rating for LV circuit breakers which have
opening times of 20 ms or less, and also for
the electrodynamic stresses to be withstood
by CBs and other components (such as
busbars, cleated single-core cables, etc.).
The transient reactance is used when
considering the breaking capacity of LV circuit
breakers with an opening time that exceeds
20 ms, and also for the thermal withstand
capabilities of switchgear and other system
components.
Remark: from the instant at which the short-
circuit is established, the alternator reactance
will rapidly increase. This means that the
currents calculated from the defined fixed
values x"d and x'd (for breaking capacity) will
always exceed those that will actually occur
at the instant of circuit breaker contact
separation, i.e. there is an inherent safety
factor incorporated in the current-level
calculation.
These calculations for the circuit breaker
short-circuit breaking capacity are based on
the symmetrical a.c. components of current
only, i.e. no account is taken of the d.c.
unidirectional components.
For the circuit breaker short-circuit making
capacity, the d.c. components are crucial, as
discussed in Chapter C, Sub-clause 1.1
(figure C-5).

J2 - particular supply sources and loads


short-circuit current magnitude
at the terminals of an alternator
c the transient 3-phase short-circuit current
at the terminals of an alternator is given by:
Ig
Isc = 100* where:
x’d
Ig: rated full-load current of the alternator
x’d = transient reactance per phase of the
alternator in %;
c when these values are compared with
those for a short-circuit at the LV terminals of
J
a transformer of equal kVA rating, the current
from the alternator will be found to be of the
order of 5 or 6 times less than that from the
transformer. The difference will be even
greater where (as is generally the case) the
alternator rating is lower than that of the
transformer.
* for CBs with opening time exceeding 20 ms.

630 kVA 250 kVA

20 kV/400 V 400 V
Usc = 4% X'd = 30%

non essential loads essential loads

fig. J1-3: example of an essential services switchboard supplied (in an emergency) from a
standby alternator.
Example (figure J1 - 3) c alternator supply
What is the value of 3-phase short-circuit 3-phase Isc = Ig x 100 = Pn x 100
current at point A according to the origin of x'd eUn x'd
supply? where: Pn is expressed in kVA
Circuit impedances are negligible compared Un is expressed in volts
with those of the sources. x’d is expressed in %
c transformer supply Isc is expressed in kA
3-phase Isc = 21.5 kA 3-phase Isc = 250 x 100 = 1.2 kA
(see table C20 in Chapter C) ex 400 x 30

particular supply sources and loads - J3

 1. protection of circuits supplied by an alternator (continued)
J
1.2 protection of essential services circuits supplied in emergencies from an alternator
the difficulty is due to the small
margin between the rated current
and the short-circuit current of the
alternator.
J4 - particular supply sources and loads
The characteristics (s.c. breaking capacity
and range of adjustable magnetic tripping
unit) of the CBs protecting the circuits of
essential loads must be defined as described
below:
Choice of s.c. breaking capacity
This parameter must always be calculated for
the condition of supply from the transformer,
or other “normal” source.
Adjustment of magnetic tripping units
In practice, the only circuit breakers
concerned are those protecting the essential
services circuits at the main general
distribution board.
The protection of circuits from local
distribution or sub-distribution boards is
always calibrated at a much lower level than
those at the main general distribution board,
so that, except in unusual cases, adequate
fault currents are available from an alternator
to ensure satisfactory protective-gear
operation at these lower levels.
Two difficulties have to be overcome:
c the first is the need for discrimination of
circuit protection with the protection scheme
for the alternator.
For the basic protection requirements of an
alternator, viz: overload protection, the curve
shown in figure J1-4 is representative (see
Note 1).
c the second concerns protection of persons
against electric shock from indirect contact,
when the protection depends on the
operation of overcurrent relays (for example,
in IT* or TN systems). The operation of these
relays must be assured, whether the supply
is from the alternator or from the transformer
(see Note 2).
Instantaneous or short-time delay magnetic-
relay trip settings of the circuit breakers
concerned must therefore be set to operate
at minimum fault levels occurring at the
extremity of the circuits they protect, when
being supplied from the alternator.
* Two concurrent earth faults on different phases or on one phase and on a neutral conductor, are necessary on IT systems, to
create an indirect-contact hazard.
Note 1. Sensitive high-speed protection of an
alternator against internal faults (i.e.
upstream of its CB) is always possible by
using a pilot-wire and current-transformers
differential scheme of protection, with the
advantage that discrimination with circuit
protection schemes is absolute. The problem
of discriminative overload protection (as
noted above) remains, however.
A widely-used solution to this problem is
provided by a voltage-controlled overcurrent
relay, which depends on the following
principle: short-circuit currents cause much
lower system voltages than overload
currents. An inverse-time/current overload
relay is used having two operating curves,
one of which corresponds to that of fig. J1-4,
and is effective when system voltage levels
are normal.
If the system voltage falls below a pre-set
value, the relay is automatically switched to
operate much faster and at lower current
levels than those shown in fig. J1-4.
Modern low-setting magnetic tripping units,
however, often provide a simpler solution as
noted in 1.3 below.
Note 2. Where the level of earth-fault current
is not sufficient, in IT* and TN systems, to trip
CBs on overcurrent, the protection against
indirect-contact hazards can be provided by
an appropriate use of RCDs, as indicated in
Chapter G Sub-clause 6.5 Suggestion 2 (for
IT circuits) and Sub-clause 5.5. Suggestion 2
(for TN circuits).
time (s)
1000
100
12
10
7
3
2
1
1.1 1.2 1.5 2 3 4 5 I/IG
overload
fig. J1-4: overload protection of an
alternator.

1.3 choice of tripping units
the calculation of the minimum fault
current (in IT or TN schemes) is
complex. Software packages for this
purpose are available.
J
calculation of the fault-current
loop impedance (Zs) for IT and
TN systems
The determination of the minimum level of
short-circuit current, from the calculation of
the fault-loop impedance Zs (by the sum of
impedances method) is difficult, mainly
because of the uncertainly, in a practical
installation, of the accuracy of the zero-
phase-sequence impedances. When
conductor routes are known in sufficient
detail, impedances can then be determined
by the use of software, currently available
commercially. Approximate methods for
3-phase and 1-phase short circuits are
presented in Sub-clause 1.4.

types of suitable tripping units

The choice of low-setting magnetic tripping
units will generally be necessary, such as
Compact NS* with STR (magnetic-trip short
time delay is adjustable from 1.5 to 10 Ir) or
circuit breakers Multi 9* curve B (tripping
between 3 and 5 In).
In practice, these CBs (or their equivalents)
will always be necessary when the current
rating of the CB is greater than one third of
the alternator current rating and will, in most
cases, obviate the need for voltage-controlled
overload relays.
Switchgear manufacturers often furnish
tables showing recommended combinations
of circuit breakers for commonly-used
standby-generator schemes.
* Merlin Gerin products.

characteristics of protection
for essential-services circuits
type of circuit fault-breaking rating tripping unit adjustment
(FBR)
diesel-
generator
protection
cabinet

power-source
changeover switch

main FBR > Isc Im or short-delay trip setting

circuits with supply level < the minimum
from transformer fault current at the far end
of the circuit when supplied
from the alternator
(see Note 2 in Sub-clause 1.2)
B

sub- FBR > Isc check the protection

and final with supply of persons against
circuits from transformer indirect-contact hazards,
particularly on IT and TN
systems (see Note 2
in Sub-clause 1.2)

Isc: 3-ph short-circuit current

Im: magnetic-tripping-relay current setting
loads

fig. J1-5: the protection of essential services circuits.

particular supply sources and loads - J5

 1. protection of circuits supplied by an alternator (continued)

J
1.4 methods of approximate calculation
An installation on (normal) 630 kVA
transformer supply (figure J1-6) includes an
essential-services distribution board which
can also be supplied from a standby 400 kVA
diesel-alternator set.
What circuit breakers should be installed on
the out-going ways from the essential-
services board:
c if the installation is TN-earthed?
c if the installation is IT-earthed?

transformer
630 kVA alternator
20 kV/400 V 400 kVA
400 V

alternator
and diesel
protection
equipment
cabinet

PE

essential circuits main

non essential circuits distribution board

NS250N
STR22SE NS160N
250 A TM400D

IB = 220 A IB = 92 A
100 m 70 m
120 mm2 35 mm2

PE : 70 mm2 PE : 35 mm2

sub-distribution board
fig. J1-6: example.
calculation of the minimum level
of 3-phase short-circuit current
Table J1-7 shows the procedure for an
alternator together with one or several
circuits.

item of plant R X Z Isc

mΩ mΩ mΩ kA
alternator Ra X'd
circuit 22.5 L 0.08 x L
S
total R X R2 + X 2 1.05xVn
R2 + X 2
table J1-7: procedure for the calculation of 3-phase short-circuit current.
S = c.s.a. in mm2
L = length in metres
For the calculation of cable impedance, refer
to Chapter H1, Sub-clause 4.2.

J6 - particular supply sources and loads

 J
Consider the 220 A circuit in figure J1-6
c alternator
Ra = 0
2 2
X’d = Un x 0.30 = 400 x 0.30 = 120 mΩ
Pn 400
c circuit
Rc = 22.5 x 100 = 18.75 mΩ
120
Xc = 0.08 x 100 = 8 mΩ
c application of the method of impedances as
indicated in table J1-7;
R = Ra + Rc = 0 + 18.75 = 18.75 mΩ
X = X’d + Xc = 120 + 8 = 128 mΩ
total impedance per phase:
Z = R2 + X 2 = (18.75)2 + (128)2 = 129.4 mΩ

Isc = 1.05 Vn = 1.05 x 230 = 1.87 kA (r.m.s.)

Z 0.129

Note: In practice there will always be some

measure of d.c. transient current in at least
two phases, so that the above value will
normally be exceeded during the period
required to trip the CB.

calculation of the minimum level

of 1-phase to earth short-circuit
fault current
Table J1-8 shows the procedure for an
alternator together with one or several
circuits.

item of plant R X Z Isc

mΩ mΩ mΩ kA
alternator Ra 2 X'd + Xo
3
circuit 22.5 L (1 + m) 0.08 x L x 2
Sph
total R X R2 + X 2 1.05xVn
R2 + X 2
table J1-8: procedure for the calculation of 1-phase to neutral short-circuit current.
For the calculation of cable impedance, refer
to Chapter H1, Sub-clause 4.2.

Consider the 220 A circuit in figure J1-6

c alternator
Ra = 0
2
Xa = (2 x 120 + 400 x 0.06) x 1 = 88 mΩ
400 3
c circuit
Rc = 22.5 x 100 x (1 + 120 / 70) = 50.89 mΩ
120
Xc = 0.08 x 100 x 2 = 16 mΩ
c application of the method of impedances,
as for the previous example:
R = Ra + Rc = 0 + 50.89 = 50.89 mΩ
X = Xa + Xc = 88 + 16 = 104 mΩ
The total impedance:
Z = R2 + X 2 = 50.892 + 1042 = 115.8 mΩ

and Isc1 (phase/neutral) = 1.05 x 230 = 2.09 kA.

115.8

particular supply sources and loads - J7

 1. protection of circuits supplied by an alternator (continued)

J
1.4 methods of approximate calculation (continued)
maximum permissible setting
of instantaneous or short-time
delay tripping units
c TN scheme Where
Of the two fault conditions considered Z1 = positive phase-sequence impedance
(3-phase and 1-phase/neutral) the 3-phase Z2 = negative phase-sequence impedance
fault was found to give the lower short-circuit Z0 = zero phase-sequence impedance
current. The setting of the protective relay
must therefore be selected to a current level Simplifications:
below that calculated. c Z1 is assumed to be equal to Z2 so that
For the 220 A outgoing circuit the trip unit formula ➁ becomes
would be rated at 250 A and adjusted (in eVph = 0.866 Vph or 0.866 Isc (3-phase)
principle) to Isc/250, i.e. 1,870/250 = 7.4 In. 2 Z1 Z1
Owing to a ± 20 % manufacturing tolerance
however, the maximum permissible setting c In table J1-8 the calculated cable reactance
would be 7.4 = 6.2 In assumes that X1 = X2 = X0 for the cable, so
1.2 that in formula ③ the total reactance
A tripping unit type TM250D* set at 6 In on a = (X1 + X2 + X0) 1/3 = (3 X1) 1/3 = X1
NS250N* circuit breaker (breaking capacity * Merlin Gerin product.
= 36 kA i.e. > 21.5 kA) would be appropriate;
c IT scheme
In this case the protection must operate for a
second earth fault occurring before the first
earth fault is cleared. This condition (only)
produces indirect-contact hazards on an IT
system.
If the neutral conductor is not distributed, then
the minimum short-circuit current for the
system will be the phase-to-phase value
(i.e. concurrent earth faults on two different
phases) which is equal to 0.866 Isc
(Isc = the 3-phase s.c. current).
If the neutral is distributed, the minimum s.c.
current occurs when a phase-to-earth fault
and a neutral-to-earth fault occur
concurrently, and a protective relay setting
equal to 0.5 Isc (phase to neutral) i.e. half the
value of a phase-to-neutral short-circuit
current, is conventionally used to ensure
positive relay operation,
v for the case of a non-distributed neutral,
the minimum s.c. current =
0.5 x 0.866 x 1.87 = 0.81 kA
The tripping unit rated at 250 A will be set at
810 x 1 = 2.7 In
250 1.2
(the factor 1.2 accounting for the ± 20 %
manufacturing tolerance for tripping units).
A TM250D or a STR22SE tripping unit set at
2.5 In would be appropriate,
v when the neutral is distributed, the
minimum s.c. current relay setting
= 0.5 x 2.08 = 1.04 kA
The 250 A tripping unit will be set at
1.040 x 1
250 1.2
= 3.5 In (the 1.2 factor covering
manufacturing tolerance, as before)
A STR22SE tripping unit, set at 3.0 In would
be satisfactory.
Note: The foregoing method is based on a
simplified application of the following
formulae:
➀
Isc (3-phase) = V ph
Z1
➁
Isc (phase/phase) = eVph
Z1+Z2

➂
Isc (phase/earth) = 3 Vph
Z1+Z2+Z0

J8 - particular supply sources and loads

 J
1.5 the protection of standby and mobile a.c. generating sets
Practical guides in certain national standards
classify generator sets according to three
categories, viz:
c permanent installations (as discussed in
Sub-clauses 1.1 to 1.4);
c mobile sets (figure J1-9);
c portable power packs (figure J1-10).

mobile sets
These are used mainly to provide temporary
supplies (on construction sites for example)
where protection of persons against electric
shock must be ensured by the use of RCDs
with an operating threshold not exceeding
30 mA.

non-metallic
conduit prividing
supplementary
insulation

PE

C32N
30 mA

Vigi-
compact
NS100
TM63G
30 mA

PE

load circuits
fig. J1-9: mobile generating set.

portable power packs

The use of hand-carried power packs by the
general public is becoming more and more
popular. When the pack and associated
appliances are not of Class II (i.e. double
insulation), 30 mA RCDs are required by
most national standards.
C60N
30 mA
T

fig. J1-10: portable power pack with RCD

protection.

particular supply sources and loads - J9

 2. inverters and UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply units)

J
2.1 what is an inverter?
An inverter produces an a.c. supply of high
quality (i.e. an undistorted sine-wave, free
from interference) from a d.c. source; its
function is the inverse of that of a rectifier
(figure J2-1).
Its main purpose (when associated with a
rectifier which provides its input) is to afford a
high-quality power supply to equipment for
which the interference and disturbances of a
normal power-supply system cannot be
tolerated (e.g. to computer systems).
Power systems are subjected to many kinds
of perturbation which adversely affect the
quality of supply: atmospheric phenomena
(lightning, freezing), accidental faults (short-
circuits), industrial parasites, the switching of
large electric motors (lifts, fluorescent lighting)
are among the many causes of poor quality
of supplies.
Apart from occasional loss of supply, the
disturbances take the form of more-or-less
severe voltage dips, high- and low-frequency
parasites, continuous “noise” from
fluorescent-lamp circuits and (normally
undetectable, but totally unacceptable to
sensitive electronic systems) of mini-
interruptions of several milli-seconds.
By the addition of a storage battery at the
input terminals of the inverter (and therefore
across the output terminals of the associated
rectifier), an elementary UPS system is
formed.
In normal circumstances, the rectifier supplies
the load through the inverter, while, at the
same time, a trickle charge from the rectifier
maintains the battery fully charged.
A loss of a.c. power supply from the
distribution network would simply result in the
battery automatically maintaining the output
from the inverter with no discernable
interruption.
d.c. source load
sinusoidal
inverter a.c. output
fig. J2-1: inverter function.

2.2 types of UPS system

Several types of UPS system exist according
there are two main types of UPS to the degree of protection against power-
system: network “pollution” required, and whether
c off-line, supply autonomy (automatic standby-supply
c on-line. on the loss of normal power supply) is
specified, or not. The two most commonly-
used types are described below.

An off-line type of UPS system (figure J2-2) transient currents such as those for motor-
is connected in parallel with a supply direct starting and switching on of (cold) resistive
from the public distribution network, as shown loads. The most common use for such units
in figure J2-2, and is autonomous, within the is the supply to multi-workstation ITE
capacity of its battery, on loss of the a.c. (information technology equipment)
power supply. In normal operation the filter installations, such as cash registers.
improves the quality of the current while the a. c. power supply
voltage is maintained sensibly constant at its network
declared value by appropriate and automatic
regulation within the filter unit.
F
When the tolerance limits are exceeded,
sensitive
including a total loss of supply, a contactor, load
which carries the normal load, changes over
rapidly to the UPS unit (in less than 10 ms) rectifier/ inverter filter
the power then being supplied from the charger
battery. On the return of normal power supply,
the contactor changes back to its original battery
condition; the battery then recharges to its full fig. J2-2: off-line UPS system.
capacity.
These units are normally of low rating
(i 3 kVA) but are capable of passing large

An on-line type of UPS system (figure J2-3) a.c. power supply sensitive
is connected directly between the public a.c. network load
supply network and the load, and has an
autonomous capability, the period of which rectifier inverter
depends on the battery capacity and load charger
magnitude.
The total load passes through the system, battery
which affords a supply of electrical energy
fig. J2-3: on-line UPS system.
within strict tolerance limits, regardless of the
state of the a.c. power supply network.
On loss of the latter, the battery automatically,
and without interruption, maintains the
pollution-free a.c. supply to the load.
This system is equally suitable for small loads
(i 3 kVA) or large loads (up to several MVA).

J10 - particular supply sources and loads

 J
Other apparatus, not assuring a no-break
performance, but which protect sensitive
loads from certain disturbances commonly
occurring on power distribution network,
include the following:
c the filter-plug which is simply an a.c. plug
for connecting or interconnecting loads, which
has built-in HF (high-frequency) filters, in
order to reduce HF parasitic interference to
acceptable levels. Its principal use is on
micro-informatic stand-alone PCs rated at
250 to 1,000 VA, for general office purposes;
c the network (or mains) -supply conditioner
is a complete system for providing an
uncontaminated a.c. power supply, but
without autonomy, i.e. no provision against
loss of supply from the a.c. distribution
network.
Its principal functions are to:
v filter out HF parasites,
v maintain a sensibly-constant voltage level,
v isolate (galvanically) the load from the a.c.
power network.
It is equally applicable to office or industrial
systems which do not require a no-break
standby supply, up to ratings of 5,000 VA;
c the slim-line UPS has integral protection
with autonomy for each micro-informatic
stand-alone PC and its peripherals, and is
installed immediately under the micro-
processor. Two outputs, each with back-up
from the UPS unit, supply the central
processor and screen. Two further outputs,
which are filtered, supply other less-sensitive
units (e.g. the printer). The slim-line UPS
belongs to the class of off-line UPS schemes.
types of UPS units, filter plug mains-supply slim-line off-line on-line
conditioners and filters conditioner UPS UPS UPS
diagrams of principle
F
F

disturbances considered
type of network corrective
disturbance measures
HF parasites c c c c c
variations of voltage regulation c c c c
autonomy
10 to 30 mn (according to battery capacity) c c c
rated power
i 250 VA c c c c c
300 - 1,000 VA c c c c
1,000 - 2,500 VA c c c
> 2,500 VA c c
applications
minimal all micro- micro-informatic highly disturbed a.c.
protection sensitive informatic terminals power systems and/or
loads stand-alone PC heavy loads
table J2-4: examples of different possibilities and applications of inverters, in decontamination of supplies and in UPS schemes.

2.3 standards
The international standard presently covering
semi-conductor converters is IEC 146-4.

particular supply sources and loads - J11

 2. inverters and UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply units) (continued)

J
2.4 choice of a UPS system
The choice of a UPS system is determined
mainly by the following parameters:
c rated power, based on:
v maximum value of actual estimated kVA
demand,
v transitory current peaks (motor starting,
energization of resistive loads,
transformers...).
Note: in order to obtain satisfactory
discrimination of protective devices for all
types of load, it may be necessary to adjust
the power rating of the UPS system.
c voltage levels upstream (input) and
downstream (output) of the UPS unit;
c duration of autonomy required (i.e. supply
from the battery);
c frequencies upstream (input) and
downstream (output) of the UPS unit;
c level of availability required.

(9)

(8) (5) UPS distribution board

(4) (6)
mains 2
C/S

mains 1

(2)
(1)

(3)
(7)

fig. J2-5: classical arrangement of a UPS on-line installation, using an inverter.

UPS 1. inverter
2. rectifier/charger
3. batteries (usual periods of autonomy 10 - 15 - 30 mn - several hours)
4. static contactor (see “availability” below)
5. isolating transformer, if galvanic isolation from upstream circuits is necessary.
6. outgoing ways
7. transformer for specific downstream-circuits voltage
8. changeover switch
9. transformer to match the upstream voltage to that of the consumer.
Note: At first sight, the circuit arrangement in Conditions will automatically return to normal
figure J2-5 closely resembles that of the if the overload, etc. is corrected.
off-line UPS system (of figure J2-2). In fact,
however, it is an on-line system, in which the In this arrangement, the voltage output of
load is normally passing through circuit 1. the inverter is always maintained in
The static contactor is open in this situation, synchronism with the voltage of the power-
but closes automatically if the UPS system supply network (i.e. within close tolerance
becomes overloaded, or fails for any reason. limits of magnitude and phase difference)
In such a case, the load will then be supplied thereby minimizing the disturbance in the
from the (reserve) circuit 2. This action is the event of “instantaneous” changeover from
converse of that of the off-line scheme. circuit 1 to circuit 2 operation.

the power rating of a UPS unit must power (VA)

take account of the peak motor-
starting currents, of the possibility of
future extensions to the installation,
and of the overload capability of the
inverter and other UPS-unit
components.
The rated power of the UPS unit must be Instantaneous variations of load:
sufficient to satisfy the steady load demand these variations occur at times of energizing
as well as loads of a transitory nature. The and de-energizing of one or more items of
demand will be the sum of the apparent (VA) load. For an instantaneous change of load up
loads of individual items, for example, the to 100 % of the nominal rating of the UPS
CPU (central processing unit) and will unit, the output voltage generally remains
amount to Pa, generally corrected by a between + 10 % and - 8 % of its rated value.
factor (1.2 to 2) to allow for future
extensions.
However, in order to avoid oversizing of the
installation, account should be taken of the
overload capacity of the UPS components.
For example, inverters manufactured by
Merlin Gerin can safely withstand the
following overloaded condition:
c 1.5 In for 1 minute;
c 1.25 In for 10 minutes.

J12 - particular supply sources and loads

 J
Example of a power calculation
Choice of a UPS unit suitable for the loads
shown in figure J2-6.
load circuits no.:
1 : 80 kVA
2 : 10 kVA
3 : 20 kVA
4 : 20 kVA
5 : 30 kVA
fig. J2-6: example.
Assumed operating constraints:
circuit no. 4 will take a transitory current equal
to 4 In for a period of 200 ms when initially
energized. This operation will be carried out
at least once a day. The peak kVA demand,
therefore, represents a supplement (over the
steady-state 20 kVA demand) of 3 x 20 kVA =
60 kVA.
The remaining circuits require no such
transitory peak currents. In all cases the kVA
values cited have taken the load power
factors into account. Possible future
extensions to the installation are estimated to
amount to 20% of the existing load.
The maximum steady-state power demand
presently considered is therefore:
P = 80 + 10 + 20 + 20 + 30 = 160 kVA.
With allowance for extensions (of 20%)
= 160 x 1.2 = 192 kVA.
With an additional 200 ms peak of (3 x 20)
kVA the total amounts to 192 + 60 = 252 kVA.
C/S
The total of 252 kVA however, includes the
60 kVA peak current which is easily absorbed
by the 1.5 In overload capability of (a M.G) 200 kVA
UPS system, so that the rating of a suitable
UPS unit would be 252 x 1/1.5 = 168 kVA
for the nearest standard rating available
above the calculated value, e.g. 200 kVA.
For the choice of suitable protective devices,
see Sub-clause 2.9. fig. J2-7: solution to the example.

availability
A UPS system is generally provided with an
alternative (unconditioned) emergency
source, a situation which affords a relatively
high level of availability.
By way of example, a UPS alone has a
MTBF (mean time between failures) of
50,000 hours.
In the usual case, where the supply is
doubled as noted above (mains 1 and
C/S
mains 2 in figure J2-5) the MTBF obtained is
in the range 70,000 to 200,000 hours, P/2
depending on the availability of the second
source.
Switching from one source to the other is
achieved automatically by a static (solid P/2
state) contactor. P
Configurations having a higher redundancy,
e.g. three UPS units each rated at P/2 to P/2
supply a load of P (figure J2-8) are also
sometimes installed. The calculation of their
level of availability can be carried out by
specialists, and the manufacturers are able to fig. J2-8: 3 UPS P/2 units providing a high
quote availability levels, relative to their own level of availability of a power rated P.
products and recommended layouts.

particular supply sources and loads - J13

 2. inverters and UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply units) (continued)
J
2.5 UPS systems and their environment
UPS system components include the
means to communicate with other
equipments.
J14 - particular supply sources and loads
UPS units can communicate with other
equipments, notably with IT (information
technology) systems, passing data
concerning the state of the UPS components
(static contactor open or closed, and so on...)
and receiving orders controlling its function, in
order to:
c optimize the protection scheme:
the UPS, for example, transmits data
(such as: condition normal, supply being
maintained by the battery, alarm for period
of autonomy almost reached) to the computer
it is supplying. The computer deduces the
appropriate corrective action, and indicates
accordingly;
c permit remote control:
the UPS transmits data concerning the state
of UPS components, together with measured
quantities, to the console of an operator, who
is then able to carry out operational
manœuvres through remote-control
channels;
c supervise (manage) the installation:
the consumer (i.e. the “user”) has a
centralized management technique facility
which allows him to acquire data from the
UPS unit(s) which are then stored and
analysed, with anomalies indicated, and the
state of the UPS is presented on a mimic
board or displayed on a screen, and finally to
exercise remote control of UPS functions
(figures J2-9 to J2-11).
fig. J2-9: UPS units can communicate with
centralized system management
terminals.
fig. J2-11: UPS units are readily integrated into centralized management systems.
This evolution towards a general compatibility
between diverse systems and related
hardware requires the incorporation of new
functions in the UPS systems. These
functions can be designed to ensure
mechanical and electrical compatibility with
other equipments: standard versions are now
provided with dry contacts and current loops.
Interconnection facilities according to the
standards RS 232, RS 422 or RS 485 can be
incorporated on request.
In fact, certain advanced modules include
modern cards with integral protocole (JBus
for example).
Furthermore, they can make use of
specialized software for automatic checking
and fault diagnosis (e.g. Soft-Monitor on PC)
which may be integrated into other systems
of overall supervision (figure J2-10).
fig. J2-10: software (e.g. Soft-Monitor)
allows remote checking and automatic
fault diagnosis of the UPS system.
 J
2.6 putting into service and technology of UPS systems
UPS unit for individual stand-alone location of UPS units
PCs.

fig. J2-12: a UPS (slim-line) is easily accommodated under the computer of a stand-alone
PC.

UPS system installed in a computer

room.

fig. J2-13: for large computer installations, the UPS cabinets are generally located in the
computer room.

UPS cabinets installed in an

electrical services room.

fig. J2-14: large UPS systems are frequently located in an electrical services room.

particular supply sources and loads - J15

 2. inverters and UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply units) (continued)

J
2.6 putting into service and technology of UPS systems (continued)
types of battery
Two types of battery are associated with
UPS systems.

Maintenance-free sealed units Non-sealed batteries

These batteries are used for systems rated These batteries are generally lead-acid units
at 250 kVA or less, and provide an autonomy and are used for all large installations.
of up to 30 minutes. For certain installations, The batteries must be installed in dedicated
the natural ventilation of its location is battery rooms, which usually require forced-
considered to be adequate, provided that air ventilation.
the particular conditions of charging and For certain applications, open-type (i.e. non-
regulation, together with the characteristics sealed) cadmium-nickel batteries are
of the battery, respect the necessary preferred.
constraints. These constraints are defined in
the national standards of some countries
(e.g. NF C 15-100, Sub-clause 554 for
France). To date, there is no IEC equivalent
recommendation, so that consultation with
the battery manufacturer may be advisable.

battery location
For any closed location housing batteries,
most national standards impose a system of
ventilation, forced or natural, which relates
the renewal rate of air to the size and
charging rate of the battery (or batteries).
A recommended air-change rate in cubic
metres per hour can be calculated from the
formula 0.05 NI where:
N = number of cells in the battery
I = maximum charging-current capability of
the battery charger (in amperes).
In the case of forced ventilation, the battery
charger must be automatically switched off if
the fan(s) of the system fail, or if the air-flow
is stopped or reduced, for any other reason.
For UPS systems of large rating, the batteries
are generally located in specially designed
battery rooms, complying with the relevant
local standards and regulations.

fig. J2-15: a typical battery room.

J16 - particular supply sources and loads


2.7 earthing schemes
general
In the general case the UPS system is fed
from two circuits (as shown typically in figure
J2-16) each of which is protected separately;
they are referred to as mains 1 and mains 2.
Mains 1 is a 3-phase 3-wire circuit connected
to the UPS rectifier/charger input terminals,
while mains 2 is a 3-phase 4-wire circuit
connected to the upstream terminals of the
static contactor. The downstream distribution
board is supplied at 230/400 V.
Where other values of voltage are required,
adaptor transformers may be employed.
galvanic separation
of the upstream
and downstream circuits
of the UPS system
The measures taken to provide protection
against electric shock depend on the earthing
scheme, and therefore on the existence, or
not, of galvanic separation of the downstream
circuits from the upstream circuits.
Manufacturers should be ready to provide all
the necessary information.
c if there is no separation, then the earthing
scheme is evidently identical on both sides of
the UPS system;
TT/TT scheme
The neutral of the inverter cannot be
permanently connected to earth, as
described above, but only temporarily, i.e.
when D2 is open in figure J2-16. D2 is a
4-pole circuit breaker which breaks the
neutral conductor when it is open. The neutral
conductor is earthed at the HV/LV
transformer, and so, when D2 opens,
contactor C closes automatically to reconnect
the neutral busbar of the LV distribution board
to earth.
General protection
A RCD is installed at each outgoing way of
the MGDB feeding the UPS system (D1 and
D2 in figure J2-16) and discrimination
between these RCDs and those on the
outgoing ways of the DB downstream of the
UPS system, is arranged to ensure the
maximum possible continuity of supply.
The sensitivity of the RCDs is selected
according to the value of earthing resistance
(electrode plus earth-wires).
Note: Certain versions of RCD are designed
to avoid malfunctioning under abnormal
conditions (d.c. components of current...) that
are sometimes generated by UPS systems. It
is recommended that the manufacturers of
the UPS system be consulted concerning this
aspect of their product.
J
c if there is complete separation between the
upstream and downstream sides of the UPS
system, the earthing schemes upstream and
downstream may be different (or identical).
The Technical Notes CT 129 of Merlin Gerin
explain this subject in more detail.
Protection of the d.c. circuits of the UPS
system
c battery protection:
most national standards and codes of
practice, covering battery installations are
based on stringent regulations, which, if
properly observed, reduces the probability of
a short-circuit fault or an accidental indirect
contact occurring, sufficiently, to consider that
the circuit from the battery terminals to the
controlling circuit breaker adequately assures
the safety of persons. Such will be the case,
if:
v the battery and all d.c. circuits are in the
same cabinet as the other components of the
UPS system, i.e. an equipotential location is
created,
v in the case of a battery location remote
from the UPS system, class II insulation
standards are respected;
c for the remainder of the installation:
in particular, the section from the downstream
side of the battery circuit breaker and the
junction of the rectifier output with the inverter
input, where an insulation fault on the d.c.
circuits presents a risk, an insulation
monitoring scheme is strongly recommended.
A suitable system of permanent surveillance
injects a low-frequency test current
(a XM 200* monitor, as mentioned in
Merlin Gerin Technical Notes CT 129, for
example).
Protection of pollution-free output circuits
Circuits supplying socket-outlets will be
protected by RCDs of 30 mA (or less)
sensitivity (for example, differential circuit
breakers Multi 9 curve B 30 mA)*. Other
outgoing ways should be protected by RCDs
of suitable sensitivity (in general 300 mA)
which must discriminate with the protection
afforded by D1 and 2 (figure J2-16).
* Merlin Gerin product.
particular supply sources and loads - J17
 2. inverters and UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply units) (continued)

J
2.7 earthing schemes (continued)

D1 D2

UPS LV distribution board

mains 2
C/S RCD sockets
30mA outlet
circuits

mains 1 RCD
30mA

RCD

RCD

fig. J2-16: TT/TT scheme.

TN-C / TN-S scheme

c the automatic cut-off of supply by indirect-
contact hazard protection is achieved in this
scheme by overcurrent relays. The
calculation of the impedance loop Zs
however, is not possible in this case. The
basic rule to be observed, is that the short-
circuit current from the inverter (which is the
maximum it can pass before its internal
protection operates) exceeds that of the
tripping threshold of downstream overcurrent
protection.
Circuit breakers with magnetic trip units of
low-setting ranges are suitable for both TN-C
and TN-S schemes. For TN-S installations
(only) RCDs of medium sensitivity may also
be used;
c the d.c. section of the UPS system is
protected as previously described for the
TT scheme;
c protection for the pollution-free output
circuits will be by 30 mA RCDs for circuits
supplying socket outlets, and by circuit
breakers of low short-circuit tripping settings,
previously mentioned.

non essential
circuits
UPS LV distribution board
mains 2
C/S RCD
30mA socket
outlet
circuits
mains 1 RCD
30mA

fig. J2-17: TN-C/TN-S scheme.

J18 - particular supply sources and loads

IT/IT scheme
c insulation monitoring
The CIC1 continuous insulation check relay at
the origin of the installation (between the
isolated neutral point of the HV/LV
transformer and earth) is automatically
replaced by the CIC2 at the output of the
inverter, when mains 2 is out of service;
c the choice of CIC
v on the d.c. section of the system, CIC3 uses
a very low frequency a.c. current injection
relay, type Vigilohm XM 200*,
v on the a.c. sections, the CIC1, and CIC2
relays are d.c. current-injection relays of type
TR 22A*. In fact, a fault on the d.c. part of the
system will be detected by CIC1 and CIC2 but
these relays will not operate because the
impedance measurement made by them is
not correct.
mains 1
CIC1
mains 2
fig. J2-18: IT/IT scheme.
complete galvanic separation of
the circuits upstream of the UPS
system from those downstream
Galvanic separation of the upstream and
downstream circuits of the UPS system is
sometimes required, and is effected by
installing a 2-winding transformer upstream of
the static contactor. In this case, the earthing
schemes upstream and downstream of the
separation can be different, so that the type
of earthing required for the downstream
circuits can be created at the output
transformer of the inverter.
J
CIC current-injection relays operating at very
low frequency (type XM 200* for example)
allow correct measurement of the impedance;
c reminder of IT system constraints
The design and operation of an IT system
requires careful study and exploitation.
The advantages of IT operation can only be
realized if an in-depth study is completed by
clear and concise operating instructions.
In particular, the capacitances present in the
network (cables and filters on appliances)
must be taken into account, and all items of
load must be insulated to withstand phase-to-
phase voltage.
* a Merlin Gerin product.
UPS LV distribution board
C/S
CIC2
Protection of the d.c. circuits of the UPS
system
The d.c. circuits of the UPS system are
protected as already described, and the
insulation monitoring relays, if required, are
selected as indicated in Sub-clause 2.7 for
the IT/IT scheme.
particular supply sources and loads - J19
 2. inverters and UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply units) (continued)

J
2.8 choice of main-supply and circuit cables, and cables for the battery connection
self-contained UPS units of small
power ratings are supplied for direct
connection, by plugging into their
input and output sockets.
ready-to-use UPS units
The UPS units for low-power applications
such as individual PCs and micro-informatic
installations are marketed as complete units
in a metal enclosure, as shown typically in
figure J2-19.
All internal wiring is factory-installed and
adapted to the characteristics of the
components.

fig. J2-19: ready-to-use UPS unit.

in other cases, wiring and cables, for UPS systems requiring

interconnection of the several
elements of the UPS system, must
be installed by the consumer’s
contractor.
interconnection of constituent
elements.
For larger UPS installations the battery is
generally located at some distance from the
inverter, and in the case of an off-line
arrangement the static contactor and filters (if
installed) require interconnection. The cable
sizes selected depend on the current level at
each interconnection, as indicated in figure
J2-20, and described below.
Iu static contactor

CS
mains 2
Iu

rectifier/ load
I1 charger inverter

mains 1
Ib

battery
capacity C10
fig. J2-20: currents to be considered for cable selection.
Calculation of the currents I1 and Iu
c current Iu is the maximum estimated
utilization current of the load;
c current I1 input to the rectifier/charger of the
UPS system depends on:
v the capacity of the battery (C10) and its
charging rate,
v the characteristics of the charger,
v the output from the inverter;
c the current Ib is the current in the battery
cable. These current magnitudes are
obtained from the manufacturers of the UPS
equipment.
Each of these parameters imposes a
minimum c.s.a. of conductor. Calculation of
the c.s.a. of conductors may be carried out as
shown in Chapter H1 Clause 2.
Merlin Gerin recommends cable sizes to be
used with Maxipac and EPS 2000 systems
(tables J2-22 to J2-24) in normal conditions,
for cable lengths of less than 100 m (voltage
drop < 3 %).
Table J2-21 shows the voltage drop for d.c.
circuit lengths of less than 100 m of copper
cable. That for a.c. cables can be calculated
as described in Chapter H1 Clause 3.

Choice of cables
In this application the basis of cable selection
is the maximum voltage drop allowable for
satisfactory performance of the load.
Preferable values are for this application:
c 3% for a.c. circuits;
c 1% for d.c. circuits.

J20 - particular supply sources and loads

 J
The voltage-drop values in % given in table
J2-21 correspond to a nominal d.c. voltage
of 324 V. For other voltage levels multiply
the table values by a factor equal
to the actual battery voltage divided by 324.

c.s.a. mm2 25 35 50 70 95 120 150 185 240 300

In (A) 100 5.1 3.6 2.6 1.9 1.3 1 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.4
125 4.5 3.2 2.3 1.6 1.3 1 0.8 0.6 0.5
160 4.0 2.9 2.2 1.6 1.2 1.1 0.8 0.7
200 3.6 2.7 2.2 1.6 1.3 1 0.8
250 3.3 2.7 2.2 1.7 1.3 1
320 3.4 2.7 2.1 1.6 1.3
400 3.4 2.8 2.1 1.6
500 3.4 2.6 2.1
600 4.3 3.3 2.7
800 4.2 3.4
1000 5.3 4.2
1250 5.3
table J2-21: voltage drop in % of 324 V d.c. for a copper-cored cable.
nominal current (A) c.s.a. (mm2)
rated of copper-cored
power cables of length < 100 m
circuit 1 with battery (1) circuit 2 circuit 1 circuit 2
I1 or or
load load
3-phase 400 V 1-phase 230 V 3-phase 1-phase 1-phase
I1 battery I1 battery I1 battery I1 battery Iu 400 V 230 V 230 V
floating on charge floating on charge
3.5 kVA 18 20 16 16 10
5 kVA 8.5 10.5 26 28 23 6 16 10
7.5 kVA 15 19 34 10 16
10 kVA 20 24 45.5 10 16
15 kVA 30 38 68 10 16
20 kVA 40 48 91 10 16
table J2-22: currents and c.s.a. of copper-cored cables feeding the rectifier, and supplying
the load for UPS system Maxipac (cable lengths < 100 m).

nominal current (A) c.s.a. (mm2)

rated of copper-cored
power cables of length < 100 m
circuit 1 with battery circuit 2 battery circuit 1 circuit 2 battery
3-phase 400 V or 3-phase or
I1 load 400 V load
floating recharging for 400 V Ib 3-phase
standby period of: Iu 400 V
10 mn 15 mn 30 mn
10 kVA 19 23 25 25 15.2 27 10 10 10
15 kVA 29 36 37 39 22.8 40.5 10 10 10
20 kVA 37 49 50 52 30.4 54 16 10 16
30 kVA 58 73 76 78 45 81 25 16 25
40 kVA 75 97 100 104 60.8 108 35 25 35
60 kVA 116 146 151 157 91.2 162 50 35 70
80 kVA 151 194 201 209 121.6 216 70 50 95
table J2-23: currents and c.s.a. of copper-cored cables feeding the rectifier, and supplying
the load for UPS system EPS 2000 (cable lengths < 100 m).
Battery cable data are also included.

particular supply sources and loads - J21

 2. inverters and UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply units) (continued)

J
2.8 choice of main-supply and circuit cables, and cables for the battery connection (continued)
nominal current (A)
rated power
circuit 1 with battery circuit 2 battery
3-phase 400 V - I1 or load Ib
floating recharging for standby period of: 3-phase 400 V
10 mn 15-30 mn Iu
40 kVA 70 86 87.6 60.5 109
60 kVA 100 123 127 91 160
80 kVA 133 158 164 121 212
100 kVA 164 198 200 151 255
120 kVA 197 240 244 182 317
160 kVA 261 317 322 243 422
200 kVA 325 395 402 304 527
250 kVA 405 493 500 360 658
300 kVA 485 590 599 456 790
400 kVA 646 793 806 608 1050
500 kVA 814 990 1005 760 1300
600 kVA 967 1180 1200 912 1561
800 kVA 1290 1648 1548 1215 2082
table J2-24: input, output and battery currents for UPS system EPS 5000 (Merlin Gerin).
For a given power rating of a UPS system,
these tables indicate the value of input
current I1 to the rectifier/charger when the
battery is on trickle charge (i.e. “floating”) as
well as the load current Iu, together with the
c.s.a. of corresponding input and output
cables.
The value of I1 when the battery is recharging
(following a period in which the load has been
temporarily supplied entirely from the battery)
has no influence on the sizing of the cable,
due to the short duration of the recharging
cycle. The recharging current has to be taken
into account however, to correctly determine
the upstream protection requirements of
circuit 1.
Example:
For a Maxipac UPS system rated at 7.5 kVA
3-phase 400 V, I1 = 15 A with the battery
floating and Iu = 34 A (see table J2-22).
The c.s.a. of the corresponding cables are:
10 mm2 for the (3-phase) input cable to the
rectifier/charger,
16 mm2 for the (1-phase) output cable to the
load.

fig. J2-25: examples of interconnections.

J22 - particular supply sources and loads


2.9 choice of protection schemes
in the choice of protection schemes,
it is necessary to take account of the
characteristics particular to UPS
systems.
In the choice of protection schemes, it is
necessary to take account of the
characteristics particular to UPS systems: the
short-circuit current from a UPS system is
always very limited, sometimes less than
choice of circuit breaker ratings
The current ratings (In) of CBs D1, D2, D3
and Ddc (figure J2-26) must be chosen such,
that:
In u I1 for D1 (I1 including the battery re-
charging current)
In u Iu for D2
In u Ide for Ddc
The current rating (In) for each outgoing
CB D3 depends on the current rating of the
particular circuit.
The currents I1 and Iu for UPS systems of
Merlin Gerin manufacture, are given in tables
J2-22 to J2-24. The currents Ib are given in
the Merlin Gerin low-voltage distribution
catalogue.
fault-current breaking capacity of
the circuit breakers
Circuit breakers D1 and D2
These CBs must have a fault-current
breaking rating equal to or exceeding the
value calculated for its location in the
network. The calculation is made
conventionally, as previously indicated in
Chapter H1, Sub-clauses 4.1 and 4.2, for
example.
Circuit breaker Ddc
The short-circuit current breaking level for this
CB is always low. In fact, the maximum short-
circuit current from a battery is always less
than 20 times its ampere-hour capacity
(battery capacities are indicated in the Merlin
Gerin low-voltage distribution catalogue).
Circuit breakers D3
The very low level of short-circuit current
available from the UPS system, gives rise to
particularities concerning the organization of
discriminative tripping on the one hand, and
protection against indirect-contact hazards in
TN systems, on the other.
example
20 kV / 400 V
power D2 EPS 5000 of 200 kVA
630 kVA system I1
Isc 22.1 kA network
D1
fig. J2-26: example.
Selection of circuit breakers D1 and D2
Table J2-24 shows the values of normal-load
currents through D1 and D2 respectively, viz:
395 A for I1 and 304 A for Iu.
The short-circuit current-breaking rating of D1
and D2 at their points of installation must be,
for such transformers u 22 kA.
J
twice its rated current. Manufacturers carry
out tests to ensure a satisfactory co-
ordination between the characteristics of the
UPS system and the protection afforded by
associated CBs.
c case 1: circuit configuration in which the
static contactor is closed, but without any
particular requirement concerning autonomy:
the short-circuit current is supplied from the
power network, so that the choice of CBs to
ensure correct discrimination is determined
by classical methods, previously covered in
Chapter H2, Sub-clause 4.5;
c case 2: circuit configuration without the
static contactor or with delayed transfer to it,
so that discrimination must be achieved by
instantaneous or short time-delay overcurrent
protection, operated by the limited short-
circuit current available from the UPS unit,
before its internal overcurrent protection
operates. For Merlin Gerin UPS units
EPS 5000 or 2000* and Merlin Gerin circuit
breakers, the following conditions must be
complied with:
In of a type B circuit breaker
i In of UPS unit
2
* In the case of a Maxipac In of a type B
circuit breaker i In of UPS unit
3
CS
Ddc
Ib
autonomy 10 mn D3
Circuit breakers type NS400N* (400 A at
40 °C - 36 kA) would be satisfactory;
regulated for overload protection (by thermal
tripping device) at Irth u 395A for D1
and u 304 A for D2.
* Merlin Gerin product.
particular supply sources and loads - J23
 2. inverters and UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply units) (continued)

J
2.10 complementary equipments
transformers
A two-winding transformer included on the c prevents third harmonic currents (and
upstream side of the static contactor multiples of them) which may be present on
of circuit 2 (see figure J2-5) allows: the secondary side from passing into the
c a change of voltage level when the power power-system network, providing that the
network voltage is different to that of the load; primary winding is connected in delta.
c a different arrangement for the neutral on
the load-side winding, from that of the power
network.
Moreover, such a transformer:
c reduces the short-circuit current level on
the secondary, (i.e. load) side compared with
that on the power network side,

anti-harmonic filter
The UPS system includes a battery charger
which is controlled by commutated thyristors
or transistors. The resulting regularly-
chopped current cycles “generate” harmonic
components in the power-supply network.
These indesirable components are filtered at
the input of the rectifier and for most cases
this reduces the harmonic current level
sufficiently for all practical purposes. In
certain specific cases however, notably in
very large installations, an additional filter
circuit may be necessary.
For example, when:
c the power rating of the UPS system is large
relative to the HV/LV transformer supplying it;
c the LV busbars supply loads which are
particularly sensitive to harmonics;
c a diesel (or gas-turbine, etc.) driven
alternator is provided as a standby power
supply.
In such cases, the manufacturers of the UPS
system should be consulted.

communications equipment
Communication with equipment associated
with informatic systems (see Sub-clause 2.5)
may entail the need for suitable facilities
within the UPS systems.
Such facilities may be incorporated in an
original design, or added to existing systems
on request.

fig. J2-27: a UPS installation with incorporated communication systems.

J24 - particular supply sources and loads

3. protection of LV/LV transformers
These transformers are generally in the range
of several hundreds of VA to some hundreds
of kVA and are frequently used for:
c changing the (LV) voltage level for:
v auxiliary supplies to control and indication
circuits,
v lighting circuits (230 V created when the
primary system is 400 V 3-phase 3-wires),
c changing the method of earthing for certain
loads having a relatively high capacitive
current to earth (informatic equipment) or
resistive leakage current (electric ovens,
industrial-heating processes, mass-cooking
installations, etc.).
LV/LV transformers are generally supplied
3.1 transformer-energizing in-rush current
At the moment of energizing a transformer,
high values of transient current (which
includes a significant d.c. component) occur,
and must be taken into account when
considering protection schemes. The
magnitude of the current peak depends on:
c the value of voltage at the instant of
energization,
c the magnitude and polarity of magnetic flux
(if any) existing in the core of the transformer,
c characteristics of the load on the
transformer.
In distribution-type transformers, the first
current peak can attain a value equal to 10 to
15 times the full-load r.m.s. current, but for
small transformers (< 50 kVA) may reach
values of 20 to 25 times the nominal full-load
current. This transient current decreases
rapidly, with a time constant θ (see figure
J3-1) of the order of several milli-seconds to
several tens of milli-seconds.
3.2 protection for the supply circuit of a LV/LV transformer
The protective device on the supply circuit for
a LV/LV transformer must avoid the possibility
of incorrect operation due to the magnetizing
in-rush current surge, noted above in 3.1. It is
necessary to use therefore:
c selective (i.e. slightly time-delayed) circuit
breakers of the type Compact NS STR*
(figure J3-2) or
c circuit breakers having a very high
magnetic-trip setting, of the types
Compact NS or Multi 9* curve D (figure J3-3).
* Merlin Gerin.
J
with protective systems incorporated, and the
manufacturers must be consulted for details.
Overcurrent protection must, in any case, be
provided on the primary side. The exploitation
of these transformers requires a knowledge
of their particular function, together with a
number of points described below.
Note: In the particular cases of LV/LV safety
isolating transformers at extra-low voltage, an
earthed metal screen between the primary
and secondary windings is frequently
required, according to circumstances, as
recommended in European Standard
EN 60742, and as discussed in detail in
Sub-clause 3.5 of Chapter G.
I
Î first
10 to 25 In
In
θ t
fig. J3-1: transformer-energizing in-rush
current.
t
50 to
70 ms
r.m.s. value instantaneous I
of the first trip
peak
fig. J3-2: tripping characteristic of a
Compact NS STR circuit breaker.
t
In 10In 20In I
r.m.s. value
of the first
peak
fig. J3-3: tripping characteristic of a circuit
breaker according to standardized type D
curve (for Merlin Gerin 10 to 14 In).
particular supply sources and loads - J25
 3. protection of LV/LV transformers (continued)

J
3.2 protection for the supply circuit of a LV/LV transformer (continued)
Example (figure J3-4)
A 400 V 3-phase circuit is supplying a NS250N
125 kVA 400/230 V transformer (In = 180 A) tripping unit
STR22SE (Ir = 200)
for which the first in-rush current peak can
reach 17 In, i.e. 17 x 180 A = 3,067 A.
A Compact NS250 circuit breaker with Ir
setting of 200 A would therefore be a suitable 3 x 70 mm2
protective device.
A particular case: overload protection 400/230 V
125 kVA
installed at the secondary side of the
transformer
An advantage of overload protection located fig. J3-4: example.
on the secondary side, is that the short-circuit
protection on the primary side can be set at a Note: The primary protection is sometimes
high value, or alternatively a circuit breaker provided by fuses, type a M. This practice
type MA* may be used. The primary-side has two disadvantages:
short-circuit protection setting must, however, c the fuses must be largely oversized (at
be sufficiently sensitive to ensure its least 4 times the nominal full-load rated
operation in the event of a short-circuit current of the transformer);
occurring on the secondary side of the c in order to provide isolating facilities on the
transformer (upstream of secondary primary side, either a load-break switch or a
protective devices). contactor must be associated with the fuses.
* Motor-control circuit breaker, the short-circuit protective
relay of which is immune to high transient-current peaks, as
shown in figure J5-3.

3.3 typical electrical characteristics of LV/LV 50 Hz transformers

3-phase
kVA rating 5 6.3 8 10 12.5 16 20 25 31.5 40 50 63 80 100 125 160 200 250 315 400 500 630 800
no-load losses (W) 100 110 130 150 160 170 270 310 350 350 410 460 520 570 680 680 790 950 1160 1240 1485 1855 2160
full-load losses (W) 250 320 390 500 600 840 800 1180 1240 1530 1650 2150 2540 3700 3700 5900 5900 6500 7400 9300 9400 11400 11400
s.c. voltage (%) 4.5 4.5 4.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5 5 4.5 5 5 5.5 4.5 5.5 5 5 4.5 6 6 5.5 5.5
1-phase
kVA rating 8 10 12.5 16 20 25 31.5 40 50 63 80 100 125 160
no-load losses (W) 105 115 120 140 150 175 200 215 265 305 450 450 525 635
full-load losses (W) 400 530 635 730 865 1065 1200 1400 1900 2000 2450 3950 3950 4335
s.c. voltage (%) 5 5 5 4.5 4.5 4 4 5 5 4.5 5.5 5 5
table J3-5: typical electrical characteristics of LV/LV 50 Hz transformers.

3.4 protection of transformers with characteristics as tabled in J3-5 above, using

Merlin Gerin circuit breakers
3-phase transformers (400 V primary) circuit breakers
P (kVA) In (A) Usc % type trip-unit current
rating (A)/type no.
5 7 4.5 C60 / NC100 D or K 20
10 14 5.5 C60 / NC100 D or K 32
16 23 5.5 C60 / NC100 D or K 63
20 28 5.5 C60 / NC100 D or K 63
25 35 5.5 NC100 D 80
31.5 44 5 NC100 D 80
40 56 5 NC100 D 80
50 70 4.5 NC100 D 100
63 89 5 NS100H/L MA100
NS160H/L STR22SE
80 113 5 NS160H/L STR22SE
100 141 5.5 NS250N/H/L STR22SE
125 176 4.5 NS250N/H/L STR22SE
NS400N/H/L STR23SE
160 225 5.5 NS250N/H/L STR22SE
NS400N/H/L STR23SE
250 352 5 C801N/H/L STR35SE
315 444 4.5 C801N/H/L STR35SE
400 563 6 C801N/H/L STR35SE
500 704 6 C801NH/L STR35SE
C1001N/H/L STR35SE
630 887 5.5 C1001N/H/L STR35SE
C1251N/H STR35SE
table J3-6: protection of 3-phase LV/LV transformers with 400 V primary windings.

J26 - particular supply sources and loads

 J
3-phase transformers (230 V primary) circuit breakers
P (kVA) In (A) Usc % type trip-unit current
rating (A)/type no.
5 12 4.5 C60 / NC100 D or K 40
10 24 5.5 C60 / NC100 D or K 63
16 39 5.5 NC100 D 80
20 49 5.5 NC100 D 100
25 61 5.5 NS100H/L STR22SE
31.5 77 5 NS100H/L STR22SE
40 97 5 NS100H/L STR22SE
50 122 4.5 NS100H/L STR22SE
63 153 5 NS250N/H/L STR22SE
NS400N/H/L STR23SE
80 195 5 NS250N/H/L STR22SE
NS400N/H/L STR23SE
100 244 5.5 NS630N/H/L STR23SE
125 305 4.5 C801N/H/L STR35SE
160 390 5.5 C801N/H/L STR35SE
250 609 5 C801N/H/L STR35SE
C1001N/H/L STR35SE
315 767 4.5 C1001N/H/L STR35SE
C1251N/H STR35SE
400 974 6 C1251N/H STR35SE
table J3-7: protection of 3-phase LV/LV transformers with 230 V primary windings.

1-phase transformers (400 V primary) circuit breakers

P (kVA) In (A) Usc % type trip-unit current
rating (A)/type no.
0.1 0.24 13 C60 D or K 1
0.16 0.39 10.5 C60 D or K 1
0.25 0.61 9.5 C60 D or K 1
0.4 0.98 7.5 C60 D or K 2
0.63 1.54 7 C60 D or K 3
1 2.44 5.2 C60 D or K 6
1.6 3.9 4 C60 / NC100 D or K 10
2 4.88 2.9 C60 / NC100 D or K 10
2.5 6.1 3 C60 / NC100 D or K 16
4 9.8 2.1 C60 / NC100 D or K 20
5 12.2 1.9 C60 / NC100 D or K 32
6.3 15.4 1.6 C60 / NC100 D or K 40
8 19.5 5 C60 / NC100 D or K 50
10 24 5 C60 / NC100 D or K 63
12.5 30 5 C60 / NC100 D or K 63
16 39 4.5 NC100 D 80
20 49 4.5 NC100 D 100
25 61 4.5 NS160H/L STR22SE
31.5 77 4 NS160H/L STR22SE
40 98 4 NS160H/L STR22SE
50 122 4 NS160H/L STR22SE
63 154 5 NS250N/H/L STR22SE
NS400N/H/L STR23SE
80 195 4.5 NS250N/H/L STR22SE
NS400 STR23SE
100 244 5.5 NS630 STR23SE
125 305 5 C801N/H/L STR35SE
160 390 5 C801N/H/L STR35SE
table J3-8: protection of 1-phase LV/LV transformers with 400 V primary windings.

particular supply sources and loads - J27

 3. protection of LV/LV transformers (continued)

J
3.4 protection of transformers with characteristics as tabled in J3-5 above, using
Merlin Gerin circuit breakers (continued)
1-phase transformers (230 V primary) circuit breakers
P (kVA) In (A) Usc % type trip-unit current
rating (A)/type no.
0.1 0.4 13 C60 D or K 1
0.16 0.7 10.5 C60 D or K 2
0.25 1.1 9.5 C60 D or K 3
0.4 1.7 7.5 C60 D or K 4
0.63 2.7 7 C60 D or K 6
1 4.2 5.2 C60 / NC100 D or K 10
1.6 6.8 4 C60 / NC100 D or K 16
2 8.4 2.9 C60 / NC100 D or K 16
2.5 10.5 3 C60 / NC100 D or K 20
4 16.9 2.1 C60 / NC100 D or K 40
5 21.1 1.9 C60 / NC100 D or K 50
6.3 27 1.6 C60 / NC100 D or K 63
8 34 5 NC100 D 80
10 42 5 NC100 D 100
12.5 53 5 NC100 D 100
16 68 4.5 NS160H/L STR22SE
20 84 4.5 NS160H/L STR22SE
25 105 4.5 NS250N/H/L STR22SE
NS250N/H/L STR22SE
31.5 133 4 NS250N/H/L STR22SE
40 169 4 NS250N/H/L STR22SE
NS400N/H/L STR23SE
50 211 5 NS250N/H/L STR22SE
NS400N/H/L STR23SE
63 266 5 NS630N/H/L STR23SE
80 338 4.5 C801N/H/L STR35SE
100 422 5.5 C801N/H/L STR35SE
125 528 5 C801N/H/L STR35SE
160 675 5 C801N/H/L STR35SE
C1001N/H/L STR35SE
table J3-9: protection of 1-phase LV/LV transformers with 230 V primary windings.

J28 - particular supply sources and loads

4. lighting circuits

the presence of adequate lighting
contributes to the satety of persons.
The planning and realization of a lighting
installation requires a sound understanding of
the materials installed, together with
familiarity with the rules for safety against fire
hazards in establishments receiving the
public.
J
In fact, the provision of adequate illumination
in the event of fire or other catastrophic
circumstances is of great importance in
reducing the likelihood of panic, and in
permitting the necessary safety manœuvres
to be carried out.

emergency lighting is intended definitions

to facilitate the evacuation of persons
in case of fire or other panic-causing
situations, when normal lighting
systems may have failed.
Normal lighting refers to the installation
designed for everyday use.
Emergency lighting must ensure easy
evacuation of persons from the premises
concerned, in the event that the normal
lighting system fails. Furthermore, emergency
lighting must be adequate to allow any
particular safety manœuvres provided in the
premises to be carried out.
Standby lighting is intended to substitute
normal lighting, where the latter fails. Standby
lighting permits everyday activities to
continue more or less normally, depending on
the original design specification, and on the
extent of the normal lighting failure. Failure of
the standby lighting system must
automatically switch on the emergency
lighting system.

4.1 service continuity

continuity of normal lighting service
must be sufficient, independent of
other supplementary systems.
normal lighting
Regulations governing the minimum
requirements for ERP (Establishments
Receiving the Public) in most European
countries, are as follows:
c installations which illuminate areas
accessible to the public must be controlled
and protected independently from
installations providing illumination to other
areas;
c loss of supply on a final lighting circuit (i.e.
fuse blown or CB tripped) must not result in
total loss of illumination in an area which is
capable of accommodating more than
50 persons;
c protection by RCDs (residual current
differential devices) must be divided amongst
several devices (i.e. more than one device
must be used).

in emergency lighting circuits, emergency lighting

absolute discrimination between
protective devices on the different
circuits must be provided.
These schemes include illuminated
emergency exit signs and direction
indications, as well as general lighting.
c emergency exit indications
In areas accommodating more than
50 persons, luminous directional indications
to the nearest emergency exits must be
provided;
c general emergency lighting
General lighting is obligatory when an area
can accommodate 100 persons or more
(50 persons or more in areas below ground
level).
A fault on a lighting distribution circuit must
not affect any other circuit:
v the discrimination of overcurrent-protection
relays and of RCDs must be absolute, so that
only the faulty circuit will be cut off,
v the installation must be an IT scheme, or
must be entirely class II, i.e. doubly-insulated.

Sub-clause 4.7 describes different kinds of

suitable power supplies.

particular supply sources and loads - J29

 4. lighting circuits (continued)

J
4.2 lamps and accessories (luminaires)
fluorescent tubes
For normal operation a fluorescent tube c the starter is a switch, which, by breaking
requires a ballast and a starter (device for the (electrode-preheating) current passing
initiating the luminous discharge). through the ballast, causes a high-voltage
c the ballast is an iron-cored inductor, transient pulse to appear across the tube.
permanently connected in series with the This causes an arc (in the form of a gaseous
tube; its function is threefold, viz: discharge) to be established through the
v to limit the preheating current during the tube. The discharge is then self-sustaining at
(brief) starting period, normal voltage.
v to provide a pulse of high voltage at the end The ballast, capacitor and the tube, engender
of the starting period to strike the initial arc, disturbances during the periods of starting,
v to stabilize the current through the luminous steady operation and extinction. These
column (hence the term “ballast”). disturbances are analysed in table J4-1
below.
The presence of the ballast means that the
power-factor (cos ø) of the circuit is low (of
the order 0.6) with the corresponding
consumption of reactive energy, which is
generally metered. For this reason each
fluorescent lamp is normally provided with its
own power-factor-correction capacitor.

switching-on disturbances switching-off disturbances steady-operating disturbances

single-phase fluorescent
lamp with its individual
p.f. correction capacitor
1
2 can result in peaks of 300-400 A for
3 0.5 ms.
single-phase twin-tube
fluorescent lamp with
each tube having its
own starter and series
ballast. One of the tubes
has a capacitor
connected in series with
its ballast. The two sets
of equipment are
connected in parallel.
The arrangement is
known internationally as
a “duo”-circuit luminaire.
The capacitor displaces
the phase of the current
through its tube, to
nullify the flicker effect,
as well as correcting the
overall p.f.
starter
ballast
A
c high current peak to charge
capacitor; order of magnitude 10 In
for 1 sec.
A number of lamps on one circuit
This can cause a CB to trip, or the
welding of contacts in a contactor. In
practice, limit each circuit to 8 tubes
per contactor;
c moderate overload at the
beginning of steady operating
condition (1.1-1.5 In for 1 sec)
according to type of starter.
c no high current peak as noted
above;
c same order of moderate overload
at beginning of steady operating
condition as for the single tube
noted above.
This arrangement is recommended
for difficult cases.
no particular problems
no particular problems
circulation of harmonic currents
(sinusoidal currents at frequencies equal
to whole-number multiples of 50
(or 60) Hz:
c delta-connected lamps (see
Appendix J2) (3-ph 3-wire 230 V system)
1
2
3
presence of 5th and 7th harmonics at very
low level
c star-connected lamps (3-ph 4-wire
400/230 V system)
1
2
3
N
presence of 3 rd harmonic currents in the
neutral, which can reach 70 to 80% of the
nominal phase current.
In this case, therefore, the c.s.a. of the
neutral conductor must equal that of the
phase conductors.

B
starter
fluorescent lamp with c can generate a current peak at no particular problems
HF ballast start;
c can cause leakage to earth of HF
Advantages: current (at 30 kHz) via the phase
Energy savings of the conductor capacitances to earth.
order of 25%.
Rapid one-shot start.
No flicker or
stroboscopic effects.
table J4-1: analysis of disturbances in fluorescent-lighting circuits.

J30 - particular supply sources and loads

 J
4.3 the circuit and its protection
dimensions and protection of the
conductors
The maximum currents in the circuits can be Note: for circuits in which large peak currents
estimated using the methods discussed in occur (at times of switching on) and their
Chapter B. magnitude is such that CB tripping is a
Accordingly, account must be taken of: possibility, the cable size is chosen after the
c the nominal power rating of the lamp and protective CB (with an instantaneous trip
the ballast; setting sufficient to remain closed during the
c the power factor. current peaks) has been selected. See the
The temperature within the distribution panel Note following table J4-2.
also influences the choice of the protective
device (see Chapter H2 Sub-clause 4.4).
In general tables are available from
manufacturers to assist in making a choice.

factor of simultaneity ks
(diversity)
A particular feature of large (e.g. factory)
lighting circuits is that the whole load is “on”
or “off”, i.e. there is no diversity. Furthermore,
even among a number of lighting circuits from
a given distribution panel, the factor ks is
generally near unity.
Consequently, the interior of distribution
panels supplying lighting schemes are
frequently at an elevated temperature, an
important consideration to be taken into
account when selecting protective devices.

4.4 determination of the rated current of the circuit breaker

The rated current of a circuit breaker is The following tables allow direct selection of
generally chosen according to the rating of circuit breaker ratings for certain particular
the circuit conductors it is protecting (in the cases.
particular circumstances in the Note of 4.3
above, however, the reverse procedure was
found to be necessary). The circuit conductor
ratings are defined by the maximum steady
load current of the circuit.

power 230 V 1-phase 230 V 3-phase 400 V 3-phase

(kW) current rating In (A) current rating In (A) current rating In (A)
1 6 3 2
1.5 10 4 3
2 10 6 4
2.5 16 10 4
3 16 10 6
3.5 20 10 10
4 20 16 10
4.5 25 16 10
5 25 16 10
6 32 20 10
7 32 20 16
8 40 25 16
9 50 25 16
10 50 32 20
table J4-2: protective circuit breaker ratings for incandescent lamps and resistive-type
heating circuits (see Note below).
Note: at room temperature the filament resistance of a 100 W 230 V incandescent lamp is
approximately 34 ohms. Some milli-seconds after switching on, the filament resistance rises to
2302/100 = 529 ohms.
The initial current peak at the instant of switch closure is therefore practically 15 times its normal
operating current.
A similar (but generally less severe) transient current peak occurs when energizing any resistive-
type heating appliance.

particular supply sources and loads - J31

 4. lighting circuits (continued)

J
4.4 determination of the rated current of the circuit breaker (continued)
The following table (J4-3) is valid for 230 V and 400 V installations, with or without individual
power-factor correcting capacitors.
mercury vapour fluorescent lamps
P i 700 W 6A
P i 1000 W 10 A
P i 2000 W 16 A
metal-halogen mercury-vapour lamps
P 275 W 6A
P 1000 W 10 A
P 2000 W 16 A
high-pressure sodium discharge lamps
P 400 W 6A
P 1000 W 10 A
table J4-3: maximum limit of rated current per outgoing lighting circuit, for high-pressure
discharge lamps.
single-phase distribution 230 V
three-phase distribution + N : 400 V phase/phase
types de tube number of luminaires per phase
luminaires rating
(W)
single-phase 18 7 14 21 42 70 112 140 175 225 281 351 443 562 703
with capacitor 36 3 7 10 21 35 56 70 87 112 140 175 221 281 351
58 2 4 6 13 21 34 43 54 69 87 109 137 174 218
duo circuit 2x18= 36 3 7 10 21 35 56 70 87 112 140 175 221 281 351
with 2x36= 72 1 3 5 10 17 28 35 43 56 70 87 110 140 175
capacitor 2x58= 116 1 2 3 6 10 17 21 27 34 43 54 68 87 109
current rating of
1-,2-,3 -or 4- pole CBs 1 2 3 6 10 16 20 25 32 40 50 63 80 100

Calculation for tubes with p.f. capacitor; connected in star

number of tubes per phase = 0.8 C x 0.86 V
Pu x 1.25

where: C = current rating of C B, V = phase/neutral voltage, 0.86 = cos ø of circuit, 0.8 = derating
factor for high temperature in CB housing, 1.25 = factor for watts consumed by ballast,
Pu = nominal power rating of tube (W).

three-phase 3 wire system(230 V) phase/phase

types de tube number of luminaires per phase
luminaires rating
(W)
single-phase 18 4 8 12 24 40 64 81 101 127 162 203 255 324 406
with capacitor 36 2 4 6 12 20 32 40 50 64 81 101 127 162 203
58 1 2 3 7 12 20 25 31 40 50 63 79 100 126
duo circuit 2x18= 36 2 4 6 12 20 32 40 50 64 81 101 127 162 203
with 2x36= 72 1 2 3 6 10 16 20 25 32 40 50 63 81 101
capacitor 2x58= 116 0 1 1 3 6 10 12 15 20 25 31 39 50 63
current rating of
2- or 3- pole CBs 1 2 3 6 10 16 20 25 32 40 50 63 80 100
Calculation for tubes with p.f. capacitor; connected in delta
number of tubes per phase = 0.8 C x 0.86 U
Pu x 1.25 x e
where: U = phase/phase voltage
tables J4-4: current ratings of circuit breakers related to the number of fluorescent
luminaires to be protected.

J32 - particular supply sources and loads


4.5 choice of control-switching devices
The advent of switching devices which
combine the functions of remote control and
protection, of which the remotely-controllable
residual-current circuit breaker is the
prototype, simplifies lighting-control circuits
considerably, thereby enlarging the scope
and diversity of control schemes.
J
Certain switching devices include control
circuitry for operation at ELV (extra-low-
voltage, i.e. < 50 V or < 25 V according to
requirements); these control circuits being
insulated for 4,000 V with respect to the
power circuits.
The situation at the time of writing is
summarized below in table J4-5.

remote-control function of corresponding switchgear and controlled equipment

mode
remote remote control remote control local control centralized control
control + overcurrent + overcurrent protection devices devices
protection + insulation monitoring
and protection
point-to-point bistable switch circuit residual current circuit push-button stairway time-switch
remote control breaker breaker controlled with automatic switch-off
centralized contactor controlled by hard-wire system switch automatic photo-electric
remote control by hard-wire system lighting-control switches
point-to-point “pilot” bistable switch push movement detectors;
and centralized remote controlled button central clock relaying
remote control switch
control signals remotely remotely controlled residual current circuit according
over commun- controlled circuit breaker over breaker controlled over to type
ications bus switch communications bus communications bus
control signals remotely controlled static contactor/
over time- circuit breaker combination
multiplexing
channels
table J4-5: types of remote control.

particular supply sources and loads - J33

 4. lighting circuits (continued)

J
4.6 protection of ELV lighting circuits
A LV/ELV transformer is often located in an
inaccessible position, so that protection
installed on the secondary side would be
equally difficult to reach.
For this reason the protection is commonly
provided on the primary circuit.
The protective device is therefore chosen:
c to provide switching control (Multi 9
type C CB, or type aM fuses);
c to ensure protection against short-circuits.
It must therefore be verified that:
v in the case of a CB, the minimum value of
short-circuit current exceeds by a suitable
margin the short-circuit magnetic relay setting
Im of the CB concerned,
v in the case of fuses it is also necessary to
ensure that the I2t energy let-through of the
fuse(s) at minimum short-circuit current is
well below the level of the thermal withstand
capacity of the circuit conductors,
c if necessary, overload protection must be
provided. If the number of lamps on the circuit
has been correctly chosen, however,
overload protection is not necessary.
Example:
The s.c. current Isc2 at the secondary
2A
terminals of a single-phase LV/ELV
transformer is equal to
Us where Zs = Us2 x Usc %
Zs Pn 100
so that Isc2 = Pn x 100 = 400 x 100 LV 230/12 V
Us x Usc% 12 x 6 ELV
400 VA
= 555 A which gives Isc1 = 29 A in the Usc = 6%
primary circuit.

Circuit breaker type C trips if the primary

current u Im1 = 10 In = 20 A, which
corresponds to a secondary current of secondary
circuit
20 x 230 = 383 A
12
The maximum resistance of the ELV (i.e.
secondary) circuit* may be deduced from
these two secondary s.c. currents, viz: 555 A fig. J4-6: example.
and 383 A as follows:
Rc = U2 - V2 = 12 - 12 = 0.0313 - 0.0216
Im2 Isc2 383 555
= 9.7 mΩ
* from the transformer terminals to the ELV distribution
board.

Note: The true value of Rc permitted is,

in principle, greater than 9.7 milli-ohms,
because the source impedance (i.e. U2/555,
will be mainly reactive, not resistive, as
(implied) in the example. However,
for simplicity, and to automatically provide
a safety margin under all circumstances,
an arithmetic subtraction, as shown,
is recommended.
The maximum length of the 12 V circuit
based on 9.7 mΩ will therefore be:
Rc (mΩ) x S (mm2) in metres = 9.7 x 6
2 x 22.5 (µΩ.mm) 2 x 22.5
for a 6 mm2 copper cable = 1.3 m
It is then necessary to check that this length
is sufficient to reach the 12 V distribution
board, where the outgoing ways are
protected with other devices. If the length is
insufficient, then an increase in the c.s.a. of
the conductors, proportional to the increased
length required, will satisfy the constraint for
maximum Rc; for example, a conductor of
10 mm2 would allow 1.3 x 10/6 = 2.2 m of
circuit length in the above case.

J34 - particular supply sources and loads


4.7 supply sources for emergency lighting
Supply sources for emergency-lighting
systems must be capable of maintaining the
supply to all lamps in the most unfavourable
circumstances likely to occur, and for a period
judged necessary to ensure the total
evacuation of the premises concerned,
with (in any case) a minimum of one hour.
compatibility between
emergency lighting sources and
other parts of the installation
Emergency-lighting sources must supply
exclusively the circuits installed only for
operation in emergency situations.
Standby lighting systems operate to maintain
illumination, on failure of normal lighting
circuits (generally in non-emergency
circumstances). However, failure of standby
lighting must automatically bring the
emergency lighting system into operation.
classification of emergency-
lighting schemes
Many countries have statutory regulations
concerning safety in buildings and areas
intended for public gatherings.
Classification of such locations leads to the
determination of suitable types of solutions,
authorized for use in emergency-lighting
schemes in the different areas.
The following four classifications are typical.
Type A
The lamps are supplied permanently and
totally during the presence of the public by a
single central source (battery of storage cells,
or a heat-engine-driven generator). These
circuits must be independent of any other
circuits (1).
Type B
The lamps are permanently supplied during
the presence of the public, either:
c by a battery to which the lamps are
permanently connected, and which is on
permanent trickle charge from a normal
lighting source, or,
c by a heat-engine-driven generator, the
characteristics of which also assure supplies
to essential loads within one second (since
the set is already running and supplying the
emergency lighting) in the event of failure of
the normal power supply, or,
c by autonomous units which are normally
supplied and permanently alight from the
normal lighting supply, and which remain
alight (for at least one hour), on the loss of
normal supply, by virtue of a self-contained
battery. The battery is trickle-charged in
normal circumstances.
These units have fluorescent lamps for
general emergency lighting, and fluorescent
or incandescent lamps for exit and direction-
indicating signs.
The circuits for all emergency lamps must be
independent of any other circuits (1).
J
Central sources for emergency supplies may
also be used to provide standby supplies,
provided that the following conditions are
simultaneously fulfilled:
c where there are several sources, the failure
of one source must leave sufficient capacity
in service to maintain supply to all safety
systems, with automatic load shedding of
non-essential loads (if necessary);
c the failure of one source, or one equipment
concerned with safety, must leave all other
sources and safety equipments unaffected;
c any safety equipment must be arranged to
receive supply from any source.
Type C
The lamps may, or may not, be supplied in
normal conditions and, if supplied, may be
fed from the normal lighting system, or from
the emergency-lighting supply.
c the emergency-lighting batteries must be
maintained on charge from the normal source
by automatically regulated systems, that
ensure a minimum of capacity equal to the
full emergency-lighting load for one hour;
c the heat-engine-driven generator sets must
be capable of automatically picking-up the full
emergency lighting load from a standby
(stationary) condition, in less than
15 seconds, following the failure of normal
supply.
The engine start-up power is provided by a
battery which is capable of six starting
attempts, or by a system of compressed air.
Minimum reserves of energy in the two
systems of start-up must be maintained
automatically.
c failures in the central emergency supply
source must be detected at a sufficient
number of points and adequately signalled to
supervisory/maintenance personnel;
c autonomous units may be of the
permanently-lit type or non-permanently-lit
type.
The circuits for all emergency lamps must be
independent of any other circuits (2).
Type D
This type of emergency lighting comprises
hand-carried battery-powered (primary or
secondary cells) at the disposal of service
personnel or the public.
(1) Circuits for types A and B, in the case of a central
emergency power source, must also be fire-resistant.
Conduit boxes, junction sleeves and so on must satisfy
national standard heat tests, or the circuits must be installed
in protective cable chases, trunking, etc. capable of assuring
satisfactory performance for at least one hour in the event of
fire.
(2) Cable circuits of type C are not required to comply with
the conditions of (1).
particular supply sources and loads - J35
 5. asynchronous motors
J
the asynchronous (i.e. induction)
motor is robust and reliable,
and very widely used. 95%
of motors installed around the world
are asynchronous. The protection
of these motors is consequently
a matter of great importance
in numerous applications.
specific features of motor
performance influence the power-
supply circuits required for
satisfactory operation.
5.1 protective and control functions required
functions to be provided generally
include:
c basic protective devices,
c electronic control equipment,
c preventive or limitative protection
equipment.
J36 - particular supply sources and loads
The consequences of an incorrectly protected It is, therefore, the safety of persons and
motor can include the following: goods, and reliability and availability levels
c for persons: which must influence the choice of protective
v asphyxiation due to the blockage of motor equipment.
ventilation, In economic terms, it is the overall cost of
v electrocution due to insulation failure in the failure which must be considered; a penalty
motor, which is increasingly severe as the size of the
v accident due to sticking (contact welding) of motor, and difficulties of access to it increase.
the controlling contactor; Loss of production is a further, and evidently
c for the driven machine and the process: important factor.
v shaft couplings and axles, etc. damaged
due to a stalled rotor,
v loss of production,
v manufacturing time delayed;
c for the motor:
v motor windings burnt out due to stalled
rotor,
v cost of dismantling and reinstating or
replacement of motor,
v cost of repairs to the motor.
A motor power-supply circuit presents certain t I" = 8 to 12 In
constraints not normally encountered in other Id = 5 to 8 In
(common) distribution circuits, owing to the In = nominal motor
particular characteristics, specific to motors, current
such as:
c heavy start-up current (see figure J5-1)
which is highly reactive, and can therefore be
the cause of an important voltage drop; td
1 to 10s
c number and frequency of start-up
operations are generally high;
c the heavy start-up current means that
motor overload protective devices must have
operating characteristics which avoid tripping
during the starting period.
20 to
30 ms
In Id I" I
fig. J5-1: direct-on-line starting-current
characteristics of an induction motor.
Functions generally provided are:
c basic protection, including:
v isolating facility,
v manual local and/or remote control,
v protection against short-circuits,
v protection against overload;
c electronic controls consisting of:
v progressive “soft-start” motor starter, or,
v speed controller;
c preventive or limitative protection by means
of:
v temperature sensors,
v multi-function relays,
v permanent insulation-resistance monitor or
RCD (residual-current differential device).
Table J5-2 below, shows diverse motor-circuit
configurations commonly used in LV
distribution boards.
 J
basic protection fuse-disconnector circuit breaker* motor circuit contactor circuit
+ discontactor + discontactor breaker* + contactor breaker* ACPA
(using thermal relay) (using thermal relay)
standards

disconnection
(or isolation)

manual remote
control control

short-circuit
protection

* circuit breaker includes disconnector capability

overload c large power range c large power range c method is simple c low installation costs
protection c allow all types c avoids need to stock and compact for c no maintenance
of starting schemes fuse cartridges low-power motors c high degree of safety
c a well-proven method c disconnection is and reliability
c suitable for systems visible in certain cases c suitable for systems
having high fault c identification of having high fault levels
levels the reason for tripping c long electrical life
refer also to Chapter H2, Sub-clause 2-2 i.e. short circuit
or overload
electronic controls progressive “soft-start” speed
starter device controller
c limitation c from 2 to 130 % of
v current peaks I nominal speed
v voltage drops U c thermal protection is
v mechanical constraints incorporated
during start-up period c possibility of
c thermal protection is communication facilities
incorporated
preventive or limitative
protection devices thermal sensors
Protection against abnormal
heating of the motor by
thermistance-type sensors in the
motor windings, connected to
associated relays.

multi-function relays
Direct and indirect thermal protection against:
c the starting period excessively long, or
stalled-rotor condition
c imbalance, absence or inversion of phase
voltages
c earth fault or excessive earth-leakage current
c motor running on no-load; motor blocked
during start-up
c pre-alarm overheating indication

permanent insulation-to-earth monitor and

RCD (residual-current differential relay)
Protection against earth-leakage current
and short-circuits to earth.
Signalled indication of need for motor
maintenance or replacement.

table J5-2: commonly-used types of LV motor-supply circuits.

particular supply sources and loads - J37

 5. asynchronous motors (continued)
J
5.2 standards
5.3 basic protection schemes: circuit breaker / contactor / thermal relay
functions to be implemented are:
c control (start/stop),
c isolation (safety during
maintenance),
c protection against short-circuits,
c specific protection as noted in
Sub-clause 5.1
Where several different devices are
used to provide protection, co-
ordination between them is
necessary.
among the many possible methods
of protecting a motor, the association
of a circuit breaker incorporating an
instantaneous magnetic trip for short-
circuit protection and a contactor with
a thermal overload relay* provides
many advantages.
J38 - particular supply sources and loads
The international standards covering
materials discussed in this Sub-clause are:
IEC 947-2, 947-3, 947-4-1, and 947-6-2.
These standards are being adopted (often
without any changes) by a number of
countries, as national standards.
The control and protection of a motor can be
provided by one, two or three devices, which
share the required functions of:
c control (start/stop);
c disconnection (isolation) for safety of
personnel during maintenance work;
c short-circuit protection;
c protection specific to the particular motor
(but at least thermal relay overcurrent
protection).
When these functions are performed by
several devices, co-ordination between them
is essential. In the case of an electrical fault
of any kind, none of the devices involved
must be damaged, except items for which
minor damage is normal in the particular
circumstances, e.g. replaceable arcing
contacts in certain contactors, after a given
number of service operations, and so on...
The kind of co-ordination required depends
on the necessary degree of service continuity
and on safety levels, etc.
t range 1.05 - 1.20 In
circuit
breaker
characteristics
end of of thermal relay
magnetic start-up
relay period
contactor cable thermal-withstand
ts
1 to
limit
thermal
relay 10 s
limit of thermal-
câble relay constraint
short-circuit tripping
characteristic
motor of the circuit breaker
(nominal 20 to (type MA)
current In) 30 ms
In Is I" Imagn. l CB plus contactor (see Note)
short-circuit-current
circuit breaker only breaking capacities
fig. J5-3: tripping characteristics of a circuit breaker (type MA)** and
thermal-relay / contactor (1) combination.
Advantages c interlocking;
This combination of devices facilitates c diverse remote indications;
installation work, as well as operation and c better protection for the starter for short-
maintenance, by: circuit currents up to about 30 In (see
c the reduction of the maintenance work load: figure J5-3).
the CB avoids the need to replace blown In the majority of cases short-circuit faults
fuses and the necessity of maintaining a occur at the motor, so that the current is
stock (of different sizes); limited by the cable and the wiring of the
c better continuity performance: a motor starter (e.g. the direct-acting trip coil of the
circuit can be re-energized immediately CB).
following the elimination of a fault; c possibility of adding RCD:
c additional complementary devices v an RCD of 500 mA sensitivity practically
sometimes required on a motor circuit are eliminates fire risk due to leakage current,
easily accommodated; v protection against destruction of the motor
c tripping of all three phases is assured (short-circuiting of laminations) by the early
(thereby avoiding the possibility of “single- detection of earth-fault currents (300 mA to
phasing”); 30 A);
c full-load current switching possibility (by c etc.
CB) in the event of contactor failure, e.g.
contact welding;
* The association of an overload relay and a contactor is referred to as a “discontactor” in some countries.
** Merlin Gerin.
 J
Note: When short-circuit currents are very
high, the contacts of some contactors may be
momentarily forced open by electro-magnetic
repulsion, so that two sets of contacts (i.e.
those of the CB and those of the contactor)
are acting in series. The combination
effectively increases the s.c. current-breaking
capacity above that of the CB alone.
Conclusion
The association circuit breaker / contactor /
thermal relay(1) for the control and protection
of motor circuits is eminently appropriate
where:
c the maintenance service for an installation
is reduced, which is generally the case in
tertiary and small-and medium-sized
industrial enterprises;
c the job specification calls for
complementary functions;
c there is an operational requirement for a
load-breaking facility in the event of contact
welding of the contactor.
(1) a contactor in association with a thermal relay is
commonly referred to as a discontactor.

standardization of the
association of circuit breakers/
discontactors
Categories of contactor
The standard IEC 947-4 gives utilization
categories which considerably facilitate the
choice of a suitable contactor for a given
service duty.
The utilization categories advise on:
c a range of functions for which the contactor
may be adapted;
c its current breaking and making
capabilities;
c standard test values for expected life
duration on load, according to its utilization.
The following table gives some typical
examples of the utilization categories
covered.
utilization application characteristics
category
AC-1 Non-inductive (or slightly inductive) loads: cos ø u 0.95 (heating, distribution)
AC-2 Starting and switching off of slip-ring motors
AC-3 Cage motors: starting, and switching off motors during running
AC-4 Cage motors: starting, plugging, inching
table J5-4: utilization categories for contactors (IEC 947-4).
Types of co-ordination Which type to choose?
For each association of devices, a type of co- The type of co-ordination to adopt depends
ordination is given, according to the state of on the parameters of exploitation, and must
the constituant parts following a circuit be chosen to satisfy (optimally) the needs of
breaker trip out on fault, or the opening of a the user and the cost of installation.
contactor on overload. c type 1:
IEC 947-4-1 defines two types of co- v qualified maintenance service,
ordination, type 1 and type 2, which set v volume and cost of switchgear reduced,
maximum allowable limits of deterioration of v continuity of service not demanded, or
switchgear, which must never present a provided by replacement of motor-starter
danger to personnel. drawer;
c type 1: deterioration of the contactor and/or c type 2:
of its relay is acceptable under 2 conditions: v continuity of service imperative,
v no risk for the operator, v no maintenance service,
v all elements other than the contactor and its v specifications stipulating this type of co-
relay must remain undamaged; ordination.
c type 2: burning, and the risk of welding of
the contacts of the contactor are the only
risks allowed.

particular supply sources and loads - J39

 5. asynchronous motors (continued)

J
5.3 basic protection schemes: circuit breaker / contactor / thermal relay (continued)
key points in the successful
association of a circuit breaker
and a discontactor
t
Compact NS 2 1 CB magnetic-trip performance curve
type MA 2 thermal-relay characteristic
3 thermal-withstand limit of the thermal relay

1
3

Isc ext.

fig. J5-5: the thermal-withstand limit of the thermal relay must be to the right of the CB
magnetic-trip characteristic.
Standards define precisely all the elements
which must be taken into account to realize a
correct co-ordination of type 2:
c absolute compatibility between the thermal
relay of the discontactor and the magnetic trip
of the circuit breaker. In figure J5-5 the
thermal relay is protected if its limit boundary
for thermal withstand is placed to the right of
the CB magnetic trip characteristic curve.
In the case of a motor-control circuit breaker
incorporating both magnetic and thermal
devices, co-ordination is provided in the
design;
c the short-circuit current breaking rating of
the contactor must be greater than the
regulated threshold of the CB magnetic trip
relay, since it (the contactor) must be capable
of breaking a current which has a value equal
to, or slightly less than, the setting of the
magnetic relay (as seen from figure J5-5);
c a reliable performance of the contactor and
its thermal relay when passing short-circuit
current, i.e. no excessive deterioration of
either device and no welding of contactor
contacts.

it is not possible to predict the s.c. short-circuit current-breaking

current-breaking capability of a CB +
contactor combination. Laboratory
tests and calculations by
manufacturers are necessary to
determine which type of CB to
associate with which contactor, and
to establish the s.c. breaking capacity
of the combination.
Tables are published by Merlin Gerin
giving this information in their
“LV Distribution” catalogue.
capacity of a combination circuit
breaker + contactor
In the studies, the s.c. current-breaking
capacity which must be compared to the
prospective short-circuit current is:
c either, that of the CB + contactor
combination, if these devices are physically
close together (e.g. in the same drawer or
M
compartment of a MCC*). A short-circuit
downstream of the combination will be limited
to some extent by the impedances of the fig. J5-6: circuit breaker and contactor
contactor (see previous Note) and the mounted in juxtaposition.
thermal relay. The combination can therefore
be used on a circuit for which the prospective
short-circuit current level exceeds the rated
s.c. current-breaking capacity of the circuit
breaker. This feature very often presents a
significant economic advantage;
c or, that of the CB only, for the case where
the contactor is separated from the CB
(so that a short-circuit is possible on the
intervening circuit). For such a case,
IEC 947-4-1 requires the rating of the circuit M
breaker to be equal to or greater than the
prospective short-circuit current at its point of fig. J5-7: circuit breaker and contactor
installation. separately mounted, with intervening
* Motor Control Centre. circuit conductors.

J40 - particular supply sources and loads


5.4 preventive or limitative protection
preventive or limitative protection
devices detect signs of impending
failure, so that action can be taken
(automatically or by operator
intervention) to avoid or limit the
otherwise inevitable consequences.
J
choice of instantaneous
magnetic-trip relay for the circuit
breaker
The operating threshold must never be less
than 12 In for this relay, in order to avoid
possible tripping due to the first current peak
during start-up. This current peak can vary
from 8 In to 11 or 12 In.
The main protection devices of this type for
motor are:
c thermal sensors in the motor (windings,
bearings, cooling-air ducts, etc.);
c multifunction protections;
c insulation-failure detection devices on
running, or stationary motor.
thermal sensors
Thermal sensors are used to detect abnormal
temperature rise in the motor by direct
measurement.
The thermal sensors are generally embedded
in the stator windings (for LV motors), the
signal being processed by an associated
control device acting to trip the circuit breaker
(figure J5-8).
fig. J5-8: overheating protection by
thermal sensors.
multi-function motor-protection
relay
The multi-function relay, associated with a
number of sensors and indication modules,
provides protection for motors, such as:
c thermal overload;
c rotor stalled, or starting-up period too long;
c overheating;
c phase current imbalance, loss of one
phase, inverse rotation;
c earth fault (by RCD);
c running on no-load, blocked rotor on
start-up.
The advantages of this relay are essentially:
c a comprehensive protection, providing a
reliable, high-performance and permanent fig. J5-9: multi-function protection,
monitoring/control function; typified by the Telemecanique relay, type
c efficient surveillance of all motor-operating LT8 above.
schedules;
c alarm and control indications;
c possibility of communication via
communication buses.
particular supply sources and loads - J41
 5. asynchronous motors (continued)

J
5.4 preventive or limitative protection (continued)
preventive protection of
stationary motors
This protection concerns the monitoring of the
level of insulation resistance of a stationary
motor, thereby avoiding the undesirable SM20
consequences of insulation failure during
operation, such as:
c for motors used on emergency systems for MERLIN GERIN
example: failure to start or to perform SM20

correctly; IN OUT

c in manufacturing: loss of production.

This type of protection is indispensable for
essential-services and emergency-systems
motors, especially when installed in humid
and/or dusty locations.
Such protection avoids the destruction of a fig. J5-10: preventive protection of
motor by short-circuit to earth during start-up stationary motors.
(one of the most frequently-occurring
incidents) by giving a warning in advance that
maintenance work is necessary to restore the
motor to a satisfactory operational condition.
Examples of application (figure J5-10)
Fire-protection system “sprinkler” pumps.
Irrigation pumps for seasonal operation, etc.
Example: a vigilohm SM 20 (Merlin Gerin)
relay monitors the insulation of a motor, and
signals audibly and visually any abnormal
reduction of the insulation resistance level.
Furthermore, this relay can prevent any
attempt to start the motor, if necessary.

limitative protection
Residual current differential protective
devices (RCDs) can be very sensitive and
detect low values of leakage current which
occur when the insulation to earth of an
installation deteriorates (by physical damage,
contamination, excessive humidity, and so
on). Some versions of RCDs, specially
designed for such applications, provide the
following possibilities:
c to avoid the destruction of a motor
(by perforation and short-circuiting of the RH328A
laminations of the stator) caused by an
eventual arcing fault to earth. This protection
can detect incipient fault conditions by
operating at leakage currents in the range of MERLIN GERIN

300 mA to 30 A, according to the size of the

motor (approx. sensitivity: 5 % In).
Instantaneous tripping by the RCD will greatly
limit the extent of damage at the fault
location;
c to reduce considerably the risk of fire due to
earth-leakage currents (sensitivity i 500 mA). fig. J5-11: example using relay RH328A.
A typical RCD for such duties is type
RH328A relay (Merlin Gerin) which provides:
c 32 sensitivities (0.03 to 250 A);
c possibility of discriminative tripping or to
take account of particular operational
requirements, by virtue of 8 possible time-
delays (instantaneous to 1 s.);
c automatic operation if the circuit from the
current transformer to the relay is broken;
c protected against false operation;
c insulation of d.c. circuit components:
class A.

J42 - particular supply sources and loads


voltage drop at the terminals of a
motor during starting must never
exceed 10% of rated voltage Un.
The importance of limiting voltage drop
at the motor during start-up
In order that a motor starts and accelerates to
its normal speed in the appropriate time, the
torque of the motor must exceed the load
torque by at least 70%. However, the starting
current is much greater than the full-load
current of the motor; moreover, it is largely
inductive. These two factors are both very
unfavourable to the maintenance of voltage
at the motor. Failure to provide sufficient
voltage will reduce the motor torque
significantly (motor torque is proportional to
U2) and will result either in an excessively
long starting time, or, for extreme cases, in
failure to start.
J
Example:
c with 400 V maintained at the terminals of a
motor, its torque would be 2.1 times that of
the load torque;
c for a voltage drop of 10% during start-up,
the motor torque would be 2.1 x 0.92 = 1.7
times the load torque, and the motor would
accelerate to its rated speed normally;
c for a voltage drop of 15% during start-up,
the motor torque would be 2.1 x 0.852 = 1.5
times the load torque, so that the motor-
starting time would be longer than normal.
In general, a maximum allowable voltage
drop of 10% Un is recommended during the
start-up of a motor.

5.5 maximum rating of motors installed for consumers supplied at LV

The disturbances caused on LV distribution currents for DOL motors are shown below in
networks during the start-up of large DOL table J5-12.
(direct-on-line) a.c. motors can occasion Corresponding maximum power ratings of the
considerable nuisance to neighbouring same motors are shown in table J5-13.
consumers, so that most power-supply Since, even in areas supplied by one power
authorities have strict rules intended to limit authority only, “weak” areas of the network
such disturbances to tolerable levels. exist as well as “strong” areas, it is always
The amount of disturbance created by a advisable to secure the agreement of the
given motor depends on the “strength” of the power supplier before acquiring the motors
network, i.e. on the short-circuit fault level at for a new project.
the point concerned. The higher the fault Other (but generally more costly) alternative
level, the “stronger” the system and the lower starting arrangements exist, which reduce the
the disturbance (principally volt-drop) large starting currents of DOL motors to
experienced by neighbouring consumers. acceptable levels; for example, star-delta
For distribution networks in many countries, starters, slip-ring motors, “soft start” electronic
typical values of maximum allowable starting devices, etc.
type of motor single- location maximum starting current (A)
or three-phase overhead- underground-
line network cable network
single phase dwellings 45 45
others 100 200
three phase dwellings 60 60
others 125 250
table J5-12: maximum permitted values of starting current for direct-on-line LV motors
(230/400 V).

type of motor single- single-phase three-phase 400 V

or three-phase 230 V
location (kW) direct-on-line other methods
starting at full load of starting
(kW) (kW)
dwellings 1.4 5.5 11
others overhead line 3 11 22
network
underground 5.5 22 45
cable network
table J5-13: maximum permitted power ratings for LV direct-on-line-starting motors.

5.6 reactive-energy compensation (power-factor correction)

The effect of power factor correction on the
amount of current supplied to a motor is
indicated in table B4 in Chapter B
Sub-clause 3-1, and the method of correction
in Chapter E Clause 7.

particular supply sources and loads - J43

 6. protection of direct-current installations

J
differences between a.c. and d.c.
installations
Although the basic design principles in each
case are similar, there are differences in:
c the calculations for short-circuit currents,
and;
c the choice of protective equipment, since
the techniques employed for the interruption
of direct current differ in practice from those
used for alternating current.

6.1 short-circuit currents

in order to calculate the maximum
short-circuit current from a battery of
storage cells, when the internal
resistance of the battery is unknown,
the following approximate formula
may be used:
Isc = kC where C = the rated
ampere-hour capacity of the battery,
and k is a coefficent close to 10 (and
in any case is less than 20).
battery of storage cells (or
accumulators)
For a short-circuit at its output terminals, a Example:
battery will pass a current according to Ohm’s What is the short-circuit current level at the
law equal to Isc = Vb/Ri terminals of a battery with the following
where: Vb = open circuit voltage of the fully- characteristics:
charged battery c 500 Ah capacity;
Ri = the internal resistance of the battery (this c fully-charged open-circuit voltage 240 V
value is normally obtained from the (110 cells at 2.2 V/cell);
manufacturer of the battery, as a function of c discharge rate 300 A;
its ampere-hour capacity) c autonomy 1/2 hour;
When Ri is not known, an approximate c internal resistance is 0.5 milli-ohm/cell
formula may be used, namely: Isc = kC so that Ri = 110 x 0.5 = 55 mΩ for the battery,
3
where C is the ampere-hour rating of the and Isc = 240 x 10 = 4.4 kA
battery and k is a coefficient close to 10, and 55
in any case is always less than 20. The short-circuit currents are seen to be
(relatively) low.

Isc

fig. J6-1: battery of storage cells.

direct-current generator
If Vg is the open-circuit voltage of the
generator and Ri its internal resistance, then:
Isc = Vg / Ri.
In the absence of precise data, and for a d.c.
system of voltage Un, Vg may be taken as
1.1 Un.
Example:
A d.c. generator rated at 200 kW, 230 V, and
having an internal resistance of 0.032 ohm,
will give a terminal short-circuit current of
230 x 1.1 = 7.9 kA
0.032

G
= Icc

fig. J6-2: direct-current generator.

Isc at any point in an installation

In this case Isc = V +
Ri + Rl
Where Ri is as previously defined, -
V is either Vb or Vg as previously defined,
Rl is the sum of the resistances of the fault-
current loop conductors.
Where motors are included in the system,
they will each (initially) contribute a current of
fig. J6-3: short-circuit at any point of an
approximately 6 In (i.e. six times the nominal
installation.
full-load current of the motor) so that:
Isc = V + 6 (In mot)
Ri + Rl
where In mot is the sum of the full-load
currents of all running motors at the instant of
short-circuit.

J44 - particular supply sources and loads


6.2 characteristics of faults due to insulation failure, and of protective switchgear
Devices for circuit interruption are sensitive to
the level of d.c. voltage at their terminals
when breaking short-circuit currents.
The table below provides the means for
determining these voltages, which depend on
the source voltage and on the method of
earthing the source.
J
Note: In the following text the word “pole” has
two meanings, viz:
1. Referring to a d.c. source, for example:
the positive pole or the negative pole of a
battery or generator.
2. Referring to a switch or circuit breaker, for
example:
a pole of a circuit breaker makes or breaks
the current in one conductor. A pole of a
circuit breaker may be made up of modules,
each of which contains a contact. The pole
may therefore consist of one module or
(particularly in d.c. circuits) several series-
connected modules.

Voltage stresses across opening contacts

are reduced by the technique of connecting a
number of contacts in series per pole, as
mentioned in the table below, and in the
following text.
types of network system earthing unearthed system
one pole earthed source with source is not
at the source mid-point earthing earthed
earthing schemes i
a
i
a
i
a
and various fault +
+ +
conditions U/2
+
U R R U R
– B – U/2 B –
A A B A
b C b b
C C

case 1 case 2 case 3

analysis fault A pole (a) must break pole (a) must break there is no short-circuit
of each maximum Isc at U volts maximum Isc* in this case
fault at U/2 volts
fault B poles (a) and (b) must poles (a) and (b) must poles (a) and (b)
break the maximum break the maximum must break the maximum Isc
Isc at U volts Isc at U volts at U volts
fault C there is no short-circuit as for fault A but as for fault A
current in this case concerning pole (b)*
* U/2 divided by Ri/2 = Isc (max.)
the most fault A A=B=C fault B (or faults A and C
unfavourable case see Note below the table simultaneously)
case of a circuit breaker all the contacts participating in provide in the CB pole provide the number of contacts
current interruption are series for each conductor the number necessary for breaking the
connected in the positive- of contacts necessary to break current indicated in the CB pole
conductor (or the negative Isc (max.) at the voltage U/2. of each conductor.
conductor if the positive pole
of the source is earthed). Provide
an additional pole for inserting in the
earthed polarity conductor, to permit
circuit isolation (figure J6-6).
table J6-4: characteristics of protective switchgear according to type of d.c. system earthing.
Note: each pole is equally stressed for faults at A, B or C, since maximum Isc must be broken with U/2 across the CB pole(s) in each case.

6.3 choice of protective device

for each type of possible insulation
failure, the protective devices against
short-circuits must be adequately
rated for the voltage levels noted in
table J6-4 above.
The choice of protective device depends on:
c the voltage appearing across the current-
breaking element. In the case of circuit
breakers, this voltage dictates the number of
circuit-breaking contacts that must be
connected in series for each pole of a circuit
breaker, to attain the levels indicated in
table J6-4;
c the rated current required;
c the short-circuit current level at its point of
installation (in order to specify its s.c. current-
breaking capacity);
c the time constant of the fault current (L/R
in milli-seconds) at the point of installation of
the CB.
Table J6-5 below gives characteristics
(current ratings, s.c. current-breaking
capacity, and the number of series-connected
contacts per pole required for a given system
voltage) for circuit breakers made by
Merlin Gerin.

particular supply sources and loads - J45

 6. protection of direct-current installations (continued)

J
6.3 choice of protective device (continued)
type ratings sc current-breaking capacity kA thermal coefficient for
(A) for L/R i 0.015 seconds overload uprating the
(the number of series-connected protection instantaneous
contacts per pole is shown in brackets) magnetic
24/48 V 125 V 250 V 500 V 750 V 1000 V tripping units*
C32HDC 1 to 40 20 (1p) 10 (1p) 20 (2p) 10 (2p) special DC special DC
C60a 10 to 40 10 (1p) 10 (2p) 20 (3p) 25 (4p) ditto AC 1.38
C60N 6 to 63 15 (1p) 20 (2p) 30 (3p) 40 (4p) ditto AC 1.38
C60H 1 to 63 20 (1p) 25 (2p) 40 (3p) 50 (4p) ditto AC 1.38
C60L 1 to 63 25 (1p) 30 (2p) 50 (3p) 60 (4p) ditto AC 1.38
NC100H 50 to 100 20 (1p) 30 (2p) 40 (3p) 20 (4p) ditto AC 1.42
NC100LH 10 to 63 50 (1p) 50 (1p) 50 (1 p) 50 (3p) ditto AC 1.42
NS100N 16 to 100 50 (1p) 50 (1p) 50 (1p) 50 (2p) ditto AC 1.42
NC100H 16 to 100 85 (1p) 85 (1p) 85 (1p) 85 (2p) ditto AC 1.42
NS100L 16 to 100 100 (1p) 100 (1p) 100 (1p) 100 (2p) ditto AC
NS160N 40 to 160 50 (1p) 50 (1p) 50 (1p) 50 (2p) ditto AC
NS160H 40 to 160 85 (1p) 85 (1p) 85 (1p) 85 (2p) ditto AC
NS160L 40 to 160 100 (1p) 100 (1p) 100 (1p) 100 (2p) ditto AC
NS250N 40 to 250 50 (1p) 50 (1p) 50 (1p) 50 (2p) ditto AC
NS250H 40 to 250 85 (1p) 85 (1p) 85 (1p) 85 (2p) ditto AC
NS250L 40 to 250 100 (1p) 100 (1p) 100 (1p) 100 (2p) ditto AC
NS400H MP1/MP2-400 85 (1p) 85 (1p) 85 (1p) 85 (2p) no thermal relay; tripping units
NS630H MP1/MP2/MP3-630 85 (1p) 85 (1p) 85 (1p) 85 (2p) provide MP1/MP2/MP3
C1251N-DC P21/P41-1250 50 (1p) 50 (1p) 50 (2p) 50 (3p) 25 (3p) an external special for
M10-DC 1000 100 (3p) 100 (3p) 100 (3p) 100 (3p) 50 (4p) 50 (4p) relay direct current
M20-DC 2000 100 (3p) 100 (3p) 100 (3p) 100 (3p) 50 (4p- 50 (4p) (if necessary)
M40-DC 4000 100 (3p) 100 (3p) 100 (3p) 100 (3p) 50 (4p) 50 (4p)
M60-DC 6000 100 (4p) 100 (4p) 100 (4p)
M80-DC 8000 100 (4p) 100 (4p) 100 (4p)
table J6-5: choice of d.c. circuit breakers manufactured by Merlin Gerin.
* These tripping units may be used on a.c. or d.c. circuit breakers, but the operating levels marked on each unit correspond to
r.m.s. a.c. values. When used on a d.c. circuit breaker the setting must be changed according to the co-efficient in table J6-5.
For example, if it is required that the d.c. circuit breaker should trip at 800 A or more the coefficient given in table J6-5 is 1.42,
then the setting required will be 800 x 1.42 = 1,136 A.

6.4 examples
Example 1 Table J6-4 shows that the full system voltage
Choice of protection for an 80 A outgoing d.c. will appear across the contacts of the positive
circuit of a 125 V system, of which the pole.
negative pole is earthed. The Isc = 15 kA. Table J6-5 indicates that circuit breaker
NC100H (30 kA 2 contacts/pole 125 V) is an
+ appropriate choice.
125 V = Preferred practice is to (also) include a
-
contact in the negative conductor of the
outgoing circuit, to provide isolation (for
NC100 H maintenance work on the load circuit for
3-pole
80 A example), as shown in figure J6-6.
Note: three contacts in series, which open in
load unison, effectively triple the speed of contact
fig. J6-6: example. separation. This technique is often necessary
for successfully breaking d.c. current.

Example 2 Table J6-4 shows that each pole will be

Choice of protection for a 100 A outgoing d.c. subject to a recovery voltage of U/2, i.e.
circuit of a 250 V system, of which the mid- 125 V for all types of s.c. fault.
point is earthed. Isc = 15 kA. Table J6-5 indicates that circuit breaker
NC100H (30 kA 2 contacts/pole 125 V) is
+
suitable for cases A and C, i.e. 2 contacts in
250 V = the positive and 2 contacts in the negative
-
pole of the CB.
It will be seen in the 250 V column that
NC100 H 4 contacts will break 20 kA at that voltage
4-pole (case B of table J6-4).
100 A

load

fig. J6-7: example.

J46 - particular supply sources and loads

 J
6.5 protection of persons + +
U fixed U variable ou fixed
The rules for protection are the same as - -
those already covered for a.c. systems.
However, the conventional voltage limits and XM200
TR5A
the automatic disconnection times for safety
of persons are different (see tables G8 and
G9 of Chapter G, Sub-clause 3.1):
fig. J6-8: insulation (to earth) monitors for
c all exposed conductive parts are
an IT direct-current installation.
interconnected and earthed;
c automatic tripping is achieved in the time-
period specified.
RCDs are not applicable to d.c. circuits, so
that in practice:
c the principles of the TN scheme are used
for cases 1 and 2 of Sub-clause 6.2. It is then
sufficient to check that, in the case of a short-
circuit, the current magnitudes will be
sufficient to trip the instantaneous magnetic
relays.
The checking methods are identical to those
recommended for an a.c. network.
c principles of the IT scheme for case 3 in
Sub-clause 6.2,
v the insulation level of the installation must
be under permanent surveillance and any
failure must be immediately indicated and
alarmed: this can be achieved by the
installation of a suitable monitoring relay as
shown in Chapter G, Sub-clause 3.4,
v the presence of two concurrent faults to
earth (one on each polarity) constitutes a
short-circuit, which will be cleared by
overcurrent protection. As for the a.c.
systems, it is sufficient to verify that the
current magnitude exceeds that necessary to
operate the magnetic (or short-time delay)
circuit breaker tripping units.

particular supply sources and loads - J47

7. short-circuit characteristics of an alternator
The characteristics of a 3-phase alternator
under short-circuit conditions are obtained
from oscillogram traces recorded during
tests, in which a short-circuit is applied
instantaneously to all three terminals of a
machine at no load, excited (at a fixed level)
to produce nominal rated voltage.
The resulting currents in all three phases will
normally* include a d.c. component, which
reduces exponentially to zero after
(commonly) some tens of cycles. The curve
shown below in figure AJ1-1 is the current
trace, from which the d.c. component has
been eliminated, of a recording made during
the testing of a 3-phase 230 V 50 kVA
machine.
The definitions of alternator reactance
values are based on such "symmetrical"
curves.
c transient-current envelope.
b The presence of either of the two features,
i
a The effect is analogous to that of the closed
0 circuit of the rotor-excitation winding
t described above (i.e. the induced currents
fig. AJ1-1: short-circuit current of one
phase of a 3-phase alternator with the d.c.
component eliminated.
* unless, by chance, the voltage of a phase happens to be
maximum at the instant of short-circuit. In that case, there
will be no d.c. transient in the phase concerned.
The reduction of current magnitude from its
initial value occurs in the following way.
At the instant of short-circuit, the only
impedance limiting the magnitude of current
is principally** the inherent leakage
reactance of the armature (i.e. stator)
windings, generally of the order of
10%-15%.
The large stator currents are (practically)
entirely inductive, so that the synchronously
rotating m.m.f. produced by them acts in
direct opposition to that of the excitation
current in the rotor winding.
The result is that the rotor flux starts to
reduce, thereby reducing the e.m.f.
generated in the stator windings, and
consequently reducing the magnitude of the
fault current. The effect is cumulative, and
the reduced fault current, in turn, now
reduces the rotor flux at a slower rate, and
so on, i.e. the flux follows the exponential
law of natural decay, its reduction rate at any
instant depending on the magnitude of the
quantity causing the phenomenon.
Eventually, a stable state is reached, in which
the (greatly reduced) rotor flux produces just
enough voltage to maintain the stator current
at the level of equilibrium between the three
quantities, viz. current, flux and voltage.
The reduction of fault current therefore is
caused by a diminution of the generated
e.m.f. due to armature reaction, and not, in
fact, by an increase in impedance of the
machine (that is why the term "effective
reactance" was used in Chapter J
Sub-clause 1.1).
** the sub-transient reactance, which is defined later, is
very nearly equal to the leakage reactance.
J
As shown in figure AJ1-1, the current
reduction requires a certain time, and the
reason for this is that, as the rotor flux begins
to diminish, the change of flux induces a
current in the closed rotor circuit in the
direction which, in effect, increases the
excitation current, i.e. opposes the
establishment of a reduced level of magnetic
flux. The gradual predominance of the stator
m.m.f. depends on the overall effect of rotor
and stator time constants, the result of which
is the principal factor in the "a.c. current
decrement" shown in figure AJ1-1.
If, during a short-circuit, there were no eddy
currents induced in the unlaminated face of
round-rotor alternators, or in damper
windings (see note 1) of salient-pole
alternators, the envelope of the a.c. current
decrement would be similar to that of
curve b in figure AJ1-1, i.e. the so-called
mentioned above however, gives rise to the
sub-transient component of current (curve C).
oppose the change), but having a very much
shorter time constant.
The overall a.c. current decrement is
therefore composed of the sum of two
exponentially-decaying quantities, viz. the
sub-transient and the transient components,
as shown in figure AJ1-2.
Note 1: Damper windings are made up of heavy gauge
copper bars embedded in the pole faces of salient-pole
rotors, to form a squirrel-cage "winding" similar to that of an
induction motor. Their purpose is to help to maintain
synchronous stability of the alternator.
With the rotor turning at the same speed as that of the
m.m.f. due to the stator currents, no currents will be
induced in the damper windings; if a difference in the speed
of rotation occurs, due to loss of synchronism, then currents
induced in the damper windings will be in a direction that
produces a torque which acts to slow (an overspeeding
rotor) or to accelerate (an underspeeding rotor). A similar,
but much smaller effect occurs due to eddy currents in the
surface of solid unlaminated rotors of turbo-alternators.
For advanced analytical studies of
alternators, two component axes "direct" and
"quadrature" are defined, and subtransient
and transient reactances, etc. are derived for
each component system.
In the simple studies needed for 3-phase
symmetrical fault levels and for circuit-
breaker performance based on such faults,
the direct-axis component system only is
required; this accounts for the suffix "d" of
reactance values, shown in figure AJ1-2.
Suffix "q" is used for quadrature quantities.
ia enveloppe
i" of the current, ia
Vo/x"d i'
Vo/x'd
i
t
Vo/xd
subs- transient steady
transient period state
period
x''d = the sub-transient reactance Vo/i''
x'd = the transient reactance Vo/i'
xd = the synchronous reactance Vo/i
Vo = peak rated voltage of the alternator
fig. AJ1-2: a.c. component of armature
current versus time, in a short-circuited
alternator (no d.c. transient is shown).
Appendix J1 - 1
J
The reactances are generally defined as
r.m.s. voltages divided by r.m.s. currents. In
the current trace of figure AJ1-2, however, it
is simpler to use the projected peak values
of current, so that Vo must be the rated peak
voltage of the machine.
Note 2: in the definition of "i" some authors use the actual
voltage measured during the test, instead of Vo. Moreover,
xd is generally denoted by Xs and is referred to as
"synchronous reactance".

asymmetrical currents
As previously noted, in general, all 3-phases
of short-circuit current will include a d.c.
component. These components give rise to
additional electro-dynamic and thermal
stresses in the machine itself, and in circuit-
breakers protecting a faulted circuit.
The worst condition is that of a phase in
which the d.c. component is the maximum
possible, i.e. the d.c. transient value at zero
time (the instant of fault) is equal to the peak
value of current given by Vo/xd'', as defined
in figure AJ1-2.
A typical test trace of this condition is shown
in figure AJ1-3.
stator
phase
current

d.c. component

time

instant of
short circuit
The current envelope of an asymmetrical transient has the
same dimensions about the d.c. transient curve, as the
symmetrical envelope has about the current zero axis.
fig. AJ1-3: a fully-offset asymmetrical
transient fault-current trace.
The consequence of asymmetrical transient
fault currents and the standardized
relationship between the symmetrical and
asymmetrical quantities for circuit breaker
performance ratings are given in
Sub-clause 1.1 of Chapter C, and are
illustrated in figure C5.

2 - Appendix J1
1. domestic and similar premises
1.1 general
the power distribution authority
connects the LV neutral point
of its HV/LV distribution transformer
to earth.
All LV installations must be protected
therefore by RCDs (for TT and IT
schemes of earthing) or by short-
circuit protective devices for TN
schemes.
All exposed conductive parts must be
bonded together and connected to
earth, either directly to an electrode
at the premises (TT or IT schemes)
or by means of the neutral conductor
(TN schemes)*.
L
Electrical installations for inhabited premises
need a high standard of safety and reliability.
related standards
Most countries have national regulations and-
or standards governing the rules to be strictly
observed in the design and realization of
electrical installations for domestic and similar
premises. The relevant international standard
is the IEC publication 364.
the power network
The vast majority of power-distribution
authorities connect the low-voltage neutral
point of their HV/LV distribution transformers
to earth.
The protection of persons against electric
shock therefore depends, in such cases, on
the principles discussed in Chapter F,
Clause 4, and Chapter G, all Clauses.
The measures required depend on whether
the TT, TN or IT scheme of earthing is
adopted, as treated in detail in Chapter G.
RCDs are essential for TT- and IT-earthed
installations, but high-speed overcurrent
devices (MCBs or fuses) are commonly used
to clear earth faults on TN-earthed schemes.
However, in particular instances (e.g. circuits
feeding socket-outlets), RCDs are strongly
recommended on TN installations, as being
the only sure means of protection against
shock when very long flexible leads of small
c.s.a. are supplied from a socket. See also
Clause 3 concerning special installations.
* for TN-C and TN-S schemes refer to Chapter G,
Sub-clause 5.1.
domestic and similar premises and special locations - L1
 1. domestic and similar premises (continued)

L
1.2 distribution-board components

control and
distribution board

enclosure

incoming-supply
circuit breaker

service
connection
lightning arrester

lightning
protection

cartridge MCB phase

overcurrent fuses + neutral
protection
and isolation

protection
differential differential
against direct MCB
and load switch
indirect contact,
and protection
against fire

remote control
bistable switch

THP CDSc

energy
management

IHPc Isis

fig. L1-1: presentation of realizable functions on a consumer unit.

L2 - domestic and similar premises and special locations


the quality of electrical equipment
used in inhabited premises is
commonly ensured by a mark of
conformity situated on the front of
each item.
L
Distribution boards (generally one only in meter
domestic premises) usually include the
meter(s) and in some cases (notably where
the supply authorities impose a TT-earthing
system and/or tariff conditions which limit the
maximum permitted current consumption) an fuses or circuit breaker tableau de
incoming-supply differential circuit breaker, depending on earthing system répartition
which includes an overcurrent trip. This circuit
fig. L1-2: components of a control and
breaker is freely accessible to the consumer.
distribution board.
On installations which are TN-earthed, the
supply authorities usually protect the
installation simply by means of sealed fuse
cut-outs immediately upstream of the
meter(s). See figure L1-2. The consumer has
no access to these fuses.

the incoming-supply
circuit breaker
The consumer is permitted to operate this CB
if necessary (e.g. to reclose it if the current
consumption had exceeded the authorized
limit; to open it in case of emergency or for
isolation purposes...). The differential trip
generally has a 500 mA setting to provide
indirect-contact protection (and a measure of
fire protection) for the whole installation. fig. L1-3: incoming-supply circuit breaker.
Current ratings for these circuit breakers are
commonly:
c 15 - 90 A two-poles,
c 10 - 60 A four-poles.

the control and distribution

board (consumer unit)
This board comprises:
c a control panel for mounting (where
appropriate) the incoming-supply circuit
breaker and other control auxiliaries, as
required,
c a distribution panel for housing 1, 2 or
3 rows (of 24 multi 9 units) or similar MCBs or
fuse units, etc.,
c installation accessories for fixing
conductors, and rails for mounting MCBs,
fuse bases, etc. neutral busbar and earthing
bar, and so on...,
c service-cable ducts or conduits, surface
mounted or in cable chases embedded in the
wall.

Note: to facilitate future modifications to the

installation, it is recommended to keep all
relevant documents (photos, diagrams,
characteristics, etc.) in a suitable location fig. L1-4: control and distribution board.
close to the distribution board.
The board should be installed at a height
such that the operating handles, indicating
dials (of meters) etc. are between 1 metre
and 1.80 metres from the floor (1.30 metres
in situations where handicapped persons or
persons of advanced age are concerned).

lightning arresters
Where the keraunic level of a locality exceeds
25, and the supply is taken from an overhead
line, the installation of a lightning arrester at
the service position of a LV installation is
prescribed in many national standards and is
strongly recommended for installations which
include sensitive (e.g. electronic) equipment.
These devices must automatically disconnect
themselves from the installation in case of
failure or be protected by a RCD of
appropriate sensitivity, according to the
resistance of the earthing electrode for the
installation. In the case of domestic
installations the use of a 500 mA differential
incoming-supply circuit breaker type S (i.e.
slightly time-delayed) will provide effective
earth-leakage protection, while, at the same
time, will not trip unnecessarily each time a
lightning arrester discharges the current (of
an overvoltage-surge) to earth.

domestic and similar premises and special locations - L3

 1. domestic and similar premises (continued)

L
1.2 distribution-board components (continued)
if, in TT schemes, the resistance
of the installation earth electrode
exceeds 100 ohms, then one
or more 30 mA RCDs must be
installed to take over the function
of the differential device in the
incoming-supply circuit breaker.
resistance value of the earth
electrode (of a TT scheme)
In the case where the resistance-to-earth is
very high and exceeds the value
Rt = 50 V = 100 ohms
500 mA
one or several RCDs of appropriate
sensitivity, i.e. 30 mA, should be used in
place of the differential device of the
incoming-supply circuit breaker.

1.3. protection of persons

where public power-supply systems
and consumers' installations form a
TT-earthed scheme, the governing
standards impose the use of RCDs
to ensure the protection of persons.
On TT-earthed systems the protection of
persons is ensured by the following
measures:
c protection against indirect-contact hazards
by RCDs of medium sensitivity (300 or
500 mA) at the origin of the installation
(incorporated in the incoming-supply circuit
breaker, or on the incoming feed to the
distribution board). This measure is
associated with a consumer-installed earth
electrode to which must be connected the
protective-earth (PE) conductors from the
exposed conductive parts of all class I
insulated appliances and equipment, as well
as those from the earthing pins of all socket
outlets.
c where the CB at the origin of an installation
has no RCD protection (see figure L1-7) the
protection of persons shall be ensured by
class II level of insulation on all circuits
upstream of the first RCDs. In the case where
the distribution board is metallic, care shall be
taken that all live parts are double insulated
(supplementary clearances or insulation, use
of covers, etc.) and wiring reliably fixed,
c obligatory protection by sensitive (30 mA)
RCDs of socket-outlet circuits, and circuits
feeding bathrooms, laundry rooms, and so on
(for details of this latter obligation, refer to the
table in Clause 3 of this Chapter).

incoming-supply circuit breaker

with instantaneous differential
relay
DB
In this case: 500 mA
c an insulation fault to earth could result in
the shutdown of the entire installation,
c where a lightning arrester is installed, its
operation (i.e. discharging a voltage surge to
earth) could appear to an RCD as an earth
fault, with a consequent shutdown of the
installation.
30 mA 30 mA
Recommendation of suitable
Merlin Gerin components
c incoming-supply circuit breaker with
500 mA differential, and diverse socket-outlets bathroom and/or
c RCD of type DDR-HS 30 mA (for example, circuits circuit shower room
differential circuit breaker 1P + N type Déclic fig. L1-5: installation with incoming-
Vigi) on the circuits supplying socket-outlets, supply circuit breaker having
c RCD of type DDR-HS 30 mA (for example, instantaneous differential protection.
differential load switch type ID’clic) on circuits
to bathrooms, shower rooms, laundry rooms,
etc.) (lighting, heating, socket-outlets).

L4 - domestic and similar premises and special locations

 L
incoming-supply circuit breaker
type S with retarded differential
relay
DB type S
This type of CB affords protection against 500 mA
insulation faults to earth, but by virtue of a
short time delay, provides a measure of
discrimination with downstream
instantaneous RCDs. Tripping of the
incoming-supply CB and its consequences
(on deep freezers, for example) is thereby
made less probable in the event of lightning,
or other causes of voltage surges. The
discharge of voltage-surge current to earth,
through the lightning arrester, will leave the 30 mA 30 mA 30 mA
type S circuit breaker unaffected.
diverse high-risk location socket- bathroom
Recommendation of suitable circuits (laundry room) outlets and/or
Merlin Gerin components circuit shower room
c incoming-supply circuit breaker with fig. L1-6: installation with incoming-
500 mA differential, type S, and supply circuit breaker having short time
c RCD of type DDR-HS 30 mA (for example, delay differential protection, type S.
differential circuit breaker 1P + N type Déclic-
Vigi) on the circuits supplying socket-outlets,
c RCD of type DDR-HS 30 mA (for example,
differential load switch, type ID’clic) on circuits
to bathrooms, shower rooms, etc. (lighting,
heating, socket-outlets),
c RCD of type DDR-HS 30 mA (for example,
differential circuit breaker 1P + N, type Déclic-
Vigi) on circuits supplying washing machines
and dish-washing machines.

incoming-supply circuit breaker

without differential protection
In this case the protection of persons must be 6. Safety and tripping discrimination are
ensured by: improved by the protection of circuits by
c class II level of insulation up to the means of 30 mA RCDs (for example,
downstream terminals of the RCDs, differential circuit breaker type Déclic-Vigi
c all outgoing circuits from the distribution 1P + N) on a circuit supplying an apparatus
board must be protected by 30 mA or 300 mA which involves large quantities of water.
RCDs according to the type of circuit
concerned as discussed in Chapter G,
Clause 4,
c where a voltage-surge arrester is installed
upstream of the distribution board (to protect 1
2
sensitive electronic equipment such as
microprocessors, video-cassette recorders, class II
TV sets, electronic cash registers, etc.) it is insulation
imperative that the device automatically
disconnects itself from the installation
following a rare (but always possible) failure.
Some devices employ replaceable fusing
elements; the recommended method
however as shown in figure L1-7, is to use a 5 6 3 4
RCD.
Recommendation of suitable
Merlin Gerin components 300 mA 30 mA 30 mA 30 mA
Figure L1-7 refers.
1. Incoming-supply circuit breaker without
differential protection.
2. Automatic disconnection device (if a
lightning arrester is installed).
3. RCD of type DDR-HS 30 mA (for example,
differential circuit breaker 1P + N type Déclic
Vigi) on each circuit supplying one or more
socket-outlets. diverse high-risk circuit socket- bathroom
4. RCD of type DDR-HS 30 mA (for example, circuits (dish-washing outlets and/or
machine) circuit shower room
differential load switch type ID’clic) on circuits
to bathrooms and shower rooms (lighting, fig. L1-7: installation with incoming-
heating and socket-outlets) or a 30 mA supply circuit breaker having no
differential circuit breaker per circuit. differential protection.
5. RCD of type DDR-HS 300 mA (for
example, differential load switch) on all the
other circuits.

domestic and similar premises and special locations - L5

 1. domestic and similar premises (continued)

L
1.4 circuits
the distribution and division of circuits subdivision
provides comfort, and facilitates rapid National standards commonly recommend
the sub-division of circuits according to the
location of faults. number of utilization categories in the
installation concerned (see figure L1-8):
c at least 1 circuit for lighting. Each circuit
supplying a maximum of 8 lighting points,
c at least 1 circuit for socket-outlets rated
10/16 A. Each circuit supplying a maximum of
8 sockets. The sockets may be single or
double units (a double unit is made up of two
10/16 A sockets mounted on a common base
in an embedded box, identical to that of a
single unit),
c 1 circuit for each appliance such as a water
heater, washing machine, dish-washing socket- lighting heating washing cooking
machine, cooker, refrigerator, etc. outlets machine apparatus
Recommended numbers of 10/16 A (or fig. L1-8: circuit division according to
similar) socket-outlets and fixed lighting utilization.
points, according to the use for which the
various rooms of a dwelling are intended, are
indicated in the following table.
room function minimum number of fixed minimum number
lighting points of 10/16 A socket-outlet
living room 1 5
bedroom, lounge, 1 3
bureau, dining room
kitchen 2 4 (1)
bathroom, shower room 2 1 or 2
entrance hall, box room 1 1
WC, storage space 1 -
laundry room - 1
table L1-9: recommended minimum number of lighting and power points in domestic
premises.
(1) of which 2 above the working surface and 1 for a specialized circuit: in addition an independent socket-outlet of 16 A or 20 A
for a cooker and a junction box or socket-outlet for a 32 A specialized circuit.

L6 - domestic and similar premises and special locations


the inclusion of a protective
conductor in all circuits is required by
IEC and most national standards.
L
protective conductors
IEC and most national standards require that
each circuit includes a protective conductor.
This practice is strongly recommended where
class I insulated appliances and equipment
are installed, which is the general case.
The protective conductors must connect the
earthing-pin contact in each socket-outlet,
and the earthing terminals in class I
equipment, to the main earthing terminal at
the origin of the installation.
Furthermore, 10/16 A (or similarly sized)
socket-outlets must be provided with
shuttered contact orifices.^

cross-sectional-area (c.s.a.)
of conductors
The c.s.a. of conductors and the rated current
of the associated protective device depend
on the current magnitude of the circuit, the
ambient temperature, the kind of installation,
and the influence of neighbouring circuits
(refer to Chapter H1).
Moreover, the conductors for the phase
wires, the neutral and the protective
conductors of a given circuit must all be of
equal c.s.a. (assuming the same material for
the conductors concerned, i.e. all copper or
all aluminium).
Table L1-11 indicates the c.s.a. required for
commonly-used appliances.
Protective devices 1 phase + N in 2 x 9 mm
spaces comply with requirements for
isolation, and for marking of circuit current
rating and conductor sizes. fig. L1-10: circuit breaker 1 phase + N
2 x 9 mm spaces Déclic 32.

type of circuit c.s.a. maximum protective

single-phase 230 V of the power device
1 ph + N or 1 ph + N + E conductors
fixed lighting 1.5 mm2 2300 W circuit breaker 16 A
(2.5 mm2) fuse 10 A

10/16 A 2.5 mm2 4600 W circuit breaker 25 A

socket-outlets (4 mm2) fuse 20 A

individual-load circuits
water heater 2.5 mm2 4600 W circuit breaker 25 A
(4 mm2) fuse 20 A

dish-washing 2.5 mm2 4600 W circuit breaker 25 A

machine (4 mm2) fuse 20 A

clothes-washing 2.5 mm2 4600W circuit breaker 25 A

machine (4 mm2) fuse 20 A

cooker or 6 mm2 7300 W circuit breaker 40 A

hot plates (1) (10 mm2) fuse 32 A

electric 1.5 mm2 2300 W circuit breaker 16 A

space heater (2.5 mm2) fuse 10 A

table L1-11: c.s.a. of conductors and current rating of the protective devices in domestic
installations (the c.s.a. of aluminium conductors are shown in brackets).
(1) in a 230/400 V 3-phase circuit, the c.s.a. is 4 mm2 for copper or 6 mm2 for aluminium, and protection is provided by a 32 A
circuit breaker or by 25 A fuses.

domestic and similar premises and special locations - L7

 1. domestic and similar premises (continued)

L
1.5 protection against overvoltages and lightning
the relevance of protective
devices
c disturbances
Three types of disturbance often occur on
electrical-power networks:
v lightning and atmospheric electrical
phenomena in general, with its direct and
indirect consequences.
The direct effects, which are fairly infrequent,
concern its impact on overhead transmission
and distribution lines.
The indirect effects are more common and
occur at lower energy levels. Such indirect
phenomena are characterized by a powerful
induction effect on the lines and/or by an
increase of local earth potential,
v operational overvoltages are transient, and
are caused by abrupt changes in the circuit,
such as the opening/closing of circuit
breakers, load-break switches, contactors,
etc.,
v overvoltages at normal system frequency
can occur in many ways, and will do so, for
example, if a neutral connection is broken on
a 3-phase system, if the load is unbalanced,
c the kind of installation to be protected.
It is necessary to know in some detail the
characteristics of the items to be protected, in
order to select the most appropriate form of
protection. The choice of protective device(s)
depends on two factors:
v the sensitivity: the ability of the equipment
concerned to withstand an overvoltage
condition i.e. its magnitude and duration,
v the cost: which comprises the purchase
price and the operational costs (possible
losses, maintenance, etc.).

choice of a lightning arrester

It depends on:
c the level of the disturbance,
c the cost, as noted above,
c the connection to a LV electrical-power
network, a telephone system, a building-
control system bus, or to any other network,
c the kind of installation-earthing scheme
(see chapter F) (figure L1-12).

L8 - domestic and similar premises and special locations

 L
installation rules
Three principal rules must be respected:
c it is imperative that the three lengths of
cable used for the installation of the arrester
(see figure L1-13) each be less than 50 cm,
i.e.:
v the live conductors connected to the
isolating switch,
v from the isolating switch to the lightning
arrester,
v from the lightning arrester to the main
distribution board (MDB) earth bar (not to be
confused with the main protective-earth (PE)
conductor or the main earth terminal for the
installation).
The MDB earth bar must evidently be located
in the same cabinet as the lightning arrester,
c it is necessary to use an isolating switch of
a type recommended by the manufacturer of
the lightning arrester
c in the interests of a good continuity of
supply it is recommended that the circuit
breaker be of the time-delayed or selective
type.
The guide "Lightning protection" treats these
rules quantitively and includes information
which allows the user to dimension an
arrester according to his needs.

domestic and similar premises and special locations - L9

 2. bathrooms and showers

L
Bathrooms and shower rooms are areas of
high risk, because of the very low resistance
of the human body when wet or immersed in
water.
Precautions to be taken are therefore
correspondingly rigorous, and the regulations
are more severe than those for most other
locations.
The relevant IEC standards are 364-7-701,
479 and 669-1.
Precautions to observe are based on three
aspects:
c the definition of zones, numbered 0, 1, 2
and 3 in which the placement (or exclusion)
of any electrical device is strictly limited or
forbidden, and, where permitted, the electrical
and mechanical protection is prescribed,
c the establishment of an equipotential bond
between all exposed and extraneous metal
parts in the zones concerned,
c the strict adherence to the requirements
prescribed for each particular zone, as tabled
in Clause L3.

2.1 classification of zones

Sub-clause 701.32 of IEC 364-7-701 defines
the zones 0, 1, 2 and 3, as shown in the
following diagrams:
plan views

zone 1 * zone 1 *

zone 2 zone 3 zone 2 zone 3

zone 0 zone 0

0.60 m 2.40 m 2.40 m

0.60 m

vertical cross-section

zone 1 zone 2 zone 3

2.25 m
zone 1

zone 0

zone 1 0.60 m 2.40 m

* zone 1 is above the bath as shown in the vertical cross-section.

fig. L2-1: zones 0, 1, 2, 3 in proximity to a bath-tub.

L10 - domestic and similar premises and special locations

 L
zone 0 zone 0
zone 1 zone 2 zone 3 zone 1 zone 2 zone 3

0.60 m 2.40 m 2.40 m

0.60 m

zone 1 zone 2 zone 3

2.25 m
zone 1
zone 0

0.60 m 2.40 m

fig. L2-2: zones 0, 1, 2, 3 in proximity of a shower with basin.

fixed shower fixed shower

head (1) head (1)
0.60 m
0.60 m zone 1
zone 1 0.60 m
0.60 m zone 2
zone 2

2.40 m
2.40 m
zone 3 zone 3

zone 1 zone zone 3

2

2.25 m

0.60 m

permanent wall
fig. L2-3: zones 0, 1, 2, 3 in proximity of a shower without basin.
(1) When the shower head is at the end of a flexible tube, the vertical central axis of a zone passes through the fixed end of the flexible tube.

0.60 m

prefabricated
shower
cabinet

0.60 m

fig. L2-4: no switch or socket-outlet is

permitted within 60 cm of the door
opening of a shower cabinet.

domestic and similar premises and special locations - L11

 2. bathrooms and showers (continued)

L
2.1 classification of zones (continued)
classes classes
of external of external
influences influences

zone 3
AD 3 AD 3
BB 2 dressing cubicles BB 2
BC 3 (zone 2) BC 3
AD 3
BB 3 AD 3
BC 3 WC BB 2
AD 7
BB 3
BC 3 BC 3

shower cabinets (zone 1)

fig. L2-5: individual showers with dressing cubicles.
classes classes
of external of external
influences influences
h<1.10 m dressing cubicles h<1.10 m
AD 5 AD 5
1.10 m<h<2.25 m 1.10 m<h<2.25 m
AD 3 zone 2 AD 3
BB 3 BB 3
BC 3 BC 3
AD 7 AD 3
zone 1
BB 3 WC BB 2
BC 3
BC 3

fig. L2-6: individual showers with separate individual dressing cubicles.

classes classes
of external of external
influences influences

AD 3 AD 3
BB 2 dressing room
zone 3 BB 2
BC 3
BC 3

h<1.10 m
AD 5 AD 7
1.10 m<h<2.25 m
AD 3 zone 2 zone 1 BB 3
BB 3 BC 3
BC 3

fig. L2-7: communal showers and a common dressing room.

2.2 equipotential bonding

to the earth metallic
electrode pipes
h i 2m

water-drainage
piping

gas

radiator
lighting

metal
door-frame

metal bath
equipotential conductors
for a bathroom

fig. L2-8: supplementary equipotential bonding in a bathroom.

2.3 requirements prescribed for each zone

The table of Clause 3 describes the foregoing text and in other similar or related
application of the principles mentioned in the cases.

L12 - domestic and similar premises and special locations

3. recommendations applicable to special installations
and locations

L
The following table summarizes the main Note:
requirements prescribed in many national Section numbers in brackets refer to sections
and international standards. of IEC 364-7.

locations protection principles IP level wiring switchgear socket- installation

and cables outlets materials
domestic c TT or TN-S schemes 20 1 switch operating protection
dwellings c differential protection handles and by 30 mA
and other v 500 mA if the earth electrode similar devices RCDs
habitations resistance is i 100 ohms on distribution
instantaneous or short time delay panels, to be
(type S) mounted
v 30 mA if the earth electrode between
resistance is u 500 ohms 1 metre and
c lighning arrester at the origin of the 1.80 metre
installation if: above the floor
v supply is from overhead line with level
bare conductors, and if:
v the keraunic level > 25
c a protective earth (PE) conductor on
all circuits
bathrooms supplementary equipotential
or shower rooms bonding in
(section 701) zones 0, 1, 2 and 3
zone 0 SELV 12 V only 27 1 X X X special
zone 1 SELV 12 V 24 1 (1) class II limited to X (2) X special
strict minimum and water heater
zone 2 SELV 12 V or 30 mA RCD 23 1 (1) X (2) one socket- class II insulation
outlet only with and protection by a
a separation 30 mA RCD
transformer
zone 3 21 1 (1) class II protection
c by 30 mA RCD
c by electrical separation, or
c by SELV 50 V (Chapter G, Sub-clause 3.5)
swimming baths supplementary equipotential bonding special (under-water
(section 702) in zones 0, 1 and 2 lighting)
zone 0 SELV 12 V 28 1 X X X special (under-water
lighting)
zone 1 SELV 12 V 25 1 X X X X
zone 2 interior 22 1 (1) class II protection
exterior 24 1 (1) c by 30 mA RCD
c by electrical separation, or
c by SELV 50 V (Chapter G, Sub-clause 3.5)
saunas 31 1 class II X X adapted to
(section 703) temperature
work sites c conventional voltage 35 7 mechanically protection
(section 704) limit UL reduced to 25 V protected by 30 mA
c TT or TN-S scheme RCDs
agricultural and c conventional voltage 35 5 protection
horticultural limit UL reduced to 25 V by 30 mA
establishments c protection against fire risks RCDs
(section 705) by 500 mA RCDs
restricted 31 1 protection of:
conductive c portable tools:
working spaces v by SELV or
(metal tank v by electrical
interiors, etc) separation
(section 706) c hand-held lamps
v by SELV
c fixed equipment
v by SELV
v by electrical
separation
v by 30 mA RCDs
v by special
supplementary
equipotential
bonding
(1) if subjected to water jets: IP x 5
(2) except a switch for SELV

domestic and similar premises and special locations - L13

 3. recommendations applicable to special installations
and locations (continued)

L
locations protection principles IP level wiring switchgear socket- installation
and cables outlets materials
fountains protection by 30 mA RCDs and
(section 702) equipotential bonding of all exposed
and extraneous conductive parts
data processing TN-S scheme recommended (3)
(section 707) TT scheme if leakage current is
limited. Protective conductor 10 mm2
minimum in aluminium. Smaller sizes
(in copper) must be doubled
caravan parks 34 5 flexible under- protection of
(section 708) ground cables circuits by
30 mA RCDs
(one per 6
socket-outlets)
marinas and 36 5 in conduits ditto
yacht basins or buried
medical centres IT (medical) scheme equipotential protection by
bonding 30 mA RCDs
fairs and protection by 30 mA 21 7
exhibitions RCDs. TT or TN-S scheme
balneotherapy individual: see section 701
(cure-centre (volumes 0 and 1)
baths) collective: see section 702
(volumes 0 and 1)
motor-fuel filling explosion risks in security zones limited to the
stations necessary
minimum
motor vehicles protection by RCDs or by electrical
separation
(3) in an IT scheme provide a LV/LV transformer to create a TN-S scheme.

L14 - domestic and similar premises and special locations

 electrical installation practice
according to IEC
international standards
D
1. rules and regulations EMC1

2. electromagnetic disturbances
2.1 disturbances by conduction EMC2
2.2. radiation EMC8

3. cabling of equipment and systems

3.1 earthing EMC9
3.2 masses (non-conducting metal parts) EMC11
3.3 attenuating effects EMC15
3.4 installation and cabling rules EMC16
3.5 EMC components and solutions EMC17

G
4. local network problems EMC20

low-voltage service connections

Appendix- D581
EMC
1. rules and regulations

EMC
Legislation on EMC throughout the world is
broadly divided into two philosophies. In
"liberal" countries, any parasitic interference
with radio reception is illegal, but no
emission-level limit for the source of
interference is imposed. However, in cases of
litigation the methods of measuring, and the
limits of emission level laid down by the
CISPR, serve as reference. For example,
Japan is a "liberal country" in which the VCCI
standards (that correspond technically to the
international publications of CISPR) assumes
that the attitude of civic responsibility
prevailing is adequate at the present time.
For countries more rigidly "regulated",
emission levels exceeding a standardized
limit are illegal. For example, in the U.S.A.,
Automatic Data Processing (ADP) systems
are protected by obligatory emission-level
standards defined by the Federal law FCC
part 15. Checking procedures differ,
depending on whether the level for class A
(procedure for "compliance") or class B is
concerned. In the case for class B (domestic
environment), certification is then required.
European regulations are effectively placed
between the two foregoing attitudes. The
parasitic-emission level and an excessively-
sensitive reception device are both illegal.
Compliance with the EMC standards,
although only constituting a presumption of
conformity to the essential requirements, is,
nevertheless, the preferred means of
checking. Moreover, the European
regulations are applicable to all apparatuses,
systems and commercialised installations,
without exception.

Appendix EMC - 1
 2. electromagnetic disturbances
EMC
Problems of EMC (ElectroMagnetic
Compatibility) often arise when equipment,
which is highly sensitive to extraneous
electrical disturbances (commonly referred to
as "interference" or "parasites") is located in
an environment subject to electromagnetic
disturbances.
Since sources of electromagnetic disturbance
are numerous and inevitable, and
desensitizing an equipment (generally
electronic) to counter the effect of
disturbances is difficult to achieve,
consideration of the physical layout of the
sensitive equipments and related cabling,
relative to the sources of disturbance,
becomes necessary.
This is the principal means of ensuring a
satisfactory degree of immunity for the large
majority of sensitive electronic devices.
There are two recognized modes of
electromagnetic interference:
c conducted disturbances propagated along
cables, wires, etc.
c radiated disturbances by stationary
induction (magnetic or electrostatic fields*)
and/or by electromagnetic (radio) waves
2.1 disturbances by conduction
2.1.1 Disturbances by conduction: modes
of propagation
Electrical energy, whether useful signals or
power, or unwanted parasites, propagate
along a 2-wire circuit in one of two modes
only, viz: in differential mode or in common
mode.
Differential mode
The differential mode is the normal way of
conducting current through a 2-wire circuit.
This mode is sometimes referred to as series
mode, normal mode, or symmetrical mode.
In the differential mode the current flowing in
one conductor is in exact phase opposition to
that in the other conductor, i.e. flowing in the
opposite direction at every instant.
The voltage is measured between the two
conductors.
I I
U equipment
I
fig. EMC-1: signal or disturbance in the
differential mode.
Differential mode disturbances are the most
severe at low frequencies. By low
frequencies (LF) it is understood in EMC
studies to concern all frequencies lower than
9 kHz. This convention means that a very
large number of electrical disturbances are
considered as being LF phenomena.
In electrical power networks disturbances in
the differential mode are numerous. One may
cite, for example, interruptions of supply of
short or long duration, voltage fluctuations
and dips, phase instability, lamp flicker,
variations of frequency: harmonics and
voltage spikes. The effect of an electromagnetic
disturbance depends largely on its duration.
Permanent (maintained) disturbances
principally affect analogue-type circuits, while
transient and impulsive disturbances interfere
especially with digital circuits.
2 - Appendix EMC
travelling in space.
The magnitudes of electromagnetic
disturbances are expressed by four
parameters: two for the conduction mode and
two for the radiation mode.
For the conduction mode, measurements are
made in the traditional quantities, viz: volts
(U) and amps (I). For the radiated
electromagnetic waves the electric and
magnetic field strengths are measured in
volts per metre (E) and in amperes per
metre (H), respectively.
The frequency is one of the principal features
that characterise an electromagnetic wave.
In EMC studies the solutions adapted differ
according to whether the disturbance is at low
frequency (LF) or at high frequency (HF).
* Stationary (but changing in magnitude) magnetic and
electric induction fields generally, are only significant in
close proximity to the sources and are easily countered by
placing sensitive equipment at a suitable distance from
them. A notable exception is the case where some tens of
thousands of amps, i.e. short-circuit fault currents, flow in a
power cable.
Common mode
The common mode is parasitic. It is
sometimes also referred to as parallel mode,
longitudinal mode or asymmetrical mode.
Common-mode currents pass through all the
conductors of a cable in the same direction.
The return path for such currents is via the
earth, earth-bonding connections and the
protective earthing conductors, cable
sheaths, etc. Since the earth is no longer
used as a conducting medium for telefax,
useful signals are no longer transmitted in the
common mode through the associated
cables. A potential difference in common
mode is measured between the mass (local
zero voltage reference terminal) and the
mean value of potential of all the conductors
of the cable circuit being tested. It may be
present in the absence of any current flow.
2
equipment
I U
2
fig. EMC-2: disturbance in common
mode.

Electromagnetic disturbances couple readily
with cables in the common mode, particularly
at high frequencies (HF), since they act as
radio antennae. Several kinds of coupling
between neighbouring circuits can occur.
The problems of common mode recur
frequently in EMC cases. A conducting
environment is always good for EMC,
due to it equipotential quality.
Only disturbances in the differential mode can
be filtered locally, cable by cable.
As indicated by its name, the common mode
is common to all the cables of a given
equipment. Common mode problems at HF
are particularly critical in an insulated
environment, or where the mass (the zero-
voltage refernce for all electronic circuits) is
"floating" with respect to earth (i.e. insulated
from the earth).
A common mode voltage is always
detrimental. If it cannot be reduced, it is
important, at least, to prevent it from
developing into a differential mode
disturbance.
2.1.2 LF disturbances by conduction
LF disturbances include all types of parasitic
interference of which the range of significant
frequencies is lower than 9 kHz. The
frenquency of 9 kHz is a conventional upper
limit, below which electrical phenomena may
be analysed in simple terms, using customary
equivalent linear circuit techniques, based on
resistances, inductances (self- and mutual-)
and capacitances. By definition, a LF
disturbance exists for a relatively "long" time
(at least a hundred microseconds). The
energy level of a conducted LF disturbance
can be considerable and is very easily
measured.
The impedance of a cable at very low
frequencies is practically equivalent to its
resistance only. At several kiloherz most
cables of small cross-sectional-area (c.s.a.)
and even at 50 Hz (for cables of large c.s.a.)
the lineal inductance of a conductor is of the
order of 1 µH/m, and its impedance increases
linearly with frequency. For example, large 1-
core cables at 50 Hz, installed in trefoil, have
a lineal impedance of approximately
0.3 Ω per km. This feature is important when
considering harmonic frequencies in a
network.
Selecting a c.s.a. larger than 35 mm2 for a
protective conductor would effectively reduce
the heating of the conductor when carrying
fault current (since its resistance would be
lower) but would have a negligible effect on
the equipotential distribution: the inductance
of a cable being (as noted above) practically
independent of its c.s.a.
EMC
This is the role of insulated and/or
symmetrical connections.
A galvanic insulation is only effective at low
frequencies. A symmetrical connection, also
referred to as "balanced", can remain
effective up to high frequencies. The
dissymmetry of a differential connection
originates mainly from its end circuits. An
imbalance at an end circuit can be caused by
an electrical and/or geometric dissymmetry.
In any case, a connection by simple coaxial
cable to transmit signals at low frequencies is
not recommended.
Correcting measures which may produce
harmful secondary effects must be combined
with other precautions in order that the
system effectively counters the entire range
of disturbances (LF and HF, of large and
small amplitudes). The combination of the
different corrective measures (galvanic
separation, symmetrical connections and
overvoltage protection) is referred to as
coordinated protection.
Interruptions (long or transitory)
An interruption is a total disappearance of the
power-supply system voltage. In the case of
a fault occurring on the HV network of a
power-supply system, a consumer will
normally experience a "voltage dip"
sometimes followed by a brief interruption.
This interruption will occur only if the HV
system is an overhead-line (O/H line) system,
and the consumer is being supplied from the
section of line on which the fault has
occurred. So-called "fleeting faults" on
overhead lines are very common, and consist
of flashovers (of insulators) to earthed metal
by momentary overvoltage due to lightning or
a short-circuit through a large bird, or again,
directly to earth through, for example, a wet
tree branch, etc.
In more than 80% of these incidents such a
fault will disappear during the brief period of
automatic interruption, and normal supply will
be restored.
The automatic sequence for the elimination of
fleeting faults on O/H lines is included in the
protection scheme for the line. The
interruptions in these schemes are normally
limited to less than 0.5 seconds. An
underground cable supply network reduces
the number of interruptions to about 10% only
of those of O/H line systems, but
underground cable faults are not self-
clearing, so that lengthy shutdowns are
necessary to locate the fault and to effect
repairs.
Appendix EMC - 3
 2. electromagnetic disturbances (continued)
EMC
2.1 disturbances by conduction (continued)
Flicker
Flicker describes a condition of small but
frequently recurring voltage dips caused by
loads which require relatively heavy current
for brief and regularly repeated periods.
The impedance of a LV network is made up
mainly of cable impedance and the
impedance of the HV/LV transformer
supplying the network. The greater the kVA
rating of the transformer, the lower its
effective impedance. In public power-supply
systems the flicker problem is more common
on rural systems, particularly at the end of
long lines. It is a problem on a line which is
supplying arc furnaces, arc-welding machines
and, generally, where heavy loads are
frequently switched.
Flicker creates an objectionable annoyance
for persons working under incandescent
lighting. The effect is purely physiological, no
dysfunctioning of electronic equipment will
occur due to flicker.
Flicker is objectionable only where heavy
overloads and frequent switching are
combined, or where the impedance of the
system is high. Standardized parameter limits
and a flicker meter are described in IEC
publications 1000-3-3 and 1000-4-15.
∆U/Un in %
3 nominal voltage, and its duration in
2
1
0,5
0,3
.5 .7 1 10 100 1000
fig. EMC-3: number of variations per
minute.
For industrial installations subject to flicker, a
modification to the installation is sometimes
necessary. Among the possible corrective
measures available, the most effective
include: separate cables for heavy loads
preferably with each large load supplied
through an individual HV/LV transformer,
division of the load, increase the time lags in
automatic control systems, reduction in the
work-cycle rate, time-wise staggering and
spreading of operations which require
impulsive power demands, together with the
installation of a static reactive-power
compensator. Technically, a reduction in the
source impedance is an excellent solution.
In final general-distribution circuits at LV, the
3-phase symmetrical short-circuit current is
usually within the 500-5,000 A range. In
industry, the short-circuit current at LV may
exceed 10 kA on a circuit of large c.s.a. close
to the source substation. This value never,
however, exceeds 100 kA.
Fluctuations and voltage dips
A fluctuation of voltage is a rapid change of
supply voltage not exceeding + 10% (the
generally accepted limits at distribution level)
during normal operation. A "dip" is a sudden
4 - Appendix EMC
drop of voltage, caused principally by
switching loads which, at the instant of
energization, require a greater current than
the normal rated value, e.g. small-motor
starting currents, the switching on of large
resistive heating devices and incandescent
lamps, etc. Such dips are transitory only, but
are often more severe than those classed as
flicker, generally exceeding 10%. The duration
of a "dip" lasts from 10 ms to approximately 1 s.
Voltage reductions which exceed 10% and
1 s, due, for example, to starting large motors,
or, as previously described, due to system
faults, are simply referred to as "voltage drop"
and the extent of the drop and its duration are
specified. Voltage fluctuations have little
effect on electronic circuits generally.
Sensitive, precision electronic-control devices,
electronic calculators of early design, and
electronic (HF) fluorescent lighting tubes,
however, may be adversely affected.
A well-designed electronic device can
tolerate, without difficulty, voltage fluctuations
up to + 8%.
A voltage dip at a point on a HV system is
generally due to a short-circuit fault
elsewhere on the same network. The closer
the fault to the point in question, the more
severe the dip. The severity of the dip is
defined by two parameters: the magnitude of
the drop as a percentage of the system
milliseconds.
Voltage dips are generally due to wind-blown
debris (tree branches, etc.), electric storms,
or faults on the lines (broken insulators) or
occur on the installation of a neighbouring
consumer.
Ueff.
most influenced beetween the
400 V three phase to phase voltages
360 V
depth
(% de Un)
clearing
10 time
= 0,3 s
duration time
= 0,4 s
fig. EMC-4: caracteristics of a voltage dip.
Faults on VHV (very high voltage)
transmission lines are rare and are usually
due to lightning, or to exceptionally severe
cold weather.
The consequence of voltage dips (when
followed by an interruption) is a complete loss
of supply to electronic (and power) devices.
Relays will drop out and motors controlled by
electronic speed-variation and regenerative-
braking devices will be deprived of brake control.
Even if there is no supply interruption, a large
and long (up to 1 second) voltage dip may
cause similar malfunctions.
Means of countering these problems at the
least cost requires individual analysis of each
case. To overcome the voltage-dip problem,
many low-power electronic equipments have
individual power packs with an autonomy of
several hundred milliseconds for 100% loss
of supply voltage.
For heavy-duty power supplies, the period of
autonomy amounts only to approximately
20 milliseconds, the limiting factor being the
size of the energy-storing capacitors required.
Rotating machines (motor/generators) have

sufficient autonomy to cope with voltage dips.
Finally, uninterruptible power supply units can
suppress voltage dips, and maintain the
power supply during a period of complete
interruption.
Unbalance
The amplitude of an ac voltage is expressed
by its rms (root-mean-square) value. The
voltage between a phase conductor and the
neutral is referred to as the phase voltage,
while that measured between any two phases
is called the line voltage. The line voltage
equals etimes the phase voltage, on a
normally balanced 3-phase system
(e= 1.732). A 3-phase system may be
defined simply by the amplitude of 3 voltages,
either line or phase values.
In order to define a sinusoidal system which
is in an unbalanced state, however, the
values of current and voltage of each phase
are then, in the general case, the sum of
3 rotating vector components. The three
components of each phase are known as:
c the positive phase-sequence component
c the negative phase-sequence component
c the zero phase-sequence component.
A balanced 3-phase system is composed of
positive phase-sequence components only.
An unsymmetrical system is said to be
unbalanced; its negative- and zero-phase
sequence components are generally both
present, together with the positive phase-
sequence component.
A common cause of imbalance is that of
different levels of loading on the 3 phases.
Unbalanced loading results in unbalanced
voltages being applied to 3-phase motors.
Increased losses occur in the rotors of the
motors, and in cases of excessive imbalance,
motors can be destroyed by overheating.
Single-phase (line-to-line) loads are not
normally adversely affected by imbalance.
Small degrees of imbalance (0.5-1%) are
inevitable on LV 3-phase 3-wire networks,
and up to 2 or 3% can be tolerated for several
minutes by all loads.
When an imbalance of voltage is considered
to be excessive (> 2% for example), it is
advisable to correct the balance of phase
loading. Where it is not possible to improve
the balance, the situation may be eased by
increasing the fault level at the circuit
concerned by changing the supply
transformer.
An average HV/LV distribution transformer
(> 100 kVA) has a short-circuit voltage of
5-6%. Special transformers are available with
interlaced windings which limit the leakage
reactance to give a short-circuit voltage of
approximately 2%.
A low short-circuit voltage effectively means a
low source impedance (with higher fault-
current level) a situation which improves the
voltage balance, and (incidentally) improves
the form of the voltage wave (if it happens to
be distorted) by reducing the harmonic
content of the wave. A modern method of
improving a condition of imbalance, though
presently rather costly, is to install a static
compensator. It consists of a system which
stores energy in an inductor or capacitor, and
restores this energy to the system at the
appropriate instants.
An active filter constitutes one of the
preferred solutions for limiting disturbances
generated by arc furnaces during the start-up
phase.
EMC
Frequency variations
The European network performs, in practice,
as an infinite system as far as frequency
stability is concerned, in that load changes do
not sensibly affect the frequency. On smaller
private systems, and especially on single
generators, where the rotational inertia is
small and the regulating system of the prime
mover is generally rudimentary, the frequency
will vary (within reasonable limits) each time
the load changes abruptly. Diesel engine
prime movers are less stable, in terms of
frequency, than turbines. Frequency
variations do not unduly disturb electronic
equipments. Converters based on current
chopping principles are insensitive to
frequency changes. All modern devices and
components should be capable of correct
performance during frequency changes of
+ 4% throughout a 10 minute period.
Only very large systems with transformers
operating at the limit of saturation may, when
the system voltage is at its maximum, be
subjected to overheating by a long-term low-
frequency condition. AC motors (locked to the
frequency) will experience speed variations
corresponding to those of the frequency. On
the other hand, the inertia of motors tends to
smooth out other sudden disturbances
occurring on a network.
Harmonics
Any non-linear load (fluorescent lamp, Graetz
bridge, arc furnace, etc.) takes a non-
sinusoidal current from the network. Such a
current is composed of a sinusoidal
component at the frequency of the system
and is known as the fundamental component,
together with other sinusoidal components
which are whole-number multiples of the
fundamental frequency. These latter are
referred to as harmonic components.
Conventionally, harmonics up to the rank of
40 only are considered in power systems,
i.e. 2 kHz for 50 Hz systems and 2.4 kHz for
60 Hz systems. Supplies to electronic circuits,
power regulators based on Graetz bridge,
and fluorescent lighting equipment, are rich in
harmonics.
Distortion of a voltage waveform is onerous
for associated equipments; it is expressed as
a percentage. It is proportional to the
harmonic content of the current and to the
impedance of the source. The effect of
distortion is to increase the heating losses in
motors. In an ADP environment, a distortion
of 5% may be considered to be normal. All
electronic components can tolerate a global
factor of distortion including possible inter-
harmonics of at least 8%. An inter-harmonic
current has a frequency which is not a whole-
number multiple of the fundamental (i.e.
system) frequency. A distinction is made
between "true" inter-harmonics generated at
discrete frequencies, and those forming part
of a continuous spectrum.
Even-numbered harmonics are generated
only by asymmetrical rectifiers and load
currents which contain a dc component. A dc
component can readily saturate a power-
supply transformer. Most non-linear loads
(satured transformers, fluorescent tubes,
power supply circuits which use current-
chopping techniques, etc.) only generate
odd-numbered harmonics.
Appendix EMC - 5
 2. electromagnetic disturbances (continued)
EMC
2.1 disturbances by conduction (continued)
Balanced 3-phase loads supplied from
a 3-phase 3-wire system (i.e no neutral wire)
do not generate 3rd harmonic currents or
multiples of 3rd harmonic currents. A Graetz
bridge or a hexaphase thyristor-controlled
regulator behave as current generators,
which are practically independent of the
voltage distortion.
Third harmonic currents and multiples of
them (known as "triplen" currents) when
generated in the phases of a 3-phase 4-wire
system, present a particular problem in that,
being of zero-phase sequence (i.e. in phase
with each other), they add arithmetically and
complete their circuit through the neutral
conductor. The current in the neutral
conductor due to this cause is at 150 Hz and
can exceed, in unfavourable circumstances,
the current flowing in the phase wires. This
aspect should be borne in mind when
considering supplies to ADP loads and loads
made up of fluorescent lighting tubes. If the
neutral is not distributed, i.e. the system is
3-phase 3-wires, then 3rd harmonic currents
cannot flow. A transformer with a delta-
connected primary winding, however, allows
the circulation of 3rd harmonic currents, a
feature that practically negates the distortion
of the LV voltage wave, which would
otherwise contain a large 3rd harmonic
component.
Reduction of the source impedance is not
always effective in reducing distortion :
power-factor correcting capacitors can cause
a problem, if, together with the source
impedance (which is predominantly inductive)
the combination should form a resonant (or
partially resonant) circuit at one of the
harmonic or inter-harmonic frequencies.
The parallel combination of inductive
reactance L and capacitive reactance C can
present a high impedance at its resonant
frequency, particularly at low-load periods.
The distortion can therefore become
excessive due to the amplification effect of
the resonance.
A harmonic filter is a series LC circuit
connected in parallel with the source and acts
as a short-circuit to currents at its resonant
frequency. The capacitor and inductor must
be capable of carrying the maximum value of
the harmonic current, while the capacitor
must withstand the elevated harmonic
voltage plus the system normal-frequency
voltage. The inductor is adjusted to cause the
combination to resonate at the exact
frequency of the harmonic in question. It must
not saturate or overheat. The rating of a
harmonic filter varies according to the size of
the installation from some kvar to several
Mvar.
A problem with harmonic filters is that their
resonant frequencies change from one point
on the network to another due to cable
inductance. The longer the cabling, the lower
the frequency at which the filter resonates.
It is advisable moreover, to check that the
currents in a number of paralleled filters are
satisfactorily shared.
A modern means of limiting distortion is by
the use of active filters. These filters are
inverters based on PWM (Pulse Width
Modulation) techniques, together with
reactive-energy storage.
6 - Appendix EMC
The role of an active filter, triggered by an
error function, is to inject into the network a
harmonic current exactly equal, but in phase
opposition, to that produced downstream.
The principle of operation is comparable to
that of a static compensator, but at a
considerably higher chopping rate. An active
filter can be called upon to compensate not
only first (i.e. lower) harmonics, but also
reactive power (var) and flicker ; it is simply a
question of dimensioning.
Overvoltages
Overvoltages that affect industrial-supply
power networks in the differential mode
(between phases) can occur for numerous
reasons.
The energizing of a bank of capacitors can
generate an overvoltage transient associated
with an energy level of several hundred
Joules. The inductance of the system and the
capacitance of the bank behave as a series
LC circuit which oscillates transiently at its
natural frequency, typically below 1 kHz.
The value of the first peak (the sum of the
transient and system peaks) can reach
almost twice the value of the power system
peak voltage, i.e. the transient can have a
peak value almost equal to the system peak.
A second cause of overvoltage may occur on
the blowing of a wire-type fuse. A sudden
release of the magnetic energy stored in the
system inductances can be as much as a
thousand Joules, which, when converted into
electrostatic form in the system capacitances,
can raise the voltage sufficiently to damage
associated equipment. The effect is
considerably less with cartridge fuses or with
a circuit breaker.
Any manœuvre on a power transmission
system (opening or closing a circuit breaker,
isolating switch, etc.) results in an operational
disturbance. The energization of a
transmission line is characterized by a wave
front of voltage which (at approximately the
speed of light) propagates and reflects along
the line to produce a voltage-doubling
phenomenon.
The frequency of this highly-damped short-
duration oscillation varies between 10 kHz
and 1 MHz. The phenomenon is related to
that of energizing a capacitor, but the
frequency in this case is much greater
(depending on the length of the line) while the
energy level is lower. The risk of damage to
equipment from this phenomenon is much
less than that from overvoltages of longer
duration, but the risks of malfunctions are
greater.
Overvoltages have little effect on
electrotechnical equipments, but can disturb,
weaken and even destroy electronic
equipments. A LF overvoltage in common
mode has no effect on supply circuits that are
galvanically isolated, provided that the
isolating dielectric can withstand the voltage
stress without rupturing. At HF, principally by
its common-mode component, an
overvoltage can disturb (i.e. interfere with)
sensitive electronic systems. The solution is
simple: filter each equipment with respect to
its own mass (metallic structure of the
equipment).

The installation engineer has practically only
one way to protect the installation against
overvoltages, and that is to install overvoltage
limiting devices on the supply-circuit
conductors. Overvoltages occurring on public
LV distribution networks are lower in energy
than those occurring in heavy-current
industrial networks: the energy on public
networks rarely exceeding 100 Joules.
The only really dangerous case is that of a
lightning stroke on a line close to the
installation.
2.1.3. HF disturbances by induction
At HF i.e. conventionally above 1 MHz,
interference phenomena become
considerably more complicated. Power
conductors become efficient antennae,
electromagnetic fields, even when weak,
produce considerable interference, all cables
are affected, and some may resonate, etc.
HF phenomena are severe, frequent, difficult
to analyse and are cause to reconsider the
established practices in electronics cable
installation.
The inductance of cables becomes more of a
problem at HF than at low frequencies. The
lineal inductance of any conducting structure
following a sensibly straight route is
approximately 1 µH/m. Furthermore, an
interconnection of a length exceeding a
thirtieth (1/30) of a wavelength becomes
practically incapable of ensuring
equipotentiality between the two
interconnected masses. Beyond λ/30, a
conductor becomes an effective radiating
antenna but, if radiating, it fails to perform
correctly as an equipotential conductor.
The wavelength λ corresponding to a
frequency of 1 MHz is 300 metres. The
distance between any equipment and the
main earth bar being generally greater than
10 metres, one may deduce that the nature
and the quality of the earthing is of no
consequence at frequencies exceeding
1 MHz. A simple dictum: a large conductor is
good, but a short conductor is better.
HF disturbances by conduction in common
mode through cables are, in fact, considered
to be the principal problem for EMC
specialists. The reduction of common mode
disturbances at HF through cables can be
achieved by one or more of the following
three stratagems:
1 - attenuation effects: close interconnection
(networking) by equipotential conductors of
"masses" and/or screened cables
2 - filters between conductors and
mechanical mass of each equipment
3 - ferrites on "problem" cables.
An electronic circuit, e.g. a card supporting
chips, etc., should never be allowed to "float"
relative to its conducting envelope, a
condition which is to be avoided at all costs in
the presence of HF interference. The natural
(so-called "stray") capacitances of the card
components, less than a pico-farad, can be
sufficient to cause interference with an
electronic circuit. To limit rapidly varying
voltages between an electronic circuit and its
environment, the connecting of the filter 0 V
(reference voltage) terminal to an enveloping
metallic housing, connected to earth or not, is
an excellent preventive measure.
EMC
New overvoltage surge arresters based on
the use of varistors of high energy-dissipation
ratings allow an effective protection of all LV
systems and equipments downstream of the
point of arrester installation.
Failure of the zinc-oxide varistor will cause a
thermal fusing element (which is connected in
series with it) to blow, and open the circuit,
thereby avoiding a short-circuit to earth via a
faulty or damaged arrester. The cable from
this device must be connected by the
shortest possible route to the mass of the
distribution board, i.e. the common earthing
bar, and not to the earthing electrode, which
is generally too far away (see Sub-clause
L 1.4).
HF spikes
The range of frequencies which presents the
greatest difficulties, both in radiation and in
protection against the radiated energy, is the
VHF band from 30 to 300 MHz, also referred
to as the "metric" band. Almost all electric
arcs, sparks, electrostatic discharges and
starting contacts (such as dry contacts,
starting contact for striking an arc in
electroluminescent tubes, operation of circuit
breakers and other switching devices on HV
systems) generate impulses (spikes) which
are conducted in common mode and
radiated. The radiation spectrum covers the
range of the above-mentioned VHF band.
The amplitude of the HF current spikes can
attain a peak of several tens of amperes.
Digital circuits are particularly vulnerable to
such spikes. Respecting the standard for
immunity IEC 1000-4-4 is a highly-
recommended means of achieving
satisfactory protection and EMC of an
installation.
Maintained HF disturbances
Frequency converters, electronic speed
controllers, Graetz bridges and electric-motor
commutating brushes also generate common
mode HF disturbances. The peak value of
these disturbances can reach and even
exceed 1 ampere. One solution is to install an
efficient filter at the supply-source and/or at
the disturbed equipment. Another solution is
the use of power cables that include a
screen, which is earthed at both ends.
For sources of heavy interference, it is
recommended to form a network of
equipotential interconnections of all masses
in the neighbourhood of the offending source,
in particular all metallic cable ways, ducts,
trays, etc.
Appendix EMC - 7
 2. electromagnetic disturbances (continued)
EMC
2.2 radiation
Electrical energy propagation is not only
confined to conductors. It can also propagate
in space without material support. Such
propagation is referred to as electromagnetic
fields or waves, or Hertzian waves. Such a
wave is made up of an electric component E
in volts per metre, and a magnetic
component H in amperes per metre.
These radiated fields, when encountering a
2.2.1 LF magnetic fields
At low frequencies, only the magnetic field
may cause problems. Whether it is impulsive
(short-circuit, lightning, electronic flash...) or
maintained, the field H is generally produced
in close proximity to the affected equipment.
Measurement of the field strength requires an
oscilloscope and a loop probe only. The
magnetic field at low frequency does not
propagate, but remains in the close proximity
of its origin (a transformer or an induction
motor, for example) and its field strength
initially decreases rapidly with distance from
the source according to 1/D3.
At greater distances, the rate of decrease is
slower and approaches 1/D2. This latter value
is often used when considering the field
surrounding busbars or an overhead line. The
magnetic-field strength of a rectilinear current
with a return path at infinity (such as that due
to lightning) decreases according to 1/D.
Severe sources of magnetic fields are the
zero-phase sequence currents in supply
cables of a TN-C scheme. Loops formed
between the phase conductors and currents
diverted from the neutral conductor (through
equipotential bonds) are sometimes very
2.2.2 HF electromagnetic fields
At high frequencies, the E and H fields unite
to form indivisible electromagnetic waves in
space. At more than a sixth of a wavelength
from a point source, the ratio E/H tends to a
value of 120 π = 377 ohms. It is sufficient,
therefore, to give the value of one component
in order to deduce the field strength.
Numerous industrial, scientific or medical
apparatuses use radio frequencies, most
often in the 1 MHz to 3 GHz range. Radio
transmitters have power-radiation capabilities
ranging from several milli-watts for radio-
control devices, to several mega-watts peak
for radar systems.
Walky-talkies, which can be used for
transmission very close to electronic
equipment, are sources of disturbance,
particularly for low-power analog circuits.
An effective way to reduce radio-transmitter
field strength, as "seen" by sensitive
electronic equipments, is to use antennae as
remote from the equipments as possible, and
located at the greatest height attainable.
Since this principle cannot be applied to
portable transmitters, their use must be
restricted to areas sufficiently remote from
sensitive equipments to ensure trouble-free
operation of the latter.
8 - Appendix EMC
conductor (which acts as a receiving
antenna), give rise to minute emfs and
currents in the conducting material, i.e. in the
form of disturbance by conduction. For cable
circuits, these disturbances are in common
mode. It is therefore possible to protect
against these radiated fields by means of a
Faraday cage arrangement or by (very often)
low-pass filters.
large; such currents can amount to several
amperes. The undesirability of the TN-C
scheme (in buildings) for this reason is shown
in fig. F14 Chapter F, of the main text. During
a short-circuit fault, the disturbance is
evidently greater to a degree that depends on
the fault-current magnitude.
The most common consequence of a LF
magnetic field is a distortion of the image of a
cathode ray tube (jumps and wave-like
movements of the image, and even changes
of colour). A magnetically unscreened CRT
(cathode-ray tube), an electron miscroscope,
a mass spectrometer or a magnetic reading
head, barely tolerates 1A/m at LF. Moreover,
the "stray" loops formed through equipotential
connections to masses are associated
(naturally) with corresponding voltages.
Magnetic screening from/of a magnetic field
is very difficult at frequencies less than
10 kHz. The easiest solution is simply to
place the sensitive equipment out of range of
the offending field. Screening the sensitive
equipment with a thick magnetic shield can
reduce the field strength by a factor of the
order 10.
Electronic equipments are rarely affected by
a field-strength of less than 1 volt per metre.
Field strengths exceeding 10 volts per metre,
however, very often cannot be tolerated. The
range of frequencies giving the most severe
effects is, again, in the VHF band.
At HF a common-mode current in a cable
always produces a radiated wave. The
reciprocal case is also true, i.e. the arrival of a
HF wave will produce a common-mode
current in a cable. The methods of protection
against HF fields are the same as those
adopted against disturbances by conduction
at the same frequencies.
The antenna effect of cables carrying HF
current by coupling in common mode
constitutes the principal problem in EMC.
3. cabling of equipment and systems
In order to cable an electronic system
correctly or to correct an unsatisfactory
installation, it is often sufficient to apply some
simple elementary rules. From experience,
the most important factor is a clear
understanding of the phenomena and the
recognition of their limits. The strict
observance of traditional rules for correct
installation and cabling has become
necessary. This is the price to pay for the
3.1 earthing
The expressions "earth", "earth electrode",
"earth plate", "earth rod" all refer to a
conductor which is buried, and in intimate
contact with the soil. The word «mass» refers
to metal parts of equipment (electrical or not -
for example, water pipes) which, under
normal conditions, are not intended to carry
current. Bonding conductors, which are used
to interconnect masses are also referred to
as "mass". Although all masses in normal LF
installation practice are connected to earth,
the two words, "earth" and the above-noted
equivalents should not be confused with
"mass". "Mass" is commonly called "ground"
in some countries.
3.1.1 the role of earthing
The basic role of an earth electrode is to
maintain all masses in an installation at a
voltage close to zero, whether the power
source is earthed or not. This is achieved in a
properly designed installation, regardless of
whether a faulty condition (which would
otherwise raise the voltage of the installation
masses) occurs in the installation circuits or
on the power-supply network, or other
sources external to the installation.
The role of earthing, therefore, is that of the
protection of persons against the dangers of
electrocution. The severity of an electric
shock is a function of the current which
passes through the body, and equally
important is the path of the current flow
through the body. Established IEC rules of
protection against electric shock set safe
limits of voltage (referred to as conventional
voltage limits) above which masses are
considered to be unacceptably dangerous.
For normal 50 Hz or 60 Hz power systems,
these values are 50 Vrms for dry locations
and 25 Vrms for wet locations, for example
bathrooms and laundries (see Chapter L of
the main text for more details).
It is recognized that a low contact resistance
of an earth electrode with the mass of the
earth cannot always be obtained.
Furthermore, its value is rarely constant,
depending largely on soil humidity (and so
prone to seasonal changes). An essential
factor in maintaining safety to personnel in
the event of a high earthing resistance, is that
of the equipotential concept. If, for example,
all masses are at a common (even normally
dangerous) potential, and the earth below the
building is at a similar potential, a person can
touch any or several masses at the same
time without danger. This is why electrical
appliances with long leads (hedge trimmers,
lawn mowers, etc.), which allow the user to
leave the equipotential environment of the
house, must be of Class II insulation level
(i.e. doubly insulated).
So-called normal leakage currents (no
insulation is perfect) also include the minute
capacitive currents of the wiring to earth.
EMC
achievement of EMC in modern electronic
systems. Many practices which are
satisfactory at LF have proved to be poor or
even catastrophic at HF. Certain cabling
options can be chosen with confidence.
The interconnection of all the non-functional
earths of a single site is one example.
Factors which are always favourable should
become standard practice.
These currents, and short-circuit-to-earth fault
currents, flow mainly through the protective
earthing PE conductors (coloured with yellow
and green stripes) and finally back to the
source substation, via the earth (TT system)
or via the earth path and (mainly) through the
neutral conductor in parallel (TN system).
Since, in the TN case, practically all of the
fault (and leakage) currents return to the
source via the neutral conductor, the
resistance of the installation earth electrode is
not of primary importance (unless lightning
arresters are to be connected to it).
For the protection of electronic equipments, it
is strongly recommended that common-mode
currents entering the building from external
cables be diverted to earth at the point of entry.
A simple galvanic isolation is often
insufficient: the overvoltage withstand
capability of a galvanic isolation transformer
is typically less that 10 kV. This value is
insufficient on days of intense electrical
storms.
The installation of non-linear voltage-limiting
devices then becomes a necessity.
It is important that all incoming metallic pipes,
ducts, trunking, etc., be connected to earth at
their entry into the building. This policy can
avoid the circulation of currents (from outside
the building) in the conductors bonding the
masses.
The installation of overvoltage-protection
devices must be carried out with the
minimum possible common impedance
between the external circuit and the circuit to
be protected. The length of conductor in
series with the voltage limiter must,
consequently, be the shortest possible.
The residual voltage "seen" by the protected
equipment is then independent of the
impedance of the earth.
Even with a "bad" earth, it is possible to
protect an equipment effectively against
external overvoltages: it is necessary and
sufficient to connect the voltage limiter to the
mass of the equipment using the shortest
practical length of cable.
electric-power line
protected
voltage
limiter electronic
earthing conductor equipment
yes
protected
electronic
equipment
no
fig. EMC-5: a voltage limiter must be
connected to the mass and not to earth.
Appendix EMC - 9
 3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)

EMC
3.1 earthing (continued)
When a voltage limiter is correctly connected An electronic equipment is not affected by the
to the mass, the impedance of the earth value of earth resistance. At worst, there is a
electrode is immaterial. risk of exposure to overvoltages from an
A direct lightning stroke on the supply line external cable, if its protection is insufficient,
close to the installation requires the or is badly cabled. So that the role of the
dissipation of (typically) 10 kA to 100 kA of masses is essential, and more important than
stroke current, most of which passes to earth that of the earthing. The only requirement for
through lightning arresters on the line a satisfactory performance of the electronic
external to the installation. Overvoltages equipments is a high degree of
within an installation where external arresters equipotentiality.
are provided rarely exceed 6 kV due to It is evident that two earths are always less
atmospheric causes. equipotential than one. Any separate earth,
even if said to be «interference free» is
always detrimental to equipotentiality, and so
direct-stroke current
to the safety of persons and to the
satisfactory functioning of interconnected
lightning protection equipments. Two non-functional earth-
conductors electrode systems on a common site should
internal equipments must always be interconnected.
be maintained at In practice, care must be taken that there is
equipotential no touch-voltage existing when working on an
electronic equipment interconnection
between two buildings (video, access control,
local network, information technology (ADP)
fig. EMC-6: the entire equipotential devices...) if the earthing systems of the two
"cage" will be at a high absolute potential buildings are not solidly interconnected. It is,
during the brief flow of stroke current. as already noted, not possible to be sure of
the equipotentiality of two separate earths.
For transmission and distribution lines at high * This statement is not true in certain circumstances, notably
in rural areas, where a small transformer supplies an
voltage, the fault current for one phase to isolated community, for example. The neutral earth
earth returns to the source through the earth electrode must necessarily have the lowest possible
and (where provided) through the shielding resistance in such cases. If not, potential gradients on the
surface of the ground can be dangerously high in the vicinity
conductors above the phase conductors of of the electrode during an earth fault.
the lines. Animals are frequently killed due to this cause.
The provision of an equipotential condition on
the surface of the ground at the base of
transmission towers and, more importantly, at
substations (the source of the fault current) is
a primary concern of design engineers. The
principle of equipotential bonding is identical
to that required for a low-voltage installation
in a building.
A functional earth means an earth electrode
which is designed to pass load current
through the earth, i.e. the earth path acts as
one of the circuit conductors. There are
several installations around the world that
utilise this method. In some countries, d.c. is
used in this (economic) way to operate a
service of facsimile transmission.
It may be of interest to note that when
telephone cables (which use paper insulation
on the conductors) have a high degree of
leakage current and consequently doubtful
symmetry, a low earth resistance allows the
quality of the transmitted signals to be
preserved. Although the magnitude of
telephone signals is low (millivolts to less
than 1 volt), the quality of modern cables
overcomes the constraints of a "good" earth.
To summarise, the protection of persons does
not depend directly on a low value of earth
resistance*; it is rather the establishment of a
condition of equipotential between masses
that is of prime importance. Thus, an aircraft
in an electric storm presents no danger to the
passengers, who are in a metallic envelope
which is (within a few volts) perfectly
equipotential. For persons or animals, the
danger is not the magnitude of the absolute
potential, it is the difference of potential
between metal parts which can be touched
simultaneously that is dangerous.

10 - Appendix EMC

3.2 masses
The majority of malfunctions in
electromagnetic devices, sometimes wrongly
imputed to software problems or human error,
are found to be due to an insufficient level of
equipotentiality between interconnected units
(probes, cards, actuators).
There are two differences between a buried
conductor and a mass conductor. A buried
conductor will dissipate its common mode
currents, but it is always too far from the
equipments to be effective at HF.
A mass conductor above ground level
presents two essential virtues to the good
performance of electronic systems, viz: it is
physically close to the circuits, and it is
accessible.
The equipotentiality of equipments and their
masses is a functional objective.
As long as interference signals circulate in
the masses and not in the electronic circuits,
they are harmless. On the other hand, if the
masses are not all equipotential and are
connected to earth in star*, for example, HF
interference currents will circulate through
any available path, i.e. via signal cables.
Some circuits will therefore be subjected to
interference and even be destroyed.
Networking the mass conductors to form a
closely-connected low-impedance bonding
system is the only economical way to ensure
a satisfactory level of equipotentiality to install
all sensitive equipments in a "Faraday cage"
arrangement (a room enclosed in a mesh of
conductors) would be technically ideal, but is
generally not economically justified.
By definition, a "mass" is any conducting
material which can be touched by any part of
a human body, that is not normally alive, but
which may become alive as the result of a
fault. Two masses which are accessible and
within human reach must present a potential
difference, under any conceivable fault
condition, that does not exceed the IEC-
recommended conventional voltage (UL)
3.2.1. loops of mass and between masses
A loop of mass is the area included between
a working cable (metering cable, control
cable, power-supply cable, local-network
system cable) and the mass conductor
(generally the nearest PE conductor). There
are, therefore, as many loops of mass as
there are cables. This is inevitable, whether
the conductors are galvanically isolated or
not. A galvanic isolation reduces the
circulation of LF currents without, however,
reducing the area of the loop. A loop can
oscillate strongly at HF, so that large-area
loops constitute the major problem in EMC.
equipment 1 equipment 2
signal
cable
mass
loop
nearest mass conductor
fig. EMC-7: there is an inevitable mass
loop per cable.
EMC
safety limit (of 50 Vrms in dry locations and
25 Vrms in wet conditions for ac systems).
These values are the maximum allowed that
can exist indefinitely in specified conditions of
external influences.
A dangerous touch voltage can arise during a
fault if the resistance of the equipotential
conductors is not sufficiently low. In some
cases, it is necessary to install supplementary
equipotential conductors in parallel with
existing conductors to satisfy the UL criterion.
It should be noted that access to two (or
more) masses is illegal, even if they are
associated with different installations, if they
are connected to different earthing systems
which are not interconnected.
The respect of safety rules is obligatory but
not sufficient, in themselves, to ensure
satisfactory EMC of an installation. In fact, the
risk of electrocution only exists by a voltage
of a high value and relatively long duration
appearing between adjacent masses.
An electronic equipment is sensitive to an
extensive range of frequencies, or to very
brief impulses. An electrostatic discharge, for
example, is generally of no consequence for
its source, but it could be catastrophic for an
electronic device. Normal earths, commonly
connected in «star» (i.e. radial) configuration
for example, guarantee the safety of persons
when the relevant standards are respected,
but not the satisfactory operation of an
installation which includes sensitive electronic
components.
It is certain that more and more electronic
equipments are, or will be, connected to other
apparatuses and devices for the exchange of
information. The best way of ensuring a
successful and durable installation
performance is to establish a high degree of
equipotentiality throughout the entire
installation.
* i.e. by one of a number of conductors radially connected to
the main earth bar, the ensemble resembling a "star".
If a current circulates around a mass loop,
such a current in common mode may either
superimpose «noise» (interference) on useful
signals (in differential mode, by conversion
from common mode to differential mode) or
disturb the electronic circuits at each
extremity.
The risk is equally present for radiation from a
loop as for reception of interference by the
loop. The output stages of electronic circuits
are as sensitive to interference as the input
stages, and are more difficult to filter.
The areas enclosed by mass conductors
must not be confused with those referred to
above as "mass loops". It is preferable to
allow parasitic currents to propagate in the
masses rather than in the signal cables.
These loops between mass conductors are
called "loops between masses".
equipment 1 equipment 2
signal
cable
mass conductor
loop between masse
mass conductor
fig. EMC-8.
Appendix EMC - 11
 3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)
EMC
3.2 masses (continued)
If two neighbouring masses are not
connected together, the differential potential
difference between them may be significant.
A direct connection from one to the other will
always improve the equipotential condition.
At least, the masses of all equipments which
exchange data between them should be
interconnected by mass conductors. An even
more certain way of improving the state of
equipotentiality is to interconnect all
equipment masses, whether they exchange
data or not.
"Mass loops", also called "ground loops",
should never be confused with «loops
between masses». A mass loop is never
favourable, and its area must be reduced to
the minimum attainable, to reduce as far as
possible the interference effects of disturbing
fields. On the other hand, it is always good
practice to increase the number and reduce
the areas of loops between masses.
3.2.2 unity of the mass network
The mass must be unique to be equipotential.
There are three methods of connecting
masses which preserve this unity.
1 - Earthing connections in "star": each
equipment has its own earthing cable, which
terminates with all other individual earthing
cables on a unique earthing bar.
earth cables
inevitably long
authorized method, but costly and not
good for EMC, particularly for
interconnected equipments
earth cables radiating from the main earth bar,
figuratively similar to a star
fig. EMC-10.
The justification of such a philosophy is over-
simple: when an equipment develops a leakage
current to mass, the remaining equipments
are assumed to remain at earth potential.
But "earth" potential has no real meaning in
practical electronics, all potentials are relative
one to another, the concept of absolute zero
potential (i.e. "remote earth") is abstract.
It is often assumed that the "star" configuration
of earthing overcomes the problem of
common impedance. It is, in fact, quite the
opposite! Earthing in the "star" configuration
increases the common impedance (that is,
forms a point of common coupling) between
interconnected equipments.
high value of
differential
potential
equipment 1 difference equipment 2
disturbance (d.p.d.)
on cable
I mc
signal
PE cable PE
high impedance if the
Z
conductor is long
I ADP environment, it is reasonable to use the
fig. EMC-11.
12 - Appendix EMC
The more this policy is developed, the more
effective is the resulting state of
equipotentiality, both at LF and at HF.
Connecting the masses to a mesh of
interconnecting mass cables is always
beneficial, regardless of the nature of the
equipments concerned.
equipment 1 equipment 2
greater immunity
against
radiation fields by
reduction
of area of the mass loop
greater immunity from conducted
interference by multiplication and reduction
in area, of loops between masses.
fig. EMC-9.
Earthing in "star" can create a common
impedance between two interconnected
equipments.
It is sometimes also assumed that the "star"
system of earth connections suppresses the
mass loops. Between two interconnected
equipments, it is evidently not the case; the
area enclosed by the mass loop can, in fact,
be considerable. An electromagnetic field
due, for example to a lightning discharge, will
induce voltage in the mass loop greater than
that occurring in any other method of
earthing.
strong
equipment 1 equipment 2
d.p.d.
signal
cable
electro-
magnetic
wave large area
fig. EMC-12.
This long-established "star" earthing method
is now only possible for an equipment which
is, and will remain, isolated from any other.
The method can be suitable only for
electronic analog systems (as opposed to
digital systems) with floating sensors, and the
electronic circuits completely isolated from
any other. Such cases are becoming
increasingly rare.
With the generalisation of information-data
transmissions over great distances, local
networks, shared peripherals and, in general,
the exchange of signals between
equipments, the "star" method of earthing
must be abandoned. Moreover, even if the
earth connection of each equipment by an
individual conductor is not detrimental, it still
remains a costly method that requires large
amounts of copper and many hours of
installation work.
The only reasonable application for the "star"
arrangement of earthing (in fact, connection
to mass) is the connecting cable between an
equipment and power-supply socket-outlet, or
the nearest distribution board. Thus, in an
green-and-yellow PE conductor of the power-
supply circuits to connect each equipment to

the general distribution board, located in the
room. From the common earth bar of the
board, a single protection cable is taken to
the main earth electrode for the installation.
This conductor can be common to other
devices, and may, with advantage, be
connected to neighbouring masses.
PE conductor for
other installations
sensitive
main distribution equipments
board
earth bar
main earth
terminal
local mass
earth-electrode
system
fig. EMC-13: a good earthing-system
arrangement.
Even if a strong source of interference is
installed in the same environment as
sensitive equipment, a separate earthing
system for the sensitive equipment is
detrimental and not recommended. At the
most, it is desirable to supply the two
incompatible systems on separate cables
from the power-supply network. In any case,
mesh-connecting the masses is favourable.
Such a mesh of PE conductors has the merit
of avoiding involuntary loops which can
become catastrophic if not successfully
countered.
"Star"-system earthing can be accepted only
for low-frequency installations that are, and
will remain, independent and isolated from
any other installation.
2 - Connection to the nearest PE
conductor: a unique protection (PE)
conductor, associated with several
equipments.
a single PE conductor
fig. EMC-14.
By using this cabling scheme, the mass loops
have a small area and the common
impedance between interconnected
equipments is less than that with a "star"-
connected earthing scheme. This economic
method is also recommended for safety
reasons. It is easy to prove that the touch
voltage between two masses connected to
the same PE conductor remains less than the
conventional (UL) value. The risk of using the
same PE conductor for earthing two systems,
one "noisy" and the other sensitive, is not
negligible. Although the low impedance of the
PE conductors and the good level of
immunity to LF interference in common mode
together limit the risks, the HF currents
generated by strongly polluting sources
(power converters in particular) cannot be
dissipated efficiently by a single PE
conductor. In such cases, it is necessary to
install additional (supplementary) PE
conductors in the form of a meshed network.
EMC
3 - The shortest connection to the nearest
mass.
This third method of connection to the
nearest mass is better than those previously
described. It is based on the mesh
connection of masses. The areas of mass
loops are reduced to the strict minimum and
the degree of equipotentiality of the masses
is excellent.
structures of adjacent masses
(mass grid, conducting false floor, cable trays,
ducts, troughs, etc)
fig. EMC-15.
Note: concerning the safety of persons, this
type of local connection is not generally a
substitute for PE conductors. It is appropriate,
therefore, to superimpose the methods 2 (or
even 1) for the safety of persons, and n° 3 for
EMC.
Mesh connecting the masses is even more
important as the area covered by the
installation increases, with long
interconnecting cables, or when the
equipments are divided between several
storeys.
The mesh connecting of masses does not
reduce the favourable policy of supplying
sensitive equipments by different supply
cables than those used to supply strongly
polluting loads. However, the use of different
supply cables does not signify "star" -
connected masses.
The lengths of protective conductors (PE)
mean that, at HF, their impedance is
generally too high to effectively improve the
equipotential situation. For example, a PE
conductor 100 metres long is incapable of
passing significant currents at frequencies
exceeding 100 kHz.
The PE conductors and earthing conductors
alone are not sufficient to ensure the EMC of
an installation. Additional conductors and
short inter-mass connections are also
necessary.
PE cables, even long, and short-circuited at
one end by a mass grid, function correctly at
LF for the protection of persons. No
interconnection between masses and no
protective conductor should ever be
removed, even if they appear to have
become redundant following a careful
meshing (close interconnection of
equipments and other masses to form a
"mesh") of all adjacent masses.
A PE conductor is not to be considered as an
earthing conductor but as a "bonding"
conductor, or "earth-bonding" conductor, the
principal function of which is to ensure that UL
(i.e. the maximum allowable touch voltage) is
never exceeded.
Furthermore, there should never be more
than one earthing system per installation (i.e.
per site) similarly for the mass system which
must be unique, and connected to the unique
earthing system. If this policy is not adopted,
then EMC problems will certainly be
experienced via the inevitable links between
adjacent installations (entry controls, video,
alarms, safety measures, etc.).
Appendix EMC - 13
 3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)

EMC
3.2 masses (continued)
In practice, any conductor can be included Except for the installation of a (very costly)
usefully in the equipotential network of the "Faraday cage" type of enclosure, the mesh
masses: metallic tubes, pipes, drains, cable- connecting of masses is the only practical
trays and ladders, structural members way to guarantee a sufficient level of
(girders, beams, reinforcing rods, etc.). Such equipotentiality to counter effectively all types
a mesh of interconnected metal improves of electromagnetic interference.
considerably the EMC of systems, as well as The notion of equipotentiality is more and
favouring the measures for safety of persons. more localised as the frequency increases.
The nature of the conductors has little The equipotential condition is only obtained at
importance in equipotentiality. A steel HF by the free circulation of the common-
conductor at HF has approximately the same mode currents in all directions, i.e. by
inductance as a copper conductor of dispersion.
equivalent cross-sectional-area and length. Thus, in an industrial environment, it is
These connections to any and all masses in recommended to connect routinely all
buildings are authorized and desirable. conducting structures to neighbouring
It is simpler, and ensures the best results, to conducting parts of the building by the
interconnect all masses of every kind shortest possible "bonding" conductors and,
routinely, rather than to limit the where appropriate (e.g. in multi-storey
interconnections to the masses of the buildings) in three dimensions. This is the
equipments and devices, of the electrical and most economic way to improve the
electronic systems only. In this way a "mesh equipotentiality of an installation at all
of masses" or a "mass grid" (both terms are frequencies, despite some inevitable currents
used) is formed. It is rarely useful to install an in the masses.
electrical conductor; it is sufficient to simply Only desk-top equipments in an office
interconnect, at as many points as possible, environment and not connected to a network
all metallic pipes, tubes, ducts, structural have no need be connected to a mass grid.
girders, beams, reinforcing rods, etc. It is They must, on the other hand, be very
recommended to connect every large rack, carefully screened.
frame, or structure, to the mass grid at
intervals of approximately 1 metre.
In conclusion, an effective equipotential
condition of all masses favours the
satisfactory performance of any electronic
system, especially for rapid or highly-polluting
digital systems. Whether it be for the
improvement in immunity from
electromagnetic interference, or for the
reduction of radiation from the equipments of
the installation, the mesh connection of
masses affords a simple, relatively
inexpensive and efficient solution for
frequencies up to several tens of megahertz.
If the public power-supply system benefits
from 3-phase star-connected operation, it is
because the supplies are (and must remain)
galvanically isolated each one from the
others. It should be understood that factors
which are favourable for phase conductors,
are not necessarily so for the masses.
A HF current cannot flow easily through a
phase conductor: it is only possible at low
frequencies. To divide the inevitable HF
common-mode currents through the multiple
paths of numerous conductors of a mass grid
is a guarantee of protection for the signal
cables. Experience shows that when a
system functions correctly in the absence of
HF interference, regardless of the cabling
philosophy of its masses, the routine meshing
of masses has no adverse effect on the
correct operation of the system; on the
contrary, it often decisively improves the
system performance.

14 - Appendix EMC

3.3 attenuation effects
The attenuating effect of a conducting
structure (mass) is defined by the amplitude
of the common-mode interference appearing
on a cable installed at a location remote from
any masses, with respect to the amplitude of
the interference on the same cable due to the
same disturbance, but with the cable installed
in close proximity (i.e. clamped firmly) to
mass, throughout its length.
victim cable
10 V
I
mass conductor
victim cable
I 2V
fig. EMC-16: example of attenuating
effect (in this case equal to 5).
The attenuating effect is one of the key
factors in EMC, being effective and not too
costly. In order to exchange signals in good
conditions, i.e. in limiting the interference
picked up by the signal cables, it is important
to reduce common-mode coupling.
Any metallic structure, close to, i.e. in contact
with, and longitudinally parallel to a signal
cable, from one end to the other, can provide
two favourable effects:
1 - A more effective meshing of the masses.
For d.c. currents, the mesh does not act as
an attenuator; its role is to reduce the
resistance between masses, not to provide a
shielding effect. The galvanic effect of the
mesh is independent of the proximity of the
signal cables with the mass.
2 - An attenuation (shielding) effect. The
effect of proximity adds to that mentioned in
above, if the word "impedance" replaces
"resistance". It is achieved by connecting
equipments, which are interconnected to the
mass of conducting structures which are
close to the signal cables. The benefit is an
efficient shielding which is practically cost-
free. The attenuation effect being directly
attributed to mutual induction, there is no
attenuation of d.c. interference, as noted in 1.
It should be borne in mind that any cable is
potentially an excellent wide-band antenna,
especially in the metric range. In order to
reduce its radiation ability, a simple, efficient
and inexpensive method consists in placing
the cable as close as possible to a mass
structure throughout its length, i.e. close to a
mass cable, metal ducting, structural girder,
etc. The attenuation effect produced by a
mass conductor close to a signal cable is
simply explained, as follows. On the occurrence
of an electromagnetic-wave disturbance, a
current is induced in the mass conductor.
This current generates, according to Lenz’s
law, a magnetic field which acts in the
opposite sense to the field that produced the
current. A signal cable close to the mass
conductor will therefore be affected by the
difference only of the original field and the
reactive field of the mass-conductor current.
The resulting field affecting the signal cable is
known as the residual field and is evidently of
EMC
lower strength than that of the original field.
A cable in close proximity to conductive mass
from end to end is therefore less exposed to
the most severe type of interference, viz: that
of common mode.
Attenuation effects can be made more
effective by arranging the mass, where
possible, to envelop the conductors to be
protected. In this way, a woven metallic
screen, incorporated in signal cables and
connected to mass, protects the envelopped
conductors above a frequency of 1 MHz with
an attenuation factor of at least 300.
It is difficult and expensive to shield all the
interconnections in a installation, but it is
often easy to select cable routes which
provide good attenuation. To benefit from the
attenuation effect, it is sufficient to fix cables
on conductive mass throughout the entire
cable length. Such masses must be carefully
bonded together electrically and to all nearby
structural framework. The quality (i.e. the low
impedance) of interconnecting bonds is of
primary importance. The most efficient is a
direct contact of sheet metal on sheet metal.
dB attenuation effect of a perforated steel sheet
metal, type "dalle marine"
direct contact, sheet metal on sheet metal
40
(same connection
at 2 extremities)
20
metal flexible-connection
tresses
10
cable
frequency
(MHz)
0,1 0,3 1 3 10 30 100
fig. EMC-17.
Electrical continuity from one end to the other,
and the correct connection to mass at
extremities, guarantee an effective
attenuation factor. It is recommended to
connect cable ways to conductive building
structures at intervals along the cable route.
The attenuation factor is not reduced by
these additional contacts between masses,
but the mass mesh is improved. In a single
cable tray, in order to limit "cross-talk", power
cables or, for example, cables of speed
controllers should not be placed beside small-
signal cables.
The ideal, in an industrial environment, would
be to install three separate cable trays, i.e.
one for measurements and similar functions,
one for control and indication circuits, and
one for power cables.
A copper conductor provides an attenuation
factor of the order 5 if it is installed throughout
the entire length close to the protected signal
cable. It is therefore an advantage to
associate signal cables with interconnecting
earthing cables in a common cable way (for
instance, between two buildings). This is still
true even if the earths are interconnected
elsewhere. It is always possible to add a
mass cable adjacent to a particularly
sensitive signal cable if necessary. The mass
cable is then referred to as a "cable of
accompaniment".
A buried cable which is passing an a.c.
current in common mode creates a magnetic
field in the surrounding soil. This (concentric)
field gives rise to (Foucault) currents in the
earth and the magnetic energy is dissipated
in the form of heat. The common-mode
Appendix EMC - 15
 3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)
EMC
3.3 attenuation effects (continued)
currents are damped by this effect, which is
not exactly the same as that of the
attenuation described above, but is rather
analogous to the action of a transformer with
a resistive load. This damping action is
3.4. installation and cabling rules
To resolve the majority of EMC problems, it is
sufficient to respect (rigorously) a few
elementary cabling rules. The first
requirement is to decide to which group each
cable belongs. The following classes of cable
groups cover most practical installations.
Group n° 1 - Measuring circuits (low-level
analog signals) and supplies to analog
probes. This group is sensitive.
Group n° 2 - Digital circuits. This group is
also sensitive (especially to impulses and
bursts). It can also interfere with the circuits
of Group n° 1.
Group n° 3 - Control and indication
circuits, including «all-or-nothing» (AON)
relays. This group will interfere with Groups
n° 1 and n° 2.
Group n° 4 - Power-supply cables. These
are power cables from the public distribution
network, or from a private generating source
(emergency power supply for example).
Currents at this level are switched and
chopped (by various power-electronics
equipments, rectifiers, inverters, and so on...).
In normal operation these functions generate
HF current and voltage components, in and
on the supply conductors. Such currents and
voltages constitute a highly-polluted
environment for Groups n° 1, n° 2 and n° 3.
It is recommended that the cables and wires
of each Group have a distinctive and different
colour to the other Groups.
Rule n° 1 - The "go" and "return"
conductors of any circuit must always be
placed as closely together as possible.
This general rule applies also to power-
supply cables. Do not supply in "star" (i.e.
radially) two circuits that are not isolated,
which exchange signals.
It is necessary, even for the signals of AON
relays with one common conductor, to
"accompany" the active conductors with at
least one common conductor per cable or per
multi-core cable. For analog or digital signals,
the use of two-core cables (or paired
conductors) is the basic minimum precaution.
printed no printed yes
circuit circuit
_U+ _U+
fig. EMC-18.
Rule n° 2 - All internal-circuit
interconnecting conductors, cables, etc.
should be fixed in close contact with
equipotential structures constituting the
electrical mass. This measure ensures the
benefit of interference attenuation previously
described, at practically no cost. Ensure that
unused wires, or cables or free cores are not
16 - Appendix EMC
particularly effective where the interference is
due to repetitive trains of transient damped
oscillations (i.e. "bursts"). The Foucault
currents in the soil increase the degree of
damping.
allowed to move unduly in an equipment.
Rule n° 3 - It is recommended to use
screened cables for noisy and for
sensitive circuits.
Screening is an effective protection against
HF noise, provided that it is connected to
mass at least at each end of the cable. It is
quite possible to juxtapose two cables of
different groups, provided that at least one
(but preferably both) cable(s) is (are)
screened and connected by a flexible woven
metallic tress to mass at each extremity.
Screened cables properly installed are
immune to "cross-talk".
Rule n° 4 - Only conductors of the same
Group can be routed together in a cable,
or in the same bundle.
For flat ribbon-type multi-core cables, the
conductors carrying analog signals should
separated from those carrying digital data by
at least two conductors mass-connected to
the reference voltage of each card. For digital
conductors, connecting one wire out of two,
of a flat ribbon-type cable, to the zero voltage
at each end, reduces the HF cross-talk
between lines by a factor of 5-10. Moreover, it
is detrimental to use one multi-core
connecting cable link for different Groups. In
practice, spacing the cables by approximately
30 cm is generally sufficient, even in an
isolated environment, to reduce the cross-talk
to an acceptable level. Crossing two cables
from different Groups provides the lowest
possible mutual coupling if the two cables
cross at 90°. This practice should therefore
be carried out routinely.
Rule n° 5 - Any free (i.e. unused)
conductors of Groups n° 2 or n° 4 should
always be connected to the mass of the
chassis at both ends. By this means, the
attenuation effect can often reach a factor
exceeding 2. These connections to mass
must be easily removed to free any cores
which may be needed at a later date. For
Group n° 1 (at very low voltage and
frequency) such a connection could be a
disadvantage and is not recommended.
Noise at the industrial frequency could cause
unacceptable interference.
Rule n° 6 - The cables of Group n° 4 need
not be screened if they are filtered.
It is generally necessary to filter power-supply
cables at the point of entry of an equipment.
On the other hand, it is difficult to filter power
cables supplying speed-change controllers,
especially when the peak current is high.
It then becomes necessary to screen the
cables by flexible metallic tresses or by a
continuous metal tube connected to the mass
at each end.
The opposite case is also true: a cable which
is well screened does not need filtering. In a
common plinth, a screened signal cable has
practically no problems of interference from
neighbouring power-supply cables.

Rule n° 7 - Noisy equipments should be
supplied by separate power cables.
This rule will minimize the supply-system
noise in differential mode. The rule should not
be confused with the practice of radial
connections of the masses previously
discussed. The neutral conductor should not
be connected to the mass, except at a single
point. This is the fundamental difference
between a neutral conductor and a PE
(Protective Earth) conductor*.
* The TN-C scheme for power installations uses one
conductor only for both PE and neutral functions. For
obvious reasons, the TN-C scheme is never used where
EMC is important.
∆ transformer ∆ ∆
noisy sensitive
plant equipment
to be avoided ! better ! excellent !
fig. EMC-19.
Since the equipments receive their power
supplies individually and are isolated one
from the other, supplying different equipments
by separate power lines is a prudent
precaution. In any case, it is advantageous
3.5 EMC components and solutions
The EMC of systems requires the use of
specific components. The following is an
analysis of the conditions of use and the
performance of such specific components,
viz: electromagnetic screens, filters,
overvoltage limiters, and screened cables.
3.5.1 electromagnetic screens
An electromagnetic screen serves to isolate
two regions of space: one requiring to be
shielded from sources of electromagnetic
radiations originating in the other.
Electromagnetic shielding is always
composed of a conducting envelope, which is
generally metallic.
At low frequencies, the fields E and H are
rarely coupled. Shielding against the field E is
always effective, even a conductive ink is
sufficient. A field H however is very difficult to
shield against at LF. It requires the use of
materials of very high magnetic permeability
µ (soft iron, mumetal) and/or low-resistant
metals (copper or aluminium). In any case,
magnetic screens have to be thick to be
effective. For d.c. systems, protection can be
afforded only by using magnetic materials.
The screen must be placed as close to the
item to be protected as possible, and the
thickness of the screen must be augmented,
the greater its volume. It is for shielding
against HF disturbances that screens are
most widely used.
All microcomputers, and from now on all
video games, are fitted with EMC shielding.
The role of the screen is to limit the radiation
from the digital circuits to the antennae of the
radio receivers in the neighbourhood.
A screen being a passive linear bilateral
EMC
that the masses (chassis) of the equipments
are all maintained at the same potential:
radial network for power supplies, mesh-
connected network for masses.
The connection of the main earth bar at the
main distribution board of an installation (see
below) to the mass grid should preferably
have an inductance of less than 1 micro-
Henry (the lower the better). A single
conductor of 50 cm or two parallel conductors
(not too close) of 1 m each, etc.
main distribution
board L1 L2 L3 N
∆
PE
conductor
transformer main
earth
bar
mass grid (equipotential mesh)
earth electrode
fig. EMC-20.
Power supply and connections to masses
of an electrical equipment
For supplies to an installation, it is an
advantage to locate the transformer as
closely as possible to the items of load,
while taking account of the effect of static
magnetic-induction fields.
device, its action is perfectly reciprocal:
its efficiency at a given frequency is identical
whether protecting its inner space from
external radiations or vice-versa.
The primary action of an EM screen is that of
a mirror by reflecting EM energy back
towards its source. It is then, the reflection
phenomenon. The part of the EM energy not
reflected (no reflector is perfect) is
propagated in the screening material, where it
is dissipated as heat : this phenomenon is
called absorption. If one, or other (or both) of
these two features is (are) good, then the
screen is fulfilling its purpose.
A HF screen must be an efficient conductor
(low resistance) but must, above all, present
negligible leakage. «Leakage» used in this
context refers to the penetration through the
screen of radiated EM energy. A leak can be
thought of as a small crack in the screen.
The higher the frequency of the radiation, the
shorter the wave-length, and the smaller the
size of cracks which can be tolerated.
Contrary to a widely-held belief, the nature of
the materials used for shielding is of little
importance at HF. The only feature which
must be of the highest quality concerns the
low resistance and electrical contacts: great
care must be taken to avoid oxydation or
other types of corrosion. For this reason,
contacts are normally either tin- or nickel-
Appendix EMC - 17
 3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)
EMC
3.5 EMC components and solutions (continued)
plated. An electromagnetic shield need not
necessarily be earthed to be effective. For a
magnetic field simply its presence is
sufficient. For electric fields, it is enough that
the screen acts as potential reference for the
input and output circuits. It may be concluded
that a shield prevents the fields from
penetrating the protected space, but also,
and especially, prevents parasitic currents
from entering. Thus, shields and filters are
not rivals, but are complementary, one with
the other.
If a screen is of excellent quality, with no
leakage, it is possible to install input and
3.5.2 EMC filters
An EMC filter is a protection against
interference by conduction and is generally
made up of a combination of capacitors and
inductors. Its role is to allow the passage of
energy or signals within the band of useful
frequencies and to reject parasitic
frequencies.
Filters in the power-supply circuits are all low-
pass filters which allow power-frequency
currents to flow, but which suppress currents
of higher frequencies. For an interconnecting
coaxial cable, a high-pass filter is anti-
parasitic: it allows the HF signal to pass, but
rejects any LF interference current.
The cable can then be connected to mass at
both ends without any difficulty. A filter at the
input to a radio receiver is a band-pass filter
which rejects signals outside the band of
frequencies required (as well as any
interferences). Finally, a harmonic filter is a
notch filter, which is tuned to act as a short-
circuit (generally phase/phase) at a harmonic
frequency, usually two or more filters for the
first several odd-numbered harmonics above
the fundamental frequency, since these
invariably have the greatest magnitude.
An EMC filter being a linear circuit as long as
the inductors remain unsaturated) and
passive, is also bilateral. It is equally effective
at a given frequency from the interior to the
exterior, as in the opposite sense. A filter
functions firstly by reflection, i.e. by sending
the energy back towards the source, due to a
mismatch of the filter/line impedances, then
by absorption, i.e. loss of energy in the form
of heat, as it passes through the filter.
Since inductors are low-loss components at
LF, the L-C filters function principally by
reflection. The effectiveness of a filter also
depends on the upstream and downstream
impedances. If these impedances vary, the
efficiency of the filter referred to as "insertion
losses", will vary. Remark: if a filter can
mismatch a line, there is the possibility that it
may also match a line. This is a phenemenon
which may be observed on LF power-supply
line filters: a resonance (even partial) of the
filter results in a deterioration, at LF, of the
level transmitted, compared to that when no
filter is present.
It should be verified that the resonant
frequency of the filter is not likely to be a
problem (it should be below that of the
current-chopping frequency, for example).
Filters in power-supply circuits usually use
inductors in common mode, also called
"current-compensation coils" or
"compensated inductors".
18 - Appendix EMC
output connectors at any convenient point. If,
on the contrary, a screen performs badly, with
excessive leakage (display, keyboard,
printed-circuit board or disk reader) then, it is
an advantage to group all the input and
output connectors on a common chassis,
remote from the leakage, the role of this
chassis being that of a reference-potential
point. It may be noted that all modern
microcomputers have their cables grouped at
the rear face, remote from the disk units
which are mounted on the front face.
Such filters evidently present different
degrees of effectiveness in common mode
than in differential mode.
If the inductor of a filter is saturated by the
current flowing through it, the effectiveness of
the filter is greatly impaired.
In order to respect the EMC standards, a filter
is practically obligatory in power-supply
circuits. Where no filter has been installed, it
is often necessary to select one having an
efficacity in the order of 30 dB in common
mode at 100 MHz. A power-supply filter must,
in order to perform efficiently at HF, be
installed according to three rules:
1 - Screw the filter sheet-metal to sheet-metal
in order to limit its impedance to the mass.
2 - Arrange the supply cable to enter the filter
at the opposite face to that of the output
circuit, in order to limit common-mode
upstream/downstream coupling.
3 - Fix the cables firmly (i.e. clamped) against
the sheet-metal of the unit to limit radiation
from the upstream conductors affecting the
downstream circuit.
Preferred practice is to install all filters of an
equipment on the same metal base which
serves as the potential reference. The notion
of equipotentiality at HF is local: each
equipment has to provide, by means of its
conducting envelope, its own potential
reference to the input and output filters and to
shielded connection cables.
The signal filters are often R-C combinations.
A simple resistor of the order of 1 kΩ in series
with a sensitive line can suffice to reinforce its
immunity. Small inductors in common mode
can also be used, with 2, 4, or more, wires
wound "two wires in hand".
It is interesting to note that these components
reduce common-mode interference, without
affecting the useful signals transmitted in
differential mode.

3.5.3 overvoltage protection
The role of an overvoltage limiter, sometimes
referred to as "surge diverter" or "lightning
arrester" (depending on its intended location)
is to reduce the risk of destruction to
components or entire equipments by
interferences which may occur at excessive
voltage levels.
An overvoltage limiter is generally a non-
linear unilateral device: it limits the peak value
of voltage at a level which is much lower than
that of the incoming surge. This reduced level
being, in principle, lower than the rated
impulse withstand capability of all
downstream plant and equipment.
The limiting of the voltage peak, however,
does not reduce the HF radiation field
strength. Conversely, a low-pass filter does
not limit the voltage peak, the duration of
which, at half-peak level, considerably
exceeds the response time of the filter.
Thus, an efficient filter which suppresses
frequencies above 10 kHz would have a rise-
time of about 35 µs. This filter cannot limit an
overvoltage due to lightning, the tail-time of
which to half-peak is standardized at 50 µs.
The first voltage limiters used in telephone
systems were gas-filled discharge devices.
A gas-filled glass envelope contains two
electrodes separated one from the other by a
calibrated space. An overvoltage ionizes the
gas which allows a discharge to occur
between the electrodes, thereby reducing the
potential and allowing the gas to de-ionize.
Such a component is robust and has only a
small parasitic effect.
Its occasional failure, often by short-circuiting
of the electrodes (i.e. following an
overvoltage discharge, the ionized gas
sometimes provokes a short-circuit at normal
working voltage) means that its reliability
cannot be guaranteed. In order to protect a
EMC
public service supply line, the low arc-voltage,
several tens of volts, requires the installation
of a varistance in series, to extinguish the arc
when the surge has been dissipated.
Analogous components exist at high voltage
("horned spark-gaps" for example). At low
voltage, "silicon spark-gaps" such as "Trisil"
of Thomson (a triac controlled by a Zener
diode in the trigger circuit) are well adapted to
the protection of telecommunication lines and
circuits.
The highly non-linear metal-oxide varistance
components are well adapted to the
protection of supply-circuits. A disk of zinc-
oxide becomes conductive when the voltage
applied to its two faces exceeds a
"knee-point" value. That voltage, proportional
to the thickness of the disk, varies from some
tens of volts to several kilovolts. The energy
that a component can tolerate depends on
the volume of the disk: from tens of Joules to
some tens of thousand Joules. The main
drawback of varistances is their degradation
during periods of conduction.
Zener diodes of very low dynamic resistance
have a precise knee-point voltage and a short
response time. Their low energy handling
capacity, of a fraction of a Joule to several
Joules, limits the use of these components to
the protection of signal circuits. Failure of
such a diode always occurs as a short-circuit,
a condition that guarantees "fail-safe"
protection for the circuits.
In all cases, an overvoltage device in
common mode should be connected directly
at the mass of the item to be protected, and
not, as is still often the case, by a long cable
connected radially from a distant earth bar.
The response time of an overvoltage limiting
device depends on the length of its
connections.
Appendix EMC - 19
 4. local network problems
EMC
Local networks present at least one particular
problem: the numerous equipments are
spread out, relatively distant one from
another, and are installed for user
convenience rather than for EMC
coordination considerations, are often
supplied from different lines, and
interconnected by conventional wiring
practices.
signal cable
control unit peripheral
supply
cable
field H
supply cable
fig. EMC-21: interconnection of
equipment forms loops with earthed
conductors.
Such an installation invariably creates a
number of mass loops of very large area.
The interconnection of equipments creates
large mass loops. One of the most serious
dangers for local networks is the magnetic
field in the areas of the mass loops, created
by the current from a lightning stroke. It may
be noted that a surge induced in the interior
of a building, on average once a year, gives
rise to an overvoltage which can attain, or
exceed, 100 volts per square metre of loop
area.
The meshing of masses should be carried out
in the three dimensions (laterally and
vertically), especially in multistorey buildings
with network equipments on several floors.
Two adjacent floors must be meshed together
by all conducting metal work which passes
through the intervening floor. The
multiplication of these conductors affords the
following advantages:
1 - Improvement of the "vertical
equipotentiality" of the building by effectively
reducing the value of loop inductances, and
connecting them in parallel.
2 - Improvement of the "horizontal
equipotentiality" of the building and the
symmetrical flow of surge current directly to
earth.
3 - Reduction of induction from the magnetic
field in the interior of the building. At a point
midway between two parallel conductors
passing equal currents in the same direction,
the magnetic field strength H is zero.
Experience has shown that if the masses are
ineffectively meshed, and interconnecting
cables are without attenuation effects, some
printed-circuit boards can be expected to be
destroyed by the induction of even a distant
lightning stroke. On the other hand, if the
masses are reasonably well interconnected,
with conducting cable trays screwed firmly to
the equipment metal frames, a lightning
stroke (even direct) produces minor
interference, and causes no destruction of
electronic circuits. In a badly-meshed
environment, only equipments completely
disconnected or well shielded are out of
danger from lightning.
20 - Appendix EMC
∆I/∆t = 100 kA/µs
signal cable protected
electronic
equipment
∆H
∆t
aera ≈ 300 m2
400 m
protected
electronic
equipment
insulation
stressed by 15 kV
fig. EMC-22: lightning produces
interference more often by induction than
by a direct-stroke current.
The current induced in a mass loop by the
magnetic field of a lightning stroke has the
same form as that of the stroke current; it can
exceed 100 A in the case of a large loop.
The best solution for limiting the risks of
destruction is to bring together, for example in
a common tray, the signal cables and the
power-supply cables. A shielded cable, with
its screen properly connected to mass at
each end is free from cross-talk interference.
The presence of a mass cable in intimate
(e.g. clamped) contact with a cable (signal or
power-supply) reduces typically by a factor of
3 or 4 the interference caused by lightning,
provided that the mass cable is connected to
mass (at least) at each end. A bolted metal
cable duct throughout the entire route of a
cable has an attenuation factor of the order
30.
The woven metal screen of a shielded cable,
with short, direct connections to mass at both
ends, reduces the induced voltage by a factor
of about 100.
Local networks processing large amounts of
data require that the characteristic impedance
of interconnecting signal cables be matched
to the input/output impedances of the
interconnected equipments, in order to avoid
losses by reflections due to mismatched
impedances.
If one of the two matching units of a long line
is disconnected, transmission becomes
impossible.
A frequent problem on local networks, apart
from software parameters, is the loss of
availability caused by electromagnetic
interference. The software "filters" errors, but
the useful output is sometimes severely
reduced. The user only notices these
problems in the rare cases of permanent
interference. The simple observance of the
serveral EMC installation rules cited in the
foregoing text is sufficient to resolve these
problems.
list of "cahiers techniques"

EMC
N° CT English French Spanish
114 Residual current devices X X X
141 Les perturbations électriques en BT X X
144 Introduction to dependability design X X
145 Etude thermique des tableaux électriques BT X X
147 Initiation aux réseaux de communication X
numérique
148 High availability electrical power distribution X X
149 EMC: Electromagnetic Compatibility X X
150 Development of LV circuit breakers X X X
to standard IEC 947-2
152 Harmonics in industrial networks X X X
154 LV circuit breaker breaking techniques X X X
155 MV public distribution networks X X X
throughout the world
156 Sûreté de fonctionnement et tableaux électriques BT X X
158 Calculation of short-circuit currents X X X
159 Inverters and harmonics X X X
(case studies of non-linear loads)
160 Harmonics upstream of rectifiers in UPS X X
161 Automatic transfering of power supplies X X
in HV and LV networks
162 Les efforts électrodynamiques X X
sur les jeux de barres en BT
163 LV breaking by current limitation X X
166 Enclosures and degrees of protection X X X
167 Energy-based discrimination X X X
for low-voltage protective devices
172 Earthing systems in LV X X X
173 Earthing systems wolrdwide and evolutions X X X
179 Surtensions et parafoudres en BT, X
Coordination de l'isolement en BT

Appendix EMC - 21