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Biological disasters of natural origin are largely the result of the entry of a virulent organism into a congregation of
susceptible people living in a manner suited to the spread of the infection. In crowded areas, anthrax spreads by
spore dispersalin the air, small pox spreads by aerosols, typhus and plague spread through lice, fleas, rodents,etc.
The average epidemic spreads locally and dies down if the contagion is localised, but there have been instances
where diseases have spread widely, even across national boundaries. Disasters have occurred when environmental
factors were conducive, e.g., Black Death occurred when conditions were favourable for increase in the number of
rats, and cholera attained a pandemic form when the causative agent entered urban areas which had inadequate
sanitation facilities. Similarly, post WW I, the movement of population led to the rapid spread of the Spanish
influenza virus.
b) Environmental Management
i. Water supply
ii. Personal hygiene
iii. Vector control
iv. Burial/disposal of the dead
f) Non-pharmaceutical Interventions
CHEMICAL DISASTER:
Handling large quantities of HAZCHEM in installations, isolated storages, and during transportation, poses the
grave risk of a sudden release of copious quantities of toxicants in the environment. There are about 1666 MAH
units in India, handling a large number of chemicals as raw materials, in processes, products, and wastes, with
flammable, explosive, corrosive, toxic and noxious properties. Any accident involving these may have an adverse
impact on both the community and the environment.
i) Manufacturing and formulation installations including during commissioning and process operations;
maintenance and disposal.
ii) Material handling and storage in manufacturing facilities, and isolated storages; warehouses and godowns
including tank farms in ports and docks and fuel depots.
Chemical disasters may occur due to process deviations concerning the chemistry of the process, pressure,
temperature and other identified parameters with regard to the state of the substance i.e., solid, liquid or gas,
proximity to other toxic substances and the probability of a runaway reaction due to the incidental mixing of two or
more HAZCHEMs with dissimilar properties. In addition, it may be due to hardware failure, resulting in large-scale
spills of toxic substances (in any form) due to loss of containment, or an explosion. Further, Boiling Liquid
Expanding Vapour Explosion (BLEVE) may occur due to sparks, shocks or frictional forces on the chemicals during
transportation. The effects can be further compounded by the micro-meteorology of the area, wind speed and
direction, rate of precipitation, toxicity/quantity of chemical released, population in the reach of release, probability
of formation of lethal mixtures (fuel-air or other mixtures) and other industrial activities being performed in closer
vicinity. It is very important to understand that the state of the chemical substance (solid, liquid or gas) contributes
substantially to the gravity of the accident and affects control measures. Chemicals in solid form may have
devastating effects if their properties are suddenly changed (e.g., sublimation) due to pressure and temperature
conditions to which they are accidentally exposed. If solids continue to remain in solid form, the damage will be
negligible. Any human/mechanical failure may cause large scale spills of liquids or of compressed gases like
chlorine or Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) which can cause BLEVE and can directly affect human lives and the
environment. The release of compressed gases give rise to thermal and cryogenic stresses, which may also impact
the surrounding structure or building, compounding the damage.
b) Natural Calamities:
The Indian subcontinent is highly prone to natural disasters, which can also trigger chemical disasters.
Damage to phosphoric acid sludge containment during the Orissa super cyclone in 1999 and the release of
acrylonitrile at Kandla Port, during an earthquake in 2001, are some of the recent examples .
c) Terrorist Attacks/Sabotage:
Vulnerability to chemical disasters is further compounded by likely terrorist and warfare activities,
which include sabotage and attack on HAZCHEM installations and transportation vehicles.
In addition to loss of life, the major consequences of chemical disasters include impact on livestock, flora/fauna, the
environment (air, soil, water) and losses to industry as shown in Figure 1. Chemical accidents may be categorised as
a major accident or a disaster depending upon the number of casualties, injuries, damage to the property or
environment. A major accident is defined in the Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals
(MSIHC) Rules, 1989, issued under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, whereas ‘disaster’ is defined in the
DM Act, 2005.
CYCLONES:
Tropical Cyclone (TC), also known as ‘Cyclone’ is the term used globally to cover tropical weather systems in
which winds equal or exceed ‘gale force’ (minimum of 34 knot, i.e., 62 kmph). These are intense low pressure areas
of the earth atmosphere coupled system and are extreme weather events of the tropics. India has a coastline of about
7,516 km, 5,400 km along the mainland, 132 km in Lakshadweep and 1,900 km in the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. Although the North Indian Ocean (NIO) Basin (including the Indian coast) generates only about 7% of the
world’s cyclones, their impact is comparatively high and devastating, especially when they strike the coasts
bordering the North Bay of Bengal . The frequency of cyclones in the NIO Basin is bi-modal, which is specific to
this region. Cyclones occur in the months of May–June and October–November, with their primary peak in
November and secondary peak in May.
Cyclogenesis:
Cyclones are atmospheric and oceanic phenomena. Listed below are some of the favourable conditions identified
through observational facts and scientific studies for the formation of TCs. The weightage of individual conditions
is, however, yet unknown .
i) A warm sea surface (temperature in excess of 26o–27oC) and associated warming extending up to a depth of 60m
with abundant water vapour in the overlying air (by evaporation),
ii) High relative humidity in the atmosphere up to a height of about 5,000 metres,
iii) Atmospheric instability that encourages the formation of massive vertical cumulus clouds due to condensation of
rising moist air,
iv) Low vertical wind shear between the lower and higher levels of the atmosphere that do not allow the heat
generated and released by the clouds to get transported from the area (vertical wind shear is the rate of change of
wind between the higher and lower levels of the atmosphere),
v) The presence of cyclonic vorticity (rate of rotation of air) that initiates and favours rotation of the air cyclonically,
and
vi) Location over the ocean, at least 4–5o latitude away from the equator.
Impact:
Cyclones are characterized by their destructive potential to damage structures such as houses, lifeline infrastructure
such as power and communication towers, hospitals, food storage facilities, roads, bridges, culverts, crops, etc., due
to high velocity winds. Exceptionally heavy rainfall causes flooding. Storm surge inundates low-lying areas in the
coastal areas resulting in loss of life and destruction of property, besides eroding beaches and embankments,
destroying vegetation and reducing soil fertility. Besides the loss of lives and livestock, cyclones have high
destructive potential due to the strong winds that damage structures, and heavy rainfall which causes floods and
storm surge that inundates low-lying coastal areas. Although it is not possible to completely avoid natural disasters,
their effects can be minimised by taking some known long- and short term structural and non-structural mitigation
measures such as developing proper early warning systems, creating awareness at all levels in the concerned
communities, coastal afforestation, construction of shelters, embankments, dykes, coastal roads, bridges, canals, etc.,
through better preparedness, mitigation measures and improved response mechanisms.
Institutional Framework:
a) National Disaster Management Authority
b) The National Executive Committee
c) National Disaster Response Force
d) National Reserves National Institute of Disaster Management
e) State Disaster Management Authority
f) District Disaster Management Authority
g) Local Authorities
h) Civil Defence
The Government of India has drawn up the National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP) to be implemented
with World Bank assistance. Initially, the MHA formulated the project that was transferred to NDMA in September
2006. The main aim and objective of the project is to strengthen the structural and non-structural cyclone mitigation
efforts and reduce the risk and vulnerability of the coastal districts which are prone to cyclones. NCRMP will assist
states/UTs which are prone to cyclones and will go a long way in building capacities for cyclone risk mitigation.
This is the first such effort at the national level with World Bank assistance of about US $300 million, covering 13
coastal states and UTs. NCRMP consists of the following four components:
i) Component A: Improvement of early warning dissemination system by strengthening Last Mile Connectivity
(LMC) of cyclone warnings and advisories from source/district/sub-district levels to community.
ii) Component B: Cyclone risk mitigation investment which has identified nine subcomponents like construction of
cyclone shelters, construction of saline embankments, mangrove plantations, shelterbelt plantations, etc.
iii) Component C: Technical assistance for hazard risk management and capacity building
iv) Component D: Project management and institutional support.
EARTHQUAKES:
According to the latest seismic zone map of India about 59 percent of India’s land area is vulnerable to moderate or
severe seismic hazard, i.e., prone to shaking of MSK intensity VII and above. In the recent past, most Indian cities
have witnessed the phenomenal growth of multi-storied buildings, super malls, luxury apartments and social
infrastructure as a part of the process of development. The rapid expansion of the built environment in moderate or
high-risk cities makes it imperative to incorporate seismic risk reduction strategies in various aspects of urban
planning and construction of new structures. During the period 1990 to 2006, India has experienced 6 major
earthquakes that have resulted in over 23,000 deaths and caused enormous damage to property, assets and
infrastructure. The entire Himalayan Region is considered to be vulnerable to high intensity earthquakes of a
magnitude exceeding 8.0 on the Richter Scale, and in a relatively short span of about 50 years, four such
earthquakes have occurred: Shillong, 1897 (M 8.7); Kangra, 1905 (M.8.0); Bihar–Nepal, 1934 (M 8.3); and Assam–
Tibet, 1950 (M 8.6). Scientific publications have warned that very severe earthquakes are likely to occur anytime in
the Himalayan Region, which could adversely affect the lives of several million people in India.
India is vulnerable in varying degrees to a large number of natural as well as man-made disasters— 58.6 per cent of
the landmass is prone to earthquakes of moderate to very high intensity; over 40 million hectares (12 per cent of
land) is prone to floods and river erosion; of the 7,516 km long coastline, close to 5,700 km is prone to cyclones and
tsunamis; 68 per cent of the cultivable area is vulnerable to drought and hilly areas are at risk from landslides and
avalanches. Further, the vulnerability to Nuclear, Biological and Chemical (NBC) disasters and terrorism has also
increased manifold.
Disaster risks in India are further compounded by increasing vulnerabilities. These include the evergrowing
population, the vast disparities in income, rapid urbanisation, increasing industrialisation, development within high-
risk zones, environmental degradation, climate change, etc. Clearly, all these point to a future where disasters
seriously threaten India’s population, national security, economy and its sustainable development; therefore the
urgency to issue the guidelines for the preparation of the State Plan for Disaster Management (DM) as mandated by
the Disaster Management Act, 2005 (DM ACT, 2005). The DM plans will build in region and hazard specific
management tools in the context of regional and multi-hazard vulnerabilities.
The Role of the State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)/ State Executive Committee (SEC) and the
State Departments:
Section 23 of the DM Act 2005 provides that there shall be a DM plan for every state. It outlines the broad coverage
of the plan as well as the requirements of consultation in the preparation of the state plans. It also provides for
annual review and updating of the state plan, and enjoins upon the state governments to make provisions for
financing the activities to be carried out under the state plans. It provides for the departments of the state
governments to draw up their own plans in accordance with the state plan. The state plans shall be prepared by the
SEC in conformity with the guidelines to be issued on related matters by the SDMA having regard to the guidelines
laid down in this regard by the NDMA, and after such consultation with local and district authorities and the
people’s representatives as the SEC may deem fit. The state plan prepared by SEC shall be approved by the SDMA.