I

- ----- -_.

Contents
Preface 4

1 About your vehicle 5

Off-road driving 21

What to do when you get stuck 36

4 Equipment for when you get stuck 52

When your vehicle lets you down 59

Talk about tyres 66

A place for everything .•• 70

Navigation 73
Looking after yourself (Dr Chari Laubscher) 82

Appendix 93
Conversion tables
Route-planning information
Gearratios of the 4WD

Acknowledgements 96
-_. -~---

- -- -

Preface
ff-road driving mean s different rhings to different peop le.
For the intrepid explorer, it is an adventu re. For the
curious , it is to experience a new environment. For the no vice,
it is a test o f nerve and character. For the expert, it is a chance
to match skills and knowledge against the forces of nature. Yet;
for the more ardent environmentalist, it is an activity to be
banned in the interests of protecting na tura l habitats.
Off-reading can be as dangerous as it is exciting, though,
should you ignore some of the basic safety and environmental
care rules stilted in this manual. American off-roaders live by a
creed 'Tread Lightly' by driving with care and respect at all
times and by keeping mainly to long-esrab lished tracks in the
wilderness to minimise the negative aspects to ecostr uctures.
Th is manua l sees o ur to help both no vices and experts in the
enjo yable pursuit of their hobby. It is an attempt to conso lidate
alot of useful information in a handy-sized book that can be
carried in the vehicle's glove box and referred to as and when
required. The suggestio ns, ideas and advice and equipmenr
mentioned come from many years o f personal ex perience, and
from the wealth of standar d knowledge rhar exists in
off-reading circles. I don't inrend rein venting the wheel!
Techn iques and equipment described ha ve been pro ven in
the course of man y journe ys: in the desem of the Sah ara, Sahel
an d the UAE; the tundras of the Yukon and Iceland ; the jungles
of Th ailand, the for ests of Brit ish Columbia, Scotland an d
Wales; the savannahs of Kenya, Tanzania, Senegal, Namibia
and Botswana; the mountains of Morocco, Yemen and Oman,
and finally, Dartmoor, in my ho me count y of Devon, England.

jum All Khan

Dubai, 1999
AbDUl your vehicle 5

1
AbDul your vehicle
lot of people become very confused by the techn o-wizards
wh o use automotive [argon with such ap lomb . This chapter
att empts to simplify some of the tech nical terms that you will
co me acro ss. T he techno-wizards will no doubt find it a very
basic and simplistic presentation, bur no apologies for that!

Engine performance
Engine perfor mance is desc ribed and mea sured using two
indicators: powerand torque, and the maximum of both is
stated in revo lutions per minu te (rpm). Power is basica lly an
indicato r o f the speed a vehicle can achieve, whilst torq ue is an
ind icator of irs hill-climbing abilit y. Power is usually expressed
as ho rsepower or brake ho rsepower (bhp) , O ne bhp, in the
BritishlUS system, is the force needed to lift 33,000 Ib a
distan ce of on e foo t in o ne minute. One metric horsep ower is
the force needed to lift 75 kg a distan ce of one metre in one
second, and is generally expressed as PS (the German for hp
being 'p ferdestarke' ). H o wever, the current tende ncy in
countries using the metric system of enginepower
measu rement is to express it in kilowatts (kW) rather than PS.
1 kW =1.36 PS; 1 PS =0. 735 kW
1 bhp = 0.745 7 kW; 1 kW = 1.3405 bhp .
The maximum horsepower of an engineis usually generated at
a point close to its max imu m rpm.
Th e outp ut of an engine docs not necessarily rela te to irs
size, but more to irs design and the degree of techn ology used.
For exa mple, Michael Schumac her's 3.0 litre Ferrari Formula 1
engine produces over 700 bhp at 16,500 rpm compared to the
210 bhp at 4,2 50 rpm fro m my Land Cruise r's 4.5 litre engine.
6 Aboul your vehicle

Torque, on the other hand, is a 'turning' force . It is

measured in 'pounds/feet' (lblft) or in 'kilograms/metre'
(kg/m). This may be interpreted as the turning force required
to lift one pound to a height of one foot (12 inches ) or to lift
one kilogram to a height of one metre in a certain time period.
When stating the torque of an engine, the manufacturer is
indicating the force available at relatively low speeds to climb
gradients, or when pulling away from a standing start.
Off-road vehicles arc often evaluated by the torque available
and at what rpm the maximum torque occurs. For off-road
vehicles, the lower the rpm the better as it is unlikel y you
would be driving at high speeds using high engine rpm when
Engine tackling steep gradients or sand dunes.
performance
graph: this
The maximum torque of an engine usually occurs at a
shows lower rpm than the maximum power output. Ideally, the
torque/hp/speed
specifications fer
maximum torque is produced between 2,000 and 3,000 rpm
a 4.711treV8 - depending on the make and model and the engine
Land Cruiser
engine (source:
configuration , c.g. in-line or 'V' type.
Toyota Motor
Corp.: new
product
brochure) Optimum rpm
Knowing the points on the
tachometer (rev. counter)
45----------250 where the peak power output
and peak torque output occur
41
will help yOLl to maximise
your vehicle's off-road
- 33 performance. For example, a
i
~ 29
1999 model Toyota Land
Cruiser with a 4.S litre
6-cylinder EFI engine achieves
a maximum of 240 bhp (SAE
gross) at 4,600 rpm and
/ maximum torque of 41.S
2 3 4 5 kglm at 3,600 rpm.
ENGINE SPEED (X10J rpm)
Therefore, keeping your
i '- ----' engine speed between these
Max. output (SAE nen: 228 hp/4,800 rpm two peak rpm points will give
Max. torque (SAE net): 41.8 kg.m /3,400 rpm
the best performance. When
driving off-road, the
AbDUl your vehicle 7

ma ximum speed of yo ur vehicle, a nd therefore rhe power

o utput, is less im porta nt unl ess you are co mpeting in the
Pa ris-Daka r Ra lly! Torq ue is another matte r, and de ser t
dr iving requ ires a lor of torqu e to maintai n stea dy prog ress.
Knowing at w hich point in rhe rpm ra nge yo ur fou r-wh eel
d rive (4W D) w ill devel op ma ximum rorquc help s you ro judge
wh en to cha nge down into a lo wer gca r or cha nge up a gea r; If
yo u cha nge down ea rly eno ugh, yo u prevent th e engi ne rp m
from falling below its pe ak to rq ue o utput poin t.
As the rpm incre ases to the max im um output point , the
po wer of the engine rises steeply. It then redu ces just as q uic kly
w hen t he rpm go es beyo nd the max imum output point . Th ere
is no sense in o ver-revving the engine as th e power pro duc ed
w ill d rop off.

High range and low range

All ser ious 4WD off-road vehicles have both Hi gh and Low
ranges in the gearbox . A five-speed manual gea rbox thus
beco mes effecrively a ten- speed gearbox by changi ng from
H igh to Low ran ge. Hi gh ra nge is used on the high w ay a nd for
90 pe r cent o f off-road driving situatio ns . O ccasio na lly it w ill
be necessa ry to select Lo w ran ge in d ifficult terrain so tha t the
maxim um torque output fro m the engine ca n be used to make
progress. (Kno w ledge of the gear ratios in both Hig h an d Lo w
ra nge helps in the selecti on o f the right gear at th e right tim e!
Lo w first ratio is nearl y tw ice th e ra tio o f Low seco nd, hence, in
ma nu <l 14\'V'Ds, it is rarely use d exce pt in ex trem e
circu mstan ces; see th e rab ies in th e Appendix fo r ra tios o f Hi gh
a nd Low range.)
Some peo ple a lways ch an ge int o Low range as soon as they
go off-road beca use they know no bette r! Conti nua l d ri ving in
Low range, especia lly in hot climates, crea tes serio us
mechan ical problems as the eng ine revs ar e much highe r for
any give n vehicle speed; fue l co nsu mp tio n suffers bad ly a nd the
engine is subjecte d to grea ter wear an d tear. Driving slow ly in
Lo w ran ge a t excessive eng ine revs leads to overhea ting as th ere
is insufficient a irflow th rou gh th e rad ia to r to keep it cool. Keep
Lo w range only fo r w hen it is needed, an d learn to drive in
H igh ra nge 3 S yo ur normal o ff-road mode. Most 4WD veh icles
I
B About your vehicle

have a separate lever marked with 'H' and 'L' to enable you to
select the chosen range.
However, there are some automatic transm ission models
that perform better in soft sand and on steep inclines if Low
range third and fourth gears are used. Automatic gearboxes
usually have fewer gears than a manual gearbox - three or
four as opposed to the five of a manual transmission. This
means that each gear of an automatic model has a slightly
higher ratio than its manual counterpart, which may restrict
the traction performance in difficult situations. It is therefore a
good idea to use Low range and the two top gea rs of the
automatic transmission. From experience, I have found that in
soft sand, automatic Jeep Cherokees, for example, will perform
better in Low range than in High range. -

Basic components of a 4WD vehicle

Basic set-upof a 4WD vehicle

FA- Frontaxle
FD- Fronldlfferentlal
FP- Front propshaft
RP- Rear propshaft
RP RA - Rear axle
RD- Reardlfferentlal
E- Engine
G- Gearbox
CD- Centre differential
T- Transfer case
===::{RD (forHand Lranges).

NB: part-tlme4WO has nocentre

differential.
 Abuul yuurvehicle S

Transfer case
Almost without exception, when a 4WD vehicle is operating in
2WD mode it is the rear axle and wheels rhat are driving the
vehicle. They take the power from the engine and gearbox via a
propeller ('prop') shaft. When 4WD mode is seleered, the
vehicle requires a second prop shaft to transmit the power from
the engine and gearbox to the front axle. A prop shaft takes the
power to the rear axle and the rear wheels from the back of the
transfer case, whilst a second prop shaft at the front of the
transfer case takes the power to the front axle and front wheels.
The transfer case also contains the alternative gears for High
range and Low range which may be selected by the transfer
case lever.

Markings ontransfercase levers

Nissan Patrol: Toyota land Cruiser: Toyota Prado: full-tlrne

part-time 4WD part-time 4WD 4WD (small 'L'= centre
dlfflock isactivated)

On vehicles that have full-time 4WD, the transfer case also

contains the centre differential that allows the front and rear
prop shafts to turn at different speeds .

Part-time, automatic and full-time 4WD

There are basically only three 4WD systems to understand
when selecting your vehicle. These are as follows:

... Part-time 4WD. In this system, when the vehicle is used on

the road, only the rear axle and rear wheels are driving it
(2WD mode). However, the driver can operate a lever or an
electronic switch to select 4WD mode with all four wheels
10 AbDUl your vehicle

receiving power from the engine an d driving the vehicle

wh en o ff-re adi ng. Typ ical examples of part-tim e 4WD
vehicles a re Je ep 's Cherokee and Wrangler, the Isu zu
T roo per, Ford Explorer, Kia Sportcge and Toyota Land
C ruiser Station \Vagon (G X R version ).
... Auto matic 4\VD. This is a fairly new system used, for
example, in the H o nda CR-V. 1t is a variation of the pan-time
syste m, w hen the 2WD is throug h the front ax le and w heels
and the sw itc h to 4\VD is automatic ra ther than by the
d river. A sensor in the tran sfer case picks up any spinning of
t he fro nt wh eels. Wh en this happens, a viscous cou pling is
ac tivate d to engage the real' prop sha ft to tran smit po we r to
the rea r w hee ls. When the tw o axles a re turni ng again at the
sa me speed th e syste m will revert au to matica lly to 2WD.
Automat ic 4WD has limita tio ns for serious off-road wo rk ,
but is suira ble for beach work a nd ligh t off-road excursions.
.... Full-rime 4\VD. H ere, a ll four wheels rece ive power and
drive the vehicle at a ll times. It is the best ch oice if yo u can
a fford it as full-time 4WD w ill o ffer safe r dri ving o n the
highway as well a s off-ro ad. One important difference
between full-time and part-rim e sys tems is rhar full-time
vehicles are firred with a centre differential. Full-time 4WD is
found in many modern vehicles, such as the Land C ruiser
VX R l Ra nge Rover, Land Rover Discove ry, Toyota Prado,
N issan Patrol, Toyota RAV4, a nd the Gran d Chero kee.

The effect ohhe differential gear

Differentials
A differe ntia l gear is located
0 >0 0 >0 in the dr iven ax le of a ll
o 0 +0 >0 +0
oF~..", vehicles. \Vhen a vehicl e goes
round a corner, th e w heels on
O r--_~
0 r---.:>:" th e o uts ide tra vel a lon ger
dis ta nce and there for e ro tat e
at a fas ter rare th an the wheel s
o n th e inside.
To compensate for t his
differe nce in wheel speeds. a
Theoutside wheels go round faster in cornering: the differentia l gear is fitt ed in the
differentialgear compensates forthis tsource:Land
Cruisertechnicalreference guide, ToyotaMotor Corp.) axle. A 4 WD vehicl e has a
di ffere nt ia l in bo th th e fro nt
 -
About your vehicle 11

and rear axles. A full-time 4WD vehicle will have a third

differential in the transfer case, which allows for the different
speeds travelled by the front and rear prop shafts delivering the
power to the front and rear axles when on- and off-road. If the
vehicle is only a part-rime 4WD, it is not necessary for a centre
differential to be fitted.

Differential locks
With 4WD selected and driving off-road, the vehicle's
transmission transmits power through the gearbox and transfer
case to the differentials, via the prop shafts, and then through
the differentials to the wheels via the half shafts. In normal
driving situations, the power is delivered equally to all four
wheels. However, if one of the wheels loses traction it will spin
freely as all the power from the engine is delivered to that
wheel. This is because the differential is doing its job, but it
doesn't help the driver, since the vehicle becomes stuck. To
regain traction, power must be delivered to at least one other
wheel to get the vehicle moving: this is the role of the
differential lock (diff lock).

Axle differential lock

A diff lock is fitted to most madera 4WD vehicles in the rear
axle. This locks the differential gear and stops it from
compensating for the different wheel speeds, effectively locking
both wheels on the rear axle together, and delivering equal
power to both. The wheel that docs have good traction is
therefore able to drive the vehicle forward.

Centre differential lock

As we saw in the axle casing, a diff lock can also be fitted in the
transfer case to lock the front and rear prop shafts together for
maximum traction in difficult driving situations. This diff lock
can be activated by the driver using a manual lever or an
electronic switch.

Limited slip differential lock (LSD)

This is a type of diff lock that works automatically. By using
small clutch plates, it allows a certain amount of speed
differential between either the two half shafts on an axle, or the
12 AbDUl your vehicle

How differential locks create traction

One front wheel starts

splnnlngfreely
". ~
I ~I: ". l00' ~
' I D'
~l~ll"~ E 100'"
(a) Normal drivingwithequal
lOJr~D' D'
power to allfourwheels.
(b) Left front wheelstarts
"' ~ '" 0" . 0" spinning freely, havIng lost
traction; It receIves allthe
(a) (b) power.
(c) Thecentredlfflock Is
engaged toregain tract/on;
60 .. 1fU....-"'l....- D. now 50 per cent ofthe power
IUllEl lio.. Isgoing toboth front and
• CDI.
rear axles.
". ". (d) This 50 per centgoes to

~ "' ~'" the front wheelwhich Is

spinning: the rearwheels are
(c) (d) on good ground, and have
enough traction tomove the
E- Engine
vehlcle.
G-Gearbox
T- Transfer case
CDL- Centre dlfflock
RADL-Rear axledlfflock
One front and one rearwheel
start spinningfreely

IflL-, ,
"' ~I
i Elr;:-lfJ
4 '" 50 ..
Itl/lE &0"
, D'
(a)Normaldrlvlngwlth equal
power toall four wheels;

-r.~~:'
-COL
centre dlfflock Isengaged.
(b) Left frontwheelstarts
IITI==-- sc-,
"' ~'" splnnfng: right rearwheel
D' 60"
also spins freely: vehIcle
(a) (b) doesn't move even though
thecentre dlfflock has been
applied.
(c) Therearaxledlfflock Is
". D. appliedto tryto regain
traction.
(d) Both rear wheels now
receive power; theleftrear
D' 25 .. wheelis on good ground and
has enough traction tomove
(c) (d) the vehicle.
 About your vehicle 13

tw o prop sha fts in the tran sfer case. When the speed
differe ntial rea ches a pre dete rmi ned level, the di ff lock
mechanism automatically starts working so that each receives
equal amounts of power from the transmission.

Ideal set-up
On a modern full-time 4WD vehicle, the idea l set-up is to have
a centre diff lock (in the tr ans fer case ) and an LSD in th e rear
axle . With this set- up and with a powerful engin e you can
climb mountains!

Overdrive
In an automatic vehicle, 'o verd rive' refersto a high-speed gear
that has a ra tio of less th an 1:1. In genera l, the third gear of an
automatic transmission has a ratio of 1:1 and the overdrivegear
a bour 1:0.8. The lower the gea r ratio, the higher the speed of
the driven gear, therefore the same speed can be mai nta ined bur
at lower engine rpm. For example, you can be d riving at
100 kph in top (third) gear with the engin e turning over at
4,000 rpm. If overdrive is selected, you maintain yo ur road speed
burthe engine revs will decrease to 3,250 rpm. This improves
fuel economy, and less engine noise provides a quieter ride.

Monocoque body
This describes a vehicle whose ch assis frame a nd body ar e
combined into a single unit, rather than having a separate
ladder-frame chassis with the bod y attached. By eliminating th e

~~(! =n~
,. [('11 'a a a
The separale
ladder·frame
chau ls
.. .,..
~ ~
~~ :l\ ,..--;
14 About yourvehicle

separate chassis frame, more interior space as well as a

reduction in vehicle weight can be achieved. However, for
long-lasting off-road durability and overall strength, the
traditional combination of separate chassis frame and body is
superior. Current 4\VD monocoque examples are the Jeep
Cherokee, Toyota RAV4 and the Honda CR-Y.

Suspension systems and springs

The design and nature of a vehicle's suspension and springing
will to a large extent determine its off-road ability. Fur
travelling over rough terrain, the key word for suspension is
'articulation ', This refers to the vertical movement of the
wheels, as limited by the suspension, whilst maintaining
ground contact for traction. Different types of suspension offer
greater articulation than others. Independently sprung axles
offer greater wheel articulation than solid beam axles. The
following are the types in common use on 4\VD vehicles.

Leaf springs
Also known as 'cart springs', these comprise a number of steel
leaves clamped together and can only be used on vehicles with
.1 solid beam axle. They are strong, but are prone to dust and
dirt getting between the leaves - the resulting friction makes
for a very jerky and bumpy ride. They offer limited axle and
wheel articulation, especially on front axles. They arc rarely
used for front suspensions on modern 4WD vehicles, but are
occasionally used in the rear suspension of less technically
advanced vehicles. Leaf springs are also used to locate the axle
to which they arc attached.
The basic
construction of
the leaf spring
U-bolt

/ o ~««-----

•
Spring eye
 Abculycurvehicle 15

Torsion bars The barlwlsts as the wishbone (attached lo the

wheel) moves up In d down; II reverts 10 Its
original s rere aner each twist
Uppe r wishbon e

Torsion baB
{souru : Land
Cmise,'echn/rol
referenc egufde.
Toyota Motor
Corp.} Shoc k absurber

A torsion bar is a straig ht rod, made uf spring steel, which is

so lidly clamped to the cha ssis at one end and attached to the
suspension fra mewo rk (a nd th erefore th e road wh eel a t th e
other ). Th e springing effect co mes from th e torsio na l elasticity
of th e steel ro d, which a llows it to retu rn to its o rigin al state
o nce it has been tw isted. To rsion ba rs arc ligh ter and mor e
sim ple than coil springs a nd w ill la st a lot lon ger be fo re
replacement is neces sa ry, plu s they are less bulky a nd the refor e
take up less space. Th ey ate used by th e 1999 Land Cruiser
Station Wagon mode ls.

Coil springs The coli15 ealended and compressed byIhe

lower wishbone as the wheel movesup end
down; II reverts to 115original shape alter each
eXle nslon orcompression
Slilblllse r bar

Upper wIshbone

The position
of ccn springs
(source: t rifid
Cruiserlechn/co/ lower wishbone Shockabsorbe,
reference guide.
ToyoloMotQf
Corp.)
16 AbDUl your vehicle

These are the most common form of springs found on cars

and 4WDs. The coil spring is a long thin rod of spring steel
that has been coiled into a spiral shape. The springing effect
comes from the coil's ability to expand again after vertical
compression. Neither torsion bars nor coil springs can be used
to locate the axle, so other locating rods, link arms and
bushes have to be used for this purpose.

Independent andnon-Independent suspension

Comparative ground clearances: (a) vehicles with solid beam

front axles have better ground clearance than (b) those with
Independent front suspension.

" . '
. . ,, ', " ' ..

Nearly allmass-produced 4WDs have non-Independent rear

suspension with thewheels mounted at the ends ofasolid beam
axle. Similar non-Independent suspension systems are also used on
many front suspensions, although many manufacturers aremovIng
toIndependent suspensIons for both front and rear. Independent
suspension IsdefinItely more comfortable for both driver and
passengers, butoffers less ground clearance than asolid axle. This Is
because with asolid axle. when one wheel goes over a hump, the
whole vehicle willlean over slightly as thewhole axle 15 raised. With
anIndependent suspensIon, thewheel going overthe hump Is
Independent of the differential casing: thecasing therefore does not
11ft andIslikely to hitanotherobstacle In Itspath.
About your vehicle 17

Shockabsorbers
Shock absorbers act £0 damp o ur the bouncing of the spri ngs to
o ffer a more co mfort a ble ride. Without th em, th e springs of a
vehicle would continue to bo unce up and down (oscillate) after
hitting a bump in the road. Shock absorbe rs should last for
between 12-18 months o f serious off-road use. On 4WD
vehicles, rhey ar e often a compromise between the needs of
serious o ff-ra ading and no rmal highwa y driv ing, and th erefore
co nsideratio n should be given [Q fittin g up rared vers ions more
suited to the off-road environme nt . Stand ar d items ar e usua lly
filled with air an d oil; more sophis ticated shocks use nitroge n
gas and may ha ve la rger diam eter pistons a nd doubl e-acting
valves. It is also possible to get shoc k ab sorbers which ca n be
adjusted fro m within th e veh icle to suit th e condition s ('soft'
for highway driving, and 'firm ' for off-road).

Automatic or manual transmission?

Th ere are ' pros' a nd 'cons' for both option s, a nd ultimat ely the
cho ice become s one of personal pr eferen ce. Alth ough
au to ma tic tran smission gives smoother gea r changes and
produces less shift-shock th an a manual transmission , there a re
some disad vantages. For ex ample, wh en driving for length y
sections in Low range in soft sa nd, the autom atic transmission
oil may overheat. Fuel con sumption a lway s increases with
automat ic tran smission, and it is impossible to cow- or
push-starr a n a uto mat ic if th e battery is flat a nd no jump-leads
a re avail abl e. Th ere can a lso be a da nger fro m lack of engine
braking if you are tackling steep gra dients. M anual
tra nsmission offers a greater degre e o f dr iver contro l whe n
off-rea ding (it will give excellent engine brak ing when
descending sreep slopes). Wh en sta rring off in very soft sa nd
using a manua l gea rbo x, I would use Low ran ge second gear
for maximum traction and to a void havin g to change gear once
moving. On most automatic boxes, it is not possib le to do this ,
as the gearbox will alwa ys select first . Ho wever. the Toyota
Land Cruiser auto has a grea t optio n call ed 'Znd starr', which
cuts out first gear and allows me to rep licate exactly wh at I do
with a man ual transmission.
I

1B About yourvehicle

Off· road ability

(.)

(b)

Thereare three measurementswhich indicate a4WD'S ability to traverse

terrain in an orderly manner, without causingdamageto front or rear
bumpers,or the underside of the vehicle:(a)approachangle;
(b)breakoverangle; (c) departure angle.
The ground clearanceofthe vehicleis also an importantfactor
to take intoaccount.

If you do opt for an automatic, make sure that it is fitted

with an oil cooler which is in line with the airflow created by
the engine fan blades.

Accessories for your 4WD

lights
Extra lights arc an essential accessory for the off-wader, the most
usefulgenerally being driving lights, which in effect provide
intensification of the vehicle's hcadlarnps. Foglights and spotlights
are readily available, although are of less relevance off-road.

Foglights
These provide a wide spread of light horizontally, bur only a
small vertical spread (in order to reduce reflected glare).

Spotlights
These provide a penetrating but narrow beam of light, which
will illuminate objects a long way away.
AbDul your vehicle 19

Driving lamps
These combi ne elements of barh fog and spo rlighrs, a nd
provid e a wide but rea son a bly far-reaching spr ead o f light.

Light so urces (bulbs)

Th ere is no w a wide ran ge of different light so urces (generall y
still describ ed as bu lbs) available. Sealed bea m unirs still use
tungsten filaments, altho ugh mo st mod ern vehicles now use
bulb s filled with halogen gas, as these a re brighter and longer
lasting. A recent devel o pm ent is the H igh Intensity Discharge
(HID ) lamp, which is filled with a Xeno n gas, and uses
electrod es instead of a filam ent. T he light produce d is
incredib ly bright, although they a re no t readi ly ava ilable at the
mom ent due to their hig h co st. A further alternati ve is a
Dichro ic lam p. T his uses a Dichroi c halogen-filled bu lb, an d is
extre mely ligh t a nd compact.

Safety equipment

Anti-lock braking system (ABS)

Thi s prevents the w heels fro m locking up under heavy braking.
It improves driver control in terms o f directional stability,
and reduces braking distances. ABS is a major safety item for
on-road driving, but Ci.1I1 be a nuisance, and even dangerous,
when driving off-road. Th ere arc occasio ns when an
ex perienced driver w ill w ish to lock the w heels und er bra king
to position his vehicle in a certain place o r attitude when
driving o ver difficult terrain ; the ABS does nor allo w this to
occur. In recog nition of this, so me vehicle s prov ide a fac ility to
discon nect the ABS system, either via a switch or auto matica lly
wh en Low range is selecte d.

Seat belts
Man y manu facturers no w fit 'emergency lockin g/ ret ractor'
(ELR) belts as standard eq uipment in their vehicles. When
fitted in vehicles supp lied with SRS air bags, these ELR scat
belts have tw o impo rtant function s to perform:
20 AbDul your vehicle

The function of ELR seal belts

(a) Pre-tensioning: immediately before
Impact, the seat beltsensor activates a
smallmotorInthe seat mechanism to
wind it in - thus holding the occupant
firmly in his/her seat.
t
(b) Force-limiting: to reducethe risk
of inJuryto the torso upon sudden
deceleration. the seat belt 'gives'
a llttle,enablingthe occupantto
moveforward.

iii- Pre-tensioning. As the air bag sensor identifies rapid

deceleration of the vehicle, it sends a signal to the seat belr.
This causes it to contract to hold the occupant firmly in his
seat, before the air bag inflates (see (a) above) .
... Force-limiting. To reduce the risk of damage to the torso as
the body is thrust forward, the seat belt releases a small
amount of the belt to allow some 'give' - the 'force-limiting'
role of the seat belt, shown in (b) above.

SRSairbags
'Supplementary restraint system' (SRS) air bags provide
additional protection to the seat belt wearer in case of accident.
An air bag will deploy if a vehicle has a frontal impact with a
solid, immovable object at a speed in excess of about 25 kph
(15 mph). Air bags are designed purely for use in tandem with
seat belts as a means of reducing the risk of injury to the vehicle
occupants. It is very unlikely that an accident in the desert
would cause the air bag to inflate, as the speeds and rates of
deceleration would not be sufficient to cause the mechanism to
trigger off the air bag.
 Off-road driving 21

2
Off-road driving
IIff-road driving can be a very dangero us business , w ith
lIman)' pitfalls for the unwa ry and inex perienced. T he
troub le with many novice o ff-ra aders is that as they have been
driving o n-road for yea rs, the y mistakenly believe that goi ng
o ff-road is [usr an extension of wh at the)' ca n already
competently do. Such extreme off-roa d behaviour can be called
the 'red mist' syndro me: reaso n goes QU[ o f the wi ndow and is
replaced by a mixtu re of fright and a com pulsion to exhibi t a
macho attitude. Thankfully, the majori ty of new and
ex perienced off-ro ad drivers adopt a more rational and
disciplined approach to the task in hand , coup led with
co mp lete alertness to unex pected hazar ds. There is no place for
the 'show-off', the 'ha lf asleep' o r the 'red mist' merchants.
To becom e a competent d river, yo u must learn certain
techniques that you will on ly use when driving off-road . Th e
best wa y to perfect these techn iques is by practice, practice and
even more practice . It will take time and patience to becom e

Leamf romyour
mlslake5.R
practice unlll
ygu don'l
rep eat them
 22 OH-road driving
,

competent. Learn from your mistakes! Keep pushing yourself

until you get stuck and then analyse what went wrong so that
you will not repeat the mistake. The techniques of off-road
driving arc:

.... What to do when you arc moving (and trying to avoid

getting sruckt)
.... \Vhat to do when you do get stuck (which is inevitable
sometimes!)

Use local tracks

In the days of camel and donkey transport, the desert-dwellers
always took the line of least resistance for themselves and their
animals. So, if a track exists and it is going in the direction you
want, then take it, as it will avoid most of the hazards.
As far as possible, avoid destroying virgin desert with the
passage of your vehicles. Desert ecosystems are very fragile,
and whilst the wind will quickly cover up the wheel tracks of
lookIng forward
passing vehicles, wounded vegetation takes a lot longer to
en- and off'foad recover.

.
150m 100m 50m

Normal when MaxImum when drivIng

drlvlngonthe on elf-read sand tracks
hIghway

Where to look
Be wary of sudden dips and jumps even when driving on a
well-defined sand track - they are often very difficult to see.
When driving in the desert, you should be focusing on the
ground no more than 50 m ahead and be constantly on the
alert for sudden changes in the surface. This close observance is
especially important in the summer, when the sun is high
overhead and not casting shadows. I never wear sunglasses
when driving in the desert, as I find they severely limit my
ability to 'read the ground'.
 Off-road driving 23

(c)

Off-road
surfaces: Off-road surfaces*
(a) country roads
InKenya are a
mudnightmare The ground over which you are driving can vary from a smooth
after heavyrain: gravel track to a soft dune section in the Empty Quarter; a
drive In the centre
of the road 10 muddy sabkba (salt flat) plain Ot dry rocky wadi bed to a
avoid sliding Into
flowing stream of indeterminate depth. Unlike the smooth
Ihe ditches;
(b) typlcallracks surface of a tarmac road, which only varies according to the
In the sand.
weather, rhe variations of off-road surfaces arc endless.
momentum and
lyre pressure are
needed 10keep
going: Sand surfaces
(elgravel roads
Inarcticregions
Deserts vary from areas of large, flat plains to areas of towering
becomevery
slJpperywhen dunes over 100 m high.
wet:
By its very nature - millions of tiny grains of stone - sand
(d) the rocky
wadi bed: lovely is one of the most unstable surfaces to drive on. Perhaps only
10 photograph,
mud exceeds it in providing very limited grip for your tyres.
but difficult to
negotiate The secrets of successful sand driving are momentum and ryre
~ For a greater understanding uf the geographical and topographical nature of desert s and mountains,
read GlIlf LlIIdsc<1{Jt's (Elizabe th Collas and Andr ew Taylor, Motivate Publ ishing, 1992 ).
 24 Dff-read driving .

pressure. Providing that you

maintain sufficient
momentum to tackle slopes
and dunes and your eyre
pressures arc correct, then
you will make good progress.
Compare walking on firm
hard ground to walking on
sand - it requires greater
effort and energy to make the
same progress. This also
As you become
applies to the progress of a vehicle. Try to imagine that you are
accuetcmedto
iIdesert terraln driving on top of the sand, floating along on the surface; low
youwill notice eyre pressures will give you the flotation that allows the 4\X'D
the different
textures, and to drive on top of the sand.
good Most desert driving will be carried out in High range, with
observationwill
enable you10 Low range usually reserved for emergency recovery situations.
read Ihe sand The selection of a gear depends on many factors such as the
firmness of the sand, the power and torque of the vehicle's
engine, the speed at which you wish to travel, the skill and
experience of the driver, the natu re of the obstacle ahead, the
pressure of the ryres , and so on. The instinctive selection of the
'right' gear comes only with practice and experience. Low
range first gear is rarely used in desert driving as it is too low
and, with the large amount oftorque produced by modern
4WD engines, will cause wheel spin. It is more suitable for
driving in wadis and across rocky ground, where slow and
controlled progress is required.

Imaginea manand woman walking

across a lawn. Thelady'sheelswill
leave holes Inthe surfacedespite
her weightofless than 50 kg.The
man,weighing over95 kg,barely
leavesa mark, as hisweightIs
spread overa greater area. Hehas
achieved flotation. ItIsthe same
Heel of man's lady's high with yourvehicle: as youreduce
shoe (25 cm2) heel (2 cm2) the tyre pressure,so the area ofthe

o tyreincontactwiththe ground will

increaseand the kg/cm2 pressure
onthe ground will reduce.
 Off-read driving 25

\Vhilsr it is tempting to drive faster on defined tracks, this

can lead to bumping and crashing as you desperately brake to
avoid a hole, or actually go into the hole itself! In a manual
4WD, it is good practice to drive on such tracks in one gear
lower than you think you could when driving on twisting
tracks. The benefit of this is that you get better engine braking
when you take your foot off the accelerator to slow down
quickly - as opposed to having to brake hard and risk
throwing the vehicle off balance. The disadvantage of this is a
slightly higher fuel consumption.
As you become accustomed to a desert terrain you will
notice the different textures, and good observation will enable
you to read the sand. Sand is firmer to drive on in the early
Brakegently: morning, especially after morning mists. Traction and flotation
Ca) IfVlIu brake
hard on a sleep
are also better at this time than at midday, as the tyrcs are cool
down slope,the and pressures will still be low. Sand with small ripples is usually
front wheetsdig
In,and the
firmer than smooth sand; sand with vegetation is also firmer
vehiclebecomes than clear patches of sand; sand on the windward side of dunes
unstable. Never
brakeonasteep
is usually firmer than the sand on the leeward side. When sand
downslopel suddenly changes colour as you drive, it could be an indication
(b) sudden stops
will cause the
that the consistency has also changed; pale yellow sand is
wheels to dIgIn generally easier to drive on than golden red sand.

~ Brake gently!
If you brake hard for a sudden
stop when driving on sand,
the wheels will dig into the
sand. Very often, the sand you
are driving on has a fairly firm
crust, which masks very soft
sand beneath. Break throngh
the crust and you may be in
trouble. Your first choice for
slowing down is to use engine
(a) braking. Try to avoid hard
braking when driving on sand
as you could not only break
the crust, but also lose control
of the vehicle. Never use the
brakes when descending steep
(b) slopes, as the whole weight of
28 Off-read driving

Tryto llvold th e veh icle w ill be th ro w n forward o nto th e front whee ls. Th ese
sudden braking
whe n drlvlngon wi ll dig into th e sand a nd th e rear w heels can lift off th e gr ound
s a nd. orYOll wlll ca using a n unbalanced vehicle to slew sideways a nd roll do wn
ge t sluck!
the slope. Use engine brak ing only to slow down yo ur descent
in these situa tio ns.

~ Accelerale gently!
Seco nd o n my Jist of pet hares, after the ' red mist' merchants,
are the 'ax le t ramp' dri vers. Excessive accelera tio n will also
ca use the wheels to dig into the sand - the result is litt le
co rruga tio ns several centi metres deep ca used by ax le tramp
tha t sha ke th e vehicle to pieces . As yo u accelerate ha rd on a
soft surface, th e vehicle digs in w ith th e same force as it mo ves
forward, and th e axle sta rts bouncing up and down, creating
th ose awful corrugati on s. Once a corru gatio n ha s been created,
ever y vehicl e that follows wi ll ma ke it wo rse.
Soft ryre press ures he lp to ab sorb the tramp ing of your ow n
axle, but tr y to limit yo ur speed to between 40-50 kph . Th e
tr ick is to find the sp eed at w hic h th e vert ica l suspension
movements are in synch wi th th e cor r uga tio ns; likely to be
between 50- 80 kph . It helps if you ca n keep to the extreme
edge o f th e co rruga te d track , w here th e wheels o n at lea st o ne
side of t he vehicle are tra velling o n a smoothish surface.

~ Starting in and progressing from soft sa nd

As we will disco ver, you ca n drive o ur o f very so ft patches o f
sa nd in Lo w range second gear, but after yo u have achieved
flotati o n, yo u need to get back fro m Low ra nge into H igh ran ge
w hilst th e vehicle is still mo ving . Yo u do this (in, for exa mple.
Toyota's Land Cruiser an d Prad o, and the Nissan Patrol I by
 Oil-road driving 27

moving the transfer case lever from '],' through ' N ' into '1-1'.
If you stop to do this, you will lose momenrum and become
bogged down again. Perfect this by practising on firm ground
so that you get used to the procedure without getting stuck!

::::::=-- ----
-------~ -~~f
Winddirection
-- J ~:
wrnd-btewnsand
fromthe crest ..•

~;/:;:
~~ ":;
Th' leeward sfde ls the
steepslopeor'sllp'face

- ~: ~ :::
The windward sIde tstne shallow sIde
\
.>":~ \\ ... falls 10the base
( 21) \ }I. of the slope
rrcss-sectten of .'/ 1.,-" '-
the classic
Dunes
barchon dune
There are two main type s of dunes. The barchan type is a
crescent-shaped dune, which varies in size from 1111 to over
30 m high. It has a shallow angle face on the windward slope
(the side facing the prevailing wind), and a steep drop on the
leeward slope which is known as th e 'slip' face. These slip faces
can be very steep, often with an angle of about 33° (close to the
angle of inertia) and arc notoriously unstable. Th ere is
sometimes a flat area at the peak of the barchan dune which
disguis es an overhang - a small section of unsupported sand
Aclil5Slc
example of
sticking out over the slip face. Never drive your vehicle onto
'sel{s': knlfe- this type of overhang as it may collapse under the weight of the
edged ridges
vehicle. Stop well back from the edge and rake a look on foo t
whlch are
- formed bya before proceeding.
series of
borchon dunes
In areas where the prevailing winds come from different
linking together directions, the crescent shape of the barchan changes into a
continuous, but wavy,
knife-edged ridge called a 'scif
(sword). Th ese seif ridges can
extend for several kilometres
in an unbroken line, becoming
a formidable obstacle to cross
even in a 4WD.
A large area covered by a
mix of small, medium and
high barchan and scif dunes
can stretch for several
 28 OU-road driving
,

kilome tres in every direction,

for ming a 'sea of sa nd '. Such
areas are known as 'ergs'. It is

:..: :~:. : '~::. .; -'

-. -- -
-=.- '

... .~:;""t:..._':'-&~~ •
. ,
pro ba bly better to dri ve
a roun d th em unless yo u ar e
' . "- ... / / . look ing for a good
-I ~ :'
-' .~ '; playgro un d! You will a lso find
huge mounta ins of san d
several hun dred met res high

'- in the form of ridge s or wa lls

- these are known as 'draa',
' E'!1S'; a sea of Unless you are very brav e, or foo lhardy, it is better to ma rvel at
san d ue atf!d by
small, medlllm these masterpieces of nat ure from a distance!
i1ndhlsh
11iJTthan and sr i!
~ Ascending dune slopes
dunes, whlch
u nstreich for The most important point to remember is that the trees have
sevtf,al
kilometres very lirrle £0 grip on wh en as cendi ng a slope, so an y forward
momentu m that you can build up befo re reachin g th e slope will
help to suc cessfully ca rry you to the to p.
TakIngthe line Decide whi ch gea r a nd whic h ra nge (H igh or Low ) to seleer
olleu t befo re st a rring the ascent . Genera lly, in a man ual vehicle, H igh
reslstant e: look
for lhe'easy' range is better tha n l ow ra nge as you can build up a fas ter
way up speed to ca rry yo u to th e to p . As you get near th e to p, lift your
foor o ff the accelerato r a nd let
th e momen tum ca rry you
forward and engine bra king
slow you down. Once th ere,
be very car eful if you cannot
see wha t is on th e othe r side.
Ano ther th ing to reme mbe r
wh en clim bing long dune
slopes is to take the line of
lea sr resistance. Because of the
natu re of th e terrain , you may
have to deviate from the
stra ight line a pproach,
especia lly if your vehicle sta rts
to slow dow n and lose
momentum . Turning left and
rig ht (Q reduce rhe steep ness of
the climb may just be eno ugh
 Dff-road driving 28

Descending dune slopes

Try to keep these points inmind

whendescending:

• Let the engine do the braking

• Don'ttouchthebrakepedal
• Drive ina straightline
• Selecta lowgear (even Low
range ifa longsteep slope)
• Drive down , don't freewheel.

to take you up. If you do stop and ha ve to try again, select

reverse gear and drive backwards in a straight line - turning
round on the slope to go down forwards will lead to disaster!
·Be waryof the One of the hazards to watch out for when ascending dune
bowlsatthe slopes is the bump or little ridge right at the base of th e dune as
bcttcmctthe
slope you start the ascent. If you are going fast, this bump will lift
your wheels off the ground;
your forward traction is lost
and you may fail to make the
climb. Try to select a path up
the dune that is clear of this
sort of hazard.

~ Descending dunesLopes
The most important thing to
remember is to let the engine
do the braking. It takes an act
3D Oil-road driving

Oescendlnga
of faith for a new off-reader to
dune slope: the
mostImportant refrain from braking on a down
thlng tn
remember1510
slope, especially if it is a very
let the engine do steep one, but braking can also
the braking
cause the wheels to lock up and
slide sideways, and the vehicle
might roll over.

Keep your right foot away from

the brake pedal!

Driving across a slope, at an

angle, is obviously a mistake
and will lead to problems such
as loss of control and possible
roll over.
For good engine braking, you need to select a low gear. That
could be High range first or second or Low range second or
third. Remember that the gear you select must not be too low as
the momentum of the vehicle can become too much for the
engine to cope with and yOli will start sliding down the slope.
As the veh icle starts to descend, press the accelerator so that you
are actually driving the vehicle down the slope. If it starts
moving faster than you would like, just lift your foot off the
accelerator and let the engine slow the vehicle down. Finally, be
aware of the hollows or bowls that are created at the base of the
When crossing
leeward side . The sand that is blown off the top of the ridge
ridges, keep up eventually falls down and accumulates at the base of the steep
your momentum
oryouwlllgel
slope. It can be very soft and can catch the unwary driver who
stuckr will get stuck in the bowl.

.... Crossing ridges

The photograph clearl y
illustrates the dangers of the
'ridge trap': I stopped in the
wrong place, and now neither
the front nor rear wheels have
any contact with sand!
To prevent this, stop only
when you can go forward
andlor back.
 Off-read driving 31

Sabkhas can be
Greater experience in the
treacherous: Iry
10keep tc a terrain will eventually bring
vIsible track
knowledge of 'what is on the
other side',

Driving on sabkhas
Sabkhas arc created when
rainfall drains off the
surrounding mountains or
ergs onto a plain that becomes
saturated. As the sun
evaporates the water, so the
salt rises to the surface to form
a thick crust. During the
summer when the sabkhas
have dried our, they are usually safe to drive on provided that
you keep to a clearly visible track. Even in the spring, after any
winter rains, it can still be safe to use the well-trodden path
across a sabkha. Try not to stray from the track as there is no
way of telling if the surface is finn enough to bear the weight of
a 4WD. If it is not firm, you will quickly sink up to the axles
and face a lengthy and vcry dirty recovery job. Some sabkhas
are very treacherous, and have the consistency of quicksand
- there is little chance of recovering a stuck vehicle from this.

Driving in wadis
\Vadis are dried-up river or stream beds. Seasonal rains create
torrents of flowing water which drain off inca the desert,
sometimes forming the infamous sabkhas. \Vaclis occur in
sandy areas as well as in mountainous regions, where real
danger lurks in the form of flash-floods after major rainstorms.
Mountain wadis are littered with varying sizes of rocks,
boulders and stones, which call for caution and great care to be
taken to protect your tyres - use full road pressures to prevent
the tyre walls from being cur or holed on sharp stones.
Also, pay attention to ground clearances and the risk of
damaging the engine sump or other vulnerable mechanical
components. As you steer to avoid the bigger rocks and stones,
remember which side of rhe front axle rhe differential is on: ir
32 Off-road driving

Crossing ditches

When crossingditches, alwaysapproachthem at a 45° angle to ensure

that three wheels are Incontactwiththe groundat all times.

will nor be in the centre of the axle! Driving across rocks is one
of the rare occasions when Low range will be your first choice,
and in first gear.
Wide sand wadis are nor as dangerous to your vehicle
unless you are driving too fast, lose control and roll over when
crossing unseen undulations.

Wading through water

There are times in the Middle East when flash-floods will create
obstacles to be tackled. Most manufacturers will state the
maximum depth of water in which thei r model can drive safely.
Any limitations to this arc caused by the air intake pick-up
point, irs height above the ground and its location. I once read
about a B!vlW owner who drove his 540 very carefully through
only seven inches of water, safe in the knowledge that the air
intake level was over ten inches above ground. What he had
not taken into account was the suction created by the engine's
air intake system, which sucked up water from three inches
 Dff-road driving 33

below the air intake vent into the engine - a very expensive
engine rebuild was the result! If water does get sucked into an
engine, it is 'goodbye' to the con rods, pistons and valves .
Most 4WD vehicles have a fairly deep wading height,
typically 70 em. Ignition systems are usually well sealed against
the ingress of water, with the HT leads and spark plugs also
well sealed. The only thing to be careful about is the effect of
the fan blades if they become semi-submerged in water,
generating a spray like an egg whisk.
When there has been a flash-flood, the water is usually quite
Howtowade murky and it is difficult to see beneath the surface. There is only
through water:
nrst walkthe
one thing to do, and that is to get out and walk across, using
water, then spray your shovel or a stick to probe the bottom for unseen hazards.
the etectrrcs with
WD40. Place iI
It is a good idea to tie a plastic sheet across the front of the
plastlc sbeet vehicle to prevent the water from going through the grille. Also
overthe grille,
andIn nrst cr
give the electrics a good spray ofWD40 before you start. To get
second gear, through, it is usually best to select Low range second gear,
drlves[ow[y
thrcughthe
continue at a steady 4-5 kph and to keep moving without
water; remember changing gear. Once safely on the other side, proceed with
thatycurbrakes
will nolfully
caution as your brakes will not be working at maximum
functlon unUl dry efficiency until they have dried out.
34 Off-road driving

General driving tips

Driving in convoy
Always stay at least 25 m behind the driver in franc. If you are
roo d ose to the person in fro nt and he ge ts stuck, he may have
nowhere to reverse to and you may nor have time to avo id him
or find an alternative route . Faster vehicles shou ld be cowards
the back of the convoy, rath er than at the front, where they can
zoom on ahead and lose the test of the party! Check your rear-
view mirror periodically to make sure the perso n behind you is
still there, and keep an eye out for the person in front of you, or
you will lose each other. Also bear in mind that unless you are
the lead vehicle, you will be driving over sand churned up by
Sta Y Qr /~05t previo us drivers , and yo ur progress will be slow er. When
:Ism behInd the
driver Infront
negotia ting inclines, you sho uld try to avoid this churned-up
whl!nln aconvoy sand, optinginstead for virgin groundon either side of the track.

.Ilo-som

Clutch control
Perhaps the worst mistake made by inexperienced off-roaders
when driving in sand is slipping the clutch in the belief th at it
will assist traction. Neve r slip th e clutch when driving off-road
(or on-road, for that rnat rerl }; the first result will be a nasty
smell as the clutch disc starts coo king from the friction heat,
followed by a defective clutch pressure plate and disc. When
yo u first smell an overheated clutch, stop immedia tely and wa it
for the disc to cool down before trying to drive off.

Thumbs out!
When holding the steerin g wheel do not grip it with your
thumbs around the wheel. Keep your thumbs out and resting
on the rim of the wheel. It is safer to do rhis because if the
wheels should suddenly hit an o bject and the steering wheel
spins in yo ur hands , you will not damag e your thumbs.
 Off-road driving 35

Clogged treads:
wet sand after
tecatraindogs
lhetyretreads,
glvillglo550f
steering control
and minimal
braking
performance

Air-conditioningconsumes bhp
On full blast, your vehicle's air-conditioning consumes up to
10 per cent of the engine's power. In recovery situations
all available power is need ed at the wheels, so switch off the
air-conditioning when carrying out recovery techniques.

Clogged treads
\Vhen driving in wet sand or mud, th e tyre treads very quickly
become clogged up, aod it is like driving on slicks. The result is
a roral1oss of traction from the tyres and erratic steering. To
avoid sliding into hazards requiring a major recovery exerci se,
get out and clean the treads from time to time . Prevention is
better than cure .

Mud
As we have seen, mud is an unpleasant surface to drive on and
makes steering and braking an imprecise process. Too much
throttle in low gears creates wheel spin and lack of control. It is
better to select High range third geat and use controlled wheel
spin to cut through the top surface to the firmer ground
beneath. When on a muddy track with a steep camber either
side, try to stay firmly in the centre of the track to avoid a
lengthy recovery process!
 _.. _-
_...

36 Whatto do whenyou get ~h!gk

What to do when you

get stuck
espite all your efforts to the contrary, there may co me a
time when you involuntarily sto p moving, and when you
tr y to carryon aga in, the vehicle won't go ! T here is no shame in
gett ing stuck, even though it may be your fault - everyone gets
stuck fro m time to time. A momenta ry lapse in co ncentration is
often enoug h to select the wrong gear or take the worst of two
opti ons when confronted by a hazard. Even Greg No rman
misses a 20 cm putt fro m time to time and Pete Sampras serves
the odd double fault - it happens to the best, so it can ha ppen
to us as well. He re's wha t to do if you do get stuck!

Reverse back and try again

Th e first th ing to try is to reverse back along the tracks that led
you into the probl em area. Sometimes your vehicle's weight
will have firmed th e sand up so tha t when you reverse over it
you can get some tract ion. Use a light throt tle pressure or the
wheels will spin, whi ch mean s you go down an d not forward.
If reversing does n' t work, get o ut and see exactly why you are
stuck. It may be a hid den patch of very soft san d o r you may be
perched on a tussock with one or mor e wheels off the gro und
(if so, the quickest wa y off is for a colleague to tow yo u off).

Check tyre pressures

Assuming you are not stuck on a tussock, the nex t thing [Q
do is to check yo ur tyre pressures. In the desert du ring the
hot mo nths, it is not unusual for ryre pressure s to increase by
 What to do when you get stuck 37 i
4-6 psi in litt le over an hou r's driving due ro th e heat o f the
sand. The 20 psi that was fine when you started has become
25 psi and tha t spells problems . Reduce the ryre pressures and
very gently try again to drive or reverse out, taking care nor to
let the wheels spin. Select Low range second gear for this
exercise- never use first gear as the ratio is far too low and
will cause wh eel spin and no forward movement. Having some
friends to push you during this process hugely increases your
chances of getting our.

Forward and back

: .': : . ' ' ., "'.!" :;":.

' .' ', ' ',' • •'." ,#-,
: ~:

Try the 'forward If reducing pressures doesn't work, try the 'forward and back'
andback' routine
to poweryclU out routine. Alternately select forward and reversegears very
of D soft patch quickl y and try to firm up th e sand by the co nstant to and fro
motion. Every time you go forward, and then reverse, rry to
travel a birfurther in each direction until you build up enough
momentum to power our of rhe sofr parch.

Lighten the load

It is very important to check on rhe posirion of rhe vehicle
relat ive ro th e lie of th e gro und . If the veh icle is on a slight
down slope, rhen rhechances o f reversing back up are minimal.
The opposi te is true if on a slight up slope. If your vehicle is
heavily la den with people or eq uip ment, then it may help
to light en th e load - th ose extra bodi es can also pu sh
when required.
38 Whal tn de when yeu gel stuck

Starting in gear
Sometimes it is very difficult to get the vehicle moving at all due
to its position or the softness of the sand. A useful technique to
use and perfect is that of 'starting the vehicle in gear ', which can
be used when trying to pull out of soft sand patches, or when
desceoding steep slopes. The procedure is as follows .

~ Switch off the engine after applying the hand brake and/or
footbrake.
... Select Low range and first or second gear.
~ Release the brakes and allow engine compression to hold
the vehicle.
.... Start the engine with gear engaged, but w ithout using
the clutch .
iii- As the engine fires, apply gentle acceleration of up to
1,000 rpm .

This will eliminate loss of vital momentum through changing

gears when trying to recover, especially in soft bowls. When
descending slopes it ensures that you are in control at all times.

Pushing
The assistance of your
passengers, and those of other
vehicles in the convoy, will
make all the difference when
you try to get started again in
soft sand. It is surprising how
the weight of even several slim
people will give your vehicle's
wheels that extra lirtle bit of
. .~ traction to get you out of
trouble. However, it is an
Even the weIght energy-sapping business, and, in the summer, an excessive
ofseveral slim
people tan be
amount of exertion can cause dehydration and exhaustion.
enoughto get you I have a rule during Jul y and August that, if stuck, a tow is the
eurenrcuete
first option, foll owed by winching with pushing as a lasr resort.
 What to do when you gel stuck 38

Creating ramps
If all the ab ove fails, you will
have to start digging. By now
your vehicle may have sunk
several inches into the sand
and the build-up of the sand
'bow wa ves' in front of each
wheel means yo u are not
go ing anywh ere. Using yo ur
Removing the trusty shovels, scrape away the sand from in from of and
sand fromIn
fronlofan d behind all four wheels. Thi s crea res gentl y sloping ramps in
behindallfour front of and/or behi nd the wh eels to ease your exit. If you have
tyres creates
rampsto excess wat er supplies, dampen the sand in front of the whe els
driveup for add ed tracrion.

Lift and nu: (a) the

vehlclechanls Is Lift and fill
R sl/ng onSilnd:
milk!!I span
midwaybetween If the vehicle has sunk so low
thewheels l nd that it is resting on its axl es or
InsertIhe , [rllc k
chass is, digging und erneath
the vehicle alone may not
help, unless ir is on a fairly
steep slope whereby its weight
(a) will overcome the resistance
once it starts moving. Th e
(b)InRaleIh. air vehicle will have to be physicall y lifted using the jack or the air
Jack:whenthe
wheels haveblH!n jack - a preferred and easier alternative. Lifr each side up so
lifted, Illl Inthe th at th e wheels come up out of the holes they are in. Try to
holes wIthnnd
anddenatl! the place the jack unde r rhe ax le beam so that th e wheels lift mor e
lack;fepnl lhls quickl y. Onc e the wheels are
eJtrulseonlhe
otherslde,and clear of rhe holes, shove l sand
thendriveoul back into rhem and th en
lower the vehicle. Repear the
ex ercise on the other side . The
vehicle underside is now well
clear of the sand an d the
;:;~~":..:~, chanceof forward motion is
rnuch better.
 40 What to do when you get stuck
I

Rocking
This is another way to 'lift and
fill', but it requires the
assistance of at least six or
eight others. Line up an equal
number on each side of the
vehicle holding the rain gutter.
In turn, each side pushes the
top of the vehicle to get it
With helperson rocking sideways. The effort must be vigorous enough to start
elther side,push
alternately 10 lifting the wheels a few millimetres on each push. As the wheels
urttbewneets lift, so the sand will fill in the holes and the vehicle can -
oneach sIde;as
they lllt, the eventually be rocked to the surface. From there, with a further
holes will nil In push, you should be able to drive off again. (This technique
withsand,until
thevehicleis on works better with vehicles fitted with rigid beam axles, rather
levelground than those with independent suspension.)

Getting out of a bowl

The unwary may find themselves stuck in the bottom of a bowl
with sides up to 10 m high. These bowls are a real sand trap as
the covering at the bottom is wind-blown sand from the top of
the surrounding dunes. It is therefore loose, and offers minimal
traction. It is very difficult to do a tow pull recovery from here
because of the angles involved - the tow-rope would be
cutting through the sand at the top of the bowl.
Winching is one possibility, but the towed vehicle will have
very little traction of its own as it climbs the steep sides of the
The'ferwerd and
back' routine 10
bowl, and the strain on the winch is enormous. Winching
exlta bowl should be used as the last resort. The best technique to try is the
forward and back routine
again. The objective is to
reverse as high as you can up
~ the side of the bowl. Once you
:iJL
J' :

have done this, put the vehicle

~~3~~~~11~~~~ in Low second, and charge at

the opposite side of the bowl.
You may have to do this
 Yl'l!allo ~~ l!\!h~ you gelsiuck 41

several times before you can

climb high enough up to give
you sufficient momentum to
exit. Don't forget to lift off
the throttle as you near the
rim so you don't go flying
through the air! A variation
~- of this routine that also
works in these situations is
the 'Wall of Death'
manceuvre. Select second gear
and once you get traction,
drive around the base of the
bowl. In a left-hand drive
The 'Wallof vehicle (LHD), it is better to drive in a clockwise direction, so
Death'routlne
to exit a bowl
that you are sitting on the high side of the vehicle. Keep going
faster and faster, and as the speed increases, gradually climb up
the sides of the bowl until you eventually pop out.

Recovery by towing and winching

If none of the recovery techniques described above are
successful, you will have to be towed or winched by another
vehicle. In the hotter months, it is better to go straight for the
winch recovery to avoid the unnecessary expenditure of
precious energy and the risk of serious dehydration.

Tow pulls
These come in a variety of forms - from the gentle tug to move
the stuck vehicle a few metres to firmer ground, to the violent
jerk (the 'snatch pull') to un stick a firmly embedded vehicle .
The latter, however, should be used rarely and with great care.
I recall a friend using a snatch pull on a Discovery who
mistakenly attached the rope to the bull bar. The result was
predictable - his 4WD remained stuck in the hole and the bull
bar was left dangling on the end of the tow-tope! If you do
need to offer assistance in the form of a snatch pull, then you
should use a kinetic energy recovery rope (a KERR - see
Chapter 4 for more details on this).
42 Whatto dowhenyou get stuck

Thecorrectwayto tow

When Uning up to offer a stricken frIend a pull out of his troubles there are
several things to remember.

• Both vehicles and the rope
should be in as straight a line as
the area permits.
• The rope should be attached at
both ends by a shackle (see
Chapter 4 for types of shackles).
• If your rope Is too short. use a
second rope Joined by a shackle.
Do not start tying knots. as they
will becomejammedsolid because
of the towingforce.
• Place the rope rs) on the ground
between the two vehicles In an '5 '
so that each driver can see when
the ropeIs about to take the st rain
of thepull.
• Agree what signals will be used
by both drivers to ensure a co-
ordinated effort. .
• Just before the tow ing vehicle
moves off, the stuck driver should
engage gear and await the pull
with wheels turning, so that the
towingvehicleIs not pullinga dead
weight.
• As soon as the stuck vehicle Is
movingagain under Its own power,
towing ceases and the vehicles
stop. Be careful not to drive over
the tow-rope and risk winding it
around the fronthubs.
• Remove the tow-rope by
undoing the shackles. If the pin is
Jammed, use a short metalspike or
bar In the hole at the end of the pin
for extra leverage.
When the tow Is taking place,
helpers can push the stuckvehicle,
but they must stay behind the
vehicle Incase the rope breaks and
flails back.

Wi nching
Th e person who invent ed the electric winch deserves a
medal! It is witho ut dou bt th e single most impor tant piece of
off-reader's equipment after the sho vel and a recovery rope .
Vehicle-mounted winches can be either mechanically or
electrically pow ered. A mechanical winch is operated from a
power rake-off from the gearbox and is totally independent of
the vehicle's elecrrics, An electric winch takes its power from
th e vehicle's bat tery. Despite constant charging from the
alternator d uring the winching process, batteries will run
down. This is nor a prob lem with a mechanical winch, bur
these are mor e expensive, and few manu factu rers offer them.

~ Selectingand fittingthe winch

If you decide to invest in a bolt -on electric winch, make sur e
that you select the right capacity version. This is depen dent on
 What te diiwhen you get stuck .43

the type of use it will get and your vehicle's weight. Generally, it
is wisest and safest to select a winch which has a pulling
capacity that is 2,000 Ib greater than your vehicle's gross
vehicle weight (GVW - the GVW is the manufacturer's
recommended maximum weight with the vehicle fully loaded).
Having selected your winch, it is a good idea to let the
experts fit it. DIY winch-fitting is not recommended unless
you are properly qualified to do it. The wioch frame must he
securely bolted onto the chassis frame of the 4WD. If your
vehicle has a rnonocoque construction, the mounting area must
be strengthened with welded plates. It is usual to mount the
control box near the winch and under the bumper or on the
bull bar. The control hox has a three-pin socket plug for the
remote control cable. However, if you prefer to operate the
winch from the comfort of the cabin, you can mount the three-
pin socket here by taking wires from the control box to the
socket plug mounted on the cabin's facia .

Typical winch recovery situations

~ Vehicle one to be winched out byvehicletwo
Vehicle two should be lined up with vehicle one. Position
vehicle two on firm ground, and, if necessary, place chocks in
front of the wheels. Connect the cable to a solid towing bracket
fitted to the chassis of vehicle one. Connect the remote control
unit to the winch control box on vehicle two and starr the
winch to reel in the slack cable.
Once the cable is taut, place a floor mat or blanket over it to
prevent the cable from flailing about in the air and hitting
Winth recovery someone should it break. The winch operator signals to the
sltuatron: vehlcle driver of vehicle one to start his engine and engage gear: usually
one lobe
winched outby Low second is the best choice. As vehicle one tries to drive, the
vehlcletwc winching recovery pull is started. Operate the winch for
Stutkvetnete In
soft sand Wlnthingvehltle

(Ie::
-"' .~., ' 1
.........
T. i!""~
:T'.
:'
~ ..

... -
. . "

.. .. I
-
Floormal I 1(RI
' ' 'f~ «:r f!", ,
, - ' - - - - -' J I I . . - - - - - - .
l· ..: .....
. !
~~
• •

'-- . (1) WI"" (2)

 .- .
44 What to do when you get stuck

30 seconds and then stop for a 10 second break , during which

yo u sho uld ens ure [hac the cable is winding evenly o nto th e
d rum, and nor bunchi ng up . Repeat rhe sequence until vehicl e
o ne is rec overed and back on firm g ro und, wh er eupon
winching can stop.
H the distance to be winch ed o ut is as lon g as o r lon ger than
th e w inch cable, vehicle o ne sho uld come nose to nose w ith
vehicle two as far as possible. and the proc ess should be
inte rrupted to allow vehicle two to reverse back for a second
sessi o n of pulling.

~ Vehicle one uses vehicle two as the anchor point

Winchrecovery Stuckvehlcle usIng
slblallon: Its own winch AIlthorvehicle
vehlcle one
(wllh I wInch)
usuveh lcle two
as the anchor
noormal
point
(2)
Thi s procedure is very similar to that described above, except
that the driver of vehicl e o ne now has to ope ra te th e winch
himself, as well as d riv ing his vehicle out of th e problem.
Winch recovery Vehicle tw o still has to be posi tio ned in a good place a nd w ith
slluatlo n: seu-
fll!covery by
w hee l chocks if necessa ry.
winch
(a) Manually .... Vehicle one is s tuck a nd th ere is no veh icle two
unreel lhe winch
cable The occasion s when self-reco very by winch is req uired sho uld
(b) Place the
prot ector str ap
be very rare indeed, sinc e yo u should never ventu re off-road on
around Ihe tree; yo ur own ! In the absence of a sup po rting veh icle, some o ther
tie Ihe end 1001'$
(hroul h a
form of anch or po int is required on which to attach rhe winch
s hadle cable. Wooded a reas w ill have handy trees, or ro cks or so me

(a) (b)
 What to dowhenyou gat stuck 45

(e) (f)

(el Opent he other natural item . In the desert, there are fewer trees and even
pulley bloc:kOlnd
feed Ihe winch
fewer rock s, bur if you happen to be stuck where there are
cable around the trees, we sho w here the seq uence fo r self-recovery using a tree.
pulley
(d) Attach the
T here are also a number of ot her different pieces o f equipmenr
protector strap that could be used as an a ncho r:
to Ihe pulley
blockusingthe
· s hackle ~ Spare wh eel. Dig a trench and bury the wh eel upright, wi th
(e) Attach the
wlnm able
the winch rope att ached to the wh eel's lo wer part and
hooklo iI (owInc thread ed thro ugh its centre. Once the wheel has bedd ed in
hcckunder the
bumper
and tak en the stra in, engage Low rang e and start slowly
(il Start lhe w inch ing and driving simultaneously.
engine and
~ Sand a nchor (or 'Pull Pal'). An eas ily assembled collap sible
select nrsl gfar ;
lhe wtnch ls tool, w hich, w hen it dig s itself in, pro vides a solid anchor
operated and
theqWD's
poi nt in san d.
transmtssten Is ~ Danforth anchor. A sma ll boat a nchor, with hinged flukes
engaged to
ri!coverllto a
whi ch dig into the ground as pu ll-p ressu re is exerted on the
poInt whereIt ancho r.
c.an moveunder
Ils ownpower
... Carro ll anchor. A solid aluminium anchor, weigh ing less
than 10 kg, which works very ef fecti vely o nce it has s tarted
to dig itself into the ground.
46 What to do when you get stuck

~ T-stake . An 80 ern-long angle-iron stake with aT-bar at the

top , which is driven into the ground leaning away from the
4WD at a 3D"angle. In soft ground, a second and third stake
are driven into the ground and lashed from their base to the
top of the stake in front , providing resistance for the pull.
~ Auger post. A 1.3 m-long anchor, this has a screw-shaped
blade to enable it to be screwed into the ground. Once firmly
embedded, the winch rope is attached to the hole in the top
of the post. It works well in soil and gravel, bur is less
effective in soft sand.

Rigging thewinch and using the snatch pulley

There will be occasions (if it is badly positioned or deeply
buried ) when the straight pulls previously described will be
insufficient to recover the stuck vehicle. This is where the

Basic rules of winching

ALWAYS
• Wearleather/industrial gloves when handling winch cables
• Keep your hands away from thefairlead asthecable reelsln
• Double-check theattachments before starting
• Keep everyone at least 20 mfrom the cable
• Place a matorblanket over thecable midway between thetwovehicles
• Make sure thattheattachment points arestrong enough
• Winch Inintervals of30seconds to prevent themotor overheating
• Check thecable and hook fordamage prlorto winching
• Stand behind thedoor orsitInthecabin when operating thewinch
• Pull outthecable byhand tosave battery power
• Check thecable frequently during winching.

NEVER
• Stand beside a winch cable when It Isunder strain
• Step over a winch cable thatIsunder strain
• Use atowing ball asanattachment point
• Start winching with less than three wraps on thedrum
• Continue winching if the motor starts smoking
• Use frayed ordamaged ropes orstraps
• Hook thewinch cable back onto itself
• Attach thecable orstraps tosteering parts
• Allow thecable to pileupat one end ofthe drum
• Stand orwalk behind avehicle beingwinched uphill
• Use avehicle winch forhoisting.
 What to do when yo!' g~t stuck 47

Pullryblock snatch pu lley come s into its own . T he

\ . k - - - - - fRirl pulling power of a winch doubles if the
cable hook is connected to the sruck
veh icle via a pulley - which is attached
by a chain to an anchor point. The
figure shows how pulling powe r can
increase relative to the angle created
by rhe winch cable's ancho r point. It
will be a much slower process to extract
the sruck vehicle, but rhar is a small
price to pay.
In cases when the cable hoo k is
atta ched to someth ing other than th e
winching vehicle, a secondanchor poinr
is needed - one anchor point for the
pulley block and the second for the
.>..
";'
cable hook.
\X'hen using trees or other natural
Intfeuln! o bjects as an anchor, always use a nylon scrap or tree-protector
pullins-power
with I pulley to encircle the anchor point, and then connect the loose ends to
block:as the th e pu lley block or cable hook. The pan el figure shows the
rope Inglll!
Increases, so three ways to rig the winch.
Ihep ulllnB' If you ever need to anchor the winching vehicle to prevent it
poweroflh e
winch Increases from sliding forward, do not attach the line to the back of rhe
vehicle's chassis. The strains of winching are enormous and

Three ways torigthe wInc h:

(a) Single-line straightpull: wind
- thenylonstrap around theanchor
(a) polnt-a straight line ensures a
powerfulpull.
(b) Double-line pullusing pulley

~
- - , block: byuslnglhe pulley blockat
~ theanchorpolntandroutelngthe
===
•

~
) • 1 •

(b)
winch cableback tothewinch
vehicle, the effective pull Isdoubled.
(c) Double-linepullwithspreader
strap: thecable hook Isattached to

~
- -- - aspreader strap which Isattached

~
;=:=_.c::::a) i

(e)
to thetowIngbrackets onthewinch
vehicle, spread ingtheload fora
morestable and straight pull.
I

48 Whatto dowhanynu gat stuck

Anchorlngthe could easily distort or bend the chassis. The above figure shows
wInchvehicle:
attach the
how the testraining line should be passed under the vehicle and
restraInIngrope attached to the winch mounting plate.
10sclld points at
Ihewlnch
Never attach the cable hook back on to the cable itself.
mountlngplale, The strains involved will cause the hook to dig into the cable
then feed back
underneath the
and produce a permanent kink at that point, thus weakening it.
vehicleto the Never attach a winch cable to any part of the front axle tube, -
pulley block
steering and suspension components or bumpers or bull bars
- they will break or become distorted. Only use the
manufacturer's towing hooks or brackets which are welded to
the chassis.

Othertips for recovery

Righting a rolled
vehicle
There is a right and a wrong
way to put a rolled vehicle
.. back on its wheels. It should
be done as soon as possible
after the vehicle has rolled, to
minimise any leakage of
engine oil, petrol or other
essential fluids. Most
importantly, the whole
The correctway process must be carried out slowly and gently to avoid any
10righta rolled
vehicle
more damage.
If there is a vehicle in the group with a winch, then that is
the first choice of pulling power. If no winch is available, selecr
the strongest vehicle present and engage it in Low range when
the pulling starts. The best recovery line to use is a wide
webbing strap, as this will spread the load and cause less
damage to the vehicle's bodywork.
 W!!e'!l lo t!!J ,!!h~!, YQU, ge! slue]< 49

Righting a rolled vehicle: withthe winching vehIcle at least 15-20 m

away, the recovery strap must be passed overthe top ofthe rolled
vehicle and threaded between the vehicleand the ground.Ideally, It
should be attached to the chassis frameor wrappedaroundthe
centre door pillar if the vehIcle 15 a four-doormodeL Once the strap
has been securelyattached, the pullingvehiclecan eitherstart
winching or start moving slowlyforward. Dig shallowholes by the
frontand rearwheels forthem to fallinto and prcvlde a pointof
leverageforthe bodyto be righted.

My LandRover
was wedged in
Once the rolled vehicle is back on its wheels, check the fluid
rocksonthe levels, including battery acid and engine oil, before trying to
centre cross
member.Two
start the engine, as it is likely that some of the oil will have
wheels wereIn leaked into the combustion chambers. You should therefore
mld-alr and there
wasnotractren. remove all the spark plugs and then turn the engine over to expel
Wehad to lackIt any oil or other fluids from the combustion chambers. Stand
upand place
stones and rocks
back when this happens, or you will be covered in oil spray!
under the wheels
forenough
ground clearance
to get moving.
Stuck on, or in, rocks
Wedid not even
conslderpullJng
Resist the temptation to put on a rope and pull a vehicle that is
the vehicleoff stuck on a rock or in rocks, as it will land with its wheels
wedged among other rocks,
and you could damage a diff
casing or engine sump. The
best way to free a stuck vehicle
is to lift it with an air bag or
hi-lift jack and fill in the hole
with stones before lowering it
again. If the vehicle is resting
on a diff or transmission
casing, great care is needed to
prevent serious damage to the
underside.
50 What to dowhen you gel stuck

Stuck in mud
I once got stuck in wet black
cotton soil in the Aberdares,
Kenya, for seven hours before
being rescued by the park
rangers. Foolishly, I thoughr
we would be able to plough
through the mud, but due to
its treacle-like consistency, we
lost traction within metres
and sank up to the chassis. No
amount of pushing would
move the vehicle.
StuckInmudIn We got stuck at 4 pm, and help arrived at 11 pm in the form
theAberdares:
If this happens, of three rangers and a very old Land Rover. \Y./e had spent seven
youcan get out very uncomfortable hours with only a packet of biscuits and a
byusIngan air
bag, hi-liftJack bottle of water, but thankfully, plenty of cigarettes! 1 shall never
or a KERR, which forget being woken from a restless sleep by a Kikuyu Ranger
wedldn" have!
standing in the pouring rain: "Jumbo, Bwana, we are here to
rescue you!" Never was anyone so welcome!
The force of the suction was so great, it took the combined
efforts of the three rangers and me - digging, pushing and
pulling - over two hours to get out of the mud hole. The best
way to break the tremendous suction of mud is to lift the
vehicle vertically with an air bag or hi-lift jack - sadly, we had
neither of these items with us. The other essential piece of
equipment for mud recovery is a KERR - we didn't have one
of these either!
Using a flat piece of wood as a base platform, lift the vehicle
with either the air bag or the hi-lift jack to break the suction,
then fill in the holes made by the wheels with solid material
before lowering it. Then try to drive out.
Alternatively, attach the KERR and start pulling the vehicle
at walking pace until maximum stretch is achieved. The
contraction of the KERR is usually sufficient to break the force
of the suction, and move the vehicle, even if it is only for a
metre or two. The pull is then repeated until the stranded
vehicle is eventually recovered. Bear in mind that another
problem with mud is that it clogs up the tyre tread, and you
finish up with slicks.
 What to dowhen you get stuck 51

Grounded on tap
of a sand rIdge:
the pulling
vehlcle engages
Lowreverse and
slowlV movesoff

Grounded on top of a sand ridge

It happens to the best of us! You are driving up the windward
side of a dune and misjudge th e point at whi ch to stop and
check what is 011 the other side - the result is grounding our
with the front wheels on on e side of the ridge, the rear wheels
on the other side and the vehicle stuck on top.
The qui ckest and easiest way to recover is to ask a friend
to pull you off the ridge. Th e correct way to do this is to
attach the rope with the towing vehicle facing up the slope (if
possible, for better visual control of th e situation ) and to take
th e strain on th e rope. Engaging Low reverse, the towing
vehicle gentl y moves off; the weight of the towing vehicle and
the traction of its wheel s should be sufficient to move the stuck
vehicl e that metre or so forward, from where it can proceed
under its own power.

Using the handbrake

A judicious use of the handbrake when tryin g to drive off from
a stationary position in soft sand is a good idea. Even with a
very ligh t depression of the accelerator, you may still
exp erience wheel spin. Sometimes it is possible to sto p it by a
few quick pulls on the hand brake lever. Thi s acts only on the
rear wheels - by stopping them momentarily and then
releasing them yo u may be successful in getting a grip on the
rear wheels and moving the vehicle forward . This degree of
vehicle control is not possible on American SUVs (sports utility
vehicles), which use a foot-o perated parking brake.
I

52 Equipmentfor when you get stuck

Equipment far
when yau get stuck
n-board equipment is essential for safety and survival when
venturing off-road. This chapter gives details of the things
you need to take with you for when you get stuck, plus all the
other 'nice to have' bits and pieces.

Recovery ropes
You need a strong rope which has a breaking strain of several
times the GVW of your vehicle. So, if your vehicle has a GVW
of 3,000 kg, your rope should have a capacity of between
5-7 tonnes. Lifting straps are extremely strong, but lack the
elasticity found in specially made recovery ropes. Modern
polypropylene ropes are better than webbing lifting straps as
they have more 'give' in them to absorb some of the initial
shock from 'snatch' pulls. Do not confuse a recovery rope with
an ordinary tow-rope as the latter will break under the strain of
an off-road recovery situation. Never use wire tow-ropes for
recovery work. \Vire ropes are fine for winching because the
strain is slow and progressive, bur if you use a wire rope for
heavy snatch pulls, it will easily break.
The rope should ideally have a loop at each end. Never
attach either of these loops directly onto towing hooks or
brackets on either the towing or towed vehicle, since such
continuous unprotected use will tend to fray the edges and
weaken the rope. Always use a shackle at each end of the rope.
The longer the rope the better as a long rope allows the
towing vehicle to remain on firm ground well away from the
stuck vehicle. If the recovery rope is too short, the rowing
vehicle may be in the same mess as the stuck one and
 Equipment for when you get stuck 53

consequently unable to get

good traction. The rope
should be at least 25-35 m
long. Serious off-readers
,'I often carry two ropes: a long
-.; one of 15-20 m and a shorter
one of 8-10 m. If the stuck
vehicle needs a very serious
pull, use a yoke system. In
this, a separate short length of
rope is attached to both front
rowing eyes of the stuck
vehicle and passed through
the loop of the recovery rope.
This lessens the impact on the
Astrongrecovery
ropeIsessential
towing hooks of the stuck vehicle when the pull takes place.
(or off-road lise; The best type of rope is a kinetic energy recovery rope
the longerthe
better!
(KERR). This is a loosely woven rope whose plaited
construction allows it to stretch to about 150 per cent of its
normallengrh. It works like this: when the towing vehicle
accelerates away, the rope will stretch; as it contracts, the
energy stored in the rope will pull the stranded vehicle our. It
should have a greater breaking strain than a conventional rope.
As KERRs are bulky, it is better to have one that is only 8-10 m
long for ease of stowage. A second conventional rope can
always be linked to the KERR if a longer rope is required.

Shackles
Shaped like the letter 'D', these are made of galvanised steel (to
prevent rusting), and are used to connect the recovery rope to
the towing brackets or pintle hooks found on 4WD vehicles.
It is important to select one with a pin that is long enough to
accept the full width of the tow-rape's end loop. You must also
ensure that the ends of the curved section (with the holes) will
pass through the towing eyes or brackets on your vehicle.
Shackles are subjected to a tremendous strain when towing, so
it is important to ensure that they are correctly aligned. The pin
of the shackle should be in contact with the rope, and the
curved piece of the 'D' in contact with the towing eye or
54 Equipment lor when you get stuck

bracket. The pin can become

distorted or damaged if it
comes in contact with the
towing hook.

Tow-bars
Some row-bars are built in as
an integral part of a 4WD's
construction, particularly
vehicles with a ladder-frame
TowJngslraps
chassis. Monocoque body 4WDs may need to have a suitable
and
ccnventlnnal tow-bar fitted as an extra. These tow-bars should be fitted
shackles professionally as they must be attached to the chassis frame or
to the main members of a monaco que body. When the tow-bar
is fitted, you must decide what type of connection with which
to attach the towed object. The usual choices are a ball hitch or
a pintle hook.

... Ball hitch. The standard size is a 50 rom diameter ball.

Never attach a rowing rope to the ball hitch when recovering
a stuck vehicle. It is not designed to absorb the extreme
shocks and strains associated with this type of activity, and
will break under the excess force of a snatch pull.
.... Pintle hook. This uses a jaw to take a towing ring attached to
the towed object. It is a very safe item, and can also be used
to take the shackle ofthe towing rope for recovery activity.
The spring-loaded, hinged upper jaw creates a solid bracket
when it is in the closed position.

Shovels
These are not just the cheapest and most basic of the essential
equipment you must buy, they are also the most important!
As the shovel is used to clear sand, earth or mud from under the
vehicle, it needs to be of a handy size. Short handles are
preferable to long handles when trying to scrape the sand away
from under the front axle. The folding shovel (as used by the
military) is an excellent piece of equipment: it is light in weight,
 Equipmentfor when you get stuck 55

takes up minimal space when folded, and can be used in either

the fully extended mode o r with the blade at tight angles to the
shaft. The blade can also act as a good base fat a jack if you
have to usc it on soft ground.

Air jack
This is a simple bur very effective device to lift a stuck or
bogged-down vehicle. Its popularity lies in its large contact
area with the ground (thus spreading the load) and its light
weight and user friendliness. An inflatable bag roughly 30 em
in diameter, the air jack is made of plastic-coated fabric, which
expands to give a lift of approximately 25 inches. This allows
you to fill in the holes made by the wheels, or even change a
wheel in the event of a puncture - especially useful if the
puncture occurs on soft ground or sand where it would be
difficult to use a mechanical jack. DO NOT get under the
vehicle yourself unless you have placed an axle stand or
something solid under the vehicle to take its weight if the bag
loses pressure. Care should be taken to keep the bag away from
hot parts of the engine and exhaust pipe.

Hi-lift jack
The hi-lift (aka 'ratchet') jack
does exactly what the air jack
does -lifts up the vehicle
- but it does so in a rather
more macho style! Although
slim, it is tall (height varies
from 4-5 fr), and heavy due to
its cast-iron construction. It
The three major will lift your vehicle higher
ccmpunents in
the hi-liftJack: than the air jack, and can
theheled easily lift weights in excess of
upright column;
the ratchet Itself 3 ronnes. It is a fairly unstable
and a handle piece: of equipment, though,
wlthwhkhto
move the ratchet
and requi res a fabricated
upthe column recessed plate for the foot at
I

58 Equipmentfor when you get stuck

the base of the column to sit in. The base also acts to spread the
load in soft ground. The hi-lift can be used for wheel changing
in an emergency, but if there are other more stable means of
lifting the vehicle they should be used as first option. It can also
be used to 'lift and fill' if you have the proper jacking points
fitted ro the vehicle. Although unstable, the advantage of using
this jack is that once the front and then the rear of the vehicle is
clear of the holes, you can collapse the jack sideways so the
wheels land on level sand.

Trolley jack
A common sight in garage workshops, even a medium-size
trolley jack can lift 5 or 6 tonnes. (There are also lighter mini
trolley jacks measuring less than 45 cm.l You need a base plate
big enough for all the wheels to stand on ro spread the weight
and to keep the jack stable. The handle is removable, and is
usually in two pieces for ease of storage. The mini trolley jack is
definitely the best choice for wheel changing in the field.

Impact spanner
If you have ever had trouble removing wheel nuts when
changing a wheel, you will appreciate the usefulness and speed
of this 12V electric impact spanner, which plugs into the
vehicle's cigarette lighter. There is a choice of socket sizes to fit
all currently used wheel nuts, but you may need to use a socket
extension to clear the centre hub found on some vehicles. This
is definitely a worthwhile investment.

Wheel-nut spider
Most manufacturers provide a very basic type of wheel-nut
spanner, which is usually quite short, making it an impossible
job to loosen tight nuts. The 'spider' (a cross with different
sized sockets at each of the four ends of the spanner) overcomes
this problem as you can get two hands on it and exert a lot
more pressure.
 Equipment forwhenyouget stuck 57

Recovery equipment

Back row(l to r): Rug, foldingspade, tool klt, ia vwheel-nut

spanner/Jack,lampstool,airpump. wooden base plate.
Centre row (l to r): '0 ' shackle. spade, funnel. KERR rope, toilet roll,
WD40, two-to nne trolleyjack, towingstraps and shackles, jump-leads.
Front row(l to r): Winch accessory kitand gloves, strobe light, axe,
fan belt, wheel-nut spanner,lump hammer. two lyre gauges, socket
extension, lyre repair kit, sIphonpump, screwd rive r,survival kit,
wheel-nut spider, ' 0' shackle. flrst-ald box.

Base plate
You should always carry a (preferably) wooden base plate of
at least 30 ern', and strong enough to support the jack with
which the vehicle is lifted. The special foot recess base plate
used for a hi-lift jack can also double up for general use.

Tool kit
The kit supplied by most manufacturers is very basic and is of
little value to serious off-readers, whilst the cheap kits from
the Far East are a total waste of money. You will need sets of
open-ended and ring spanners (check if your vehicle uses metric
hardware or the older SAE); a 1/, inch drive socket set and
driver and extension drive; adjustable spanners; a Mole
58 E~pmentl~rWhen~
w rench; pliers of different types; screwd rivers with flat a nd
cross end s of dif ferent sizes; insu lating tape; duct tap e; a
Sta nley kn ife and blade s; a Swiss Army knife; a Leatherm an
too l; nu ts, holts and scre ws; Allen keys; W D40 and brak e
a nd clutch hyd raul ic fluids at least. (Do n't fo rget tha t other
a ll-impo rta nt item: a pai r of jump -leads t]

Glass breaker/belt cutter

A quick ex it from the vehicle if t here is a serious accident can
be difficult if it ha s rolle d over and th e doo rs ar e da maged and
w ill not o pen. Holl yw o od films sho w Bruce Willis punch ing his _
wa y throu g h g lass w indows, bur in reali ty even an axe w ill no t
break a do or w indow. T he gla ss break er has 3 very sharp po int
to it, w hich can be used to break the roughened glass doo r
wi ndo ws o r rear w indscreen to provi de a quick ex it. Th e rool
3 150 has a very sharp edge fo r cuttin g throu gh seat belt s.

Hardware
T here are three pieces o f hardw are I always carry tha t have
proved inva luab le o n se veral oc casion s. The first is a jem my;
t he seco nd is a small 3 kg lump ha mmer for re-shaping any
de nted w ing s; the th ird is a sma ll hand ax e for remo ving
branc hes blo cking your wa y, o r fo r so urcing firewood from
dead trees (refrain from attacking Jiving trees and bushes! ).
A sma ll foldi ng saw is a lso usefu l for this type of work.

Winch accessory kit

In additio n to the w inch, you wi ll need an accessor y kit, w hich
should include the fo llowing:

~ High-tensile cha in (3 rn Ion g) with a hook at eac h end .

... Tree-protec to r strap (never w rap a w ire rop e aro und a tree!).
~ D-ring shack le.
~ Pa ir of hea vy-du ty gloves.
~ Snatch pulley block.
When your vehicle lets YDU down 59

5
When your vehicle
lets you down '1

W e have now discussed the mechanics of your 4WD; what

it will do and what options are available to you when
driving off-road. The next important thing to deal with is: how
to prevent anything from going wrong and what to do if it does.

Preventive maintenance
For the average weekend off-reader, following the
manufacturer's recommended schedule of service and
maintenance is sufficient to ensure your 4\X!D is maintained in
good condition. More frequent usage, especially in hot and
dusty conditions, requires extra tender loving care.

Ordering parts from yourdealer

The parts counter salesman will welcome you if yOll have all
the information he needs to supply you with the right parts.
You need to be able to tell him the following.

~ Vehicle model and chassis number: this is found on the

vehicle ID plate fitted by the manufacturer - if in doubt, ask
the salesman where this plate is located .
.... Model year: this ma y not alwa ys be the sam e as the year in
which the vehicle is registered; for example, the 19 99 model
year will be available from September 1998 onwards.
~ Part number (if known) .
.... Brief description of the part required .
~ Whether it is a left-handed part or a right-handed part (if the
part is 'handed').
60 When your vehicle lets you down

Vital information for dealership

Informallon Type: KY60

containedonthe
Chassis: KY6o-304817
vehicle's ID
plat e. this Model number: KY60FRHsJR
example Is rora Colour / tr Im: 0 0 2 K
Nlesen Patrol Engine number: TB42 4169
short wheelbase Transaxle: FS SRsoA HG41
(manual
transmission)

Alwa ys double-check the parts before you leave to mak e sure

you have the correct items. T here is nothing more ann oying
tha n to retu rn home and find you have the wrong part!

Air filter
Frequent use in hot and du sty conditions quickly clog s up the
pores of the air filter. Thi s restricts the nor ma l air flow to the
ca rburerror and engine, which affects the air/fuel mixture ratio.
The resultant loss of power may cau se you to misjud ge the
engine's capa bility an d get stuck in the most innocuous places.
Change the air filter more frequently th an the standa rd service
schedule suggests, or hav e it regula rly clean ed at the service
station. Engines fitted with electronic fuel injection (EFII ar e
no t so badly affec ted.

Checking tyres
Before setting off for an off-road excursion, always check the
condition of the ryres. Th e tr ead is not a pro blem as th at is
very visible; it is the sidewalls that require inspection ,
particularl y on the inside to ensure there are no cuts or bulges
in the wall s. Don't forget to check the spa re wheel for damage
and tyre pres sure.

Fluids
A qu ick check un der the bonnet will confirm tha t the engine
oil is fine, a nd that the clutch and brake fluid cylind ers ar e
topped up. Don't forget the engine cool ant and th e washer
 When your vehicle lets you down 61

General work tips

Most 4WDvehicles aretallerthan carsandsometimes it isnot aseasy to

accessmechanical components inthe enginecompartmentwhen
leaning across the (oftenhot) fron t bumpers. Usethe spare wheel.or
veer coot-box (If It Is a strong onel) to stand on for easier access to those
elusiveparts.
Most toolsaremadeof steel or aluminiumand if exposed to thesun
willquickly becometoo hot to handle. Keep the tools inthe shade and
wear protective gloveswhen workingon the vehicle.

bottle. If you have an automaric 4W D, check rhe fluid level in

the gearbox . Whe n you check the bat tery fluid level, also
ensure the mountings are secure - the battery is a very heavy
item and bumping aro und o ff-ro ad may loosen th e brackets
hold ing it in place .

Maintainingyourwinch rope
If you have had to use the winch, it is a good idea to unw ind
it from the drum, check for damage or fraying, an d then
rewind it evenly across the full width o f the drum when you
get home. If the rope is dirty, clean it but not with oil, as [his
leaves a sticky resid ue on the wire rope, attracting din and
sand to form a grindi ng paste, which will accelerat e wear.
Instead, use a wa ter hose or petrol-soa ked rag to clean off any
dirt and grit on the rope.

Once off-road

Overheating
In the summer month s, it does not ta ke long for an engine to
overheat , especially if you have been doi ng a lo t of slow driving
in Low rang e. As soon as the temperature gauge sta rts to
climb into the danger/red section you mu st take precautions to
reduce the temperatur e. Th e first thing to do is sw itch off [he
air-conditioning. If this has no effect, turn on the heat er fan to
the ' full hot' setting . This reduces th e temperature of rhe engine
coo lant by taking heat away fro m it and into the hearing
62 When your vehicle lets you down .

system. Turn the vehicle and drive into the wind for added
airflow through the radiator. It is a good idea to carry a full
20 litre water container as a precaution against severe loss of
engine coolant.
Remember that the most important element of the engine
coolant in hot countries is the rust inhibitor; therefore, you
should go to your garage and get them to drain and refill the
radiator and engine with the correct amount of coolant
mixture as soon as possible.

Broken fan or drive beLts

The story about replacing a broken fan belt with the
girlfriend's nylon stockings is a familiar one, but these days
there are more appropriate alternatives! Some 4WDs can have
as many as three or four drive belts, which are all worked by
pulleys from the crankshaft. The most important of these is the
alternator belt as it drives the vehicle's electrics. It is a good
idea to carry a spare one of these or a multi-purpose emergency
belt that can be Cllt to the required length and screwed together.
As a very temporary measure, a piece of rope can be used to
replace the broken belt.

Leaking radiator or hoses

For a temporary radiator sealant, you can use raw egg white if
the hole is small enough! A more reliable method, however, is
to use special powder in the radiator which seals holes from the

Boiling over!

Whilst waitingforthe vehicleto cooldown,neverswitchoffthe engine

- alwaysleaveit tickingoverto ensure circulation of the water.
Switching offthe engine causes the temperature to rise quickly, and the
radiatormayboilover. Ifthis happens, you just haveto waitfor Itto cool
down,oryou can gentlypourwater overthe radiator. Never try to
remove the radiatorcap whensteam is escaping.Wait untilthe bubbling
stops, and, usinga rag, gentlyundo the radiator cap to let the steam
escape. Try not to let any coolantescape. With the enginestill running,
slowlytop up the radiator. pausingto allowthe water pumpto circulate
it fully roundthe engine blockand the coolingsystem.
 When your vehicle lets you down 63

inside. H oses usually lea k becau se the y ar e o ld and perished,

and thi s occurs most frequentl y arou nd the hose clips wh ere
they cut into the rubber. Generous wrappings of duct tape will
tempo ra rily dea l with th is.
Coo ling systems are designed to operate und er pressure, bur
this degree of pre ssu re will quickly find any weak points,
crea ting lea ks in th e coolin g system. If tem porary repa irs have
been ca rried our [Q the radia tor o r hoses, it is wise to relieve the
bu ild-u p of press ure by nor fully replacing rhe ra dia tor cap .
T he pro blem with this is that the wa ter in the system will now
bo il at a low er temperatu re (at 100" C ), so care is need ed if you
arc still driving off-road a fter the temp orary rep airs, espec ially
in hot weather,

Starting with a flat battery

An autom at ic vehicle cann ot be push- or tow-start ed. Borh
manua l a nd au to matic ca n, however, be sta rred with a set of
jump- leads. You ca n also sta rr a vehicle by using a piece of rope
wrapped around one of the rea r wheels th at has been jacked
up. With th e gea r lever in fourrh or fifth gear and the ignition
turned on, a colleague pu lls th e rope to spi n the whe el - this
will tu rn the engine and hopefull y sta rr it.

Refuelling in the field

A20 ·lItre
Metal ierrycan s ar e the best
ra pacity meta l
-jerrycan with a nd strongest fuel conta iners,
separate
and a re easy to handle. W hen
pour ing s poul ;
the spoulhasa filling them, always leave
fine mesh filler sufficienr space for the fuel to
10 preve nt d irt
fromgeltlng Into expand in th e hea r.
the la nk
Never fill to overflow ing
- th e fuel can spra y out when
rhe cap is Iifred du e to rhe
build- up of pressure, soaking
yo ur shoe s. Before op en ing a
[err ycan, it is advisa ble to
discha rge a ny sta tic electricity
th at ma y have bui lt up by
tou ching th e ca n o n a ba re
64 When yeur vehicle lets ynu dewn

metal parr of the vehicle. Where you store the jerrycan is your
personal choice, bur it must be securely fastened if inside the
vehicle and when driving off-road. Some vehicles carry their
spare fuel on a roof-rack, where the fuel can be decanted without
removing the jerrycan by using a hand-operated siphon pump.
There are two potential problem areas with the jerrycan,
though. Firstly, the rubber seal on the fillet cap may perish,
allowing fuel to leak our . Secondly, the ted paint lining the
inside of the can may start peeling off; if this gets into the fuel
tank it can cause a blockage in the fuel tank filter.

Broken Leafsprings
On one occasion, the main leaf in the left rear spring of my jeep"
Wrangler snapped, miles from anywhere. Luckily, we were able
to wedge a Dvshackle under the chassis that held the broken
sections in place long enough to get home. Broken springs are
like broken limbs - they usually need a splint to hold them
firmly in place. Remember that with a leaf spring set up, it is
the spring that locates the axle, so it is important to try ro make
a very rigid temporary repair.

Broken throttle cabLes

Some of the more advanced 4WDs no longer have throttle
cables as the butterfly in the inlet manifold is moror-powered
and receives signals from an ECU (electronic control unit).
However, there are many vehicles that still use the familiar
throttle cable, and sometimes it can break under the strain. The
simplest temporary repair is to connect the throttle lever to a
piece of string or thin rope, then run the string out from under
the bonnet and in through the driver's door window. The driver
can then use it as a hand-operated throttle.

Broken driveshafts
If one of the front driveshafts breaks, you can continue in 2WD
if you are driving a part-time 4WD vehicle. If it is a full-time
4WD, you would need ro remove the fron t prop shaft to isolate
the drive from the front axle. If a rear driveshaft breaks, after
removing the rear prop shaft, you can continue by engaging
 When your vehielelets you down 65
,

4WD mode, and drive with only rhe fro nt wheel s pu lling rhe
veh icle along.

Repairing t he winch rope

If it breaks, the winch rope can be repaired in the field by using
sma ll cable clamps until a replacement ca ble ca n be obta ined.
The clamps mu st be fitted correctly with the IU' bearing on the
'dead ' end o f the ca ble and the bar bea ring on rhe 'live' pa rr of
rhe ca ble, If yo ur o ff-roa d activities deman d freq uent use o f rhe
winch, it is advisa ble to car ry four sma ll clamps o f the cor rect
size. Remember that t he diameter of the winch cable is 5/ )(, inch,
o r 8 mm . A winch cable repa ired with cla mps wi ll lose a t least
40 per cenr of its pulling ca pac ity, ho wever, a nd sho uld on ly be
used in a n emergency.

Repalringlhe winch rope

;:f,W.~t Re~l~d a ble onlyoffers 60~ U1padty

• Dead end / ; .: .

1~(al Standardcable8 mmdiameter.

(b)Correct. 'U' mustbearon deadend.
(c) Incorrect: very unsafe.
66 Talkabouttyres

Talk aboullyres
s the majority of off-readers use their 4WD vehicles for
everyday things and only head off for the wilderness at the
weekend, the choice of ryre fitted to the vehicle has to be a
compromise; not solely for either tarmac or off-road use . Tyres
fitted by manufacturers are also a compromise, rending to be -
those which will cater for the GVW and maximum road speed
with little to spare.

Tyres for sand driving

Tyres are designed with many factors and applications in mind:
speed, load capacity, grip, traction, durability, road noise, cost
and so on. Tyres designed specifically for desert driving will not
work well in mud or on the highway - and vice versa. Sand
ryres are the best for sand driving as they have circumferential
grooves and no cross tread patterns. They have rounded
shoulders that arc designed for 'flotation' on the surface of the
sand, with no sharp edges to cut through the crust to the softer
sand beneath. They have no tread pattern, however, and their
life expectancy on tarmac will be only half that of a treaded
tyre. Using them on the highway can be dangerous as they have
little grip and no handling capability when braking and
cornering on a wet road. The best on-/off-road ryres to opt for
are: Bridgestone Desert Duellers, Toyo Open Country, Dunlop
Grandtrek, Michelin XS, BF Goodrich, Pirelli Scorpion or
Yokohama Super Diggers.
When on sand, the tyres must be used at reduced pressures
for most of their life and this puts great stress on the sidewalls.
The off-reader will need a tyre with a strong and flexible
sidewall, so check its 'speed rating'. The higher the rating is, the
stronger the sidewall. Also look for reinforcing ridges built
 Talkabout lyres 87

Tyrespecifications

Every tyre hasIts specification moulded into thesidewall;

understanding whatthesemarkings mean isuseful when selecting
a replacement tvre.

Alyplcal4WD lyre may be Internationally used speed

described asl27S/ 70 R16 114H' categorysymbols
Symbol mph kph
275 = section width orthe tyre
Inmillimetres J 62 100

70 = the 'aspectratio': K 68 110

theheight of the tyre L 75 120
expressed asa
percentage of its width M 81
N 87
R - radial-ply construction
P 93 150
16 - diameter ofthe wheel
rlm.In inches Q 10 0 160

114 = load index showing R 105 170

maximum load thetyrecan 5 113 180
carry forthe corresponding T 118
speed categorysymbol
U 124 200
H = speed categorysymbol
H 130 210

LOAD
INDEX
SPEED
TYRE SIZE SYMBOL
OESIGNAn ON

PRODUCTION
CCDE MARKINGS

PATIERN
tl AP~ e

MANUFACTURER'S
NAME OR
BRAt~D NAME
68 Talk about tyres

into the sidewall to give added protection against rocks and

camel-thorn punctures.
I had great trouble a few years ago with a set of tyrcs I
purchased, suffering nine punctures in only four months, when
in the previous two years I could only recall three punctures in
total. It was only after some detailed analysis that I realised I
had bought a tyre with a soft sidewall ('5' speed rated) when I
shonld have had the harder sidewall version ('1-1' speed rated)
- but nobody told me at the time!

Tubed or tubeless?
There are advantages and disadvantages with both options for -
the off-reader. For the average weekend off-reader; tubeless
tyres will be satisfactory. Punctures from camel-thorns will be
slow compared to the sudden deflation when an inner tube is
pierced. For more frequent off-readers, tubed tyres are a better
option because there can be problems with tubeless tyres when
operating at low pressures: there is a risk of the bead coming
loose on the rim, or losing a good seal when sand gets between
the tyre and the rim, or when a wheel gets damaged on rocks.
The disadvantage with tubed tyres is the vulnerability of the
inner tube and the need to fit the spare because of a puncture.

Reduced pressures
As we have seen , 'flotation' is a term used by off-readers to
describe the concept of the vehicle floating on the surface of
the sand. The nature and consistency of the sand will change

General guidelInes fortyre pressures

Conditions psi Maximum speed (kph)

Dry sand In summer 18 50
Wintersand 20 70
Emergency cases 15* 20

* only ifusing t ubed tyres, NOTfor tubeless

 Talk about lyres 69

Tyre-related tips

• Everyoff·roadershould always carrya lyrepressure gauge ortwa in his

or her vehicle. The standard pocket clip pressure gauge is notoriously
inaccurate; the better types are those that have a dialface with a needle
pointing to the scale. Make sure it has a little pip on it to use for
depressing the lyre valve. The clip-on dial type withshort length of hose
and a pistol-gripwithtriggerfor deflatingis also worth having.

• An air-pump is an essential pieceofequipment.With a 12V heavy-duty

pump operated via a plug in the cigarette lighter. you will find that
15 minut es invested in inflation timecan save damageto your lyres from
drivingon tarmacat lowpressures.

• A very simple yet often ignored precaution: always fit valve caps to
each wheel, includingthe spare.These smallcaps prevent grainsofsand
or dirt from getting into the valve, thus possibly losing air pressure.
Another wise investment is a tyre valve tool to tighten the valves from
time to time. It can also be used for deflation and for cleaning dirt from
the valvebody.

• Tubeless tyre repair kits are cheap and easy to use in an emergency.
They allow you to insert a temporary plug into the tyre, whicheffectively
seals the leak when the lyre is inflated. Theyare useful incases whenthe
tyre does not have to be removed from the wheel.There are also aerosol
cans available which contain a liquid that can be inserted Into a flat tyre
viathe valve.
Puncture repair kits for inner tubes are more sophisticated, and
requirethe tyreto be partiallyremoved fromthe wheeland the innert ube
to be taken out; you willalso need three lB·inchgood-quality tyre levers.

o n a seasonal basis depending on the amo unt o f rainfall,

moisture from morning fog or hum idity levels. In the summer,
the sa nd will be at its dr iest, o ffering the minimum am ount of
trac tion, so tyre pressures will ha ve to be at rhe lowe r end o f
rhe scale. In rhe wi nter months, ryrc pr essures can be
increased slightly.
Don't fo rget that the handlin g o f the vehicle will be totally
different when driving at these low pressures. It will roll 1110re
w hen cornering, an d steering respo nse will be vague and slow;
the bra king will also be affected . When dr iving in rock y wad is
an d on mo untain tracks, ret urn your ryres to no rma l ta rmac
pressure o r even a litt le hard er for ma ximum protection agai nst
sidewall da mage from sharp Sto nes a nd rock s.
 I

70 A place for everything . ••

A place for everything ...

any off-waders tend to give pride of place to their
cool-box and ignore the need for the safe stowage of and
easy accessibility to equipment and tools. It is important that
everything is firmly secured and there is nothing loose lying
around to hit you on the head when you go over a bump! Most
modern 4WD vehicles have tie-down hooks in the rear luggage
compartment, which should be used with bungies or a rope to
tie down your equipment (and cool-) box . If you are a regular
off-roader, you may consider permanently bolting your
equipment box to the vehicle's floor. Apart from a custom
equipment box, many of the small items that will be in regular
use can be scored in the glove box, centre console and door
pockets etc. Here is a suggested layout of what should go where ,
followed by a closer look at those all-important odds and ends .

.... Fascia-mounted items: ~ Passenger door pocket:

GPS tubeless tyre repairkit
distance recorderwith remote survival kit
control unit cap
mini distance recorder windscreen squeegee

.... Driver's side .... Bagon reardoor:

windscreen pillar: toilet paper
'I wireholders fortwo pencils smallfirst-aid kit
stroboscopicsignalling light
~ Driver's door pocket: SwissArmy knife
three tyre pressure gauges folding knife/fork/spoonset
extension bar and socket for
wheel-nutspanner ~ Glove box:
multiple type screwdriver vehicle handbook
cleaningcloths remotecontrolforwinch
windscreen washer fluid binoculars
pairof heavy-duty gloves
~ Front passenger footwell: GPS manuals
fire extinguisher townmaps
 A place lor everything.. . 71

...".,.-----,. " .~<J" ""-~.O._!"~_ ~ Closed box in rear:

I -"'-
-. ---' - '
- ~ winch accessorybag
- t (chain, pulleyblock,
tree-protector strap, etc)
battery jump-leads
wheel-nut spider
extending shaft
wheel-nut spanner
10 Ib lump hammer
handaxe
crowbar
12V air compressor
200,000 candle power
12V lamp
'Aplace for .... Centre console
everythIng':
plastic tube /bulb siphon kit
facia stowage •••
mini torch jerrycanspout
penknife plastic funnel
Allen key foldingshovel
vehicle registration card bag ofspare batteries
spare fuses bag ofspare ropes and straps
tyrevalvetool rollof duct tape
disposable cigarette lighter cleaning brush
spare pencils emergency fan belt kit
copyof insurance certificate can ofWD40
tube ofSuperglue spare recoverystrap
old toothbrush
triple powersockets ~ Rearshelf
(left side of vehicle):
.... Open boxinrear: large first-aid kit
12V electricwheel-nut small toot box
spanner kit bag of plastic ties
tool kit boxwith spare hardware
1.5 tonne mini trolley jack spare bungles
...rear wooden base board sheath knife
compartment recoverystrap and shackles
stowage air jackkit ... Driver's sun visor:
list of important telephone
numbers on reverse side

... Separate Inrear:

shovel
extension tube for
wheel-nut spide r
10titre water container (full)
carton of 24 half-litre
water bottles
bag containing KERR
foldingchair
foldingstool.
72 A place for everything .. •

Useful odds and ends

... 12V fluorescent strip light. Useful for night-time illumination .
The wires have a lligator clips for attaching to battery cables,
and there is also a small hook for convenient attachment.
.... Insect repellent. Flies are present in their millions in the Gulf
winter; a small spray of insect repellent solves this irritation .
... Groundsheet. If working with small parts, put a groundsheet
on the ground so yOll will not lose anything. It is also usefu l
when crawling under the vehicle on din, stones or hot sand .
... Goggles. If you have ever been caught in a shama l in the
desert, yOll will apprec iate the value of a pa ir of goggles !
.... Lamps and torches. Have at least two types in your vehicle
- a small pen light for close at hand use and a large one with
a beam of '100111 or more. A head lamp with elastic straps is
best when working with both hands.
.. Swiss Army kn ife. T here are many versions of this essential
off-reader's tool. Basic items have three or four tools, whi le
the top of the range model has no less than 31 tools!
.. Lea therman tool. A slightly more serious type of tool than a
Swiss Army knife, although with fewer gadgets, this is
extremely practical and very useful.
... D riving gloves. If you arc driving for long stretches, the wear
and tear on your hands can be reduced by wearing a pair of
soft leather driv ing gloves. They also provide some protection
when handling the wire winch cable.
... Binoculars. The idea l specification is a combination of
compact size and lar ge magnification. A sma ll pair that will
fit snugly into the glove box is the best choice.
... Camera. Always take your camera with you as you never
know wha t you may find to photograph! In a situation where
an accident has to be reported to the police, it is a good idea
to have a pictorial record to show the police and your
insurance company.
... Walkie-talkie set . You can use walkie-talkie sets with a radius
of 1 kill without contravening the law. They are very usefu l if
one member of the group is scouting ahead on foot for a route
through dunes and directing the convoy.
.. H at. Always take a cap or a hat (ideally, one w ith a rear neck
flap) with you to wear when out of the vehicle.
 NavigatiDn 73

8
Navigation

N avigat ion is more than just finding yo u r way from A to B.

It is also bein g able to go to B again, and to appreci ate the
terrain and nature by int erpreting maps or photographs, and
even the data from a Global Positioning System (C PS) screen.
To me , maps are as entertaining as a good book. 1 will sit a nd
' read' a map for hours on end, whil st visualising the terrain and
what is on it. Unfortunately, it is not easy to find up-to-date
maps in man y Middle Ea stern countrie s for reasons of national
security, but I hav e a selection of OS maps of some of the
remote parts of UAE that are now 30 years old. Am azin gly, the
Bedouin tracks marked in red lines on these o ld maps arc still
used to this day, and on basically the same alignment. In
co nju nctio n with modern GPS instruments, such maps can still
be used to find your way around the desert and back again.

Maps
Hew contour
lines reveal the
geography of
The maps we are concerned with are not the same as road
the land maps, which just show the road network and help us to get
from A to B. These arc usually

;-
T.
~~~
~~
/ l" ~ ]
·~!~l..
white and lack any form o f
topographical features. As
off-readers, we are interested
~"=fA-r i
:,::
'" ::, ~r:/, in full relief maps that show
: : : :, ::" "
: ' lots of detail to help th e driver
~DO­

350 -
, i i ii ': i understand what the area or
3 00 -
"
:: ":: "
" :'
" " , region is like. Ma ps use
~ 50 -

2 0 0-
ii ' i sym bo ls to indicate certain
points of reference. such as
,.- roads, rivers, masts and so on.
Maps also use contour line s to
 74 Na~gatiDn
,

Scales

Maps are produced at different scales. Ascale relates to the distance on

the groundrepresented by 1 em onthe map. For example:
1:25.000 - 1 em on the map represents 250 m on the ground
1:5 0 ,0 0 0 - 1 emon the map represents 500 m on the ground
1: 100,000 - 1 em on the map represents 1 km on the ground
1:250 ,000 - 1 em on the map represents 2.5 krn on the ground
1:5°0,000 - 1 em on the map represents 5 kmon the ground.

indica te the vert ical varia nces in height of th e earth's surface.

For a map- maker all heights are declare d as being 'above sea
level' , Depending on the scale of the ma p, contour lines can
occur at height intervals of 10 m and 50 m. Larger scale maps
often use different colours to indicat e height differences above
sea level, either with or witho ut co nto ur lines. Interpreting the
story told by conto ur lines can often prove interesting. T he
contour lines in the figure on the previous page clearly sho w
where th e steep and not so steep parts are.
Spot height s are also useful things to idenrify on rhe map as
they will assist you in position ing yourself. A spot height on a
map indicates the height of the highest po int in rhe area be this
a hill or a du ne. If you can relate wh at you see on the ground to
the markings on th e map, you can orie ntate yourself
accordingly.

Grids and co-ordinates

All military and most commercial map s will have one o r two
sets of gr id lines supe rimp osed on the map. A grid system is a
series of pa rallel vertica l and horizontal lines which are
numbered so that yo u can obtain a grid reference for an y place
on the map . Thi s Universal Tran sverse Mercator (UTM) is an
internationally used system. Add itionally, you will find a
separate system that indicates the latitud e and longitud e of the
area covered by the map. However, since the earth is round (or
nearly so), rhe lines of longitude will not app ear as parallel
lines on you r map when compared to the UT~[ grid. Some
co untrie s use their own grid system and that might also app ear
on your map.
 Na~gation 75

220, ....- .-r- -----;

........
The most important thing
about grids is that they give you
.~
a reference forany specific point
• on a map. If you want to give
a grid reference for Point H,
6 the saying 'along the corridor
and up the stairs' is useful [Q
4
help remind you where to
start. Take the east-west
3
reading first, then the
north-south reading. Another
helpful aid is 'Easrings-
Norrhings'. The example here
20
4 7 • • o
is taken from a 1:100,000
scale map (l em = 1 km).
Basic grIdand Grid references are usually given in six figures for
grid referencing
greater accuracy. The grid reference for Point H will therefore
be 207214.

Latitude and longitude

Lines of latitude and longitude on a map are determined on a
geometric basis in that they are so many degrees from 0 degrees
latitude (the Equator) and 0 degrees longitude (the Greenwich
meridian). Latitude is measured as being north or south of the
Equator, the North Pole being 90 degrees N and the South Pole
being 90 degrees 5, with a maximum angle of 90 degrees in
either direction. Longitude is measured as being east or west of
the Greenwich meridian, with a maximum angle of 180 degrees
in either direction.
When using latitude and longitude to define a position on a
map, remember that the order of stating the co-ordinate is
different to that used in stating a grid reference. The first parr
of any co -ordinate will be the latitude reference (north or south)
and the second parr of the co-ordinate will be the longitude
reference (east or west). Because we are using degrees for the
value of the relevant angles, remember that each degree is
made up of 60 minutes and each minute has 60 seconds. A
co-ordinate might be thus stated: N 24' 37' 30" (24 degrees,
37 minutes and 30 seconds). The most common method of
quoting co-ordinates is to state the 'seconds' as a decimal fraction
76 Navigation

o f a ' rninurc ', so th e above exam ple becomes: N 24 37 500.

T his is especia lly importa nt whe n using GPS systems.

Measuring distances on a map

You ca n rake 'as the cro w flies' d istances by using a ruler a nd
con vening the d istance between the two points according to
th e scal e o f the map. However, t his is nor the best method for
dese rt driving as in th e desert it is rarely possible to tra vel in
straight lines on th e gro un d. It is usefu l to add a facto r of
15-20 per cenr to the straight line measurement to give a better
ind ication o f the groun d distance. T her e is an inex pensive
inst ru ment ow ned by most serious map users ca lled a
' Roa mer" which has a small wh eel that you ca n wheel a long
th e route on the map that you wish to ra ke. It the n uses a
point er to indicate, on fixed sca les pr inted on each side, th e
dista nce you plan to tra vel.

Bearings
T hese represent the direction
from on e po int (0 a no ther an d
ar c expressed in deg rees. T he
full circle of th e co mpa ss is
360 0 , wit h due north as 0°,
Compass east as 90 °, sout h as 180 0 an d
bearings
west as 270 °. When using
bearings for nav iga tion , it is
so metimes necessa ry to usc
recip rocal bear ings. A
reciprocal bear ing will be
0
eithe r 180 more or less tha n
the direct bea ring, cg:

.. T he direct bear ing from A to B is 30 0 ; to get th e reciproca l

bear ing yo u wo uld add 180 ° for a reciprocal of 2 10°.
0
.. T he d irect bea ring from C to 0 is 260 to get th e reciprocal
;

bearing, you would subtract 180 0 for a reciproca l of 80 0 •

Th e figure sho ws how rhe a bove bea rings app ea r o ppos ite each
ot her on the full corupnss card.
 Na~gatiDn 77
,

Magneticvariation

You are at Point Aand youwish to

take a bearing on Point Bto
transfer to the map.You know
that the localmagneticvariation
is 10 0 west. Your compass reads
145°; therefore the bearingyou
use on the map will be 135°.

Using the compass

Compasses arc magn etic and alwa ys show magne tic north,
different by so me degrees to tru e north. The amount o f
variation diffe rs from place to place in the wo rld. Go od-quality
ma ps sta re the magnetic variation; al rernarivc ly, yo ur GPS will
sto re this information. It needs to be accou nted for when
rakin g a bearing. Compasses are very useful [0 ensure that you
arc ma int aining a plan ned direction in ar ea s wh ere th ere is
limited line of sight to maj or landmarks. T hey are also used for
ta king bearings on dista nt fixed objects that you ha ve a lready
ident ified on the map to help you determine your exact position.

Types of compass
T here are tw o types of hand held magn etic compass that arc of
inte rest to off-roa ders. Th e or ienteering type is a lightweight .
usually plast ic, unit that Can be held whil st walking along for
quick referenc e to ensure you are going in the pla nned
direction. T his type of compass is not, however, ideal for raking
accurate bearings. T he second type is a pr isma tic compa ss,
which is used for sigh ting at distant obje cts and taking th e
resulta nt bearing. When using any magnetic compass, walk at
least 10 In from your vehicle to a void a ny inte rference from
metal component s on board.
78 Na~gation

Finding your place by triangulation

You ha ve a map and you have located two prominent
landmarks on the ground and on the map. To fix your position
you need to take a compass
bearing on each of the
PYlON
landmarks and then convert
~
A HIGH DUNE the bearings into a reciprocal
",
.....~
... '.
... .
--:
Reclprccet bearlngs ~
...., / /
1? ~~....<>
bearing. Plot a point starting
a t each landmark and, using a
" ,, ' protractor, draw a line on the
....
angle of the reciprocal
bearing. \'XIhere the two lines
cross is where you arc, bur
don't forget to make
adjustments for ma gnetic
north variations.
Flndlngyour
place by Headings
trlangulatfom
where the
reciprocal This refers to the direction in which you and your con voy a re
bearIng plots 'heading'. In practice, it would be degre es of difference
CrDSS 15 the
location ofthe between your route and north. If you said your heading was
vehltletobe 90°, I would thus know you were heading due east.
read cjfthe grId

Making maps by dead reckoning

Dead reckoning (DR) describes the act o f travelling in one
specific direction for a certain distance, then moving to a new
dire ction for another distance, and so on. Many off-re aders
make their own maps using the DR technique. It is important
to have a compass and a good distance recorder-the trip
meter on mo st modern 4WDs is fine for desert use.
From a given starting point on an existing map, keep a log
of eve ry change of direction and the kilometres at which it
occurs. The best way to make a log is by using Tulip diagrams
at each change of direction, junction or bea ring. The black spot
at the bottom of the diagram indicates the vehicle and the line
with the arrow head tells you which way to proceed. There is a
wealth of symbolic information used as a form of shorthand.
 Navigation 79

Atypica l route navigatio n log

Route: Al Madamto AI Faqah Date : 25/12/98 Page: 1

Party members : Bill/All/

km/ lnlerval Direction Information

0 .0 0
0 .00
4,.. Start at Al Madam rIb 08.45 hr
CAP,80

Turn Roff tarmac onto GT

0 7·00
7.0 0 K;:- CAP 245

°7·9° ~ -r Follow track Into dunes

0·90 ~~ CAP260

08 .30
0 ·40 ~~
~ 7'
Take Rfork
CAP 260

12· 5 0
: " ~:: J . ~ . ~ . SO at x-tracks Inbushy plain
4·20
.....:. .... ..... ~

. CAP 235

s o = straight on; CAP= compass point; GT = graded (or gravel) road.

J( )( ) (

High dunes

~
Sabkha or gravel low dunes with vegetation Bush

Globa l Positioning System (G PS)

GPS is th e single mo st important advance in terre stri al
navigati on in recent years and, for the off-rea der; a verit abl e
boon! Th e average GPS unit needs only to receive signa ls from
three o r four orbiting satellites to tell yo u your position (to an
on-the-gro und accu rac y of between 30-100 m) on the ea rt h's
surfa ce using a pa ir of latitude and longitude co -ordi na tes. Such
a co-ordinate rea di ng is known as a ' waypoint ' an d it is a very
simp le ta sk to store this in the GPS com p uter's mem or y. Most
SO Na~gatiDn

GPS units have enough memory to srore between 250 and 500
waypninrs, from which you can create and develop your own
routes by selecting specific waypoinrs in the correct sequence.

WhichGPS?
There are many very good handheld GPS units available from
Garmin, Magellan, Eagle, Silva and so 00. They are battery-
powered, but can operate from the vehicle's 12V system when
fitted in a 4WD. [have a Trimble Nav'Irac 100 fitted in my
Land Cruiser, which has a nice big screen so I don't have to put
on my reading glasses to ensure I am taking accurate readings!

Other tips for off-road navigation

Findingyour direction
It is extremely easy to lose your direction when driving in
featureless regions or after sandstorms, when visibility is still
restricted. (After a sandstorm, to help identify your own
tracks, it is a good idea to tie your shovel, or a blanket, to a
piece of rope and tow it along behind you to create a distinctive
marking of your passage. An alternative to this would be to do
a 360 0 turn every 2-3 km , so you can say 'W hoo ps- that was
us!' should you come across it again.) You have to assume that
you know the general direction in which you should be
travelling, but how do you know if you are on it?
One way in which you can tell is by the action of the
UsIng your
watch tn find
prevailing wind. If, for example, you know the prevailing wind
your dhectlcn direction is from the north-west (as it is in the UAE) then you
should study the prnfiles of
nearby dunes. The slip face
will always be facing a SE
• direction. so from this you
_
... ............'" should be able to orientate
your direction of travel, and,
by using your compass and
DR, maintain a straight line
of travel. The sun always rises
in the east and sets in the
 Navigation B1

Stick and movingshadowtechnique

"
:
? Placea 1-1.5m-lcngstickor
• shovelInthe ground.Mark the
r placewherethe end of the
s~ ..- shadow falls.Walt 15minutes

'.•r...........
..-
....
and markagain. Connect the two
marks. Thisrepresents the
west-east line, with the first mark
• N beingthe morewesterly. Draw
another lineat rightangles for
the north-southIIne.
E

west, so in rhe northern hemisphere, if you stood facing the arc

of the sun's travel you would be facing south. The opposite is
true for the southern hemisphere. The nearer you get to the
Equator, the more difficult this is as the sun is virtually
overhead, and you have to use the 'stick and moving shadow'
technique. A further method is to use an analogue watch. Hold
the watch flat in your hand, and point the hour hand at the sun.
To find out where north is, you have to bisect the angle between
the hour hand and 12 o'clock on your watch face.

Thepositionof
constellations In The sky at night
the Northern
hemlsphere The easiest constellation to identify that tells you the position
willtell you
where the Pole
of the North Star is the Great Bear ('The Big Dipper' in the
Startles USA). Another is Cassiopeia, which looks like a slightly
flattened 'M', both will be
present through the night. To
identify the Pole Star, run an
imaginary line along the axis
GREAT BEAR " NORTH POLE
of the two lowest of the seven
STAR
stars of the Great Bear for
• 4X~ ...... ~ •
A •...... ........
• . ..•
.
four times the distance
between them and you will hit
the Pole Star. Alternatively, the
centre star of Cassiopeia
"
CASSIOPEIA
points straight at the Pole Star.
, 82 Lookingalter yourself

Looking after yourself

ot all areas of the Middle East are reachable by mobile
phone, and the off-reader may find themselves hours away
from medical assistance when disaster strikes. Although most
things mentioned in this chapter are of a common-sense nature
and well within the capabilities of the ordinary layman, if
something major should happen, you will be ill-prepared to
handle it. For an extended trip into a remote area, the least of
your medical requirements would be the presence of an
emergency trained doctor, and suitable emergency equipment.
If your vehicle has broken down or become stuck, and you
are on your own with no back -up vehicle(s), do not be tempted
to walk off to find help. Stay with the vehicle - in hot weather
you need the shade it offers, and a vehicle is easier to spot from
the air than people. If all the other fail-safe arrangements you
have made are activated, you will be rescued.

First aid off-road

Animal and insect injuries

Animal bites
Disinfect the wound and cover it with a bandage. Give an
r antibiotic immediately if you have some. Seek medical attention
as anti-tetanus and anti-rabies injections may be needed.

Bee stings
~ Remove the stinger without squeezing it (as this will inject
more venom into the wound).

Dr Chari Laubscher works as an emergency room medical officer at a hospital ill the lIAF.. In this
capacity, he has served as a volunteer doctor in the 1997 llA E Desert Challenge , and, ill 199H, as
its medical director.
 Lookingafter yourself 83

Be prepared

Properpreparationis essential forlookingafteryourselfoff-road.

• Have well-thought out contingency plansforall possiblescenarios.

• Never go alone:the moreremotethe area, the morevehicles needed.
• Be awareofthe composition and state of health ofyourparty.
• Alwaysinform someoneof the regionyou arevisiting andwhat the
cut-offtimefora search callshould be.
• Alwaystake enoughwater supplies C3-slitres per person per day).
• Knowthe geographyofthe area that youare visitingand from
wherelikely assistance couldbe sought.
• Consider the timeofyear inwhich yourtriptakes place
(excessive heat, sandstorms, flash floods etc).
• Ensure youhavea meansofcommunication: don't forgetto take
yourphone'S cigarettelighterattachment.
• Don'tforget routinemedications; youmayhaveto repeat the
difficult namesofthese medications to a doctor.
• Have the necessaryemergency telephone numbersat hand.

~ Apply a local anti-inflammarory gel (diclofenac) ro rrear

against swelling.
'I
~ Give somerhing for the pain (ideally, Ibuprofen), and an
antihistamine tablet for the swelling .
.... In multiple stings, seek immediate medical help .
.... Stings in the eye or eyelid, or inside the mouth, need medical
attention as swelling could lead to breathing obstruction .
.... Someone who is allergic to bees could also be allergic to
wasps and ants as they are all from the same family.
.... Allergic reactions can be life-threatening: watch for a skin
rash that spreads beyond the area of the sting within minutes
of the incident.
~ Allergic individuals should always carry a pre-filled
adrenaline syringe and know how to use it. If this is not
available, give an antihistamine by mouth. Seck medical help.

Scorpion stings
Scorpion stings are painful , but are seldom dangerous: the
more poisonous types have small pinchers and thick tails. Check
for scorpions before putting your shoes on, and wear gloves
when collecting firewood. If stung, treat as for a bee sting.
Children should receive medical attention as soon as possible.
I
I

84 Lookin" after yourseU

Contents ofyour first-aid kit

Discuss withyourfamily practitionerthe contents ofa flrst-ald kit.Itis

best toknow whatto have and how to use It,ratherthanto rely onan
unfamiliar bought kit.Thislistprovides a suggestion ofitems to take
withYOu:

• emergencytelephone numbers,taped to the Insideofthe lid

• space blanket(forwarmth. and to attract the attentionofaircraft)
• thermometer
• a few pairs of non-sterue latex gloves
• a cleantowelpackedindust-proofplasticbag (toact as a clean
workingsurface)
• scissors
• needle and pair of tweezers (forthorn removal)
• 500 mlintravenous saline solution (toirrigatea dirtywound,
orcleanse the eye of foreign material)
• antlsepticsolution
• smallplasticdish (to holdsolution)
• packof yo mmx go mm gauzesquares
• iodineor other antisepticointment,and/or paraffin gauze
• assorted plasters
• varioussizes ofcrepe bandage (50,100,and150mm)
• rollsofmedicalelastic adhesive plaster (t x 50 mm and1X 100mm)
• triangularbandages (to makean armslingfrom, and can also
be used to tie a brokenlimbto a makeshift splint)
• cervical collar(optional, and onlyto be used bytrainedpersons)
• Codeine/Paracetamol ccmblnatlon tablets (formoresevere pain)
• antihistamineeyedrops
• antihistaminetablets (forallergic reactionsand insectstings)
• antibiotic eyeointment
• anti-nausea tablets
• anti-inflammatory tablets (e.g.Ibuprofen - see note)
• tube ofdic!ofenac gel and one ofone per cent hydrocortisone
ointment- mix 50:50 to coversunburntareas
(inc!udlngfirst-degree burns)
• UV filtersun cream
• anti-diarrhoeatablets
• antacidtablets
• a broadspectrum antibiotic(consultyourfamily practitioner).

Note: a person allergicto bee stings should alwayscarrya pre-filled

adrenalinesyringe.Theanti-Inflammatory agent Ibuprofen provides
both pain relief and anti-fever action; it is ccntra-lndlcated in those
withstomach acidityproblems and/or asthma. Itshould only be taken
after meals.
 Lookingafter yourseU 85

Snake bite
Most snakes are non-poisonous and will avoid people if
possible, bur it is a good idea ro know which snakes are
prevalent in the area you are visiting. Snakes are more common
near water and vegetation.

Treatment:
... The victim should remain calm, and keep physical movement
to a minimum to help contain venom distribution.
.. Remove the victim from a still -attached snake. ;
... Do not try to capture the snake and risk a repeat bite or a
second victim.
... Immobilise the affected limb in a position below the level of
the heart.
.... Take the victim to the nearest medical facility.
... Apply a wide constrictive bandage - wind down towards
the wound, pushing the venom back to its source. It should not
be tight, and should not be applied for more than two hours.

Preven tion of bites and sti ngs:

.... Be on the lookout for hee nests around the campsite.
.... Light attracts insects - pitch the tent away from the fire.
.... Avoid going barefoot or wearing sandals, especially at night.
.... Wear light colours and try ro wear lo ng sleeves and trousers.
.... Avoid floppy clothing that an irate sti nging insect could get
caught in, and bright jewellery that could attract one.
.... Suede and leather articles both attract a nd irri tate bees .
.... If confronted by wasps or bees, stay calm; never swat o r move
hastily, but retreat as slowly as possible. If this is impossible,
lie on the g round and cover your head with your arms.

Asthma
.... Individuals should be o n op timal preventative treatment.
.... Severe air hunger, fast breathing rate , and visible retractions
of the skin of the chest need urgent attention.

Treatment:
.... Two puffs of the snlbutamol inhaler shou ld be used, and
repea ted every 15 to 3 0 minutes. Seek urgent medical advice.
86 Lookingafter yourself

Burns
The size of the burn and the depth of heat penetration is
important in the treatment of burns: with a first-degree burn
(e.g. sunburn), there is redness of the skin , bur no blister
formation, whilst second-degree and third-degree need more
intensive care. The palm of the victim's hand represents one per
cent of the total body surface: the number of patient-hands
representing the total burn area indicates the extent of the burn.

Treatment:
... Treat a small burn like an abrasion, or, if first-degree,
like sunburn.
... Cover with water-soaked gauze for a cooling effect,
but not if the patient has more than 10 per cent burns.
... For bigger areas, cover the burnt area with clean sheets,
towels, or cling film.
... If the burnt area is less than 10 per cent, give an
anti -inflammatory (Ibuprofen).
"" Take the patient to hospital.

A second-degree burn (only mild blistering) is treatable at the

campsite if it is smaller than two or three per cent of the body
surface; does not affect the face, hands, feet, groin or buttocks;
docs not affect the full circumference of an arm or a leg.

Chest pain (heart related)

"" Pain is usually on the left and radiates co the left shoulder
and arm or to the neck; there may be nausea.
Applydlrect
pressure to step
"" Make the patient as comfortable as possible, give something
Ihe bleedIng for the pain, and seek urgent medical assistance.

Cuts, wounds and

abrasions
A small cut or abrasion
should be cleaned and
dressed. If the cut is deeper,
apply direct pressure to the
wound (use a towel or a shirt,
etc) to stop the bleeding. Do
 LookinlJ alter your.eU 87
,

thi s imm ediat ely, maintaining the pressure if the bleeding starts
again. It is best nor to apply a to ur niq uet, as this ma y lead to
other complications. Phone fo r help and get the pa tient to a
hospi tal, as an anti -tetanus vacc ina tion may be necessary.

Dehydration and the effects of heat

Heat cramps
These arc caused by fluid and sa lt depletio n, us ua lly affecting
th e sho ulde r, thigh or ca lf mu scles in those who are unfit a nd
engage in phy sical activity in the hear. Prevention and
tr eatment is by ad equate rehydration with isotonic beverages.
A cra mp itself In;]Y be relieved by a ppl ying counter-traction; by
pushi ng the foo t upwa rd s for a calf spasm, a nd so a ll.

Heat exha usti on/ dehydration

Ca use s:
~ Ph ysical ac tivi ty in high temperatures (above 30° C) Ot
excessive hum idity.
~ lna ppro pria re clo thing: loose cotton fabric that protects
aga inst the sun but also allo ws swea t evap oration is ideal.
... Exces sive swea ting: sw eat evaporation a nd consequ ent
cooling will be less if th e humidity is high.
... Accelerated de hydration due to alco hol.
... Inad eq uat e fluid inta ke: dr ink at regu lar interva ls, even if
yo u arc not thirsty. Take betwe en 25 0 ml a nd 1,000 ml
(and mo re ) per hour (for a n a du lt) .
... Vom iting and diarrhoea ar e o the r, an d more common,
reasons for dehydration.

Re cogn ising heat exha us tio n/ de hyd ra tion:

... Ind icated by dizz iness, fainting, sweating, hot sk in, weakn ess,
fatigue, na usea , vomiting, headache, and muscle pain.
... T he body tempera tu re can ra nge from norma l to 40° C.

T reatment :
... Lie th e patient down an d elevate th e legs.
... Give him an isoton ic sports beverage, o r a mixture of a
hal f teaspoo n of sa lt a nd eight teaspoo ns of suga r
into one litre of water.
~ Get medical help .
BB Looking after yourself

Heatstroke
Any person with heat
exhaustion (see the above
crireria) who displays signs
of drowsiness, fainting,
epileptic seizure, irritability,
bizarre behaviour,
combativeness, ha llucinations
or walks unsteadily, should
Therecovery be considered to have heatstroke. This is a potentially
pnsltlon
Iife-rhrearening condirion and irn rnediare medical help should
be sought.

Trea tment:
... Take the patient out of the heat.
... Place in the recovery position .
... If awake, give the patient water or an isotonic beverage.
.... Remove all clothes, and cool the patient down by sponging
or spraying with water. The inside of a car with the air-
conditioning on is a good place for this in the open desert.
... Telephone a doctor who can give advice and organise the
transport and reception of the patient at the hospital.

Diarrhoea and vomit ing

This lasts from one to three days, and is usually caused by
eating contaminated food. Treatment is to give fluids after each
loose motion; these can be fruit juice or a carbonated drink.
An anri- diarrhoea tablet, and something for nausea, could also
be given .
When preparing and consuming food in an off-road
environment, the following must be adhered to:

.... Wash hands before preparing and eating food .

.... People with stomach disorders or open wounds should not
prepare food .
~ Keep perishable foodstuffs in a cool-box.
~ Do nor re-hea t cooked food .
.... Avoid pre-cooked foods .
.... Keep lavatory areas away from kitchen areas, and provide
hand-washing facilities.
 Lookingafter yourself 89

Dislocations, fractures
and sprains
Dislocations
These should be splinted as
they arc , and the patient taken
to a hospital. A dislocated
Spllntlng an finger can be pulled back into position if this is done soon
Injured Ilngerta
Its healthy enough, and with the necessary skill.
neighbour

Fractures
... Refer to the section on major incidents.
~ Stabilise the affected limb with a splint - this could be with
a piece of wood or a thickish newspaper; the limb could also
be splinted to the body (a thigh bound to the orher leg with a
pillow between; a fractured finger strapped to a normal one).
~ Slightly elevate the affecred limb.
... Gentle traction 011 the limb ma y be necessary to regain
normal alignment.
... \X'here the splintered bone is protruding through the skin,
splint it in a normal position, but cover the wound with
antiseptic cream and a sterile bandage - this is a 'compound
fracture', and will need urgent
medical care. Give an
antibiotic by mouth as soon
as possible.
\. -~ ~

Sprains
These will need medical
attention because of the
possibility of hidden fractures
SplinUnga or rorn tendons. Splint as before with a slight elevation.
brokenleg wIth
a makeshift Apply icc or a wet rag.
splint

Eye injuries
These could be from a dust particle or other foreign body,
including a chemical.

.. The eye should be irrigated with inrravenous saline solution

(fo r 20 minutes if a chemical); the upper eyelid can be
90 Looking after yourself

Evertlng lhe
uppereyelid
held back with a ma rchsrick
wllh a to aid in the search for the
matchstick
particle.
.. Wipe th e pa rticle o ut with
t t "'" _- gauze.
.. App ly a nrihioric eye
( " - - ointment a nd seek medica l
, attent ion.

f .... Ant ihista mine eye drops can

help again st any irrita tio n .

Direc t blu nt or sharp in jury:

)II> Apply antibio tic eye o intment.
Ii>' Cover the eye with om purring pressure o n it.
.. Seek medical help.

Major incidents
T his could be a hea d- on co llision, fall fro m a heigh I, suspected
heart attack, epileptic fit, or near drow ning. Be aware th at
moving an in jured perso n with th e wrong techniq ues co uld
ca use further injury, or eve n dea th as th e patient may have a
bro ken neck.

... T ry to remain ca lm.

... Do not move the victim if he is not thre atened by furth er injury.
... Consult a docto r by mob ile telephone from th e scene.

Poisonous plants
T her e are very few know n poison ou s pla nts in th e M iddle East ,
bur traditionall y th ose that have a milky sap can be conside red
to be poi son ou s. All cases of poison ing, wheth er rea l or
suspe cted, sho uld be seen by a docto r.

Sunburn
\X!ea r sun creams with inbuilt ultra violet pro tection factors; the
higherrhe numberrhe bcrrer - op t fora faCIO I 15 at least. To
t reat mino r sunburn, give Ibuprofen ta blet s three times a day,
a nd a pply a mix o f a nti-inflamma to ry gel and a hydroco rt isone
cream. Severe sunburn (w here the skin is breach ed ) sho uld be
 Looking after yourself 91

Recognised air rescue signals

~
Medlcalsupplies needed ~ Haveganethlsway

>CA.·· ,~
Food and water needed :~ or . -lJ./.. Yes

;:'·{·N· . }.' .'. ., " :

Everythlngnow 0.1t N,

treated like an ordinary burn. Medical attention may be needed

if sunburn affects over 30 per cent of the body's surface.

Organised rescue searches

Air searches
You may be the subject of an air search if you have broken
down in a remote area or have an injured person with you. It
helps if you have been able to convey your exact location to the
searchers with a GPS co -ordinate. You can assist by arranging
internationally recognised signals on the ground (using
whatever materials arc at hand) that will identify your group.

Day searches
To assist your rescue team, place a bright piece of clothing on
top of a nearby dune. Occasional blowing of the vehicle's horn
also attracts attention, while a blast from your whistle will be
heard at a greater distance than you can shout. Smoke cans and
flares are other means of attracting attention, but these are not
always easy to find and are quite expensive. A heliograph is
cheap and very effective when attracting the attention of
circling aircraft; good specification Swiss Army knives have one
82 Lookingafter yourseU

Recognised hand and body s igna ls

,
Plck usu p liInd here Don"ll ry lo land here We can proceed shortly

y" No
R.
AII ls well

in the ca rry-case. A piece of metal wit h a reflective surface on

eac h side a nd with a ho le in the m iddle, it enables you to reflect
sun light to the plane. Light ing a fire using petro l fro m yo ur fuel
tank and a rag soa ked in o il from YOUt dipsti ck sho uld produce
a nasty black smo ke emission th at will att ra ct a ttenti on.

Night searches
Sea rches at night ar e only ca rried our in extreme emergencies.
The assistance you ca n o ffer inclu des shining powe rful light s
straight up into t he sky, such as a 500,000 or one m illion
candle-power lamp, which gives o ut a tremendou s beam, o r a
small stroboscopi c light. It ca n be seen for at least 5 km if
placed on n nea rby high point.

Hand and body signals

T he pa nel shows the hand and body signa ls th at will a lso be
understood by milit ar y a nd co mmercial a irmen . \Vhen making
them, do so in a very exa ggera ted manner to ensure they a re
clearly und erstood.
Not e: Alrhough cxrrcmc ca rc has been ta ken to ensure 1111: accuracy of this chapt er, rhe Aut hor s an d rhe
Publisher hereby dismncc Ihcmsel\'cs from any i n jllr~· or insult uf any kind resulting from actions taken
l-ased nn th is infor mation.
 ,

. .' ._.. ~'pP!!!!!!f:x ~';lk _ .';'... _. _ . . ~'.. "'-

Appendix

Conversion tables
Power output
bhp kW
1 0·7457
1·34°5 1

Torque
Nm kgjm ftjlb
1 0.1019 0.7376
0.9 807 7-233
'-3559 0.1382

Tyre pressures
Ib/in 2 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
kgjcm 2 1.12 1.26 1.41 1.55 1.69 1.83 1.97 2.11 2.25

Temperature (degrees)
Fahrenheit 79 82 86 89 93 97 98 100 102 104 106 108 109 111 113
Celsius 26 28 30 32 34 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

Speeds
kph 30 40 50 60 70 80 9° 100 120 140 150 160

mph 19 25 31.5 37·5 43·7 50 56 62·5 75 87.5 93.7 100

Distances
i kilometre = 0.62137 miles
1 mile = 1.609 kilometres
To convert kilometres to miles = divide by 8, then multiply by 5
To convert miles to kilometres = divide by 5. then multiply by B
 -- -------
94 Appendix
- --

Ar eas
1 hectare = 2.46 acres
1 acre = 0 .405 hecta res

Weights
1 kilogram (kg) = 2.2 pounds (Ib)
lib = 0.454 kg

Fuel consumption
1 km/litre = 2.3519 miles/US gallon = 2.8244 miles/imperial gallon
Htresj roo km 5 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
rnpg 56 35.2 28 23.5 20.1 17.6 15.6 14.1 12.8

Volumes
1 imperial gallon = 4.4 litres = 1.2 US gallons
1 US gallon = 3.78 litres = 0.8 35 impe ria l ga llons
I. t litre = 0 ,22 imper ial ga llons = 0.26 42 US gallon s

I
Route-planning information
Distance planning
Weoften overestimate the distances we aregoing to drive when planning an
off-road trip.n is surp rising how many int erru pti ons you will experience and
howtime-consuming it is to recover a vehicleonce it is stuck in the sand.
The table gives some useful guideli neswhen planning trips.

Guidelines for distance/time planning

Type of terrain Ave. distance/ho ur

Flatsand and sabkhas 30 -35 km

low dunes and sand tracks 25-30 km
Wadisand rocky terrain 15 - 20 km
High dunes, few tracks 10- 15 km
Overall route planning 25 km

Fuel requirements
Normal tarmac fuel consumptio n will be very different once you start driving
off-road. Whenplanning longer trips, prepare a reasonably accurate fuel
requirement estimate to see if extra supplies in jerrycans are required. Adjust
your normal fuel consumption bVthe factor shown for each type of terrain.
·Appendix 95
--_.

Fuel consumption
For normal on-road overall consump tion of go kmj gal (adj ust downwards)

Type of terrain Adjustment (per cent)

Flat s and and sabkhas minus 25 == 22 kmj gal

low dunes andsand tracks minus 3 0 = 20 km/ gal
Wadis and rocky terrain minus 4 0 = 18 km / gal
High dunes, few tracks minus 6 5 = 10 kmjga l

Gear ratios ofthe 4WD

Gear ratios of1998 Land Cruiser Station Wagon (manual)

Gear High range X Transfer ratio = low range

1St 4·08:1 x 2·49 10.15:1
2nd 2.29:1 X 2·49 5.68: 1
j rd 1.49:1 x 2·49 3·71:1
4t h 1. 00 :1 X 2·4 9 2·49 :1
gth 0.88 :1 x 2·49 2. 19 :1
Reverse 4.3 1 : 1 x 2·49 10·73 :1

Note: the ratios of the High range /normal gears are reduced by multiplying
by the transfer ratio to give the Low range ratios.

Ratios in ascending order from lowestto highest

SR Range/gear Ratio
Low reverse 10· 73:1
2 Low 1St 10.1 5:1

3 Low and 5.68 :1

4 High reverse 4·31:1
5 High ist 4·08 :1
6 t.ow j rd 3 ·71:1
7 l ow eth 2·49:1
8 Hi gh and 2.29: 1
9 l ow 5th 2.19:1
10 High jrd 1.49: 1
11 High qth 1.00 :1
12 High 5t h 0.8 8:1
The Author
A local authority on off-road driving, jehanbaz (Jum ) Ali
Khan, has spent a lifetime in the automotive industry and
mororsport. From active rally driving in the UK and UAE, he
- C--~ has now moved to mororsporr
ct\\C I/fC/ ';,... organisation, and is the route
~~~ director of the UAE Deserr
~. .~ Challenge. Invited by th e FIA
to be their Official Observer on
~ several Paris-Dakar, Atlas and
-.,~ Y~.~ Tunis rallies, he has also been
. ~ll ro ute planner for the Gulf
-, .. News Fun Drive o n six
occasions . During his time in
the army, Jehanbaz was a map-
reading instructor.
He is curreorly based in the UAE and teaches off-road skills
to Toyota sales executives. These assignments exemplify his
expertise in terms of knowledge of terrain , off-road driving
techniques, navigational matters and the precautions necessary
to enjoy the great outdoors in safety. He draws much of his
experience from drives in parts of North \Vest Canada, North
and East Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Thailand and, for the
past 13 years , in the UAE.
•
Acknowledgements
My siocere thanks are due to Dr Chari Laubscher (for his
contribution of sound medical advice in Chapter 9) , Roger
Whalley, Khalid Siddiqui and Shusei Yamada (photographs),
Jonathan Ali Khan (for his superb illustrations), Gary Wh eeler
(Land Cruiser care and attention) , Mark Llewellyn-j ones
(loan of vehicles), Belinda Ali Khan (support and
-ncouragernent), and Fraser Marrin
. bo first introduced me to the
ert in 198 6!). Lasr but not leasr,
hanks go to the Kanoo Group,
ur whose sponsorship suppo rt
'vlicatio n of this book would
e been possible. The Kanoo Group
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