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INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION:-
India is world’s largest democracy. It is perceived to be charismatic one as it
accommodates cultural, regional, economical, social disparities and still is able to stand on its
own. Fundamental right to vote or simply voting in elections forms the basis of Indian
democracy.
In India all earlier elections be it state elections or centre elections a voter used to cast his/her
vote to his/her favorite candidate by putting the stamp against his/her name and then folding
the ballot paper as per a prescribed method before putting it in the Ballot box. This is a long,
time-consuming process and very much prone to errors.
This situation continued till election scene was completely changed by electronic voting
machine. No more ballot paper, ballot boxes, stamping, etc. all this condensed into a simple
box called ballot unit of the electronic voting machine.
EVM is capable of saving considerable printing stationery and transport of large volumes of
electoral material. It is easy to transport, store, and maintain. It completely rules out the chance
of invalid votes. Its use results in reduction of polling time, resulting in fewer problems in
electoral preparations, law and order, candidates' expenditure, etc. and easy
and accurate counting without any mischief at the counting centre. It is also eco friendly.
Our EVM consists mainly of two units - (a) Control Unit (CU) and (b) Ballot Unit (BU) with
cable for connecting it with Control unit. Both the units consists of one microcontroller (8052)
each. The CU consists of one LCD, one hex keypad and a couple of switches, while BU
consists of a candidate panel, a votecast panel and a buzzer, etc.
This project is based on assembly language programming. The software platform used in this
project are Keil uVision3 and “C”Programming.
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1.2 BACKGROUND OF VOTING SYSTEM
Democracy has come to be accepted as the most preferred form of political system all over the
world. However, the success of a democratic structure is to be judged by the successes that can
be solely attributed to this system. There are various challenges before democracy. These are
foundational challenges, challenge of expansion and deepening of democracy. All of these are
dependent on how the democracy is perceived by people who form the government, participate
in formation of government and are benefited by it.
As we all know that India is world’s largest democracy. It is perceived to be charismatic one as
it accommodates cultural, regional, economical, social disparities and still is able to stand on
its own. India follows a federal form of government. It means that governance power is not
residing with one authority, but is distributed at various levels. In India power is distributed
between states and central authority.
What forms the basis of such vast and complex system of governance?
One needs not to be an Einstein to guess the answer. It is fundamental right to vote or simply
voting in elections.
Indian constitution provide every adult above the age of 18 years irrespective of his/her
religion, region, caste, creed, color, economic status, education and sex the essential right to
vote and elect her/his candidate to represent her/him.
Hence voting can be termed as backbone of not just democracy in India but all around the
world. Voting can be done in various ways. In early Roman Empire voting used to be done by
raising hands in favor or against. In board rooms voting is done in similar way, some write
their vote down, some choose to speak, some choose to cast vote using latest technology.
1.2.2 VOTING TECHNIQUES
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In India all earlier elections be it state elections or centre elections a voter used to cast his/her
vote to his/her favorite candidate by putting the stamp against his/her name and then folding
the ballot paper as per a prescribed method before putting it in the Ballot box. This is a long,
time-consuming process and very much prone to errors.
This method wanted voters to be skilled voters to know how to put a stamp, and methodical
folding of ballot paper. Millions of paper would be printed and heavy ballot boxes would be
loaded and unloaded to and from ballot office to polling station. All this continued till election
scene was completely changed by electronic voting machine. No more ballot paper, ballot
boxes, stamping, etc. all this condensed into a simple box called ballot unit of the electronic
voting machine.
The marking system of voting was introduced in 1962 to make it possible for a substantial
number of illiterate voters to indicate easily their preferences in choosing their representatives.
Over the years, there was a pronounced increase in the volume of work: crores of ballot papers
had to be printed and lakhs of ballot boxes had to be prepared, transported, and kept in storage;
and a great amount of time was taken up by the conduct of elections. To overcome these
difficulties, the Election Commission of India (ECI) thought of electronic gadgets. The
Electronics Corporation of India Ltd. (ECIL), Hyderabad, and Bharat Electronics Ltd. (BEL),
Bangalore, developed the electronic voting machine in 1981.
The complete EVM consists mainly of two units - (a) Control Unit and (b) Balloting Unit with
cable for connecting it with Control unit. A Balloting Unit caters upto 16 candidates. Four
Balloting Units linked together catering in all to 64 candidates can be used with one control
unit. The control unit is kept with the Presiding Officer and the Balloting Unit is used by the
voter for polling.
The Balloting Unit of EVM is a small Box-like device, on top of which each candidate and
his/her election symbol is listed like a big ballot paper. Against each candidate's name, a red
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LED and a blue button is provided. The voter polls his vote by pressing the blue button against
the name of his desired candidate.
Like in earlier system, your name is called and you are asked to sign or put your thumb
impression in a register.
After your identification is done by Election Officer, an ink mark is put on your finger,
same as earlier.
Then the Election Officer gives you a slip that bears the Voter register number where
you signed or put your thumb impression.
You hand over this slip to the presiding officer who confirms the serial number and
permits you to vote by pressing the button of the Control Unit of EVM.
You are not given any ballot thereafter, and are sent to the EV Machine placed behind a
card board in a corner. The machine is placed in such a way that your polled vote will
be a secret.
On the Balloting Unit of EVM, you press the blue button placed in front of your
favorite candidate and release.
As soon as the button is pressed, the red LED indicator lights up and a whistle sound
comes from the machine. This signifies that your vote has been casted rightly. Now you
can come out.
In case of red LED not working, press the Blue button firmly again. If finding it
difficult, consult the Presiding Officer.
Your vote is complete safe and secret and there is no room for error as well. You can
rest assured that your vote is not going to be invalid in any case.
The Voting Machine is attached to the 'Control Unit'. When the user presses the button,
his vote is registered in the control unit and the number of votes for the respective
candidates is calculated automatically.
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After the hour fixed for the close of the poll and the last voter has recorded his vote, the EVM
is closed so that no further recording of votes in the machine is possible.
At the counting place, only the control unit is required for ascertaining the result of poll at the
polling station at which the EVM was used. The balloting unit is not required. All this used to
happen every time election were held.
A remarkable advantage is that rigging is not possible with the EVMs. In the ballot paper
system, the intruders can mark hundreds of ballots and put them into the ballot box in a matter
of a few minutes. This is not possible in voting machines as the machine is designed to be
capable of recording a maximum of five votes per minute. (The pace of polling can be set to
any predetermined number before manufacturing.) Thus, even for recording about 100 bogus
votes it would take the booth captors 20 to 25 minutes, during which time the law and order
officials may intervene to stop the rot. Moreover, as soon as the presiding officer apprehends
any mischief, he can stop the poll by pressing the special switch after which no votes can be
recorded.
The presiding officer of the polling station is empowered to close the control unit of the voting
machine to ensure "that no further vote can be recorded." There is no possibility of any bogus
votes being polled after the close of the poll and during the transit of the machines from the
polling booth to the counting centre. A vote once recorded in an EVM cannot be tampered
with, whereas in the ballot paper system the votes marked and put into the box can be pulled
out and destroyed. The EVMs are capable of retaining the memory of the votes recorded for a
period of three years. If the machine is tampered with in any respect either during the poll time
or at any time before the counting of votes, which will be easily detectable so that a fresh poll
can be ordered.
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the saving of considerable printing stationery and transport of large volumes of
electoral material,
easy transportation, storage, and maintenance,
no invalid votes,
reduction in polling time, resulting in fewer problems in electoral preparations, law and
order, candidates' expenditure, etc. and
easy and accurate counting without any mischief at the counting centre
Eco friendly.
CHAPTER 2
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2.1 INTRODUCTION:-
The EVM consist of two units: ballot unit (BU) and control unit (CU). Following figure shows
the complete EVM system, including the constituents of both units as well as the signals
exchanged between them.
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Figure 2.2: Block diagram of ballot unit
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Fig 2.3 Circuit diagram of Ballot Unit
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Fig 2.4 Mother Board Circuit
e) Amplifier
f) Resistor and a capacitor network for reset circuit of microcontroller.
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Additionally one more red LED and push to on switch has been added for a machine ready
signal. Ideally this push to on switch is at the control panel but since here we have only a ballot
unit therefore this button is mounted on this panel.
Now as we can see that the port is connected just after the LED and resistor network, so ideally
when a 5 volt supply is being given to resistor and LED ,at the port we get 0 potential. now
every time when we push the button ,the microcontroller should read the push sequence. So a
high bit is given at ports 21 to 28.so when the button is pressed the LED will glow and the
circuit will get a ground. As a result the bit at the port will also change from high to low and
thus the microcontroller will easily identify the push to button switch and can easily predict the
vote.
Now when the microcontroller identified the
push to button switch it sends a feedback signal at ports 1 to 8(green LED’s) and the buzzer.
Due to internal programming of the microcontroller there is a continuous sounding of the
buzzer as well as lighting of the green LED.
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Working of Buzzer section---
When the button is pressed at the votecast LED panel. Then a high signal will flow at pin
no.16.This will initiate the optocoupler.
As shown in the fig., when initiated the LED in the optocoupler will glow and then here the
photons will be initiated. The amplifier in the optocoupler will change +5 volt supply into -5
volt supply. The output of the optocoupler will be connected to the base of the amplifier.
The amplifier emitter side will be connected to the +5 volt supply. So the emitter base junction
will be forward biased. Thereby amplifying current. The output from the collector side will be
connected to the positive section of the buzzer. So then the buzzer will beep.
Now as there is delay of two seconds in the internal programming of the microcontroller
therefore the buzzer will beep for two seconds specifying that the vote has been counted.
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2.4 WORKING OF PROGRAMMING
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To start with, here we will allot high signal to ports 2 and 3.The ports 2 and 3 are connected to
vote-cast push to on button section and opto-coupler section respectively. Then we will enter
into loops which will continuous in nature as depicted in line 10.Then the microcontroller
checks if the ready signal is high or not. If the signal is high then the program will be hung
itself up there but if the signal changes from high to low then the microcontroller will change
the LED pin status to low and then the LED will glow. Again when the microcontroller
traverses through line 14 it will check whether port 2 is high or not. If it is high then the
program will hung itself up there, but if it is low then it will turn the LED off by putting high at
LED pin. Again it will a lot low at buzzer pin so that the buzzer will buzz. After that delay
loop will start which will give a delay of 2 seconds.
CHAPTER 3
BASIC COMPONENT
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3.1 MICROCONTROLLER:-
3.1.1 INTRODUCTION
Circumstances that we find ourselves in today in the field of microcontrollers had their
beginnings in the development of technology of integrated circuits. This development has
made it possible to store hundreds of thousands of transistors into one chip. That was a
prerequisite for production of microprocessors, and the first computers were made by adding
external peripherals such as memory, input-output lines, timers and other. Further increasing of
the volume of the package resulted in creation of integrated circuits. These integrated circuits
contained both processor and peripherals. That is how the first chip containing a
microcomputer, or what would later be known as a microcontroller came about.
Microcontroller, as the name suggests, are small controllers. They are like single chip
computers that are often embedded into other systems to function as processing/controlling
unit. For example, the remote control you are using probably has microcontrollers inside that
do decoding and other controlling functions. They are also used in automobiles, washing
machines, microwave ovens, toys ... etc, where automation is needed.
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Assembly language is often used in microcontrollers and since they usually follow
RISC architecture, the instruction set is small. The development package of
microcontrollers often includes an assembler, a simulator, a programmer to "burn" the
chip and a demonstration board. Some packages include a high level language compiler
such as a C compiler and more sophisticated libraries.
A Timer module to allow the microcontroller to perform tasks for certain time periods.
A serial I/O port to allow data to flow between the microcontroller and other devices
such as a PC or another microcontroller.
An ADC to allow the microcontroller to accept analogue input data for processing.
The heart of the microcontroller is the CPU core. In the past this has traditionally been based
on an 8-bit microprocessor unit.
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Fig 3.1.2 Pin Diagram of 8952 Microcontroller
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4.Port 1 :-Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 1 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled
high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally
being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups. In addition, P1.0 and
P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the
timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX), respectively, as shown in the following table. Port 1
also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification.
5. Port 2 :-Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 2 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled
high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally
being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups. Port 2 emits the
high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to
external data memory that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, Port 2
uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that
use 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function
Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash
programming and verification.
6. Port 3:- Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 3 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled
high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally
being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pullups. Port 3 also serves the
functions of various special features of the AT89C52. Port 3 also receives some control signals
for Flash programming and verification.
7. RST:- Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running
resets the device.
8. ALE/PROG:- Address Latch Enable is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the
address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG)
during Flash programming. In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the
oscillator frequency and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however,
that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external data memory. If desired, ALE
operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active
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only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting
the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode.
9.PSEN:-Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory. When the
AT89C52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each
machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external
data memory.
10.EA/VPP:-External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND inorder to enable the
device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH.
Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset.
EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-
volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming when 12-volt
programming is selected.
11.XTAL1 :-Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit.
12.XTAL2: -Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.
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Figure 3.1.3: Simplified model of a memory unit
Memory components are exactly like that. For a certain input we get the contents of a certain
addressed memory location and that's all. Two new concepts are brought to us: addressing and
memory location. Memory consists of all memory locations, and addressing is nothing but
selecting one of them. This means that we need to select the desired memory location on one
hand, and on the other hand we need to wait for the contents of that location. Besides reading
from a memory location, memory must also provide for writing onto it. This is done by
supplying an additional line called control line. We will designate this line as R/W
(read/write). Control line is used in the following way: if r/w=1, reading is done, and if
opposite is true then writing is done on the memory location. Memory is the first element, and
we need a few operation of our microcontroller.
Typically, the amount of ROM type memory will vary between around 512 bytes and 4096
bytes, although some 16 bit microcontrollers such as the Hitachi H8/3048 can have as much as
128 Kbytes of ROM type memory.
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ROM type memory, as has already been mentioned, is used to store the program code. ROM
memory can be ROM (as in One Time Programmable memory), EPROM, or EEPROM.
The amount of RAM memory is usually somewhat smaller, typically ranging between 25 bytes
to 4 Kbytes.
RAM is used for data storage and stack management tasks. It is also used for register stacks
(as in the microchip PIC range of microcontrollers).
Let add 3 more memory locations to a specific block that will have a built in capability to
multiply, divide, subtract, and move its contents from one memory location onto another. The
part we just added in is called "central processing unit" (CPU). Its memory locations are called
registers.
Registers are therefore memory locations whose role is to help with performing various
mathematical operations or any other operations with data wherever data can be found. Look at
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the current situation. We have two independent entities (memory and CPU) which are
interconnected, and thus any exchange of data is hindered, as well as its functionality. If, for
example, we wish to add the contents of two memory locations and return the result again back
to memory, we would need a connection between memory and CPU. Simply stated, we must
have some "way" through data goes from one block to another.
3.1.7 BUS
That "way" is called "bus". Physically, it represents a group of 8, 16, or more wires.
There are two types of buses: address and data bus. The first one consists of as many lines as
the amount of memory we wish to address and the other one is as wide as data, in our case 8
bits or the connection line. First one serves to transmit address from CPU memory, and the
second to connect all blocks inside the microcontroller.
As far as functionality, the situation has improved, but a new problem has also appeared: we
have a unit that's capable of working by itself, but which does not have any contact with the
outside world, or with us! In order to remove this deficiency, let's add a block which contains
several memory locations whose one end is connected to the data bus, and the other has
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connection with the output lines on the microcontroller which can be seen as pins on the
electronic component.
Those locations we've just added are called "ports". There are several types of ports: input,
output or bidirectional ports. When working with ports, first of all it is necessary to choose
which port we need to work with, and then to send data to, or take it from the port.
When working with it the port acts like a memory location. Something is simply being written
into or read from it, and it could be noticed on the pins of the microcontroller.
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limiting thermal shut down and safe operating area protection, making it essentially
indestructible. If adequate heat sinking
is provided, they can deliver over 1A output current Although designed primarily as fixed
voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable
voltages and currents.
Features
• Output Current up to 1A
• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V
• Thermal Overload Protection
• Short Circuit Protection
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection
3.3 LED:-
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator
lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical
electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions
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are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high
brightness.
The LED is based on the semiconductor diode. When a diode is forward biased (switched
on),electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form
of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding
to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is
usually small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components are used to shape its
radiation pattern and assist in reflection.
LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater
durability and reliance. However, they are relatively expensive and require more
precise current and heat management than traditional light sources. Current LED products for
general lighting are more expensive to buy than fluorescent lamp sources of comparable
output.
They also enjoy use in applications as diverse as replacements for traditional light sources in
automotive lighting (particularly indicators) and in traffic signals. The compact size of LEDs
has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high
switching rates are useful in advanced communications technology.
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LEDs were made in the very common 5 mm T1¾ and 3 mm T1 packages, but with increasing
power output, it has become increasingly necessary to shed excess heat in order to maintain
reliability, so more complex packages have been adapted for efficient heat dissipation.
Packages for state-of-the-art high power LEDs bear little resemblance to early LEDs.
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Fig 3.3.4 LED CHARACTERISTICS
Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials, the
following table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and material:
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Colour Wavelength (nm) Voltage (V) Semiconductor Material
Indium gallium
nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III)
nitride (GaN)
1.9< ΔV <
Green 500 < λ < 570 Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
4.0
Aluminium gallium indium
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)
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Table 3.1 Led Colour ‘S Materials
3.3.4 TYPES :-
The main types of LEDs are miniature, high power devices and custom designs such as
alphanumeric or multi-color.
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3.3.5 ELECTRICAL POLARITY :-
As with all diodes, current flows easily from p-type to n-type material. However, no current
flows and no light is produced if a small voltage is applied in the reverse direction. If the
reverse voltage becomes large enough to exceed the breakdown voltage, a large current flows
and the LED may be damaged. If the reverse current is sufficiently limited to avoid damage,
the reverse-conducting LED is a useful noise diode.
3.3.6 ADVANTAGES :-
Efficiency: LEDs produce more light per watt than incandescent bulbs.
Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without the use of color filters that
traditional lighting methods require. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.
Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2) and are easily populated onto
printed circuit boards.
On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full
brightness in microseconds. LEDs used in communications devices can have even faster
response times.
Cycling: LEDs are ideal for use in applications that are subject to frequent on-off
cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps that burn out more quickly when cycled frequently,
or HID lamps that require a long time before restarting.
Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by Pulse-width modulation or
lowering the forward current.
Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form
of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as
heat through the base of the LED.
Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt burn-out
of incandescent bulbs.
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Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to
50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer. Fluorescent
tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to 15,000 hours, depending partly on the
conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,000–2,000 hours.
Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with
external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs which are fragile.
Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent
and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a
usable manner.
Toxicity: LEDs do not contain mercury, unlike fluorescent lamps.
Disadvantages
High initial price: LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial
capital cost basis, than most conventional lighting technologies. The additional expense
partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and the drive circuitry and power
supplies needed.
Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient
temperature of the operating environment. Over-driving the LED in high ambient
temperatures may result in overheating of the LED package, eventually leading to device
failure. Adequate heat-sinkingis required to maintain long life. This is especially important
when considering automotive, medical, and military applications where the device must
operate over a large range of temperatures, and is required to have a low failure rate.
Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a
current below the rating. This can involve series resistors or current-regulated power
supplies.
Light quality: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from
a black body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at
500 nm can cause the color of objects to be perceived differently under cool-white LED
illumination than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to metamerism, red surfaces being
rendered particularly badly by typical phosphor based cool-white LEDs. However, the
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color rendering properties of common fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what is now
available in state-of-art white LEDs.
Area light source: LEDs do not approximate a “point source” of light, but rather
a lambertian distribution. So LEDs are difficult to use in applications requiring a spherical
light field. LEDs are not capable of providing divergence below a few degrees. This is
contrasted with lasers, which can produce beams with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less.
Blue hazard: There is a concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable
of exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye safety
specifications such as ANSI/IESNA RP-27.1-05: Recommended Practice for
Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems.
Blue pollution: Because cool-white LEDs (i.e., LEDs with high color temperature)
emit proportionally more blue light than conventional outdoor light sources such as high-
pressure sodium lamps, the strong wavelength dependence of Rayleigh scattering means
that cool-white LEDs can cause more light pollution than other light sources.
The International Dark-Sky Association discourages the use of white light sources with
Correlated Color Temperature above 3,000 K.
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Fig 3.4.1 Connection Diagram of Crystal Oscillator
Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to tens of
megahertz. More than two billion (2×109) crystals are manufactured annually. Most are small
devices for consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cellphones.
Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal
generators, and oscilloscopes.
3.4.1 OPERATION:-
A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly
ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions.
Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal, with appropriate
transducers, since all objects have natural resonant frequencies of vibration. For
example, steel is very elastic and has a high speed of sound. It was often used in mechanical
filters before quartz. The resonant frequency depends on size, shape, elasticity, and the speed
of sound in the material. High-frequency crystals are typically cut in the shape of a simple,
rectangular plate. Low-frequency crystals, such as those used in digital watches, are typically
cut in the shape of a tuning fork. For applications not needing very precise timing, a low-
cost ceramic resonator is often used in place of a quartz crystal.
When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in an electric
field by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is known
as piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz will generate an electric field as it
returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal
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behaves like a circuit composed of an inductor, capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant
frequency.
Quartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its size change in such a way that
the frequency dependence on temperature can be very low. The specific characteristics will
depend on the mode of vibration and the angle at which the quartz is cut (relative to its
crystallographic axes). Therefore, the resonant frequency of the plate, which depends on its
size, will not change much, either. This means that a quartz clock, filter or oscillator will
remain accurate. For critical applications the quartz oscillator is mounted in a temperature-
controlled container, called a crystal oven, and can also be mounted on shock absorbers to
prevent perturbation by external mechanical vibrations.
3.4.2 MODELING:-
Electrical model
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3.5 TRANSISTORS:-
3.5.1 INTRODUCTION:-
3.5.2 TYPES:-
BJT
PNP NPN
The bipolar
transistor transistor
(BJT) was the
first type of transistor to be mass-produced. Bipolar transistors are so named because they
conduct by using both majority and minority carriers. The three terminals of the BJT are
named emitter, base and collector. Two p-n junctions exist inside a BJT: the base/emitter
junction and base/collector junction. "The [BJT] is useful in amplifiers because the currents at
the emitter and collector are controllable by the relatively small base current."In an NPN
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transistor operating in the active region, the emitter-base junction is forward biased, and
electrons are injected into the base region. Because the base is narrow, most of these electrons
will diffuse into the reverse-biased base-collector junction and be swept into the collector;
perhaps one-hundredth of the electrons will recombine in the base, which is the dominant
mechanism in the base current. By controlling the number of electrons that can leave the base,
the number of electrons entering the collector can be controlled.
3.6 RESISTORS:-
Resistance determines how much current will flow through a component. Resistors are used to
control voltages and currents. A very high resistance allows very little current to flow. Air has
very high resistance. Current almost never flows through air. (Sparks and lightning are brief
displays of current flow through air. The light is created as the current burns parts of the air.) A
low resistance allows a large amount of current to flow. Metals have very low resistance. That
is why wires are made of metal. They allow current to flow from one point to another point
without any resistance. Wires are usually covered with rubber or plastic. This keeps the wires
from coming in contact with other wires and creating short circuits. High voltage power lines
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are covered with thick layers of plastic to make them safe, but they become very dangerous
when the line breaks and the wire is exposed and is no longer separated from other things by
insulation.
Resistance is given in units of ohms. (Ohms are named after Mho Ohms who played with
electricity as a young boy in Germany.) Common resistor values are from 100 ohms to 100,000
ohms. Each resistor is marked with colored stripes to indicate its resistance.
3.7 CAPACITOR:-
Now suppose you want to control how the current in your circuit changes (or not
changes) over time. Now why would you? Well radio signals require very fast current changes.
Robot motors cause current fluctuations in your circuit which you need to control. What do
you do when batteries cannot supply current as fast as you circuit drains them? How do you
prevent sudden current spikes that could fry your robot circuitry? The solution to this is
+ -
Capacitors are like electron storage banks. If your circuit is running low, it will deliver
electrons to your circuit.
In our water analogy, think of this as a water tank with water always flowing in, but with
drainage valves opening and closing. Since capacitors take time to charge, and time to
discharge, they can also be used for timing circuits. Timing circuits can be used to generate
signals such as PWM or be used to turn on/off motors in solar powered BEAM robots.
Quick note, some capacitors are polarized, meaning current can only flow one direction
through them. If a capacitor has a lead that is longer than the other, assume the longer lead
must always connect to positive.
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Fig 3.7.2 Electrolyte Capacitor
An electrolytic capacitor is a type of capacitor that uses an ionic conducting liquid as one of
its plates. Typically with a larger capacitance per unit volume than other types, they are
valuable in relatively high-current and low-frequency electrical circuits. This is especially the
case in power-supply filters, where they store charge needed to moderate output voltage and
current fluctuations, in rectifier output. They are also widely used as coupling capacitors in
circuits where AC should be conducted but DC should not.
3.8 BUZZER :-
It most commonly consists of a number of switches or sensors connected to a control unit that
determines if and which button was pushed or a preset time has lapsed, and usually illuminates
a light on the appropriate button or control panel, and sounds a warning in the form of a
continuous or intermittent buzzing or beeping sound.
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Initially this device was based on an electromechanical system which was identical to
an electric bell without the metal gong (which makes the ringing noise). Often these units were
anchored to a wall or ceiling and used the ceiling or wall as a sounding board. Another
implementation with some AC-connected devices was to implement a circuit to make the AC
current into a noise loud enough to drive a loudspeaker and hook this circuit up to an 8-ohm
speaker. Nowadays, it is more popular to use a ceramic-based piezoelectric sounder which
makes a high-pitched tone. Usually these were hooked up to "driver" circuits which varied the
pitch of the sound or pulsed the sound on and off.
In game shows it is also known as a "lockout system" because when one person signals
("buzzes in"), all others are locked out from signalling. Several game shows have large buzzer
buttons which are identified as "plungers". The buzzer is also used to signal wrong answers
and when time expires on many game shows, such as Wheel of Fortune, Family Feud and The
Price is Right.
The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that buzzers made when they were
electromechanical devices, operated from stepped-down AC line voltage at 50 or 60 cycles.
Other sounds commonly used to indicate that a button has been pressed are a ring or a beep.
3.9 OPTO-COUPLER :-
3.9.1 INTRODUCTION:-
In electronics, an opto-isolator (or optical isolator, optical coupling
device, optocoupler,photocoupler, or photoMOS) is a device that uses a
short optical transmission path to transfer an electronic signal between elements of a circuit,
typically a transmitter and a receiver, while keeping them electrically isolated—since the
electrical signal is converted to a light beam, transferred, then converted back to an electrical
signal, there is no need for electrical connection between the source and destination circuits.
Isolation between input and output is rated at 7500 Volt peak for 1 second for a typical
component costing less than 1 US$ in small quantities.
The opto-isolator is simply a package that contains both an infrared light-emitting diode (LED)
and a photo-detector such as a photosensitive silicon diode, transistor Darlington pair,
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or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR). The wave-length responses of the two devices are tailored
to be as identical as possible to permit the highest measure of coupling possible. Other
circuitry—for example an output amplifier—may be integrated into the package. An opto-
isolator is usually thought of as a single integrated package, but opto-isolation can also be
achieved by using separate devices.
Digital opto-isolators change the state of their output when the input state
changes; analog isolators produce an analog signal which reproduces the input.
3.9.2 CONFIGURATIONS :-
The dashed line represents the isolation barrier, over which there is no electrical contact.
With a photodiode as the detector, the output current is proportional to the intensity of incident
light supplied by the emitter. The diode can be used in a photovoltaic mode or
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a photoconductive mode. In photovoltaic mode, the diode acts as a current source in parallel
with a forward-biased diode. The output current and voltage are dependent on the load
impedance and light intensity. In photoconductive mode, the diode is connected to a supply
voltage, and the magnitude of the current conducted is directly proportional to the intensity of
light. This optocoupler type is significantly faster than photo transistor type, but the
transmission ratio is very low; it is common to integrate an output amplifier circuit into the
same package.
The optical path may be air or a dielectric waveguide. When high noise immunity is required
an optical conductive shield can be integrated into the optical path. The transmitting and
receiving elements of an optical isolator may be contained within a single compact module, for
mounting, for example, on a circuit board; in this case, the module is often called an opto-
isolator or opto-isolator. The photo-sensor may be a photocell,photo-transistor, or an optically
triggered SCR or TRIAC. This device may in turn operate a power relay or contactor.
Analog opto-isolators often have two independent, closely matched output phototransistors,
one of which is used to linearize the response using negative feedback.
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3.10 PUSH TO ON SWITCH :-
Other forms are push to break which, does the opposite. I.e when the button is not pressed,
electricity can flow, but when it is pressed the circuit is broken.
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CHAPTER 4
The use of miniaturization and sub miniaturization in electronic equipment design has been
responsible for the introduction of a new technique in inters component wiring and assembly
that is popularly known as printed circuit.
The printed circuit boards (PCBs) consist of an insulating substrate material with metallic
circuitry photo chemically formed upon that substrate. Thus PCB provides sufficient
mechanical support and necessary electrical connections for an electronic circuit.
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1) Single sided PCB: - In this, copper tracks are on one side of the board, and are the
simplest form of PCB. These are simplest to manufacture thus have low production
cost.
2) Double sided PCB:- In this, copper tracks are provided on both sides of the substrate.
To achieve the connections between the boards, hole plating is done, which increase the
manufacturing complexity.
3) Multilayered PCB: - In this, two or more pieces of dielectric substrate material with
circuitry formed upon them are stacked up and bonded together. Electrically
connections are established from one side to the other and to the layer circuitry by
drilled holes, which are subsequently plated through copper.
4) Flexible PCB: - Flexible circuit is basically a highly flexible variant of the conventional
rigid printed circuit board theme.
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4.3.7 BARE BOARD TESTING: - Each board needs to ensure that the required connections
exist, that there are no short circuits and holes are properly placed .The testing usually consists
of visual inspection and continuity testing.
4.4 PCB LAYOUT OF BALLOT UNIT:-
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Fig 4.2 PCB Lay Out of EVM Front Panel
CHAPTER 5
MICROCONTROLLER PROGRAMMING
#include<regx52.h>
void delay (unsigned int);
sbit ready = P3^5;
sbit buzzer = P3^6;
sbit LED = P3^7;
void main (void)
{
P2=0xFF;
P3=0xFF;
while(1)
{
while(ready==1);
LED=0;
while (P2==0xFF);
LED=1;
buzzer=0;
P1=P2;
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delay(2000);
P1=P2=P3=0xFF;
}
}
void delay (unsigned int time)
{
unsigned int i,j;
for (i=1;i<time;i++)
for (j=1;j<110;j++);
}
1. The EVM consists of a control unit (CU) and ballot unit (BU), out of which CU is working
independently and in collaboration with microcontroller.
4.In case of low ‘vote signal’ the ballot unit is not at all responding to push to button switch
which is an interfacing medium between the voter and the ballot unit.
5. An interfacing between the voter and the and balolot unit is running successfully with the
help of votecast LED panel.
6. Feedback system of the control unit is running successfully with the help of LED system.
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In total, the complete system (including all the hardware components and software routines) is
working as per the initial specifications and requirements of our project. Because of the
creative nature of the design, some features can further be fine-tuned and can become more
user friendly. So certain aspects of the system can be modified as operational experience is
gained with it. As the users work with the system, they develop various new ideas for the
development and enhancement of the project.
Fast track voting which could be used in small scale elections, like resident welfare
association, “panchayat” level election and other society level elections.
It could also be used to conduct opinion polls during annual share holders meeting.
It could be used at places where there is no electricity as the thing is operational with
the help of a simple 5 volt battery.
It could well become a fine example of using environment friendly resources as there
is no need for having lakhs of ballot papers as was used in older system of voting.
It involves very less time for a voter to actually cast its vote unlike conventional
method where it becomes very cumbersome to handle ballot papers.
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It is more fast and reliable.
FUTURE SCOPE
It could be interfaced with printer to get the hard copy of the result almost instantly from
the machine itself.
It could also be interfaced with the personal computer and result could be stored in the
central server and its backup could be taken on the other backend servers.
Again, once the result is on the server it could be relayed on the network to various
offices of the election conducting authority. Thus our project could make the result available
any corner of the world in a matter of seconds
In days of using nonpolluting and environment friendly resources of energy,it could pose
a very good example.
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REFRENCES AND BIBLOGRAPHY
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DATA SHEET OF TRANSISTOR BC 557:-
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