CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction.
Navigational systems are having lot of importance as far as modern industrial
applications are concerned. Hence any attempt towards the design of such navigational
system will definitely give deep insight into the practical problems of such challenging
projects. Different problems such as;
a) Selection of drives,
b) Physical size of the moving system,
c) Development of electronic control circuit,
d) Development of software packages etc.
which are likely to arise are presented in a detailed manner. After the
development of a model physical system their performance evaluation is carried out
experimentally and the evaluation details are presented.
Practically the moving system with manual mode and auto mode is fabricated
along with the associated hardware modules. With the help of indigenously developed
control software, the above prototypes are tested for their operational evaluation and test
results are monitored and recorded.

1.2 Problem Definition:

Objective of this project is to design and development of a driving system for
controlling the position, direction and speed of a navigational system using DC series
motor.
Key factors are mentioned below:-

i) Selecting the suitable components for the electronic circuitry based on the
requirement.
ii) Design and selection of the DC series motors for the application.
iii) Construct a perfect micro controller program and feedback strategy for
controlling the motors.

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 iv) Interfacing serial port communication and Visual Basic interface for to get
the required performance.

1.3 Methodology:
The complete controlling of the moving system is through a central console or a
software interface from where the commands are given to the microcontroller for
performs the specified tasks. The moving system using DC series motors where the
controlling is made through serial port communication, through a sufficiently long RS232
communication channel.

i) PIC16F877A microcontroller is the heart of this project.

ii) Serial communication (RS 232) along with Visual Basic interface
implemented for the navigational system with DC motors.
iii) Combination of TIP127, TIP 122 power transistors and ULN 2803 driver IC is
used to drive two DC motors.
iv) Encoders and IR sensors are used for position control and obstacle detection
respectively

1.4 Modules of the Hardware:

The components used in the development of moving system using DC motors are
7805 voltage regulator, RS232 channel and MAX232 IC, ULN 2803 driver IC, power
transistors TIP122 and TIP 127, 16F877A PIC Microcontroller IC, Infrared sensors,
optical encoder and metallic disc, Two DC series Motors, Battery source of 12 V or
variable DC power supply and Serial communication port.

1.5 Outline of the Report:

The report is organized into four chapters including that of the introduction. The
chapter 2 includes the review of the existing literature. Chapter 3 deals with the
development of PVD navigational system. Chapter 4 including experimental work and
results. The conclusion and suggestions for future work is presented in the last chapter 5,
followed by reference.

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 CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE EXISTING LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction:
Having given a brief introduction, a detailed review of the existing work in this
area is mentioned here. The references are includes papers, reports, books, data sheets
and other articles downloaded from webs links and a brief description about their work is
mentioned in this chapter.

2.2 Literature Review:

Mr. Firmansyah and his friends B. Hermanto and L.T. Handoko developed a
methodology to control the navigational devices using micro controller based hardware in
[1]. They considered the system with three major modules consisting of a main
navigational unit, one data acquisition unit and a data processing module. The principle
of controlling a wireless robot is neatly described in reference [1].
In [2], the authors described controlling procedures of a robot for monitoring the
temperatures at different locations. The control system is based on a wireless telemetry
mechanism and wireless communication principles. One RF receiver, RF transmitter, IR
transmitter and one IR receiver are the major hardware modules used by the authors.
In [3], the authors described about the wheeled mobile robots. Wheeled Mobile
Robots (WMRs) are built with their Wheels’ drive machine, Motors. Depend on their
desire design of WMR, Technicians made used of DC series Motors for motion control.
In this paper, the author would like to analyze how to choose DC series motor to be
balance with their applications of especially for WMR. Specification of DC series Motor
that can be used with desire WMR is to be determined by using MATLAB Simulink
model. Therefore, this paper is mainly focus on software application of MATLAB and
Control Technology. As the driving system of DC series motor, a Peripheral Interface
Controller (PIC) based control system is designed including the assembly software
technology and H-bridge control circuit. This Driving system is used to drive two DC
series motors which are used to control the motion of WMR. In this analyzing process,
the author mainly focuses the drive system on driving two DC series motors that will

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control with Differential Drive technique to the Wheeled Mobile Robot. For the design
analysis of Motor Driving System, PIC16F84A is used and five inputs of sensors detected
data are tested with five ON/OFF switches. The outputs of PIC are the commands to
drive two DC series motors, inputs of H-bridge circuit .In this paper, Control techniques
of PIC microcontroller and H-bridge circuit, Mechanism assignments of WMR are
combined and analyzed by mainly focusing with the “Modeling and Simulink of DC
Motor using MATLAB”
We are mainly concentrating on how the system responds to the commands we
give and we analyze the system performance. Even though, the experimental setup is
same as suggested by the authors, they implemented the hardware by serial
communication using RS232 channel taking servo motors as the actuators. But in this
work, we will implement the hardware module, moving system with DC series motors as
the actuators using serial communication.
Details about the software part of control programming, the data logging software
is well described in [4] and [5]. The data logging refers to the command inputs to the
moving system that displays on the computer screen and this page is called ‘hyper
terminal’. There are steps to enter this hyper terminal link,
“Start => Programs => Accessories => Communications => HyperTerminal”
In this we have to make the settings of the suitable communication port, baud rate and
other port settings. The hyper terminal port is more accessible for the serial
communication modes. In this project, we used Visual Basic software a graphical user
interface, which is very simple to operate aged as well as normal people for the moving
system using DC series motors.
In [6], the author described about electronic navigation system with both DC
motors and stepper motors. The controller he used is Atmel AT89C52 and L293D and
ULN 2803 ICs used as drivers for DC motors and stepper motors respectively. Serial port
communication with HyperTerminal is implemented for DC motors and RF
communication is used for the stepper motors. The detailed analysis and performance
evaluation is also reported. In his work he found that the stepper motor provides better
results than the DC motors with both three and four wheel systems.

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2.3 Summary:
The principles and details regarding the control of such devices mentioned in the
above references are found much useful in the present work. Having given a detailed
review about the similar work carried out, through the above literatures, a similar work is
done here and its further explanation is presented in the coming chapters.

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 CHAPTER 3
DEVELOPMENT OF NAVIGATIONAL SYSTEM

3.1 Introduction:
Having given a brief survey about the work done in the navigational problem of
moving bodies, a detailed description about the problems faced currently is the content of
this chapter. The moving body with DC series motors is considered. The navigation is
done with the help of serial port communication facility implemented by RS232 cable
and Visual Basic graphical user interface.
The objective is to navigate the moving system through a predetermined path. A
detailed description about different subsystems involved in the project is given as under.

3.2 Moving System:

As mentioned above, the moving system with DC series motors and the driving
systems are fabricated. Each motor is having separate driving and control circuits.
Elaborate description of the system is as given under.

3.2.1 Schematic block diagram

Block schematics of the walking support system with DC series motor and
associated subsystems are shown in Fig 3.2.1 below. The various subsystems are,
DC power supply
7805 Voltage regulator
Power Transistor Bridge circuit
DC series motor set
ULN2803 Driver IC
Infrared sensors
Optical encoders
Keypads
MAX232 IC and serial port communication

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 Visual Basic graphical user interface
PIC 16F877A Microcontroller

12
5
Power 7805 Voltage
Supply unit regulator

Regulated
power supply
12
IR sensor 1
Motor 1 Bridge
0 IR sensor 2
circuit
ULN PIC
2803 16F877A Optical
Motor 2 Bridge Encoder 1
0
circuit
Optical
12 Encoder 2

5
5

Serial port MAX 232 Keypad Keypad

communication IC (Speed and (Direction)
mode
RS 232 selection)
Mouse

Fig 3.2.1. Block diagram of navigational system with DC series motors

3.2.1(a) Power supply unit:

First and foremost part of the system is the power supply unit. A regulated power
supply of (0-15)V DC have been used for the hardware. Input is 230 V AC and output is
(0-15)V DC. A batter of 12V,2A can also be used instead of a regulated power supply.

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3.2.1(b) 7805 voltage regulator:
The power requirement for the developed hardware is 12V DC for the DC motors
which is directly taken from the regulated power supply unit and 5V DC for the control
circuit is limited by using 7805 voltage regulator. The input is 12V from a regulated
power supply and the output is 5V DC to the control circuit. The schematic of the 7805
pins and circuit diagram is as shown below.

Fig 3.2.2 Pin diagram of 7805 voltage regulator

Fig 3.2.3 Circuit diagram of 7805

The input pin is given to the 12V supply either from a battery source or a
regulated power Supply, ground to 0 and output i.e., 5V DC pin is given common to the
microcontroller and the control circuit.
The circuit diagram of 7805 is also shown in the figure 3.2.3. The diode D1 is the
purpose of secure connection from the external power supply. If the supply polarity is
correct the diode conducts and current flows through the circuit. If the supply polarity is

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wrong then the diode D1 will be in the reverse biased and it opposes the current flow
through the circuit. Thus it helps the circuit as well as the components.

3.2.1(c) PIC 16F877A Microcontroller:

Microcontroller PIC16F877A is one of the PIC Micro Family microcontroller

which is popular at this moment. Because of very easy using PIC16F877A and use
FLASH memory technology so that can be write-erase until thousand times. The
superiority this Risc Microcontroller compared to with other microcontroller 8-bit
especially at a speed of and his code compression. PIC16F877A have 40 pin by 33 path
of I/O. EEPROM memory makes it easier to apply microcontrollers to devices where
permanent storage of various parameters is needed (codes for transmitters, motor speed,
receiver frequencies, etc.). Low cost, low consumption, easy handling and flexibility
make PIC16F877A applicable even in areas where microcontrollers had not previously
been considered (example: timer functions, interface replacement in larger systems,
coprocessor applications, etc.)[8].

3.2.1(c)i Features of PIC 16F877A Microcontroller:

Operating Frequency: DC – 20 MHz
Resets (and Delays): POR, BOR
Flash Program Memory (14-bit words): 8K
Data Memory (bytes): 368
EEPROM Data Memory (bytes): 256
Interrupts: 15
I/O Ports: Ports A, B, C, D, E
Timers: 3
Capture/Compare/PWM modules: 2
Serial Communications: MSSP, USART
Parallel Communications: PSP
10-bit Analog-to-Digital Module: 8 input channels
Analog Comparators: 2
Instruction Set: 35 Instructions

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3.2.1(c)ii Pin Description of PIC 16F877A Microcontroller:

Fig 3.2.4 Pin diagram of PIC 16F877A

3.2.1(c)iii PORTA and the TRISA Register:

PORTA is a 6-bit wide, bidirectional port. The corresponding data direction
register is TRISA. Setting a TRISA bit (= 1) will make the corresponding PORTA pin an
input (i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a High-Impedance mode). Clearing a
TRISA bit (= 0) will make the corresponding PORTA pin an output (i.e., put the contents
of the output latch on the selected pin).
Reading the PORTA register reads the status of the pins, whereas writing to it will
write to the port latch. All write operations are read-modify-write operations. Therefore, a
write to a port implies that the port pins are read, the value is modified and then written to
the port data latch.
Pin RA4 is multiplexed with the Timer0 module clock input to become the
RA4/T0CKI pin. The RA4/T0CKI pin is a Schmitt Trigger input and an open-drain
output. All other PORTA pins have TTL input levels and full CMOS output drivers.
Other PORTA pins are multiplexed with analog inputs and the analog VREF input for

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both the A/D converters and the comparators. The operation of each pin is selected by
clearing/setting the appropriate control bits in the ADCON1 and/or CMCON registers.

Name Bit# Buffer Function

RA0/AN0 Bit 0 TTL Right shaft encoder sensor
RA1/AN1 Bit 1 TTL Left shaft encoder sensor
RA2/AN2/VREF-/CVREF Bit 2 TTL No connection
RA3/AN3/VREF+ Bit 3 TTL No connection
RA4/T0CKI/C1OUT Bit 4 ST No connection
RA5/AN4/SS/C2OUT Bit 5 TTL No connection
Table 3.2.1 Pin Description of Port A

3.2.1(c)iv PORTB and the TRISB Register:

PORTB is an 8-bit wide, bidirectional port. The corresponding data direction
register is TRISB. Setting a TRISB bit (= 1) will make the corresponding PORTB pin an
input (i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a High-Impedance mode). Clearing a
TRISB bit (= 0) will make the corresponding PORTB pin an output (i.e., put the contents
of the output latch on the selected pin). Three pins of PORTB are multiplexed with the
In-Circuit Debugger and Low-Voltage Programming function: RB3/PGM, RB6/PGC and
RB7/PGD.
Each of the PORTB pins has a weak internal pull-up. A single control bit can turn
on all the pull-ups. This is performed by clearing bit RBPU (OPTION_REG<7>). The
weak pull-up is automatically turned off when the port pin is configured as an output. The
pull-ups are disabled on a Power-on Reset.

Name Bit# Buffer Function

RB0/INT Bit 0 TTL/ST(1) No connection
RB1 Bit 1 TTL No connection
RB2 Bit 2 TTL No connection
RB3/PGM(3) Bit 3 TTL No connection

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 RB4 Bit 4 TTL No connection
RB5 Bit 5 TTL No connection
RB6/PGC Bit 6 TTL/ST(2) No connection
RB7/PGD Bit 7 TTL/ST(2) No connection
Table 3.2.2 Pin Description of Port B

3.2.1(c)v PORTC and the TRISC Register:

PORTC is an 8-bit wide, bidirectional port. The corresponding data direction
register is TRISC. Setting a TRISC bit (= 1) will make the corresponding PORTC pin an
input (i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a High-Impedance mode). Clearing a
TRISC bit (= 0) will make the corresponding PORTC pin an output (i.e., put the contents
of the output latch on the selected pin). PORTC is multiplexed with several peripheral
functions. PORTC pins have Schmitt Trigger input buffers.
When the I2C module is enabled, the PORTC<4:3> pins can be configured with
normal I2C levels, or with SMBus levels, by using the CKE bit (SSPSTAT<6>). When
enabling peripheral functions, care should be taken in defining TRIS bits for each
PORTC pin. Some peripherals override the TRIS bit to make a pin an output, while other
peripherals override the TRIS bit to make a pin an input. Since the TRIS bit override is in
effect while the peripheral is enabled, read-modify write instructions (BSF, BCF, and
XORWF) with TRISC as the destination, should be avoided. The user should refer to the
corresponding peripheral section for the correct TRIS bit settings.

Name Bit# Buffer Function

Type
RC0/T1OSO/T1CKI Bit 0 ST Left IR Sensor
RC1/T1OSI/CCP2 Bit 1 ST Right IR sensor
RC2/CCP1 Bit 2 ST Manual/Auto mode
RC3/SCK/SCL Bit 3 ST Speed Down
RC4/SDI/SDA Bit 4 ST Speed Up
RC5/SDO Bit 5 ST No connection

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 RC6/TX/CK Bit 6 ST No connection
RC7/RX/DT Bit 7 ST No connection
Table 3.2.3 Pin Description of Port C

3.2.1(c)vi PORTD and the TRISD Register:

PORTD is an 8-bit port with Schmitt Trigger input buffers. Each pin is
individually configurable as an input or output. PORTD can be configured as an 8-bit
wide microprocessor port (Parallel Slave Port) by setting control bit, PSPMODE
(TRISE<4>). In this mode, the input buffers are TTL.

Name Bit# Buffer Type Function

RD0/PSP0 Bit 0 ST/TTL(1) Forward Key
RD1/PSP1 Bit 1 ST/TTL(1) Right Key
RD2/PSP2 Bit 2 ST/TTL(1) Reverse Key
RD3/PSP3 Bit 3 ST/TTL(1) Left Key
RD4/PSP4 Bit 4 ST/TTL(1) Left motor clockwise direction
RD5/PSP5 Bit 5 ST/TTL(1) Left motor anticlockwise direction
RD6/PSP6 Bit 6 ST/TTL(1) Right motor clockwise direction
RD7/PSP7 Bit 7 ST/TTL(1) Right motor anticlockwise direction
Table 3.2.4 Pin Description of Port D

3.2.1(c)vii PORTE and the TRISE Register:

PORTE has three pins (RE0/RD/AN5, RE1/WR/AN6 and RE2/CS/AN7) which
are individually configurable as inputs or outputs. These pins have Schmitt Trigger input
buffers.
The PORTE pins become the I/O control inputs for the microprocessor port when
bit PSPMODE (TRISE<4>) is set. In this mode, the user must make certain that the
TRISE<2:0> bits are set and that the pins are configured as digital inputs. Also, ensure
that ADCON1 is configured for digital I/O. In this mode, the input buffers are TTL.
PORTE pins are multiplexed with analog inputs. When selected for analog
input, these pins will read as ‘0’s. TRISE controls the direction of the RE pins, even

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when they are being used as analog inputs. The user must make sure to keep the pins
configured as inputs when using them as analog inputs.

Name Bit# Buffer Function

Type
RE0/RD/AN5 Bit 0 ST/TTL(1) No connection
RE1/WR/AN6 Bit 1 ST/TTL(1) No connection
RE2/CS/AN7 Bit 2 ST/TTL(1) No connection
Table 3.2.5 Pin Description of Port E

3.2.1(c)viii Capture/Compare/PWM modules

Each Capture/Compare/PWM (CCP) module contains a 16-bit register which can
operate as a:
• 16-bit Capture register
• 16-bit Compare register
• PWM Master/Slave Duty Cycle register
Both the CCP1 and CCP2 modules are identical in operation, with the exception being
the operation of the special event trigger. Table 3.2.6 and Table 3.2.7 show the resources
and interactions of the CCP module(s).
CCP Mode Timer Resource
Capture Timer1

Compare Timer1

PWM Timer2

Table 3.2.6 CCP mode – Timer resources required

CCP1 Module:
Capture/Compare/PWM Register 1 (CCPR1) is comprised of two 8-bit registers:
CCPR1L (low byte) and CCPR1H (high byte). The CCP1CON register controls the
operation of CCP1. The special event trigger is generated by a compare match and will
reset Timer1.

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CCP2 Module:
Capture/Compare/PWM Register 2 (CCPR2) is comprised of two 8-bit registers:
CCPR2L (low byte) and CCPR2H (high byte). The CCP2CON register controls the
operation of CCP2. The special event trigger is generated by a compare match and will
reset Timer1 and start an A/D conversion (if the A/D module is enabled).

CCPx CCPy Interaction

Mode Mode
Capture Capture Same TMR1 time base
Capture Compare The compare should be configured for the special event
trigger which clears TMR1
Compare Compare The compare(s) should be configured for the special event
trigger which clears TMR1
PWM PWM The PWMs will have the same frequency and update rate
(TMR2 interrupt)
PWM Capture None
PWM Compare None
Table 3.2.7 Interaction of two CCP modules

The speed control of the navigational system is done by the help of CCPR1
register of PIC 16F877A microcontroller. The value of CCPR1 register will change from
0 to 255 that is the pulse width of the will be changed. By default the value 128 is stored
in this register. And the speed increasing and decreasing is done by giving interrupts to
the register. If we pressing the pin RC4 or RC3, it’s for increasing or decreasing the
speed respectively, it will produce an interrupt and according to that the speed will
change.

3.2.1(d) IR Sensors:
Two infrared sensors are used in the navigational system. These are placed either
sides of the moving system that is right and left sides. The infrared LED transmits the IR
rays and a photo diode is there for receiving this rays. Main parts of the circuit are

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Infrared led and LM 358 operational amplifier. The LM 358 is used in the comparator
mode. The IR led is used as a potential divider in a reverse bias mode. A threshold
voltage is set at the inverting terminal of the op-amp using potentiometer. So when
infrared light reflects from a surface, the resistance of the photodiode would decrease and
this in turn on when exceeds the threshold voltage will make the output of the Op-amp go
high. The reverence distance can set depending upon the threshold voltage by adjusting
the potentiometer. Whenever an obstacle in the path, either at right side or at left side the
corresponding receiver can’t get any signals from the transmitter. This will produce a
potential difference between the inverting and non inverting terminals of the op – amp
and produces an output according to that. The output of left side sensor is connects to
RC0 (15th) pin and the output of the right side sensor connects to RC1 (16th) pin of the
microcontroller. If any obstacle is there then the corresponding op-amp’s output will
produce a 5V pulse and it goes to the corresponding pin of the microcontroller and
changes the direction of the moving system. The circuit diagram is shown in the figure
3.2.5 below.

Fig 3.2.5 Circuit diagram of Infrared sensor

Pin diagram of LM 358 Operational amplifier is shown in the figure 3.2.6 below.
LM 358 has two op-amps in its 8 pin package, thus two IR sensors could be built out of
one IC. These circuits consist of two independent, high gain, internally frequency
compensated which were designed specifically to operate from a single power supply
over a wide range of voltages. The low power supply drain is independent of the
magnitude of the power supply voltage. It is internally frequency compensated, large DC

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voltage gain around 100bB, wide bandwidth (unity gain) 1.1MHz and essentially
independent of supply voltage.

Fig 3.2.6 Pin diagram of LM 358

3.2.1(e) Optical Encoders:
Two optical encoders are using with two DC series motors for controlling the
position of the motor. Main parts of the optical encoder are one encoder disc with
required number of holes and a slotted optical switch. The encoder disc rotates between
the slotted part of optical disc. The optical signal from the sender, basically it is an
infrared LED, reaches the receiver, which is usually a photo transistor through the holes
of the disc and cuts the signal otherwise. The figure 3.2.7 below shows the encoder disc
and the pin diagram of optical switch MOC7811 [9].

Fig 3.2.7 Encoder Disc and Pin Diagram of MOC 7811

Since the circumference of the wheel used for the moving system is 22cm. so here
the designed disc having 21 holes. Between two holes the system will move 1cm or the
displacement between 160. The circuit diagram of optical encoder is shown in the figure
3.2.8 below. When working with DC series motors, a shaft encoder is the most common
and accurate way of providing feed-back to the controller. Shaft encoder comes in many

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shapes and sizes, but they all rely of the same principle. Figure 3.2.7 shows a classic
encoder disk (which is one of the main parts of a shaft encoder mechanism). The optical
diode is always conducting when this optical signal passes through the encoder disc the
photo transistor in the receiving circuit gets the sufficient light source to turning on. Then
microcontroller pin gets a logic low signal from emitter of photo transistor.

Fig 3.2.8 Circuit diagram of optical encoder

3.2.1(f) Keypads:
In navigational system, two keypads are using. The first key pad is using for mode
selection, that is to select either manual mode or auto mode and to increase or decrease
the speed of the moving system. Keyboard contains one push button switch for mode
selection and two micro switches for adjusting the speed of the moving system. The
circuit diagram is shown figure below.

Fig 3.2.9 Circuit diagram for mode selection keypad

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 If no key is pressed then 5V flows to the microcontroller pins RC2, RC3 and RC4
through the pull up resistors. When any key is pressed then a low signal appeared to the
corresponding micro controller pin
The second keypad is for changing the direction of the moving system. Four
micro switches are arranged in this for moving four directions like forward, reverse, right
and left. One end of each switch connected to common ground and another end is
connected to 5V through pull-up resistor and microcontroller pins. When a switch is
closed, 5v bypasses through the pull-up resistor and switch and a low signal is passing to
microcontroller. The circuit diagram of keypad for direction control is shown in figure
3.2.10 below.

Fig 3.2.10 Circuit diagram for direction control keypad

3.2.1(g) Power transistor Bridge circuit:

The basic elements used in this bridge circuit are TIP127 and TIP122 power
transistors. The pin diagrams of these transistors are given figure 3.2.11 below

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 Fig 3.2.11 Pin diagram of power transistors TIP 127 and TIP 122

The TIP122 are silicon Epitaxial-Base NPN power transistor in monolithic

Darlington configuration mounted in Jedec TO-220 plastic package. They are intented for
use in power linear and switching applications. The complementary PNP types are
TIP125, TIP126 and TIP127, respectively. Here in this circuit we are using two pairs of
both transistors to make a single bridge, which can capable upto 5A current. The current
rating of the motor used in this circuit is 2A. So these bridges will help the circuit to
avoid the heating due to the overheating [10,11].

Fig 3.2.12 Power amplifier Bridge circuit.

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 Power Transistor Switches

1 2

Current
S1 S2 S3 S4 Direction Effect
Motor spins
1 0 0 1 1 to 2 Forward
Motor spins
0 1 1 0 2 to 1 Forward
-- Breaking
1 1 0 0 occurs
-- --
0 0 0 0

Fig 3.2.13 H - Bridge representation for DC series motor direction control

Two H – Bridge circuit is used in the system ie; for each motor separate H –
Bridge circuits are using. Here in this system the H – Bridge consist a pair of power
transistors TIP 127 and TIP122 and four BC 547 transistors. In first case when control
inputs are ‘1’ and ‘0’, the Q5 transistor is turned ON and the power transistors Q1 and Q4
gets sufficient voltage to turning ON. This will cause the motor to rotate in one direction.
The current flow direction will be Vcc – Q1 – motor – Q4 – Ground. At this time the
power transistors Q2 and Q3 are in OFF state and no conduction. Second case when the
control inputs are ‘0’ and ‘1’, the Q7 transistor is ON and power transistor Q2 and Q3

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gets sufficient voltage to turning ON. This will cause the motor to rotate in the opposite
direction. The same time the power transistors Q1 and Q4 are in OFF state. The current
flow direction will be Vcc – Q2 – motor – Q3 – Ground.

3.2.1(h) DC series motors:

For the development of the navigational system two DC series motors of 12V had
been used. DC series motor is a kind of DC motor in which field windings (few numbers
of thick turns) are connected in series with the armature. As field coil has to carry high
current (armature current), area of cross section of wire has to fairly large and its number
of turns has to be very small. The circuit diagram of DC series motor is shown in the
figure below [12].

Rse

Series Field +
Supply
(V) Ra(Armature)

Fig 3.2.14 circuit diagram of DC series motor

Here armature current, Ia = series field current, Ise = line current, IL

i.e.; Ia = Ise = IL
Back emf (Eb) = V- I (Ra - Rse)
Power drawn from supply mains = VI
Mechanical power developed Pm = Power input – losses in armature and field
= VI – I2 (Ra + Rse)

3.2.1h (I) Operating Characteristics of DC series motor:

1) Speed current characteristics
2) Torque current characteristics
3) Speed torque characteristic

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3.2.1h (Ia) Speed current characteristics:

Speed

Current
Fig 3.2.15 Speed Current Characteristics

From the speed equation it is obvious that speed is directly proportional to back
emf, Eb and inversely proportional to flux per pole ф. Flux per pole is depending on field
current which in turn depends on armature current (Ise = Ia). So as armature current is
increases, speed decreases and vice versa. From the speed – current characteristic, it is
obvious that series motor is variable speed motor. With the decrease in load on DC series
motor speed increases, and become dangerously high at no load (light loads). So far this
reason series motors are never started at no load as the machine may get damaged due
heavy centrifugal forces set up in the rotating parts at dangerously high speed at no load.
The minimum load on DC series motor is not below 15% of full load.

3.2.1h (Ib) Torque current characteristics (Electrical characteristics):

Torque

Current

Fig 3.2.16 Torque Current Characteristics

From the expansion of mechanical torque T it is obvious that torque is directly

proportional to the product of flux per pole ф and armature current Ia. Up to saturation
point flux is proportional to field current and hence to the armature current, because Ia =

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If. Therefore on light load mechanical torque T is proportional to the square of the
armature current i.e, T α Ia2 and hence curve drawn between torque and armature current
up to saturation point is a parabola, as shown in the figure above.
After saturation point flux ф is almost independent of excitation current and so
the torque is proportional to the armature current i.e. T α Ia. Hence the characteristics
become a straight line. The useful torque is, of course, less than the total torque
developed. This is due to torque lost in iron and friction and windage loss. From this we
can infer that starting torque for DC series motor is high.

3.2.1h (Ic) Speed torque characteristics (Mechanical characteristics):

The Speed – Torque characteristics is shown in the figure below. Speed – Torque
characteristics, is also known as mechanical characteristics.

Speed

Torque
Fig 3.2.17 Speed Torque Characteristics

Speed sharply falls with the increase in torque for smaller values of load. But at
higher loads, the speed drops linearly but slowly with increasing torque. Hence series
motors are best suited for services where the motor is directly coupled to the load such as
fans whose speed falls with the increase in load torque(11).

3.2.1h (II) Performance characteristics of DC series motors

In the below figure, four important characteristics of a dc series motor, namely
torque, speed, current and efficiency, each plotted against useful output power, are
shown. From the performance curves for a DC series motor it is noted that;

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 Armature current

Torque
Efficiency

Speed

Fig 3.2.18 Performance Characteristics of DC series

motor

i) The speed of series motor falls rapidly with the increase in load, so a
series motor is not suitable for services requiring a substantially constant
speed.
ii) The efficiency increases rapidly in the beginning, reaches its maximum
value and then decreases. This is due to the fact that at light loads the friction
and iron losses are large compared with the load and effect to these losses
becomes less with the increase in load. The armature and field copper loss
varies as the square of the current, so these losses increase rapidly with the
increase in load. The efficiency become maximum when friction and iron
losses are practically equal to the copper loss.
iii) Series motor develops a starting torque comparatively greater than that
developed by a shunt motor for a given current. Hence series motors are best
suited where huge starting torque is required i.e. street cars, cranes, hoists and
locomotives.

3.2.1h (III) 22N28 210E DC series motor with K38 Gear box:

Fig 3.2.19 DC series Motor with gear

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 The DC series motor with the gear box assembly is shown in the figure 3.2.19
above. The two DC series motors used here are 22N28 210E which having a no-load
speed of 5900 rpm. In this high speed the controlling will be difficult and torque is less.
For improving the control of speed and getting high torque geared motor is one of the
best choice. The gear used here is K38 and it will reduce the speed by 100:1 ratio. Thus
the system works with the speed of nearly 60 rpm. The maximum continuous torque and
maximum continuous power of the motor is 7.3mNm and 3.8 watts respectively.

3.2.1(i) ULN 2803 Driver IC:

The ULN2803 contains eight darlington transistors with common emitters and
integral suppression diodes for inductive loads. The eight NPN Darlington connected
transistors in this family of arrays are ideally suited for interfacing between low logic
level digital circuitry and the higher current/voltage requirements of lamps, relays, printer
hammers or other similar loads for a broad range of computer, industrial, and consumer
applications Each darlington features a peak load current rating of 600mA (500mA
continuous) and can withstand at least 50V in the off state. Outputs may be paralleled for
higher current capability. The ULN2803 is designed to be compatible with standard TTL
families. The main features are as follows [13]:
Eight Darlingtons with common emitters
Output current up to 500 mA
Output voltage up to 50V
Integral Suppression diodes
Versions for all popular logic families
Output can be paralleled

Fig 3.2.20 Pin diagram of ULN2803

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 Fig 3.2.21 Circuit Diagram of ULN2803 Driver IC

The above figure 3.2.21 shows the diagram of driver circuit part of the main
system. The four input signals form the microcontroller is coming to the pins 1, 2, 3 and
4; the corresponding output is generated from 18, 17, 16 and 15. The input signal
amplitude is either ‘0’V or ‘5’V depending on the application. In the output pins the
signals will be inverted form from the input. In figure the resistors R1 to R4 will limit the
voltage to the driver IC and R5 to R8 are pull up resistors. The diodes D1 to D4 are for
the protection purpose that is to avoid the reverse current flow from the bridge circuit.

3.2.1(i) MAX232 IC:

The MAX232 was the first IC which in one package contains the necessary
drivers (two) and receivers (also two), to adapt the RS-232 signal voltage levels to TTL
logic. It became popular, because it just needs one voltage (+5V) and generates the
necessary RS-232 voltage levels (approx. -10V and +10V) internally. This greatly
simplified the design of circuitry. Circuitry designers no longer need to design and build
a power supply with three voltages (e.g. -12V, +5V, and +12V), but could just provide
one +5V power supply , e.g. with the help of a simple 7805 voltage converter.
It should be noted that the MAX232 is just a driver/receiver. It does not generate
the necessary RS-232 sequence of marks and spaces with the right timing, it does not

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decode RS-232 signal, it does not provide a serial/parallel conversion. All it does is to
convert signal voltage levels. The key features of MAX232 are as follows [14].

3.2.1 i(i) Features of MAX232

Operate from Single +5V Power Supply (+5V and +12V).
Low-Power Receive Mode in Shutdown
Multiple Drivers and Receivers
3-State Driver and Receiver Outputs
Open-Line Detection.

3.2.1 i(ii) Pin Description of MAX232

Fig 3.2.22 Pin Diagram of MAX232

Fig 3.2.23 Circuit diagram of MAX 232 IC

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 The circuit diagram of MAX232 IC is shown in the figure 3.2.23 above. In order
to make two devices communicate, whether they are desktop computers,
microcontrollers, or any other form of integrated circuit, we need a method of
communication and an agreed-upon language. The most common form of communication
between electronic devices is serial communication. Communicating serially involves
sending a series of digital pulses back and forth between devices at a mutually agreed-
upon rate. The sender sends pulses representing the data to be sent at the agreed-upon
data rate, and the receiver listens for pulses at that same rate. This is what’s known as
asynchronous serial communication. There isn’t one common clock in asynchronous
serial communication; instead, both devices have their own clock and agree on a rate to
which to set their clocks.
Here the two devices PC and microcontroller are to exchange data at a rate of
9600 bits per second. First, we would make three connections between these devices:
a) a common ground connection, so both devices have a common reference point to
measure voltage by;
b) one wire for the sender to send data to the receiver on (transmit line for the
sender);
c) One wire for the receiver to send data to the sender on (receive line for the
sender).

3.2.1(j) Visual Basic Graphical user interface.

Instead of keypad, the navigational system can be controlled by using serial port
communication. Using MAX 232 IC and RS 232 cable we can connect it to a computer.
There are many programs and tools to interface a computer with microcontroller or other
peripherals. Visual Basic tool is one of the best user friendly graphical interface which is
widely used nowadays. The aged people, who is using walking support system is not
aware of software programs or tools. Here the importance of Visual Basic tool, which is
having colorful graphical front end. Using the mouse only we can control the moving
system. The below figure 3.2.24 shows the visual basic front end for the walking support
system.

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 Fig 3.2.24 Visual Basic front end
When the person presses a particular switch then the background color of the
button in the front will change from red to green. Thus the person who operates it can
easily understand the direction of the moving system. The below figure 3.2.25 shows the
system moving towards the forward direction.

Fig 3.2.25 Visual Basic front end for forward direction

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 When any key is pressed then a character is sent to the microcontroller and the
microcontroller will send to the control signals to the bridge circuit according to the
character which it received. When forward key is pressed then both the motors will
rotates at clockwise direction that is the signal to bridge circuit will be ‘1 0 1 0’. For
moving reverse direction, the both motors moves anticlockwise direction then the signal
voltage to bridge circuit will be ‘0 1 0 1’. For moving right direction the right motor
moves anticlockwise (backward) and left motor moves clockwise (forward) direction.
The control signal to the bridge for right direction is ‘1 0 0 1’. Like for left direction the
control signals will be ‘0 1 1 0’.

3.3 Flow chart of the moving system:

START

X = Distance,
Y = angle

NO
Is switch A //Auto mode
S1 is open

YES(Manual)

Is any key No movement

pressed

NO NO
Is Forward Is Right key Is Reverse Is Left key
key pressed pressed key pressed pressed

YE YE YE YE

Move Forward Move Right Move Right Move Right

MotorL_clk = 1; MotorL_clk = 1; MotorL_clk = 0; MotorL_clk = 0;
MotorL_Acl = 0; MotorL_Acl = 0; MotorL_Acl = 1; MotorL_Acl = 1;
MotorR_clk = 1; MotorR_clk = 0; MotorR_clk = 0; MotorR_clk = 1;
MotorR_Acl = 0; MotorR_Acl = 1; MotorR_Acl = 1; MotorR_Acl = 0;

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 A

Distance = X

Move Forward

NO
Is distance <
STOP
X

YES
NO
Is Obstacle
Detected

YES

NO
Is Obstacle at
left

Move Right to Y0 Move Left to Y0

Move Forward to ‘P’ Move Forward to ‘P’

distance distance

Move Left to 2Y0 Move Right to 2Y0

Move Forward to ‘P’ Move Forward to ‘P’

distance distance

Move Right to Y0 Move Left to Y0

Fig 3.3.1 Flow chart of Navigational system

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3.4 Circuit diagram of Navigational system

Fig 3.4.1 circuit diagram of Navigational system

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3.5. Summary
Detailed descriptions of the blocks are given along with the characteristics and
operational description and flowcharts are given. Description of the DC motor driving IC,
Serial port communication channel along with MAX232 and microcontroller are
presented.
Having given this description, a detailed analysis of the moving system, results
and inferences drawn from experiments conducted with the moving system is specified in
the coming chapter. These include experimental results, tables and graphical plots.

34 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 4
EXPERIMENTAL WORK AND RESULTS

4.1 Introduction:
Having given a brief description of the architecture of the fabricated moving
system, a detailed explanation about the analysis is considered here. This analysis
consists of two major sections as:
a) Analysis of the moving system unit in manual mode
b) Analysis of the moving system unit in automatic mode
These analysis are done with the DC series motor driven navigational system in different
speeds and different paths.

4.2 Moving system unit with DC series motors:

Fig 4.2.1 Moving system unit with DC series motor

The moving system so built, consists of two gear wheels in the rear view attached
to each DC motor on both sides and one wheel acting as supporting wheel on front side.
The main circuit board and the keypads are placed in a box. It includes all the circuit
components embedded on it. A supply of 12 V DC has been taken from a regulated
power supply of 0 - 15 V or a battery can also be used. A hole is drilled at the centre of
the axis of both motors in platform for placing a pointer at the rear end for keeping it in
exact position.

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4.3 ANALYSIS (Manual mode):
4.3.1 Introduction:
The above described moving systems are subjected to the following experiment.
They are energized to follow the path as described as under. The analysis is done at
different speeds (Low – 1cm/s, Medium – 6.25cm/s and High 12.5cm/s). The control
signals are generated so as to guide the moving system to follow. Both X and Y axes are
in centimeters.
a) Horizontal path
b) Vertical path and
c) Triangular path
d) Rectangular path
e) A random path
Each is discussed separately in detail as under.

Initial conditions: The supporting wheel must be in a right position as marked with a
dotted line shown in the Fig 4.2.1to minimize the positional error. This can be observed
by placing a marker at the center of axis of both motors on the rear side.

4.3.1(a) Case 1: For the vertical path:

Fig 4.3.1 Vertical path analysis

Results have been taken by starting the moving system from the coordinates (10,
0) on a X-Y plane by providing a straight vertical path up to (10, 25). And observed that
the system traced the coordinates (9.5, 25) at medium and high speeds. At low speed the

36 | P a g e
 system traced the same path. The graph below shows the paths which system traced for
the vertical path.
Model calculation:

Fig 4.3.2 Vertical path – Model calculation

For an ideal case, δx = 0 and δy = 0. At the specified point (10,15) it is observed

that, the system traced the coordinates (9.5,15) with medium and high speeds making δx
= 0.5 and δy = 0. By these observations it is calculated √(δx2 + δy2) (RMS) and found to
be 0.5 as indicated in the table below and no error at low speed.

Initial Command Codes for Desired Error in Actual RMS Angul

2
position from the Motor M1 and final Displaceme distance √δx + ar
Speed keypad Motor M2 position nt travelled √δy2 error
in Cm in (θ)
H V H V
Low (10, 0) F 01 (10, 25) 0 0 0 0 0 0
01
High
01
and (10, 0) F (10, 25) 0.5 0 9.5 25 0.5 1.145
01
Medium
Table 4.3.1 Tabulation column for vertical path

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Operational Description (Forward Direction):
The system designed as follows:
1) Keyboard
2) MAX 232 IC
3) Microcontroller
4) ULN 2803
5) Bridge 1
6) Bridge 2
7) Motor 1
8) Motor 2

Fig 4.3.3 Schematic for operational description for forward direction

A command ‘F’ is given from the keypad for the forward direction, a logic high
appears at the input port of the MAX232 through RS232 serial communication channel
from the keyboard. This data is in serial form and it is sent to the port C (RC 7) of the
microcontroller. From the character it received from the MAX 232 IC, 1 for forward
direction, the moving system will move forward direction. If ‘F’ key is pressed, then case
1 in the direction register is executed. It’s for to move the system forward. The pins RD 4
and RD 6 produces pulses and these pins are connected to the pins of ULN 2803. The
output f ULN 2803 is just inverted form of its input and given as the control input to the
motor through the bridge circuits. The actual waveform that appears across the output of
the ULN 2803 IC is shown in the figure below as observed through the oscilloscope.

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 Fig 4.3.4 Control signals for motor M1 in forward direction

Fig 4.3.5 Control signals for motor M2 in forward direction

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Operational Description (Backward Direction)
The system designed as follows:
1) Keyboard
2) MAX 232 IC
3) Microcontroller
4) ULN 2803
5) Bridge 1
6) Bridge 2
7) Motor 1
8) Motor 2

Fig 4.3.6 Schematic for operational description for Reverse direction

Similarly as described above for the forward direction, a logic high appears at the
input port of the MAX232 through RS232 serial communication channel from the
keyboard. This data is in serial form and it is sent to the port C (RC 7) of the
microcontroller. From the character it received from the MAX 232 IC, 2 for reverse
direction, the moving system will move reverse direction. If ‘B’ key is pressed, then case
2 in the direction register is executed. It’s for to move the system reverse. The pins RD 5
and RD 7 produces pulses and these pins are connected to the pins of ULN 2803. The
output f ULN 2803 is just inverted form of its input and given as the control input to the
motor through the bridge circuits. The actual waveform that appears across the output of
the ULN 2803 IC is shown in the figure below as observed through the oscilloscope.

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 Fig 4.3.7 Control signals for motor M1 in reverse direction

Fig 4.3.8 Control signals for motor M2 in reverse direction

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4.3.1(b) Case 2: For the Horizontal path:

Fig 4.3.9 Horizondal path analysis

By starting the moving system from the coordinates (10,0) on a X-Y plane by
providing a straight horizontal path up to (35,0). And observed that the system traced the
coordinates (35, 0.7) for medium speed, (35, 0.2) for high speed and (35, -0.4) for low
speed.

Model Calculation:

Fig 4.3.10 Horizondal path – model calculation

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 For an ideal case, δx = 0 and δy = 0. At the specified point (35, 0) it is observed
that, the system traced the coordinates (35, -0.4) with low speed, (35, 0.7) with medium
speed and (35, 0.2) with high speed. The observations and the errors are indicated in the
table below and no error at low speed.

Actual
Command Codes for Desired Error in distance RMS Angular
Speed Initial from the Motor M1 final Displacement travelled √δx2 + error in
2
position keypad and Motor position in Cm √δy (θ)
M2 H V H V
Low (10, 0) F 01 (35, 10) 0 -0.4 35 -0.4 0.4 0.92
01
Medium (10, 0) F 01 (35, 10) 0 0.7 35 0.7 0.7 1.60
01
High (10, 0) 01 (35, 10) 0 0.2 35 0.2 0.2 0.46
01

Table 4.3.2 Tabulation column for Horizontal path

4.3.1(c) Case 3: For the Triangular path:

Fig 4.3.11 Triangular path analysis

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 By starting the moving system from the coordinates (10, 5) on a X-Y plane by
providing a straight path up to (20, 20) then the starting point (10, 5) through (30, 5).
From the below graph it is clear that the error is large at medium speed.

Model calculation:

Fig 4.3.12 Triangular path – Model calculation

Initial Command Codes for Desired Error in Actual RMS Angular

position from the Motor M1 final Displacement distance √δx2 + error in
keypad and position travelled in √δy2 (θ)
Motor M2 Cm
H V H V

(10, 5) F 01 (20, 20) 0 0 20 20 0 0

01
(10, 20) R 10 (20, 20) 0 0 20 20 0 0
01
(20, 20) F 01 (30, 5) 0 0 30 5 0 0
01
(30, 5) R 10 (30, 5) 0 0 30 5 0 0
01
(30, 5) F 01 (10, 5) 0 0 10 5 0 0
01

Table 4.3.3 Tabulation column for Triangular path (Low speed)

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 Initial Command Codes for Desired Error in Actual RMS Angular
position from the Motor M1 final Displacement distance √δx2 + error in
keypad and position travelled in √δy2 (θ)
Motor M2 Cm
H V H V

(10, 5) F 01 (20, 20) 0 0 19.8 20 0.2 0.64

01
(10, 20) R 10 (20, 20) 0 0 19.8 20 0 0
01
(20, 20) F 01 (30, 5) 1.1 0.5 31.1 4.5 1.21 2.54
01
(30, 5) R 10 (30, 5) 1.1 0.5 31.1 4.5 0 0
01
(30, 5) F 01 (10, 5) 0.3 0.5 9.7 4.5 0.58 1.62
01

Table 4.3.4 Tabulation column for Triangular path (Medium speed)

Initial Command Codes for Desired Error in Actual RMS Angular

position from the Motor M1 final Displacement distance √δx2 + error in
keypad and position travelled in √δy2 (θ)
Motor M2 Cm
H V H V

(10, 5) F 01 (20, 20) 0 0.1 20 20.1 0.1 0.39

01
(10, 20) R 10 (20, 20) 0 0 20 20.1 0 0
01
(20, 20) F 01 (30, 5) 0.3 0.1 30 4.9 0.32 0.94
01
(30, 5) R 10 (30, 5) 0 0 30 4.9 0 0
01
(30, 5) F 01 (10, 5) 0 0.2 10 4.8 0.2 0.56
01

Table 4.3.5 Tabulation column for Triangular path (High speed)

Operational Description (Right Direction):
The system designed as follows:
1) Keyboard

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 2) MAX 232 IC
3) Microcontroller
4) ULN 2803
5) Bridge 1
6) Bridge 2
7) Motor 1
8) Motor 2

Fig 4.3.13 Schematic for operational description for Right direction

A command ‘R’ is given from the keypad for the forward direction, a logic high
appears at the input port of the MAX232 through RS232 serial communication channel
from the keyboard. This data is in serial form and it is sent to the port C (RC 7) of the
microcontroller. From the character it received from the MAX 232 IC, 1 for forward
direction, the moving system will move forward direction. If ‘R’ key is pressed, then case
1 in the direction register is executed. It’s for to move the system forward. The pins RD 4
and RD 7 produces pulses and these pins are connected to the pins of ULN 2803. The
output f ULN 2803 is just inverted form of its input and given as the control input to the
motor through the bridge circuits. The actual waveform that appears across the output of
the ULN 2803 IC is shown in the figure below as observed through the oscilloscope.

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 Fig 4.3.14 Control signals for motor M1 in right direction

Fig 4.3.15 Control signals for motor M2 in right direction

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4.3.1(d) Case 4: For the Rectangular path:

Fig 4.3.16 Rectangular path analysis

By starting the moving system from the coordinates (10, 5) on a X-Y plane by
providing a straight path up to (35, 5) then the starting point (10, 5) through (10, 15)
(30,15). From the below graph it is clear that the error is large at medium speed.

Fig 4.3.17 Rectangular path – Model calculation

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 Initial Command Codes for Desired Error in Actual RMS Angular
position from the Motor M1 final Displacement distance √δx2 + error in
keypad and position travelled in √δy2 (θ)
Motor M2 Cm
H V H V
(10, 5) F 01 (10, 15) 0 0 10 15 0 0
01
(10, 15) R 10 (10, 15) 0 0 10 15 0 0
01
(10, 15) F 01 (30, 15) 0 0 30 15 0 0
01
(30, 15) R 10 (30, 15) 0 0 30 15 0 0
01
(30, 15) F 01 (10, 5) 0 0 35 5 0 0
01
(35, 5) R 10 (35, 5) 0 0 35 5 0 0
01
(30, 5) F 01 (10, 5) 0 0 10 5 0 0
01

Table 4.3.6 Tabulation column for Rectangular path (Low speed)

Initial Command Codes for Desired Error in Actual RMS Angular

position from the Motor M1 final Displacement distance √δx2 + error in
keypad and position travelled in √δy2 (θ)
Motor M2 Cm
H V H V
(10, 5) F 01 (10, 15) 0 0.2 10 15.2 0.2 0
01
(10, 15) R 10 (10, 15) 0 0 10 15.2 0 0
01
(10, 15) F 01 (30, 15) 0 0 30 15 0 0
01
(30, 15) R 10 (30, 15) 0 0 30 15 0 0
01
(30, 15) F 01 (10, 5) 1 0.3 36 4.7 1.04 5.14
01
(35, 5) R 10 (35, 5) 0 0 36 4.7 0 0
01
(30, 5) F 01 (10, 5) 0 0.3 10 4.7 0.3 0.67
01

Table 4.3.7 Tabulation column for Rectangular path (Medium speed)

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 Initial Command Codes for Desired Error in Actual RMS Angular
position from the Motor M1 final Displacement distance √δx2 + error in
keypad and position travelled in √δy2 (θ)
Motor M2 Cm
H V H V
(10, 5) F 01 (10, 15) 0 0.4 10 15.4 0.4 0
01
(10, 15) R 10 (10, 15) 0 0 10 15.4 0 0
01
(10, 15) F 01 (30, 15) 0.1 0.5 31.1 15.5 0.50 1.14
01
(30, 15) R 10 (30, 15) 0 0 31.1 15.5 0 0
01
(30, 15) F 01 (10, 5) 0.1 0 35.1 5 .1 0.55
01
(35, 5) R 10 (35, 5) 0 0 35.1 5 0 0
01
(30, 5) F 01 (10, 5) 0 1 10 4 1 2.28
01

Table 4.3.8 Tabulation column for Rectangular path (High speed)

4.3.1(e) Case 5: For the Random path:

Fig 4.3.18 Random path analysis

By starting the moving system from the coordinates (10, 5) on a X-Y plane by
providing a straight path up to (35, 5) then the starting point (10, 5) through (10, 15)
(30,15). From the below graph it is clear that the error is large at medium speed.

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Model calculation:

Fig 4.3.19 Random path – Model calculation

Initial Command Codes for Desired Error in Actual RMS Angular

position from the Motor M1 final Displacement distance √δx2 + error in
keypad and position travelled in √δy2 (θ)
Motor M2 Cm
H V H V
(38, 0) F 01 (38, 11) 0 0 38 0 0 0
01
(38, 11) L 01 (38, 11) 0 0 38 0 0 0
10
(38, 11) F 01 (20.5, 28.5) 0 0 20.5 28.5 0 0
01
(20.5, L 01 (20.5, 28.5) 0 0 20.5 28.5 0 0
28.5) 10
(20.5, F 01 (10, 18) 0 0 10 18 0 0
28.5) 01
(10, 18) L 01 (10, 18) 0 0 10 18 0 0
10
(10, 18) F 01 (10, 0) 0 0 10 0 0 0
01
Table 4.3.9 Tabulation column for Random path (Low speed)

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 Initial Command Codes for Desired Error in Actual RMS Angular
position from the Motor M1 final Displacement distance √δx2 + error in
keypad and position travelled in √δy2 (θ)
Motor M2 Cm
H V H V
(38, 0) F 01 (38, 11) 0 0.1 38 11.1 0.1 0.52
01
(38, 11) L 01 (38, 11) 0 0 38 11.1 0 0
10
(38, 11) F 01 (20.5, 28.5) 0.6 0.5 19.9 28 0.78 1.38
01
(20.5, L 01 (20.5, 28.5) 0 0 19.9 28 0 0
28.5) 10
(20.5, F 01 (10, 18) 0.8 0 10.8 18 0.8 3.20
28.5) 01
(10, 18) L 01 (10, 18) 0 0 10.8 18 0 0
10
(10, 18) F 01 (10, 0) 0.4 0 10.4 0 0.4 1.28
01

Table 4.3.10 Tabulation column for Random path (Medium speed)

Initial Command Codes for Desired Error in Actual RMS Angular

position from the Motor M1 final Displacement distance √δx2 + error in
keypad and position travelled in √δy2 (θ)
Motor M2 Cm
H V H V
(38, 0) F 01 (38, 11) 0.2 0 38.2 11 0.2 1.04
01
(38, 11) L 01 (38, 11) 0 0 38.2 11 0 0
10
(38, 11) F 01 (20.5, 28.5) 0.8 0.8 19.7 27.7 1.13 1.84
01
(20.5, L 01 (20.5, 28.5) 0 0 19.7 27.7 0 0
28.5) 10
(20.5, F 01 (10, 18) 0.2 0 10.2 18 0.2 0.82
28.5) 01
(10, 18) L 01 (10, 18) 0 0 10.2 18 0 0
10
(10, 18) F 01 (10, 0) 0.2 0 9.8 0 0.2 0.64
01
Table 4.3.11 Tabulation column for Random path (High speed)

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Operational Description (Right Direction):
The system designed as follows:
1) Keyboard
2) MAX 232 IC
3) Microcontroller
4) ULN 2803
5) Bridge 1
6) Bridge 2
7) Motor 1
8) Motor 2

Fig 4.3.20 Schematic for operational description for Left direction

A command ‘L’ is given from the keypad for the forward direction, a logic high
appears at the input port of the MAX232 through RS232 serial communication channel
from the keyboard. This data is in serial form and it is sent to the port C (RC 7) of the
microcontroller. From the character it received from the MAX 232 IC, 1 for forward
direction, the moving system will move forward direction. If ‘R’ key is pressed, then case
1 in the direction register is executed. It’s for to move the system forward. The pins RD 5
and RD 6 produces pulses and these pins are connected to the pins of ULN 2803. The
output f ULN 2803 is just inverted form of its input and given as the control input to the
motor through the bridge circuits. The actual waveform that appears across the output of
the ULN 2803 IC is shown in the figure below as observed through the oscilloscope.

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 Fig 4.3.21 Control signals for motor M1 in Left direction

Fig 4.3.22 Control signals for motor M2 in Left direction

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4.4 ANALYSIS (Auto mode):
When switch S1 is pressed, then a low signal goes to the 17th pin (RC 2) of the
microcontroller. According to the program it will goes to the predefined path. When
switch is closed, then the system goes straight to 100cms. When 100 pulses are over
system will automatically stop. If any obstacle is there in the path of the system the IR
sensors detects that and system moves to the opposite direction by 320 that is between 3
holes of the encoder disc. Then again it goes to 10cm forward direction and rotate the
direction opposite to the first rotation the angle rotates here is 640. After 10 cm again it
changes its position 320 and now it’s in the path which is predefined. The signal flow in
auto mode is shown in the figure below.

Fig 4.4.1 Control signals for motors in auto mode

Predefined path:

Fig 4.4.2 Predefined path in Auto mode analysis

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 Results have been taken by starting the moving system from the coordinates (10,
0) on a X-Y plane by providing a straight vertical path up to (10, 100). And observed that
the system traced the coordinates (10, 100) at low speed, (8, 101) at medium and (6, 100)
at high speed. At low speed the system traced the same path. The graph below shows the
paths which system traced in auto mode.

Model Calculation:

Fig 4.4.3 Model calculation – auto mode

Initial Command Codes for Motor Desired Error in Actual RMS Angular
position from the M1 and Motor M2 final Displacement distance √δx +
2
error in
Speed keypad position travelled in √δy 2
(θ)
Cm
H V H V
Low (10, 0) F 01 (10, 100) 0 0 0 0 0 0
01
(10, 0) F (10, 100) 2 1 8 100 2.23 1.32
Medium 01
01
(10, 100) 4 0 6 100 4 2.29
01
(10, 0) F
High 01

Table 4.4.1 Tabulation column for predefined path

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 In different speeds that is low, medium and high speeds the system took different
times to rotate the angle 320 the table below shows the time required to the system to
rotate 320 with different speeds.

Speed (cm/s) Time (s)

1 cm/s 6.32s
6.25 cm/s 2.17s
12.5 cm/s 1.16s

Table 4.4.2 Speed Vs time at 320

4.5 Summary
Having given a brief description of the navigational system, analysis has been
carried out by considering a vertical path, a horizontal path, triangular path, vertical path
and a Random path. The positional error in terms of angle (θ) and in terms of RMS is
calculated for all the paths. It is observed that the moving system with medium speed is
giving large error and in low speeds no error with DC motors.
The importance of automatic, well controlled navigation of vehicles and moving
systems are gaining more and more importance in the modern industrial arena. Hence,
any attempt towards this area is not at all going to be in vain in the students of post
graduate level. The work of this thesis is in this direction and therefore justified.

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 CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE

5.1 Summary and Conclusion:

A detailed review, presenting the important work going on the navigational
systems area, has been given at the beginning. This has been given with a view to
enlighten the reader with the significance of this type of work in the modern industrial
scenario.

A detailed description about the design and fabrication of the moving system is
given next. The type of driving systems, moving mechanism, microcontrollers used for
the purpose are given in detail. Their operational description, under the influence of
selected driving forces is presented. The specifications of each components / modules
were also considered in detail. The systems with manual mode and auto mode using DC
series motors were described.

The details of the experiments conducted upon the moving systems and
subsequent analysis done is the content of the 4th chapter. The moving systems are
subjected to move in the forward, backward and also through well defined curved
trajectories. The task was performed for both manual and auto mode using DC series
motors separately. The actual trajectory traced by the moving system was compared with
the desired trajectory through the actual experiment. The deviation shown by the moving
systems in different cases are noted and analyzed.

From the experimental results it is concluded that in the low speeds the
navigational system with DC series motor follows the desired path without any error and
medium speeds the system producing more error compared to its high speeds.

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5.2 Suggestions for future work
A video camera placed on the moving system to send the video signal of the
system to the computer so that the user knows what exactly the system (robot) is heading.
The usage of sensors for prescribed applications such as detecting mines and exploring
the unsafe environment and so on. It is possible to implement a web based control which
allows the user to control and access the data from anywhere. Simultaneously, it is
possible to control four moving systems at a time through a single microcontroller.

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 REFERENCES

(1) I. Firmansyah, B.Hermanto and L.T. Handoko “Control and Monitoring System
for Modular Wireless Robot”, Group for Theoretical and Computational
Physic,Research Center for Physics, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Kompleks,
PuspiptekSerpong, Tangerang 15310, Indonesia

(2) Rajendra Agrawal “Temperature sensing Robot” project report Co.,Department

of Mechanical and Aerospace engineering, University of buffalo, spring 2003.

(3) Wai Phyo Aung, “Analysis on Modeling and Simulink of DCMotor and its
Driving System Used for Wheeled Mobile Robot” World Academy of Science,
Engineering and Technology 32 2007

(4) Society of Robots web link: http://www.society of

robots.com/programming_data_logging.shtml.

(5) http://www.society of robots.com/robot_tutorial.shtml.

(6) Rajender Naik “On the design fabrication and performance evaluation of an
electronic navigational system” project report, Department of Electrical
Engineering, NIT Calicut

(7) Thomas Braunl, “Embedded Robotic, Mobile Robot Design and Applications
with Embedded System”, Springer, 2003.

(8) http://www.microchip.com/downloads/en/devicedoc/39582b.pdf

(9) http://www.datasheetarchive.com/MOC7811-datasheet.html

(10) http://www.datasheetcatalog.com/datasheets_pdf/T/I/P/1/TIP122.shtml

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 (11) http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/TI%2FTIP127.pdf

(12) J B Guptha “Theory & Performance Of Electrical Machines” published by S.

K. Kataria & Sons.

(13) http://www.datasheetcatalog.com/datasheets_pdf/U/L/N/2/ULN2803.shtml

(14) http://focus.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/max232.pdf

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