Sheet Metal Forming

2.810 Fall 2002

Professor Tim Gutowski

Minoan gold pendant of bees encircling the Sun,

showing the use of granulation, from a tomb at Mallia,
17th century BC. In the Archaeological Museum,
Iráklion, Crete.
Historical Note;
Sheet metal stamping was developed as a mass
production technology for the production of
bicycles around the 1890’s. This technology
played an important role in making the system
of interchangeable parts economical (perhaps
for the first time).
Steps in making Hub Steps in Sprocket making
Stress Strain diagram –
materials selection
Basic Sheet Forming Processes
(from http://www.menet.umn.edu/~klamecki/Forming/mainforming.html)

Shearing
Drawing

Bending
Shear and corner press
Brake press
Finger press
Shearing Operation Force
Requirement
Sheet T
Punch D

Die Part or slug

F = 0.7 T L (UTS)
T = Sheet Thickness
L = Total length Sheared
UTS = Ultimate Tensile Strength of material
Yield Criteria
τ
Y/2

τ max = (1/2) Y τ = (2/3)1/2 Y

max

Tresca Mises
Schematic of a Blanked
Edge
Bending Force
Requirement
Force WT 2
F = (UTS )
L
Punch
Workpiece T = Sheet Thickness
T
W = Total Width
Sheared
Die (into the page)
L =Span length
UTS = Ultimate Tensile
L Strength of material

Engineering Strain during Bending: e = 1/((2R/T) + 1)

R = Bend radius

Minimum Bend radius: R = T ((50/r) – 1)

r = tensile area reduction
in percent
Stress distribution through the
thickness of the part
Y Y

σ σ yY σ h

-Y -Y
Elastic Elastic-plastic Fully plastic
Springback

•Over-bend
•Bottom
•Stretch
Pure Bending tension

compression

Bending & Stretching

 Stretch Forming

Loading Pre-stretching

Wrapping Release

* source: http://www.cyrilbath.com/sheet_process.html
Stretch Forming
Stretch forming
Stretch Forming Force
Requirement
F = (YS + UTS)/2 * A
F = stretch forming force (lbs)
YS = material yield strength (psi)
UTS = ultimate tensile strength of the material (psi)
A = Cross-sectional area of the workpiece (in2)

• Example of Force Calculation

Calculate the force required to stretch form a wing span having a
cross-sectional area of .50X120” made from 2219 aluminum alloy
having a yield strength of 36,000 psi and a UTS of 52,000 psi:

F = 88000/2 * 60 = 2,640,000 lbs = 1320 tons

Calculate the force required to shear a 10” diameter, 1/8” thick
blank from mild steel with a UTS of 45,000 psi:
F = 0.7 (.125)(π )(10) 45,000 = 62 tons
Auto body panels

10 - 11 panels
•3 to 5 dies each
• ~$0.5M each
• ~$20M investment
Tooling for Automotive Stamping
Machines
Material Selection
Material selection is critical in both product and process
design.
Formability is the central material property.
This property must be balanced with other product and
process considerations such as strength, weight, cost, and
corrosion resistance.
Auto vs. Aerospace Example
Auto Body Panel Airplane Body Panel

Progressive stamping stretch forming

1010 Steel, cold-rolled 2024 Aluminum, T3
temper
.04” sheet, custom order .08” sheet,
oversize
Double-sided Zinc clad mechanically polished
Cost ~ $.35-.45/lb Cost ~ $4.0/lb
UTS ~ 300 MPa UTS ~ 470 MPa
YS ~ 185 MPa YS ~ 325 MPa
Elongation ~ 42% Elongation ~ 20%
representative Parts: Aero
and Auto
Auto Aero
Part Description Body Panel Body Panel
54"X54" 54"X54"

Forming Process Progressive Stamping Stretch Forming

MATERIAL
2024 Aluminum, T3
1010 Steel, cold-rolled, temper, .08" sheet,
.04" sheet, custom order oversize mechanically
Material double-sided Zinc clad polished
Scrap 40% 20%
Material Cost $0.45/lb $4.00/lb
Per part $15.75 $105.00
LABOR
Set-up Time 1.5hr 1.0hr
Parts/Run 2,000 30
Cycle Time 0.25 min 2.5 min
Total Labor 0.30 min 4.5 min
Labor Rate** $20.00/hr $20.00/hr
Stretch-Form Labor Cost $0.10 $1.50
FIXED
Equipment $5,000,000 $1,000,000
Tools/Dies $900,000 $45,000
(200 manhours labor)
TOTAL TRANSFER COST $25 $265
 Aerospace Stretch Forming Body Panel Process

Parts Mylar ‘Burr’ Stretch

Receive Protection Edges in Formin
d Applied tension g Index
to
Clad and Chemic ‘Burr’ Han Block
Prime al Edges and d
Surfaces Milling Inspect Trim
Process Flow for Automobile Door Stamping Operation
Raw Blank material Drawin Pierce
material starting g
dimensions
Restrik Flange
e
Design: Stretch Forming
vs. Stamping
Stretch Forming Advantages over Stamping
 Tighter tolerances are possible: as tight as .0005 inches on large
aircraft parts
 Little problem with either wrinkling or spring back
 Large, gently contoured parts from thin sheets
Stretch forming Disadvantages over Stamping
 Complex or sharply cornered shapes are difficult or impossible
to form
 Material removal – blanking, punching, or trimming – requires
secondary operations
 Requires special preparation of the free edges prior to forming
Springback
Elastic Springback
Analysis
y

x h

L b

ρ = 1/K
M M
y

1. Assume plane sections remain plane:

ε y = - y/ρ (1)

2. Assume elastic-plastic behavior for material

σ
σ σ =Eε
Y ε <ε 

E
σ = σ Yε >ε
ε y ε
3. We want to construct the following
Bending Moment “M” vs. curvature “1/ρ ” curve

M Loading
MY

EI EI Unloading

1/ρ Y 1/R1 1/R0 1/

Springback is measured as 1/R0 – 1/R1 ρ (2)
Permanent set is 1/R1
4. Stress distribution through the thickness of the beam

Y Y

σ σ yY σ h

-Y -Y
Elastic Elastic-plastic Fully plastic
 dσ dA
b

5. M = ∫ A σ y dA y
dy
h

Elastic region
y2 EI
M = ∫ σydA = − E ∫ dA = − (3)
ρ ρ Y
At the onset of plastic behavior
σ = - y/ρ E = - h/2ρ E = -Y (4) σ
This occurs at
1/ρ = 2Y / hE = 1/ρ Y (5)
Substitution into eqn (3) gives us the moment at
on-set of yield, MY
MY = - EI/ρ Y = EI 2Y / hE = 2IY/h (6)
After this point, the M vs 1/r curve starts to “bend
over.” Note from M=0 to M=MY the curve is linear.
 Y

In the elastic – plastic region

σ yY
yY
h/2 y
M = ∫ σybdy = 2 ∫ Ybydy + 2 ∫ Ybydy
yY y
0 Y

2 h/2 3 yY
y Y y
= 2Yb +2 b
2 yY
yY 3 0

h2 2 2
= Yb( − yY ) + yY Yb
2

4 3
bh 
2
1  yY  
2

M= Y 1 −    (7)
4  3  h / 2  

Note at yY=h/2, you get on-set at yield, M = MY

And at yY=0, you get fully plastic moment, M = 3/2 MY
To write this in terms of M vs 1/ρ rather than M vs yY,
note that the yield curvature (1/ρ ) Y can be written
as (see
1 eqnε Y (1))
= (8)
ρY h / 2
Where ε Y is the strain at yield. Also since the
strain at yY is -ε Y, we can write
1 εY
=
ρ yY (9)
Combining (8) and (9) gives
yY (1 ρ )Y
= (10)
h/2 1ρ
Substitution into (7) gives the result we seek:
3  1  (1 ρ ) 
2

M = M Y 1 −  Y
  (11)
2  3  1 ρ  
Eqn(11)
M Loading
MY

EI EI Unloading

1/ρ 1/R1 1/R0 1/

Y ρ
MY 1 1 
Elastic unloading M=  −  (12)
(1 ρ )Y  ρ R1 
curve
Now, eqn’s (12) and (13) intersect at 1/ρ = 1/R0
Hence,
MY  1 1 3  1  (1 ρ ) 
2

 −  = M Y  1 − 

Y
 
(1 ρ )Y  R0 R1  2  3  1 R0  

Rewriting and using 1/ρ = 2Y / hE, we get

3
1 1 Y 2 Y 
 −  =3 − 4 R0   (13)
 R0 R1  hE  hE 
New developments
Tailored blanks
Binder force control
Segmented dies
Quick exchange of dies
Alternative materials; cost issues
The Shape Control
Concept finished
desired shape
part
shape + error SHAPE DISCRETE DIE
WORKPIECE
- CONTROLLER SURFACE

SHAPE
MEASUREMENT

New
Part
DISCRETE DIE Shape
Die Shape FORMING PRESS
Change

TRACING CMM

CONTROLLER Part Error

Conventional Tooling

Tool

Pallet

Parking Lot
Die Press(Robinson et al,
1987)

Press Motion
Tool Setup
Actuators

Passive
Tool
Programmable
Tool
Cylindrical Part Error
Reduction
60 1.6
MAXIMAL SHAPE ERROR

1.4
50

RMS Error [x0.001 in.]

MAX 1.2
[x0.001 in.]

40 RMS
1
30 0.8
0.6
20
0.4
10
SYSTEM ERROR THRESHOLD 0.2
0 0
P1 P2 P3 P4

PART CYCLE
Large Scale Tool

6 feet
Stretch Forming with Reconfigurable
Tool @ Northrop Grumman
Stamping and TPS:
Quick Exchange of Dies
Ref. Shigeo Shingo, “A Revolution in Manufacturing:
The SMED System” Productivity Press. 1985

•Simplify, Organize, Standardize,

•Eliminate Adjustments,
•Convert Internal to External Set-Ups
Standard fixtures
Alternative materials for
auto body panels
Comparison
Steel Vs SMC
$0.35/lb $0.65/lb
0.03 thick .0.12 thick
7.6 lb 7.0 lb
40% scrap 6% scrap
$4.25 mat’l cost $4.84 mat’l cost
400/hr 40/hr
5 workers $12.50/hr (non-Union)
$18.90/hr (Union) $0.63 labor cost
$0.24 labor cost $1,200,000 eqipment
$5,000,000 equipment $250,000 tools
$900,000 tools $7.75 unit cost at 100,000 units
$7.71 unit cost at 100,000 units

Ref John Busch

Cost comparison between sheet
steel and plastics and
composites for automotive
panelsref John Busch
Environment

punching Vs machining
hydraulic fluids and lubricants
scrap
energy
painting, cleaning
Steel can production at Toyo
Seikan

See Appendix D; http://itri.loyola.edu/ebm/

Summary
Note on Historical Development
Materials and Basic Mechanics
Aerospace and Automotive Forming
New Developments
Environmental Issues
Solidworks and Metal Forming your
Chassis
Readings
1. “Sheet Metal Forming” Ch. 16 Kalpakjian (3rd ed.)
2. “Economic Criteria for Sensible Selection of Body
Panel Materials” John Busch and Jeff Dieffenbach
3. Handout from Shigeo Shingo, The SMED System
4. “Steps to Building a Sheet Metal Chassis for your
2.810 Car Using Solidworks”, by Eddy Reif
5. “Design for Sheetmetal Working”, Ch. 9 Boothroyd,
Dewhurst and Knight