ABSTRACT

In this experiment, we are able to determine the pressure drop, nature of flow and performance in
the filter bed. Before that, we need to set up the apparatus. To set up this, make sure that we get
help from a technician because it is complicated to set up.

For the first experiment, we have to find the head loss of load of a porous. There are two method
to find the head loss. First method is by measuring from the manometer which is the difference
reading between the tube 1 and 30. Second method is by calculating from the equation that is
provided. For the first method, head loss is calculated from the readings of manometer which is
the differences of reading between tube 1 and 30. Make sure that we change a flow rate for each
reading. To calculate the theoretical reading, we need the value of λ and F’f. Before that, we
have to determine the value of voidage and FRe. From the calculation, the value of voidage is
0.5592. By using this value, we can find the value of FRe by referring to the Figure 3. We also
can find the value of F’f by referring to the Figure 5. Then, we can calculate the Reynolds
number. From the Reynolds number, we can find the value of λ. After that, we calculate the
theoretical head loss. Besides that, we plot the graph of experimental and theoretical head loss
versus flow rate. We can see that the head loss is proportional to the flow rate. When we
compare the value of head loss for both methods, we can see that the value of experimental head
loss is less than the theoretical head loss. It means that the friction factor is less affected the
experimental head loss.

For the second experiment, we need to determine the head losses with respect to time. First,
prepare the solid suspension liquid in tank D2 (about 100g of flour). Before start the timing, wait
until the cloudy reached the packed bed. Readings are taken after 30 minutes and collect the
samples at each tabulated points below and measure the turbidity of the samples by using
turbidimeter. Repeat the reading in every 30 minutes. Then plot the graph of length of column, L
versus pressure drop. From the graph, we can see that the length of column, L is inversely
proportional to the pressure drop. Pressure drop becomes larger when the length of column
decreases. Then, we plot the graph of length of column versus turbidity. From the graph, we can
see that it doesn’t show any pattern of the graph. It is so difficult to analyze the graph. But from
the theory, when the water sample has a higher value of turbidity, it shown that the water is not
clean. From the data, it shown that for the first 30 minutes, tube 20 has a higher value of turbidity
1
which is 117. After 60 minutes, tube 25 has a higher value of turbidity which is 179 and after 90
minutes, tube 1 and 6 has a higher value of turbidity which is 113. There are some error occur
during conduct this experiment.

INTRODUCTION

Filtration is a physical operation which is used to separate solid from liquid. A porous
layer is used which the fluid can flow but the solid in then fluid are retained. Filtration is used in
the industry and there are many reasons why it is important:

• It is used for purification of fluids which is for instance separating dust from the
atmosphere to clean ambient air.

• It is used for separating a material which contents a different composition in solution.

• It is used as one of the unit operations of chemical engineering.

• It is used to measure pressure drop profiles through the filter

• It used to measure suspension concentration profiles through the filter bed

Other reasons:

• To separate solid waste from valuable liquid.e.g solid suspension from oil.

• To separate both solid and liquid even if both does not have commercial value.

• To separate both solid and liquid when both have commercial value.

A deep bed filter (Figure 1) allows particles penetrated into the interstices of the filter bed where
then they are trapped following impingement on the surfaces of the material of the bed. The very

2
fine particles of solids are removed by mechanical action but the particles finally adhere as a
result of surface electrostatic forces or adsorption. ‘

Limitations to the use of filtration:

Filtration cannot:

• Removes solutes in solution (although filters that are able to retain an active microbial
population can partially operate as bioreactors and produce some degradation of soluble
materials);

• Separate chemical constituents present in the same phase;

• Be used to process viscous materials;

• Be used to process solid wastes.

For the filtration process, filter medium should be used. The filter medium is the element that
produces the filtering action. It includes:

• Filter screens and supporting septa (e.g a fabric screen)

• Beds of particulate materials (e.g sand, coal)

• Beds of solids screened from the solid-liquid suspension (e.g biosolids in sludge
thickening) or a slurry (e.g diatomaceous earth)

Then, this experiment will show the change of concentration or turbidity of the samples. In
addition, turbidity is defined as an expression of the optical property that causes light to be
scattered rather than transmitted in a straight line through a water sample.

OBJECTIVES

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The objectives of this experiment are to determine the pressure drop through the filter bed. The
second objective is to determine the nature of flow in filter bed. The third objective is to
determine the performance of the bed.

THEORY

Darcy – Weisbach Formulation

The formula involves the study of straight pipe in which an incompressible fluid flows in it.
Consider the following functional relationship:

∆P = f (v, ρ, D, µ, L, ε)

where

∆P Pressure drop between two points

v Velocity of fluid

ρ Density of fluid

D Pipe diameter

µ Viscosity of fluid

L Length of pipe

Ε Roughness of pipe wall

From above, seven magnitudes are expressed as a function of three basic dimensions i.e. L, M
and T, which then form 4 dimensional parameters. By repeating v, ρ, D and with the addition of
other magnitudes, the parameters are:

∆P ρvD ε L
π1 = π2 = π2 = π2 =
ρv 2 µ D D

Thus, we can also express the relationship as dimensional function:

4
 ∆P ρvD ε L
=f , ,
ρv µ D D

Consider ∆P =ρghf, where hf is the loss of total load between two sections of the pipe, then

 L v 
2
H f = λ   
 D   2g 

Where λ is the friction factor from Moody diagram (Figure 2).

Friction factor, λ estimation

Nikuradse and moody determined the friction factors, λ experimentally where Nikuradse used
pipes with artificial roughness whilst Moody used commercial pipes with roughness is the
characteristics of the pipe. The results obtained by Moody are shown in figure 2.

From the diagram, following are the parameters that can be considered;

a. For Re < 2000, in the fluid flow, friction factor only dependence on Reynolds number but
not wall roughness, ε where λ = 64/Re

b. The transition region of Reynolds number gives the friction factor, λ depending
simultaneously on the viscous effects and on the roughness of the pipe and hence

c. For sufficiently high Re number, the viscous effect do not cause effect and the friction
factor, λ only depend on the roughness of the wall, where

Pressure drop in porous beds

5
The pressure drop caused by the contact between particles and the media accompanying the flow
of the fluid can be calculated using the following general procedure:

a. Reynolds number of the fluid flow in the packed bed, Re’ based on the diameter of the
particles, dp and the approach velocity of the fluid to the bed, va is affected by the correction
coefficient, FRe (Figure 3) where;

 ρva d p 
Re' = 
 µ 
 FRe
 

where FRe = f(X, ψ) X – porosity / voidage of the bed

ψ – sphericity

b. The friction factor, λ’ (Figure 4) depends on Reynolds number, Re’ so

λ’ = f(Re’)

c. The pressure drop in the porous drop gives similar expression to the pressure drop

in pipes but however, it is affected by correction coefficient, Ff’ (Figure 5):

 L   va 2 
H f ' = λ  F '
d   2g  f
 p   where Ff’ = f(X,ψ)

Data given:

Internal diameter of the column, D: 100 mm

Density of sand, ρp = 2650 kg/m3

Spericity of sand, ψ = 0.8

Diameter of sand, dp = 1 mm

Density of water, ρf = 1000 kg/m3

Viscosity of water, µf = 0.001 kg/ms

PROCEDURES

6
Preliminary experiment

1. Tank D1 and D2 are filled with clean water. Switch on the pump.

2. Valve V2 and V2’, V5 and V7 are opened. Then, the valve V4 and V6 are closed.

3. Valve V3 is adjusted to establish flow and allow the water to circulate in 2 to 3 minutes.

4. Make sure that there are no bubbles trapped in the water manometer column. Use purging
method to remove the bubbles by increasing water height in the manometer column until
the bubbles disappear. Then, measure also the total height of the bed.

Exp1: Lost of load of a porous bed

1. Valve V3 is adjusted and if necessary, close valve V2 to obtain the differences of

pressure of 1000mm between tube 1 and 30. Then, note the readings from tube 1 to tube
30.

2. The experiment is repeated to get the 10 different flows covering the range of flowmeter.
Take readings are noted in Table 1.

3. Fully open valve V2 and fully close valve V3 before stopping the pump to avoid entrance
of air to the circuit.

Exp 2: Loss of load hf’ in function of depth and time

1. The solid-suspension liquid is prepared in tank D2 about 100g of flour.

2. The clarity of the liquid is tested by using turbidimeter.

3. Start the pump with V1 and V2 completely open, V3 is closed.

4. Then, valve V3 is opened until flow Q= 60 L/min is reached.

5. Start the timing and register the time when the cloudy suspension reached the packed
bed.

6. The readings are noted in Table 2. Verify that the flow remains constant and if necessary,
the flow is adjusted by using valve V3.

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 7. The readings are repeated in every 30 minutes.

8. The samples are collected at each tabulated points below and measure the tubidity of the
samples by using turbidimeter. The results are recorded in Table 3.

9. When th experiments finished, stop the pump.

APPARATUS

1. 100g of flour
2. Clean water
3. Porous bed
4. Turbidimeter

Figure 1: The apparatus for deep bed filter experiment

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RESULTS

Experiment 1:

Flow rate, Q h1 h30 hf= h1- Va Re. no λ hf( theoretical)

(l/min) h30

50 628 572 56 1.77E-03 29.205 2.19 0.15

100 646 556 90 3.54E-03 58.41 1.10 0.31

150 664 535 129 5.31E-03 87.615 0.73 0.46

200 686 512 174 7.08E-03 116.82 0.55 0.61

250 708 482 226 8.85E-03 146.025 0.44 0.77

300 736 446 290 1.06E-02 174.9 0.37 0.92

350 766 396 370 1.24E-02 204.6 0.31 1.06

400 792 368 424 1.42E-02 234.3 0.27 1.21

450 822 318 504 1.59E-02 262.35 0.24 1.35

500 848 248 600 1.77E-02 292.05 0.22 1.53

Table: Data for experiment lost of load in a porous bed

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Graph of theoretical hf versus flow rate

Graph of experimental hf versus flow rate

Experiment 2:

10
Number L (mm) Laplased time(min)
of tube
30(min) ∆P 60(min) ∆P 90(min) ∆P

1 134 746 7318.26 754 7396.7 764 7494.84

4

2 164 738 7239.78 746 7318.2 756 7416.36

6

6 264 708 6945.48 716 7023.9 724 7102.44

6

10 364 680 6670.80 688 6749.2 698 6847.38

8

15 494 650 6376.50 660 6474.6 668 6553.08

0

20 614 612 6003.72 618 6062.5 624 6121.44

8

25 734 574 5630.94 580 5689.8 584 5729.04

0

30 1094 460 4512.60 458 4492.9 460 4512.60

8

Table 2: Loss of hf’ in function of depth and time

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Number of tube L (mm) Lapsed time (minutes)

30 60 90

1 134 103 122 113

2 164 108 160 96.4

6 264 107 128 113

10 364 98.9 131 64.4

15 494 116 134 86.4

20 614 117 112 99.2

25 734 113 179 99.2

30 1094 95.7 92.7 79.2

Table 3: Measure of turbidity of sample in function of depth and time.

The graph of length of column versus turbidity of sample.

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SAMPLE OF CALCULATION

Experiment 1: Lost of load of a porous bed

Data given :

Internal diameter of the column, D = 100 mm = 0.1 m

Density of the sand, ρp = 2650 kg / m³

Sphericity of sand,ψ = 0.8

Diameter of the sand,dp = 1 mm = 0.001 m

Density of water, ρf = 1000 kg/m³

Viscosity of water, µf = 0.001 kg/ms

Experiment 1: Lost of load in a porous bed.

ρb
Voidage, ε =1−
ρp

Where ρb = bulk density = water density

ρp = particle density

mass
ρb =
volume

πd 2
volume, v= l
4

= 8.5608 x 10-3 m3

The bulk density of the bed:

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 = 1168.12 kg/m3

voidage,

= 0.5592

To calculate the theoretical head loss hf of the porous bed;

For example, use the flow rate, Q= 50 l/hr = 13.89 x 10-6 m3/s

h f = h1 − h30
= 628-572
= 56 mmH2O

To calculate Va theoretical:

πd 2
Area, A =
4

π ( 0.1) 2
=
4
= 0.00785 m 2

For example, use Q= 50 l/ hr = 13.89 x 10-6 m3/s

= 1.77 x 10-3 m/s

To find the value of F’f and FRe :

F’f = f (X, ψ) = f (0.559, 0.8) = 400 (From Corrected Coefficient of Friction as a function of

corrected Re no. chart)

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FRe = f (X, ψ) = f (0.559, 0.8) = 16.5(From Correction Coefficient, FRe of Reynolds

number chart)

for example, use Q= 50 l/hr = 13.89 x 10-6 m3/s

Reynolds No. = Re’ = ρVadp FRe

= 1000 kgm-3 x 0.00177 ms-1 x 0.001m x 16.5

0.001 kgm-1s-1
= 29.205

So, when Re =29.205, λ= 64/Re = 2.19

h’f = λ (L) (va2) (F’f)

dp 2g

hf theoretical = λ (L) (va2) (F’f)

dp 2g

= 2.19 x 1.09 m x (1.77 x 10ˉ3 msˉ1)2 x 400

0.001 m x 2 x 9.81ms-2

= 0.15 m

Experiment 2: Loss of load hf as a function of depth and time

Pressure drop, ∆P = ρgh

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Sample taken from reading of the tube 1 for 30 minutes:

∆P = 1000 kg/m3 × 9.81 ms-2 × 0.134 m

= 1314.5 N/m2

DISCUSSION

For this experiment, we are able to determine the pressure drop across the bed. Then, we also can
determine the nature of flow in filter bed and determine the performance of the bed. For the first
experiment, we need to determine the head loss of load of a porous. For this section, there are
two methods to calculate the head loss. First method is by measuring from the manometer which
is the difference reading between the tube 1 and 30. Second method is by calculating from the
equation that is provided. First method: Make sure that we close the valve V2 to obtain the
differences of pressure of 1000mm between tube 1 and tube 30. Change a flow rate for each
reading. Note readings in every 2 minutes. For this experiment, we need to calculate the voidage
and the bulk density of the bed. The values of voidage and bulk density are 0.5592 and 1168.12
kg/m3. By using this voidage, we are able to determine the Correction coefficients, FRe of
Reynolds number from Figure 3. So, the value of FRe is 16.5.We also can determine the value of
Correction factor of the friction, F’f. we need to refer Figure 5 to determine the value of F’f. So,
by using the value of FRe, we calculate Reynold number. We can see that the Reynolds number
for each flow rate is less than 2000. So, we achieved the laminar flow and we can calculate the
theoretical head losses.

After that, plot the graph of experimental and theoretical hf versus flow rate. From the both
graph, it shown that the lost of load, hf is increasing proportionally with the flow rate. We can
see that the value of experimental head loss is less than the value of theoretical head loss. So, the
friction losses have less affected the experimental value.

Then, for the second experiment, we need to determine the head losses with respect to time. Note
the length of the selected tubes (tube 1, 2, 6, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30). Before that, we need to
prepare the solid-suspension liquid in tank D2 (about 100g of flour). Before start the timing, wait
until the cloudy suspension reached the packed bed. Collect the samples at each tabulated points
after 30 minutes and measure the turbidity of the samples by using turbidimeter. The purpose of
16
measured the turbidity is to measure the cleanliness of the water sample that has been filtered.
Then, repeat the reading in every 30 minutes. After get the results, we plot the graph of length of
column versus pressure drop, we can see that the length of column, L is inversely proportional to
the pressure drop. Pressure drop becomes larger when the length of column decreases. After get
the results, we plot the graph of length of column versus turbidity. From the graph, we can see
that it doesn’t show any pattern of the graph. It is so difficult to analyze the graph. We can say
that when the length of column is increased, the turbidity of the sample is not stable (sometimes
increase, sometimes decrease). From the theory, we can conclude that when the water sample has
the higher value of turbidity, it shown that the water is not clean. So, from the data, it shown that
for the first 30 minutes, tube 20 has a higher value of turbidity which is 117. After 60 minutes,
tube 25 has a higher value of turbidity which is 179 and after 90 minutes, tube 1 and 6 has a
higher value of turbidity which is 113. So, some error are detected during conduct this
experiment. For the second reading, we stirred the tank after start the timing. So, it will affect the
turbidity of sample. The cloudy of the flour will spread in the tank.

After get the results, we plot the graph of length of column versus turbidity. From the graph, we
can see that it doesn’t show any pattern of the graph. It is so difficult to analyze the graph. We
can say that when the length of column is increased, the turbidity of the sample is not stable
(sometimes increase, sometimes decrease). So, some error are detected during conduct this
experiment. For the second reading, we stirred the tank after start the timing. So, it will affect the
turbidity of sample. The cloudy of the flour will spread in the tank.

CONCLUSION

Generally, we can say that we are able to determine the pressure drop, nature of flow and the
performance of the bed although there are some error occur while conduct this experiment. For
the first experiment, we get the value of voidage which is 0.5592 and the value of bulk density of
bed which is 1168.12 kg/m3. Then, we need to find the theoretical and experimental head loss.
The results are shown in the result section.
17
For the first experiment, we plot the graph of head loss versus flow rate. We can see that from
both graphs, it shown a proportional graph. So, we can conclude that when flow rate increased,
the head losses also increase. From the results, the value of experimental head loss is less than
the theoretical head loss. We can say that the friction losses have less affected the experimental
value.

By using this voidage, we can determine the value of F’f and FRe by referring to Figure 5 and 3.
After getting the FRe, we can calculate the Reynolds number for each flow rate. So, each flow rate
has a Reynolds number less than 2000. So, the flow is laminar flow.

For the second experiment, we need to find the head loss in function of depth and time. Then, we
have to measure the turbidity of a sample to ensure that the sample of water is clean or not. We
plot the graph of length of column versus pressure drop. From the graph, we can conclude that
when the length of column becomes decrease, the pressure drop increase. So, the graph is
inversely proportional graph. We also plot the graph of length of column versus turbidity of
sample. To measure the turbidity of the sample, we use turbidimeter. We need to wait until 30
minutes and then taking a sample of water from the selected tube. Then, we test the sample.
After 30 minutes, tube 20 has a higher value of turbidity which is 117, after 60 minutes tube 25
has a higher value of turbidity which is 179 and after 90 minutes, tube 1 and 6 has a higher value
of turbidity which is 113.

RECOMMENDATION

There are few recommendation for this experiment. Before start the experiment, get help from
technician to set up the apparatus. It is because this equipment is very complicated to set up.
During allow the water to circulate, make sure that there is no bubble trapped in the manometer
column in order to get the accurate results. During take the reading, avoiding parallax error to get
the best results. For the second experiment, do not stir a tank that contains flour while taking

18
samples. It will disturb the value of turbidity and the results are not accurate anymore. To avoid
the turbidity of water increase, immediately note the readings on the screen of turbidimeter.

REFERENCES

• Laboratory manual, Chemical Engineering Laboratory III, (CHE574 ), faculty Of

Chemical Engineering, Uitm.

• www.freepatentsonline.com/4197205.html

• http://www.cfd.com.au/cfd_conf99/papers/071TAYL.PDF

• Yahoo search engine (keyword: deep bed filter)

APPENDICES

19