House of Leaves

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Contents
Articles
House of Leaves 1
Mark Z. Danielewski 12

Some Themes 14
House 14
Stairway 22
Maze 35
Cardinal directions 45
Tattoo 52
Model (person) 65
Photography 70
Videotape 88
Check mark 94
Liberty Bell 95
Parallax 108
Gold 118
Minotaur 138
Labyrinth 143
Morse code 152
SOS 162
Time-Life 165
String Quartet No. 16 (Beethoven) 169

Technicals 171
Bluescreen 171
True north 176
Hexadecimal 177
Hex editor 188
AIFF 189
Calculus 193

Places 205
India 205
Los Angeles 228
 Seattle, Washington 255
Virginia 285

Literary Topics 315

Academic writing 315
Cult following 318
Documentary film 319
Ergodic literature 329
Editing 330
Leaf 334
List of fictional books 348
Novel 408
Satire 460
Unreliable narrator 472

Afflictions 478
Mental institution 478
Agoraphobia 482
Blindness 488
Claustrophobia 497
Echolalia 501
Panic attack 502
Insanity 508
Murder 511

Colors 521
Blue 521
Red 527
Purple 535
Grey 551

Typography 557
Typography 557
Typeface 566
Page (paper) 575
Note (typography) 577
Braille 580
Courier (font) 592
Times Roman 595
 Bookman (typeface) 600

People 602
Beethoven 602
Harold Bloom 620
Jorge Luis Borges 628
Ken Burns 645
Kevin Carter 649
Ann Danielewski 651
Jacques Derrida 653
Federico Fellini 675
Douglas Hofstadter 689
Homer 697
Stephen King 708
Stanley Kubrick 725
Camille Paglia 766
Milorad Pavić (writer) 778
Poe (singer) 783
Edgar Allan Poe 786
Steven Poole 800
Anthony Quinn 802
Anne Rice 811
Hunter S. Thompson 820

Foreign 838
Phonetic 838
French language 841
German language 859
Italian language 881
Latin 897
Old English 911
Spanish language 925
The Seafarer (poem) 948
The Battle of Maldon 951
Order of the Garter 954
French Union 964
Battle of Dien Bien Phu 965
Viet Minh 978
 French Indochina 980
French Foreign Legion 987
Lost Command 1011

Media 1014
Album 1014
Hello (Poe album) 1017
Haunted (Poe album) 1020
Hey Pretty 1023
Derrida (film) 1025
La strada (film) 1028
The Whalestoe Letters 1033
The Fifty Year Sword 1035
Only Revolutions 1037
Pantheon Books 1042
Random House 1048
Bestseller 1056
Library of Congress 1061

References
Article Sources and Contributors 1072
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 1106

Article Licenses
License 1123
House of Leaves 1

House of Leaves
House of Leaves

2nd edition paperback cover

Author Mark Z. Danielewski

Cover artist Eric Fuentecilla

Country United States

Language English

Genre(s) Horror
Romance
Satire

Publisher Pantheon Books, Random House

Publication date 2000-03-07

Media type Print (paperback and hardcover)

Pages 709 (paperback)

ISBN 0-375-70376-4

OCLC Number [1]

41641311

Dewey Decimal 813/.54 21

LC PS3554.A5596 H68 2000

Classification

Followed by The Whalestoe Letters

House of Leaves is the debut novel by the American author Mark Z. Danielewski, published by Pantheon Books.
The novel quickly became a bestseller following its March 7, 2000, release, having already developed a cult
following through gradual release over the Internet. It was followed by a companion piece, The Whalestoe Letters.
The novel has since been translated into a number of foreign languages.
The format and structure of the novel is unconventional, with unusual page layout and style, making it ergodic
literature. It contains copious footnotes, many of which contain footnotes themselves, and some of which reference
books that do not exist.[2] Some pages contain only a few words or lines of text, arranged in strange ways to mirror
the events in the story, often creating both an agoraphobic and a claustrophobic effect. The novel is also distinctive
for its multiple narrators, who interact with each other throughout the story in disorienting and elaborate ways.
Danielewski expands on this point in an interview: "I had one woman come up to me in a bookstore and say, 'You
know, everyone told me it was a horror book, but when I finished it, I realized that it was a love story.' And she's
absolutely right. In some ways, genre is a marketing tool."[3]
House of Leaves has been described as a "satire of academic criticism."[4]
House of Leaves 2

Plot summary
House of Leaves begins with a first-person narrative by Johnny Truant,
a Los Angeles tattoo parlor employee. Truant is searching for a new
apartment when his friend Lude tells him about the apartment of the
recently deceased Zampanò, a blind, elderly man who lived in Lude's
building.
In Zampanò's apartment, Truant discovers a manuscript written by
Zampanò that turns out to be an academic study of a documentary film
called The Navidson Record.
The rest of the novel alternates between Zampanò's report on the
fictional film; Truant's autobiographical interjections; a small transcript Mark Danielewski

of part of the film from Navidson's brother, Tom; a small transcript of

interviews to many people regarding The Navidson Record by Navidson's partner, Karen; and occasional brief notes
by unidentified editors, all woven together by a mass of footnotes. There is also another narrator, Truant's mother,
whose voice is presented through a self-contained set of letters titled The Whalestoe Letters. Each narrator's text is
printed in a distinct font, making it easier for the reader to follow the occasionally challenging format of the novel.

The Navidson Record

Zampanò's narrative deals primarily with the Navidson family: Will Navidson, a photojournalist (partly based on
Kevin Carter), his partner Karen Green, an attractive former fashion model, and their two children, Chad and Daisy.
Navidson's brother, Tom, and several other characters also play a role later in the story. The Navidson family has
recently moved into a new home in Virginia.
Upon returning from a trip to Seattle, the Navidson family discovers a change in their home. A closet-like space shut
behind an undecorated door appears inexplicably where previously there was only a blank wall. A second door
appears at the end of the closet, leading to the children's room. As Navidson investigates this phenomenon, he finds
that the internal measurements of the house are somehow larger than external measurements. Initially there is less
than an inch of difference, but as time passes the interior of the house is found to be seemingly expanding, while
maintaining the same exterior proportions. A third change asserts itself: a dark, cold hallway in their living room
wall that, physically, should extend out into their yard, but does not. Navidson films this strange place, looping
around the house to show where the space should be and clearly is not. The filming of this anomaly comes to be
referred to as "The Five and a Half Minute Hallway". This hallway leads to a maze-like complex, starting with a
large room (the "Anteroom"), which in turn leads to a truly enormous space (the "Great Hall"), a room primarily
distinguished by an enormous spiral staircase which appears, when viewed from the landing, to spiral down without
end. There is also a multitude of corridors and rooms leading off from each passage. All of these rooms and hallways
are completely unlit and featureless, consisting of smooth ash-grey walls, floors, and ceilings. The only sound
disturbing the perfect silence of the hallways is a periodic low growl, the source of which is never fully explained,
although an academic source "quoted" in the book hypothesizes that the growl is created by the frequent re-shaping
of the house.
There is some discrepancy as to where "The Five and a Half Minute Hallway" appears. It is quoted by different
characters at different times to have been located in each of the cardinal directions. This first happens when
Zampanò writes that the hallway is in the western wall (House of Leaves 57), directly contradicting an earlier page
where the hallway is mentioned to be in the northern wall (House of Leaves 4). Johnny's footnotes point out the
contradiction.
Navidson, along with his brother Tom and some colleagues, feel compelled to explore, photograph, and videotape
the house's seemingly endless series of passages, eventually driving various characters to insanity, murder, and
House of Leaves 3

death. Ultimately, Will releases what has been recorded and edited as The Navidson Record.
Will and Karen purchased the house because their relationship was becoming strained with Will's work-related
absences. While Karen was always adamantly against marriage (claiming that she valued her freedom above
anything else), she always found herself missing and needing Will when he was gone: "And yet even though Karen
keeps Chad from overfilling the mold or Daisy from cutting herself with the scissors, she still cannot resist looking
out the window every couple of minutes. The sound of a passing truck causes her to glance away" (House of Leaves
11–12).
Zampanò's narrative is littered with all manner of references, some quite obscure, others indicating that the
Navidsons' story achieved international notoriety. Luminaries such as Stephen King, Stanley Kubrick, Douglas
Hofstadter, Ken Burns, Harold Bloom, Camille Paglia, Hunter Thompson, Anne Rice, and Jacques Derrida were
apparently interviewed as to their opinions about the film. However, when Truant investigates, he finds no history of
the house, no evidence of the events experienced by the Navidsons, and nothing else to establish that the house or
film ever existed anywhere other than in Zampanò's text.
Many of the references in Zampanò's footnotes, however, are real—existing both within his world and our world
outside the novel. For example, several times Zampanò cites an actual Time-Life book, Planet Earth: Underground
Worlds (House of Leaves 125).

Johnny's story
An adjacent story line develops in Johnny's footnotes, detailing what is progressing in Johnny's life as he is
assembling the narrative. It remains unclear if Johnny's obsession with the writings of Zampanò and subsequent
delusions, paranoia, etc. are the result of drug use, insanity, or the effects of Zampanò's writing itself. Johnny
recounts tales of his various sexual encounters, his lust for a tattooed stripper he calls Thumper, and his bar-hopping
with Lude throughout various footnotes. The reader also slowly learns more about Johnny's childhood living with an
abusive foster father, engaging in violent fights at school, and of the origin of Johnny's mysterious scars (House of
Leaves, p. 505). More information about Johnny can be gleaned from the Whalestoe Letters, letters his mother
Pelafina wrote from The Three Attic Whalestoe Institution. Though Pelafina's letters and Johnny's footnotes contain
similar accounts of their past, their memories also differ greatly at times, due to both Pelafina's and Johnny's
questionable mental state. Pelafina was placed in the mental institution after supposedly attempting to strangle
Johnny, only to be stopped by her husband. She remained there after Johnny's father's death. Johnny claims that his
mother meant him no harm and claimed to strangle him only to protect him from missing her, etc. It is unclear,
however, if Johnny's statements about the incident — or any of his other statements, for that matter — are factual.

The Whalestoe Letters

This story is included in an appendix near the end of the book, as well as in its own, self-contained book (with
additional content included in the self-contained version). It consists of Johnny's mother's letters to him from a
psychiatric hospital. The letters start off fairly normal but Pelafina quickly descends into paranoia and the letters
become more and more incoherent. There are also several secret messages in the letters, which can be decoded by
combining the first letter of consecutive words.
House of Leaves 4

Characters

Johnny's story

Johnny Truant
Johnny Truant serves a dual role, as primary editor of Zampanò’s academic study of The Navidson Record and
protagonist as revealed through footnotes and appendices.
In the beginning of the book, Truant appears to be a normal, reasonably attractive young man who happens upon a
trunk full of notes left behind by the now deceased Zampanò. As Truant begins to do the editing, however, he begins
to lose the tenuous grip he has on reality, and his life begins to erode around him. He stops bathing, rarely eats, stops
going to work, and distances himself from essentially everyone, all in pursuit of organizing the book into a finished
work that, he hopes, will finally bring him peace.
Initially intrigued by Zampanò’s isolative tendencies and surreal sense of reality, Johnny unknowingly sets himself
up as a victim to the daunting task that awaits him. As he begins to organize Zampanò’s manuscripts, his personal
footnotes detail the deterioration of his own life with analogous references to alienation and insanity: once a
trespasser to Zampanò's mad realm, Truant seems to become more comfortable in the environment as the story
unfolds. He even has hallucinations that parallel those of Zampanò and members of the house search team when he
senses "…something inhuman…" behind him (House of Leaves 26). Spiraling downward into a dark labyrinth of his
own, Johnny is therefore aware that his life has become unmanageable: his association with Zampanò’s task seems to
have consumed him in his vulnerable state.
Aside from simply functioning as an editor and protagonist in the novel, Johnny is also presented as an unreliable
narrator. The reader is warned of this unreliability early in the novel by one of Johnny's footnotes in which Johnny
responds to the problem of Navidson's broken "water heater." After a long liturgy about the need for warm water,
Johnny says, "Is it just coincidence that this cold water predicament of mine also appears in this chapter? Not at all.
Zampanò only wrote "heater." The word "water" back there—I added that" (House of Leaves, p. 16). It is unclear if
Johnny changed other parts of the text and failed to inform the reader. Near the end of the novel, Johnny presents a
story of his salvation at the hands of friends as truth, but later recants, saying, "I just made that all up. Right out of
thin air" (House of Leaves, p. 509).

Zampanò
Zampanò is the blind author of The Navidson Record. Danielewski made Zampanò blind as a reference to blind
authors Homer and Jorge Luis Borges.[5] Additionally, his blindness acts as one of the key mysteries of Johnny's
section of the novel: How and why did a blind man not only write a monograph about a movie, but a movie that is
highly visual in nature?
Little to no information is given explicitly about Zampanò's past, blindness, or personality. Only vague clues are
given throughout the story to suggest at aspects of his past:
• On page xxii, it is mentioned that when he was in a bad mood, Zampanò would ruefully repeat a series of female
names: Beatrice, Gabrielle, Anne-Marie, Dominique, Eliane, Isabelle and Claudine. These were the names of
seven of the French Union Forces' defensive positions at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, a devastating defeat of the
French by Viet Minh soldiers, which led to France's withdrawal from French Indochina. Among the French
defenders were troops from the French Foreign Legion.[6]
• In the appendices, a letter appears that Zampanò wrote to a California newspaper, warning its readers that a local
arms merchant is falsely selling shotguns as having been manufactured during World War II; Zampanò then goes
into a lengthy discussion about the difference between WWII shotguns and their successors, down to various
tactical schematics and shotgun markings; he says that he uncovered the weapons dealer as a fraud by feeling the
guns. Earlier in the book, passing reference is made to Johnny and Lude finding a shotgun in Zampanò's
House of Leaves 5

apartment that matches the WWII era shotgun Zampanò describes in his letter.
• In one of Pelafina's letters to Johnny, she strangely addresses Zampanò using the code she created to be read by
Johnny, asking: "My dear Zampanò, who did you lose?"
• The endpapers of the US hardcover edition of the novel contain hexadecimal characters, which are actually an
AIFF audio file of an excerpt from Poe's track "Angry Johnny" when saved as a file in a hex editor.[7]
"Zampanò" is also the name of the protagonist (a traveling entertainer) in the 1954 film La strada, which was
directed by Federico Fellini.[8] The character of Zampanò was played by actor Anthony Quinn. In 1964, Quinn
starred in the film Lost Command, which opens with the end of the battle of Dien Bien Phu.

Pelafina H. Lièvre
Pelafina, more commonly referred simply as "P.", is Johnny's institutionalized mother who appears in the appendix
to the text. Her story is more fully developed in The Whalestoe Letters.

Minor characters in Johnny's story

Lude: Johnny Truant's best friend, Lude is also the one that informs him of Zampanò's vacant apartment. Lude is a
minor character, but some of his characteristics and actions are important in understanding Johnny. Lude assists
Johnny many times in obtaining phone numbers of girls when they visit bars, clubs, and restaurants. Several times,
Johnny mentions that he wishes he hadn't answered Lude's call late at night. Every time Johnny and Lude are
together they seem to involve themselves in difficult situations.
Thumper: A stripper who is a regular client of the tattoo parlour where Truant works. Although Johnny has
encounters with many women throughout his narrative, he remains fixated on Thumper (whose real name is
eventually revealed to Johnny but never to the reader) throughout.

The Navidson Record

Will Navidson
Will is the central character in The Navidson Record subplot of the novel. A stint in the army early in his life leads
him to a very successful career as a photographer, primarily in war-torn parts of the world; his role as an impartial
documentarist of war affects him deeply. Later in his life, he moves to the eponymous house (located in the
southeastern Virginia countryside), in an effort to find "[a] place to drink lemonade and watch the sun set", a place to
"once and for all stay in and explore the quieter side of life" (House of Leaves, p. 9). However the unnatural events
that occur thereafter have a profound effect upon him and his relationship with his partner, Karen.

Karen Green
Karen is Will's partner and a former fashion model. She suffers from crippling claustrophobia, and throughout the
novel refuses to enter the labyrinth within her house. She also seems to be extremely insecure regarding her
relationship with Will; he is 'her rock,' though it is confirmed that she had at least three long-term affairs during the
course of their relationship. Curiously, the events of the novel only seem to reduce her dependence on Will (as well
as contributing to the eventual dissolution of their relationship). It is speculated that, during Karen's childhood, her
stepfather used to take Karen and her sister into a barn in their backyard, put one in a well and rape the other.
However, several footnotes and comments about the incident question this claim (another of many examples of the
use of an unreliable narrator in the novel). In the aftermath of the events in the house, she becomes an unlikely
editor, approaching many real characters (including Stephen King, Stanley Kubrick, Hunter S. Thompson, Douglas
Hofstadter, Harold Bloom, and Jacques Derrida) for comment on The Navidson Record, albeit comment within the
fictional universe of the novel. Eventually, she is reunited with Navidson after his final exploration of the labyrinth.
House of Leaves 6

Tom Navidson
Tom is Will Navidson’s somewhat estranged fraternal twin brother; Tom is a carpenter with substance addiction
problems, who is markedly less successful than Will in his personal and professional life. After approximately 8
years of little contact, Will contacts Tom when he notices that his house is larger on the inside than the outside. A
section of the novel, called "Tom’s Story" is a partial transcript of documentary evidence and radio communication
with the outside world during his vigil within the labyrinth, which he spends alone with his radio, waiting for Will.
This section is referred to in the book as a "sometimes funny, sometimes bizarre history of thoughts passing away in
the atrocity of that darkness" (House of Leaves 252). He often refers to "Mr. Monster" and many of the jokes and
anecdotes he provides are religious in nature. However, in a test of his true character, he bravely saves Will's kids
from being swallowed by the house but is swallowed himself.

Billy Reston
Billy is an engineer and a friend of Will's, whom Will enlists early on in the story to help him try and find a rational
explanation for the house's oddities. Billy uses a wheelchair, having been paralyzed from the waist down in a freak
engineering accident in India; Will happened to be on the scene and took a photo of Billy moments before he became
paralyzed. Billy came across the photo after his accident and kept it as a reminder that he was fortunate to have
survived. Once the house's irregularities become more extreme, Billy joins Will and Tom in a thorough analysis;
after Holloway and his men go missing, Billy, in spite of his handicap, insists on joining Will on the rescue mission,
navigating the maze in his wheelchair. He eventually saves Will and Holloway's men from Holloway by engaging in
a firefight with him, holding him back long enough for the house to "consume" Holloway. Billy survives the journey
into the maze, but suffers persistent cold spells afterward as well as sustains damage to his wheelchair.

Holloway Roberts
Holloway is an experienced explorer whom Will contacts in an effort to properly explore the labyrinth beneath his
house. Holloway is presented as the consummate outdoorsman: He has successfully engaged in numerous
expeditions which would have killed normal men, and is an expert in all forms of survivalist equipment, from
spelunking gear to firearms. He engages in two brief explorations of the labyrinth before deciding to take his men on
a third, prolonged expedition, prior to which they load themselves up with enough food and water to last several days
and enough provisions to—they believe—safely guide them back home. During the course of this exploration,
Holloway's resolve slowly deteriorates, until the house's bizarre architecture leads him to believe an image he sees
down a hall is the "monster" stalking them when, in fact, he is actually looking at his own men; he shoots one of
them, and, upon realizing what he's done, suffers a complete psychological breakdown and tries to murder them, as
well as the rescue party of Will and Billy. Eventually, the house "traps" him by sealing him inside a series of locked
chambers; alone and insane, Holloway records a series of unsettling final messages on a video camera before filming
himself committing suicide. The tape of his death is recovered by Will from the labyrinth. The seconds leading up to
the end of the tape reveal that either 1) Holloway's corpse is devoured by the "monster" he is convinced is real or 2)
Holloway merely disappears into the blackness of the house.
When the House begins to actively attempt to harm the others late in the novel, Reston calls out Holloway's name.
Whether Holloway had some influence on the house's actions (before or after his suicide) is left ambiguous.

Minor characters in The Navidson Record

Kirby 'Wax' Hook: Another explorer of the labyrinth in Navidson's house. He is ultimately shot by Holloway in the
shoulder; however, he goes on to survive. The House leaves him with limited functionality in that shoulder, and an
inexplicable case of impotence. However, after Navidson reenters the House for a 5th and final exploration, these
symptoms disappear. Wax has a reputation as a flirt, who constantly attempts to hook-up with women. He kisses
Karen Green, a scene which Will later witnesses on camera.
Jed Leeder: The third explorer of the labyrinth in Navidson's house. He is shot by Holloway in the jaw, killing him
House of Leaves 7

nearly instantaneously.
Chad Navidson: Will Navidson and Karen Green's son, the older sibling. Around the times of the explorations,
Chad is described as becoming increasingly aggressive and wandering.
Daisy Navidson: Will Navidson and Karen Green's daughter. During the explorations of the house, Daisy is
described as suffering from echolalia.

Format
There are many unusual, and often disorienting, elements of House of Leaves.
One feature of some paperback editions of the book is that the cover of the book is slightly smaller than the pages
themselves, causing the edges of the pages to peek out of the side of the black cover. The gap on the paperback cover
is exactly 1/2 inch (The initial difference in size between the inside and the outside of the house in The Navidson
Record is actually 1/4 inch, soon after becoming 5/16 inch, and so on).

Typography
The text of the book is arranged on the pages in such a way that the
method of reading the words sometimes mimics the feelings of the
characters or the situations in the novel. While characters are
navigating claustrophobic labyrinthine sections of the house's interior,
the text is densely, confusingly packed into small corners of each page;
later, while a character is running desperately from an unseen enemy,
there are only a few words on each page for almost 25 pages, causing
the reader's pace to quicken as he flips page after page to learn what
will happen next.

The unorthodox typography and arrangement of chapters or sections is

similar to works by Milorad Pavić, allowing the reader to jump around
from section to section at will while following footnotes or the
multilayered narrative.
Continuing the ergodic nature of text-reflecting-tale, the chapter in
which Navidson, Karen, and Reston hear a knocking from somewhere
deep inside the house, a knocking patterned after the Morse code Page 134 from the book House of Leaves, an
example of the typography used in the novel.
emergency signal SOS - three short, three long, three short - the text
itself is broken into a similar pattern. The breaks are often arbitrary,
sometimes even in mid-sentence, and done seemingly for the sole purpose of imitating the SOS signal.

It has been noted that the font used for the narratives of different people is relevant. Johnny's font is Courier,
Zampanò's font is Times, the Editors' font is Bookman, and Pelafina's font is Dante.

Codes
Many things are hidden within the text of the book. Going through the first letter of footnotes 27 through 42 spells
the author's full name; the first letter of footnotes 46 through 54 spell his surname. Portions are written in alternating
short and long paragraphs which turn out to be Morse code that correspond to the text. A seemingly random list of
names on pages 64–65 (Second Edition) produce a code when the first letter of each of the individual's last names
are added together, spelling out the phrase "A LONG LIST OF VISIONAIRES" A letter from Pelafina to Johnny on
pages 620-623 (Second edition) contains seemingly randomized capital letters strewn throughout it, which, when
combined, spell out the phrase, "A FACE IN A CLOUD NO TRACE IN THE CROWD." (House of Leaves
621-622) Some codes, like the author's name, are simply fun to notice. Others actually have an impact that gives
House of Leaves 8

greater depth and meaning to the portion being read. One of Pelafina's letters includes a coded message apparently
addressed to Zampanò, which reads: "My dear Zampanò, who did you lose?" (House of Leaves 615)

Colors
Throughout the entirety of House of Leaves (even including the cover and publishing information), the word house is
colored blue (grey for non-color editions of the book and light grey for red editions), as in house, and is, in many
places in the book, offset from the rest of the text in different directions at different times. Foreign-language
equivalents of house, such as the German Haus and the French maison, are also blue. Red and full-color editions of
House of Leaves have the word Minotaur and all struck passages colored red.
On the inside cover, where the Library of Congress information is listed, there is a note about differences in editions.
In the full-color edition of House of Leaves, a struck line appears in purple in Chapter XXI.
Purple is associated throughout the novel with Pelafina, as it is the color of her long nails, and also the color of the
ink Johnny is putting into needles when he has his panic attack in the supply closet.
The inside of the cover mentions a full-color "first edition" version including braille. The following editions are
known and confirmed to exist:
• Black-and-White Edition—No colored words. Plain black text. House in grey. No Braille. Black and white
appendices.
• Blue Edition—House in blue. Minotaur and struck passages in regular black text. No Braille. Black and white
appendices.
• Red Edition—House in light grey. Minotaur and struck passages in red. No Braille. Black and white appendices.
• Full Color Edition—House in blue. Minotaur and struck passages in red. On the jacket, A Novel and the
Pantheon logo in purple. In the book, First Edition and the struck line in Chapter XXI in purple. The word
"braille" is replaced with seven Xs. Appendices are full color plates.[9]
A further edition printed on the inside of the cover, named "Incomplete", promises "no color, no Braille, (and)
elements in the exhibits, appendices and index may be missing". It is unclear if any such editions exist.
Danielewski leaves much of the interpretation of the choice of colors up to the reader, but he has mentioned in
interviews that the choice of the color blue is in part drawn from the bluescreen technique used in filmmaking.[10]
The use of color in Danielewski's next full-length novel, Only Revolutions, is even more prevalent, with four colors
other than black used throughout (also, the word house is also printed in blue in some sections of this novel).

The check mark

The check mark appears on the lower right hand corner of page 97. It is possibly a reference to Pelafina's letter
requesting that Truant "Place in [his] next letter a check mark in the lower right hand corner. That way [she'll] know
[he] received this letter" (House of Leaves 609). It also appears to mark the starting point of the book's more
eccentric formatting patterns.
The check mark is not present in the UK edition of the book.

Title
House of Leaves originally began as a short story, titled Redwood. "Redwood" is also referenced in relation to the
cats who have started dying and disappearing: "Redwood. I saw him once a long time ago when I was young. I ran
away and luckily, or no luck at all, he did not follow me. But now I cannot run and anyway this time I am certain he
would follow" (House of Leaves 547). Zampanò's linking of the cats' disappearance with Redwood could be a
connection to the disappearances that occurred in the house and the elusive being which seems to haunt the halls.
Redwood was also the main type of wood used in the construction of the Winchester Mystery House (see below).
House of Leaves 9

A great amount of interaction exists between the house and the book, beginning with the title of the book, House of
Leaves, where leaves is a synonym for pages, thus making the "house" a book.
House of Leaves is also the same title that Zampanò originally uses for his manuscript. Additionally, at the end of the
book, when Navidson is falling through nothing inside the labyrinth, he reads a book supposedly called House of
Leaves, burning the pages for light as he goes along.
Also notable is an untitled poem in Appendix F, seen below:
"Little solace comes
to those who grieve
as thoughts keep drifting
as walls keep shifting
and this great blue world of ours
seems a house of leaves
Moments before the wind." (House of Leaves 563)

Foreign languages
As a key part of House of Leaves' fixation with academic, intellectual writing and obscurity in general, there are
countless quotations and phrases strewn throughout the book in numerous other languages, ranging from Latin to
Spanish to Old English. Some of these are translated, but many are not. A few of these phrases include:
• "Muss es sein?", German for "Must it be?" or "Does it have to?" (House of Leaves 1). [see Beethoven's String
Quartet No. 16]
• "C'est vraiment triste", French for "It's truly sad" (House of Leaves 590).
• "bambino dell'oro", Italian for "child of gold". "bambino dell'oro" literally means "the child of the gold", referring
to a specific type or amount of gold. A more appropriate translation of "child of gold" is "bambino d'oro" (House
of Leaves 592).
• "Fuit Ilium." Latin, meaning "There once was a Troy" or "Troy was, but is no more" or "the place is gone."
• "Ira furor brevis est." Latin for "Anger is a short madness." A line from the Roman poet, Horace (House of Leaves
597).
• "Micel biþ se Meotudes egsa, for þon hī sēo molde oncyrreð", from the Old English poem The Seafarer, meaning
"Great is the fear of the Lord, before which the world stands still" (House of Leaves 595). Later, there is a
quotation from the poem The Battle of Maldon, meaning "Our hearts must grow resolute, our courage more
valiant, our spirits must be greater, though our strength grows less" (House of Leaves 601).
• "Honi soit qui mal y pense." French. It is the motto of the Order of the Garter and means "Shamed be he who
thinks evil of it." (House of Leaves 601).
• At different times, Truant says: "Known Some Call Is Air Am". Although it appears to be a random string of
words, it is actually phonetically similar to "Non sum qualis eram", Latin for "I am not as I was," or more aptly
said, "I am not what I used to be."
House of Leaves 10

First-page insert
In the color editions, the first page of the book is a photograph of numerous items scattered on a flat surface. These
items include pills, rulers, a broken compass, bullet shells, photographs (the same ones found in Appendix III), and
scraps of paper. There are drops and smudges of a red liquid on most of the items. In the center of the picture is a
note in Johnny's typeface that suggests "altering the whole thing" and to "kill both children".

Appendices
House of Leaves contains rather large appendices. As appendices are generally more common in works on
non-fiction and text books, this section is part of the format that immediately sets the book apart from contemporary
fiction. Some entries are integral to the story, such as Pelafina’s letters in Appendix II-E, while others provide
background on the characters, such as Zampanò’s letter to the editor.
Several places in the text refer the reader to the appendices. For example, the Editors suggest that in order to better
understand Johnny, the reader should turn to the letters from his mother (House of Leaves 72). Other entries appear
to contain only disorganized fragments that could not be fit in elsewhere. These fragments, including poems,
photocopies of scraps of paper, collages, notes, quotes, etc., may contain clues to some of the novel’s mysteries, such
as the Ground-Air Emergency Code sheet in Collage #1 which may relate to some of the symbols used to denote
footnotes. On the whole, however, these clues are seldom conclusive and often contradictory. For instance, the
section on Zampanò's notes include a chapter title for Chapter XXI, and although Zampanò's notes were in the "first
edition" appendix, Chapter XXI, which includes only a diary from Johnny and nothing about the Navidson Record,
is stated to not have appeared in the "first edition" at all. However, this may mean in the flow of the narrative that the
contents of Chapter XXI were eradicated by Truant and replaced by his own notes.

Index
An index is included at the end of the book, although it is not complete or even entirely accurate. Not all important
words are indexed, incorrect page numbers are listed for some words, and some words have the notation "DNE".
There are also such inconsequential words such as and, only, so, in, for, can, and all listed. There is no clear
definition provided for "DNE", however it also appears elsewhere in the novel, while discussing true north and in a
collage (House of Leaves 121 and 582). "DNE" is used as an abbreviation for "does not exist" in calculus for
undefined limit values or non real function solutions. There are precisely 100 words in the index listed with the
notation "DNE".

Companion works
The book was followed by a companion piece called The Whalestoe Letters, a series of letters written to the
character Johnny Truant by his mother while she was confined in a mental institution. These letters are included in
the second edition.
House of Leaves was accompanied by a companion piece (or vice versa), a full length album called Haunted
recorded by Danielewski's sister, Anne Danielewski, known professionally as Poe. The two works cross-pollinated
heavily over the course of their creations, each inspiring the other in various ways. Poe's statement on the connection
between the two works is that they are parallax views of the same story. House of Leaves references Poe and her
songs several times, not only limited to her album Haunted, but Hello as well. One example occurs when the
character Karen Green is interviewing various academics on their interpretations of the short film "Exploration #4";
she consults a "Poet," but there is a space between the "Poe" and the "t," possibly suggesting that Poe at one point
commented on the book. It may also be a reference to Edgar Allan Poe.
The album Haunted also draws heavily from the novel, featuring tracks called "House of Leaves", "Exploration B"
and "5&½ Minute Hallway", and many less obvious references. The video for "Hey Pretty" also features Mark
House of Leaves 11

Danielewski reading from House of Leaves (pages 88–89), and in House of Leaves, the band Liberty Bell's lyrics
were also songs on Poe's album.

References
• Danielewski, Mark Z. (2000-03-07), House of Leaves (2nd ed.), New York: Pantheon Books, Random
HouseISBN 0375703764 paperback. ISBN 0375420525 hardcover. ISBN 0375410341 hardcover/signed.

Further reading
• Bemong, Nele (January 2003), "Exploration #6: The Uncanny in Mark Z. Danielewski's House of Leaves" [11],
Image [&] Narrative: Online Magazine of the Visual Narrative 5, ISSN 1780-678X
• Brick, Martin (January 2004), "Blueprint(s): Rubric for a Deconstructed Age in House of Leaves" [12], Philament
2, ISSN 1449-0471
• Brigitte, Félix (2005), "Exploration #6: l'architecture narrative de House of Leaves de Mark Z. Danielewski",
Cahiers Charles V 38: 43–73, ISSN 0184-1025
• Chanen, Brian (2007), "Surfing the Text: The Digital Environment in Mark Z. Danielewski's "House of Leaves"",
European Journal of English Studies 11 (2): 163–176, doi:10.1080/13825570701452755, ISSN 1382-5577
• Cox, Katherine (2006), "What Has Made Me? Locating Mother in the Textual Labyrinth of Mark Z.
Danielewski's House of Leaves", Critical Survey 18 (2): 4–15, doi:10.3167/001115706780600756, ISSN
0011-1570
• Graulund, Rune (2006), "Text and Paratext in Mark Z. Danielewski’s House of Leaves", Word and Image 22:
379–388, ISSN 0266-6286
• Hansen, Mark B. N. (Winter 2004), "The Digital Topography of Mark Z. Danielewski's House of Leaves",
Contemporary Literature 45 (4): 597–636, ISSN 0010-7484
• Hayles, N. Katherine (December 2002), "Saving the Subject: Remediation in House of Leaves", American
Literature: A Journal of Literary History, Criticism, and Bibliography 74 (4): 779–806, ISSN 0002-9831
• McCaffery, Larry; Gregory, Sinda (Winter 2003), "Haunted House: An Interview with Mark Z. Danielewski",
Critique: studies in contemporary fiction 44 (2): 99–135, doi:10.1080/00111610309599940, ISSN 0011-1619
• Pressman, Jessica (Spring 2006), "House of Leaves: Reading the Networked Novel", Studies in American Fiction
34 (1): 107–128, ISSN 0091-8083
• Slocombe, Will (Spring 2005), "'This Is Not for You': Nihilism and the House That Jacques Built", Modern
Fiction Studies 51 (1): 88–109, doi:10.1353/mfs.2005.0015, ISSN 0026-7724

External links
• House of Leaves [13] official forum
• Random House Readers Guide [14]
• Powells Books review [15]
• The Modern Word review [16]
• The Modern Word interview [17]
• "House of Leaves" [18], reviewed by Ted Gioia (The New Canon [19])
House of Leaves 12

References
[1] http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 41641311
[2] One such footnote references Not True, Man: Mi Ata Beni? by Eta Ruccalla. Another references "All Accurate" by Nam Eurtton. Note that
"Eta Ruccalla" is "All Accurate" backwards, and "Nam Eurtton" is "Not True, Man" backwards. For more examples of fictional books
referenced in House of Leaves, see list of fictional books.
[3] Wittmershaus, Eric (2000-05-06), "Flak Magazine" (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=House_of_Leaves& action=edit. html),
Profile, , retrieved 2008-07-19
[4] Poole, Steven (2000-07-15), "Gothic scholar" (http:/ / books. guardian. co. uk/ critics/ reviews/ 0,5917,343421,00. html), Guardian
Unlimited, , retrieved 2007-03-04
[5] Borges: Influence and References: Mark Z. Danielewski (http:/ / www. themodernword. com/ borges/ borges_infl_danielewski. html).
Retrieved March 15, 2007.
[6] http:/ / www. experiencefestival. com/ a/ Battle_of_Dien_Bien_Phu/ id/ 1928525
[7] Exploration Z (http:/ / markzdanielewski. info/ features/ guide/ index. html), , retrieved 2010-06-06
[8] Reader's Guide (http:/ / www. randomhouse. com/ catalog/ display. pperl?isbn=9780375703768& view=rg), Random House, , retrieved
2007-02-10
[9] DanSRose (2006-05-22), "Comprehensive guide to printings/editions/ISBNs etc." (http:/ / www. houseofleaves. com/ forum/ showpost.
php?p=79391& postcount=110), MZD Forums, , retrieved 2007-02-10
[10] Wittmershaus, Eric (2000-05-06), "Review of House of Leaves" (http:/ / www. flakmag. com/ books/ house. html), Flak Magazine, ,
retrieved 2007-02-10
[11] http:/ / www. imageandnarrative. be/ inarchive/ uncanny/ nelebemong. htm
[12] http:/ / www. arts. usyd. edu. au/ publications/ philament/ issue2_Critique_Brick. htm
[13] http:/ / www. houseofleaves. com/ forum/ forumdisplay. php?f=3
[14] http:/ / markzdanielewski. info/ reader. html
[15] http:/ / www. powells. com/ biblio/ 1-0375703764-0
[16] http:/ / www. themodernword. com/ review_house_of_leaves. html
[17] http:/ / www. themodernword. com/ borges/ Flak%20Magazine-Danielewski. html
[18] http:/ / www. thenewcanon. com/ house_of_leaves. html
[19] http:/ / www. thenewcanon. com

Mark Z. Danielewski
Mark Z. Danielewski (born March 5, 1966) is an American author.
Best known for his debut novel House of Leaves (2000), Danielewski's
work is characterized by experimental choices in form, such as
intricate and multi-layered narratives, typographical variation, and
inconsistent page layouts, otherwise known as visual writing or
Ergodic literature.

Biography
Danielewski was born in New York City,[1] the son of Polish
Mark Danielewski
avant-garde film director Tad Danielewski and the brother of
singer/songwriter Annie Decatur Danielewski, a.k.a. Poe.
Danielewski studied English Literature at Yale. He then decided to move to Berkeley, California, where he took a
summer program in Latin at the University of California, Berkeley. He also spent time in Paris, preoccupied mostly
with writing.
In the early 1990s, he pursued graduate studies at the USC School of Cinema-Television. He later served as an
assistant editor and worked on sound for Derrida,[2] a documentary based on the life of the Algerian-born French
literary critic and philosopher Jacques Derrida.
Mark Z. Danielewski 13

House of Leaves, Danielewski's first novel, has gained a considerable cult following and won numerous awards,
including the New York Public Library's Young Lions Fiction Award. His second novel, Only Revolutions, was
released in 2006. Though released to less critical acclaim than his debut, the novel was a finalist for the 2006
National Book Award.
In 2000, Danielewski toured with his sister across America at Borders Books and Music locations, promoting Poe’s
album Haunted, which reflects elements of House of Leaves.
He is a fan of Biffy Clyro as the band discovered when Danielewski attended one of their shows after they borrowed
the title of his novel Only Revolutions for their own album.[3]

Books
• March 2000: House of Leaves
• October 2000: The Whalestoe Letters
• October 2005: The Fifty Year Sword
• September 2006: Only Revolutions

References
• McCaffery, Larry & Gregory, Sinda. "Haunted House: An Interview with Mark Z. Danielewski" from Critique:
Studies in Contemporary Fiction, Vol. 44, No. 2, Winter 2003: 99-135.

External links
• Mark Z. Danielewski Forum [4]
• Mark Z. Danielewski [5] at the Internet Movie Database
• Interview [6], Flak Magazine
• Book Reporter interview [7]
• LAist interview [8]
• Guardian interview [9]
• Exploration Z [10]
• The Ledge interview [11], on The Fifty Year Sword

References
[1] "Mark Danielewski" (http:/ / www. pen. org/ author. php/ prmAID/ 648). PEN American Center. 2010. . Retrieved June 1, 2010.
[2] DerridaTheMovie.com (http:/ / www. derridathemovie. com/ info. html)
[3] Simon Neil meets with Eve Jackson (http:/ / www. france24. com/ en/ 20100831-2010-08-31-1714-wb-en-culture-Biffy-Clyro-Simon-Neil).
France 24. 1 September 2010.
[4] http:/ / www. onlyrevolutions. com/
[5] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0199767/
[6] http:/ / flakmag. com/ features/ mzd. html
[7] http:/ / www. bookreporter. com/ authors/ au-danielewski-mark. asp
[8] http:/ / laist. com/ 2007/ 10/ 23/ laist_interview_55. php
[9] http:/ / books. guardian. co. uk/ firstbook2000/ story/ 0,6194,405144,00. html
[10] http:/ / markzdanielewski. info/
[11] http:/ / www. the-ledge. com/ flash/ ledge. php?conversation=45& lan=UK
 14

Some Themes

House
A house is a home, shelter, building or structure that is a
dwelling or place for habitation by human beings. The term
includes many kinds of dwellings ranging from rudimentary
huts of nomadic tribes to free standing individual
structures.[1] In some contexts, "house" may mean the same
as dwelling, residence, home, abode, lodging,
accommodation, or housing, among other meanings. The
social unit that lives in a house is known as a household.
Most commonly, a household is a family unit of some kind,
though households can be other social groups, such as single
persons, or groups of unrelated individuals. Settled agrarian
A ranch style house in Salinas, California, United States
and industrial societies are composed of household units
living permanently in housing of various types, according to
a variety of forms of land tenure. English-speaking people
generally call any building they routinely occupy "home".
Many people leave their houses during the day for work and
recreation, and return to them to sleep or for other activities.

History
The English word house is derived from the proto-Germanic
hud-dos, thought possibly to be a derivative of the verbal
root hûd ‘to hide’ (see OED, s.v. house). Terms in other
Example of an early Victorian "Gingerbread House" in
languages show varying derivations.
Connecticut, United States, built in 1855
The oldest house in the world is approximately from 10,000
BC and was made of mammoth bones, found at Mezhirich
near Kiev in Ukraine. It was probably covered with
mammoth hides. The house was discovered in 1965 by a
farmer digging a new basement six feet below the ground.[2]
Architect Norbert Schoenauer, in his book 6,000 Years of
Housing, identifies three major categories of types of
housing: the "Pre-Urban" house, the "Oriental Urban" house,
and the "Occidental Urban" house.
Types of Pre-Urban houses include temporary dwellings
A Yurt near the Gurvan Saikhan Mountains (in the
such as the Inuit igloo, semi-permanent dwellings such as the
background); part of Gobi Gurvansaikhan National Park.
pueblo, and permanent dwellings such as the New England
homestead.
House 15

"Oriental Urban" houses include houses of the ancient Greeks and Romans, and traditional urban houses in China,
India, and Islamic cities.
"Occidental Urban" houses include medieval urban houses, the Renaissance town house, and the houses, tenements
and apartments of the 19th and 20th centuries. Houses of that time were generally made of simple and raw materials
(rocks, sticks, woven cloth, etc.)[1]

Structure
The developed world in general features three basic types of house that
have their own ground-level entry and private open space, and usually
on a separately titled parcel of land:
• Single-family detached houses – free-standing on all sides.
• Semi-detached houses (duplexes) – houses that are attached, usually
to only one other house via a party wall.
• Terraced house (UK), also known as a row house or townhouse –
attached to other houses, possibly in a row, each separated by a
party wall. Wooden chalets in the Swiss Alps, Switzerland.
In addition, there are various forms of attached housing where a
number of dwelling units are co-located within the same structure, which share a ground-level entry and may or may
not have any private open space, such as apartments (a.k.a. flats) of various scales. Another type of housing is
movable, such as houseboats, caravans, and trailer homes.
In the United Kingdom, 27% of the population live in terraced houses and 32% in semi-detached houses, as of 2002.
In the United States as of 2000, 61.4% of people live in detached houses and 5.6% in semi-detached houses, 26% in
row houses or apartments, and 7% in mobile homes.

Function
Some houses transcend the basic functionality of providing "a roof
over one's head" or of serving as a family "hearth and home". When a
house becomes a display-case for wealth and/or fashion and/or
conspicuous consumption, we may speak of a "great house". The
residence of a feudal lord or of a ruler may require defensive structures
and thus turn into a fort or a castle. The house of a monarch may come
to house courtiers and officers as well as the royal family: this sort of
house may become a palace. Moreover, in time the lord or monarch A Nalukettu traditional Kerala house in India

may wish to retreat to a more personal or simple space such as a villa,

a hunting lodge or a dacha. Compare the popularity of the holiday house or cottage, also known as a crib.

In contrast to a relatively upper class or modern trend to ownership of multiple houses, much of human history
shows the importance of multi-purpose houses. Thus the house long served as the traditional place of work (the
original cottage industry site or "in-house" small-scale manufacturing workshop) or of commerce (featuring, for
example, a ground floor "shop-front" shop or counter or office, with living space above). During the Industrial
Revolution there was a separation of manufacturing and banking from the house, though to this day some
shopkeepers continue (or have returned) to live "over the shop".
House 16

Inside the house

Layout
Ideally, architects of houses design rooms to meet the needs of the people
who will live in the house. Such designing, known as "interior design", has
become a popular subject in universities. Feng shui, originally a Chinese
method of situating houses according to such factors as sunlight and
micro-climates, has recently expanded its scope to address the design of
interior spaces with a view to promoting harmonious effects on the people
living inside the house. Feng shui can also mean the "aura" in or around a
dwelling. Compare the real-estate sales concept of "indoor-outdoor flow".

The square footage of a house in the United States reports the area of "living
space", excluding the garage and other non-living spaces. The "square
metres" figure of a house in Europe reports the area of the walls enclosing the
home, and thus includes any attached garage and non-living spaces.

Traditional house in southern Brazil.

Parts
Many houses have several rooms with specialized functions. These
may include a living/eating area, a sleeping area, and (if suitable
facilities and services exist) washing and lavatory areas. In traditional
agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or
larger livestock (like cattle) often share part of the house with human
beings. Most conventional modern houses will at least contain a
bedroom, bathroom, kitchen (or kitchen area), and a living room. A
typical "foursquare house" (as pictured) occurred commonly in the
Floor plan of a "foursquare" house early history of the United States of America where they were mainly
built, with a staircase in the center of the house, surrounded by four
rooms, and connected to other sections of the house (including in more recent eras a garage).

The names of parts of a house often echo the names of parts of other buildings, but could typically include:
House 17

• Atrium • Hearth – often an important symbolic focus of family

• Attic togetherness
• Alcove • Kitchen
• Basement/cellar • Larder
• Bathroom (in various senses of the word) • Laundry room
• Bath/shower • Library
• Toilet • Living room
• Loft
• Bedroom (or nursery, for infants or small children)
• Nook
• Box-room / storage room
• Window
• Conservatory
• Office or study
• Dining room
• Pantry
• Family room or den
• Parlour
• Fireplace (for warmth during winter; generally not found in warmer • Pew/porch
climates) • Recreation room / rumpus room / television room
• Foyer • Shrines to serve the religious functions associated with a family
• Front room (in various senses of the phrase) • Stairwell
• Garage • Sunroom
• Hallway / passage / Vestibule • Workshop
Some houses have a pool in the background, or a trampoline, or a
playground.

Construction
The structure of the house (under
demolition). This house is constructed from
bricks and wood and was later covered by
insulating panels. The roof construction is
also seen.
In the United States, modern house-construction techniques include
light-frame construction (in areas with access to supplies of wood) and
adobe or sometimes rammed-earth construction (in arid regions with scarce
wood-resources). Some areas use brick almost exclusively, and quarried
stone has long provided walling. To some extent, aluminum and steel have
displaced some traditional building materials. Increasingly popular
alternative construction materials include insulating concrete forms (foam
forms filled with concrete), structural insulated panels (foam panels faced
with oriented strand board or fiber cement), and light-gauge steel framing
and heavy-gauge steel framing.
House 18

More generally, people often build houses out of the nearest available
material, and often tradition and/or culture govern
construction-materials, so whole towns, areas, counties or even
states/countries may be built out of one main type of material. For
example, a large fraction of American houses use wood, while most
British and many European houses utilize stone or brick.
In the 1900s, some house designers started using prefabrication. Sears,
Roebuck & Co. first marketed their Sears Catalog Homes to the
general public in 1908. Prefab techniques became popular after World
War II. First small inside rooms framing, then later, whole walls were
prefabricated and carried to the construction site. The original impetus
was to use the labor force inside a shelter during inclement weather.
More recently builders have begun to collaborate with structural
engineers who use computers and finite element analysis to design
prefabricated steel-framed homes with known resistance to high
The Saitta House, Dyker Heights, Brooklyn, New
wind-loads and seismic forces. These newer products provide labor
York, United States built in 1899 is made of and
savings, more consistent quality, and possibly accelerated construction decorated in wood.
[3]
processes.

Lesser-used construction methods have gained (or regained) popularity in recent years. Though not in wide use,
these methods frequently appeal to homeowners who may become actively involved in the construction process.
They include:
• Cannabrick construction
• Cordwood construction
• Geodesic domes
• Straw-bale construction
• Wattle and daub

Energy-efficiency
In the developed world, energy-conservation has grown in importance
in house-design. Housing produces a major proportion of carbon
emissions (30% of the total in the UK, for example).
Development of a number of low-energy building types and techniques
continues. They include the zero-energy house, the passive solar house,
the autonomous buildings, the superinsulated and houses built to the
Thermographic comparison of traditional (left)
Passivhaus standard. and "passivhaus" (right) buildings
House 19

Earthquake protection
One tool of earthquake engineering is base isolation which is increasingly used for earthquake protection. Base
isolation is a collection of structural elements of a building that should substantially decouple it from the shaking
ground thus protecting the building's integrity[4] and enhancing its seismic performance. This technology, which is a
kind of seismic vibration control, can be applied both to a newly designed building and to seismic upgrading of
existing structures.[5]
Normally, excavations are made around the building and the building is separated from the foundations. Steel or
reinforced concrete beams replace the connections to the foundations, while under these, the isolating pads, or base
isolators, replace the material removed. While the base isolation tends to restrict transmission of the ground motion
to the building, it also keeps the building positioned properly over the foundation. Careful attention to detail is
required where the building interfaces with the ground, especially at entrances, stairways and ramps, to ensure
sufficient relative motion of those structural elements.

Legal issues
Buildings with historical importance have restrictions.

United Kingdom
New houses in the UK are not covered by the Sale of Goods Act. When purchasing a new house the buyer has less
legal protection than when buying a new car. New houses in the UK may be covered by a NHBC guarantee but some
people feel that it would be more useful to put new houses on the same legal footing as other products.

United States and Canada

In the US and Canada, many new houses are built in housing tracts, which provide homeowners a sense of
"belonging" and the feeling they have "made the best use" of their money. However, these houses are sometimes
built as cheaply and quickly as possible by large builders seeking to maximize profits. Many environmental health
issues may be ignored or minimized in the construction of these structures. In one case in Benicia, California, a
housing tract was built over an old landfill. Home buyers were never told, and only found out when some began
having reactions to high levels of lead and chromium.

Identifying houses
With the growth of dense settlement, humans designed ways of identifying houses and/or parcels of land. Individual
houses sometimes acquire proper names; and those names may acquire in their turn considerable emotional
connotations: see for example the house of Howards End or the castle of Brideshead Revisited. A more systematic
and general approach to identifying houses may use various methods of house numbering.

Animal houses
Humans often build "houses" for domestic or wild animals, often resembling smaller versions of human domiciles.
Familiar animal houses built by humans include bird-houses, hen-houses/chicken-coops and doghouses (kennels);
while housed agricultural animals more often live in barns and stables. However, human interest in building houses
for animals does not stop at the domestic pet. People build bat-houses, nesting-sites for wild ducks and other birds,
bee houses, giraffe houses, kangaroo houses, worm houses, hermit crab houses, as well as shelters for many other
animals.
House 20

Shelter
Forms of (relatively) simple shelter may include:
• Bus stop
• Camper
• Chalet
• Cottage
• Dugout
• Gazebo
• Hangar
A modern style house in Canberra, Australia
• Houseboat
• Hut
• Lean-to
• Log Cabin
• Shack
• Tent (see also camp)
• Caravan
• Umbrella
• Yaodong

Houses and symbolism

Houses may express the circumstances or opinions of their builders or their inhabitants. Thus a vast and elaborate
house may serve as a sign of conspicuous wealth, whereas a low-profile house built of recycled materials may
indicate support of energy conservation.
Houses of particular historical significance (former residences of the famous, for example, or even just very old
houses) may gain a protected status in town planning as examples of built heritage and/or of streetscape values.
Commemorative plaques may mark such structures.
Home ownership provides a common measure of prosperity in economics. Contrast the importance of
house-destruction, tent dwelling and house rebuilding in the wake of many natural disasters.
Peter Olshavsky's House for the Dance of Death [6] provides a 'pataphysical variation on the house.

Heraldry
The house occurs as a rare charge in heraldry.

See also
Institutions
• U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
• Regulatory Barriers Clearinghouse
• HUD USER
Economics
• Affordable housing
• Housing bubble
• United States housing bubble
• Housing tenure
House 21

Functions
• Building science
• Mixed-use development
• Visitability
Types
• Boarding house
• Earth sheltering
• Home automation
• Housing estate
• Housing in Japan
• Hurricane proof house
• Lodging
• Lustron house
• Mobile home
• Modular home
Miscellaneous
• Domestic robot
• Housewarming party
• Squatting
Lists
• List of famous American Houses
• List of house styles
• List of house types
• List of human habitation forms
• List of real estate topics

External links
• Housing [7] from UCB Libraries GovPubs

References
[1] Schoenauer, Norbert (2000). 6,000 Years of Housing (rev. ed.) (New York: W.W. Norton & Company).
[2] Gregorovich, Andrew (1994). "Ancient Inventions of Ukraine" (http:/ / www. infoukes. com/ history/ inventions/ ). .
[3] Saitta House - Report Part 1 (http:/ / www. dykerheightscivicassociation. com/ saittareport. pdf)
[4] YouTube - Testing of a New Line of Seismic Base Isolators (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=HuSiRRoz72Y& feature=related)
[5] James M. Kelly, Professor Emeritus Civil and Environmental Engineering. "Base Isolation: Origins and Development" (http:/ / nisee.
berkeley. edu/ lessons/ kelly. html). National Information Service for Earthquake Engineering, University of California, Berkeley. .
[6] http:/ / www. mcgill. ca/ files/ architecture-theory/ olshavsky. pdf
[7] http:/ / ucblibraries. colorado. edu/ govpubs/ us/ housing. htm
Stairway 22

Stairway
Stairway, staircase, stairwell, flight of stairs or simply stairs are
names for a construction designed to bridge a large vertical distance by
dividing it into smaller vertical distances, called steps. Stairways may
be straight, round, or may consist of two or more straight pieces
connected at angles.
Special stairways include escalators and ladders. Alternatives to
stairways are elevators, stairlifts and inclined moving sidewalks as well
as stationary inclined sidewalks.

Components and terminology

Step
The step is composed of the tread and riser.
Tread Antique Theater staircase with multiple repairs of
The part of the stairway that is stepped on. It is constructed to feet-worn stairs

the same specifications (thickness) as any other flooring. The

tread "depth" is measured from the outer edge of the step to the
vertical "riser" between steps. The "width" is measured from one
side to the other.
Riser
The vertical portion between each tread on the stair. This may be
missing for an "open" stair effect.
A straight stairway with tiled treads, a double
Nosing railing and two landings.
An edge part of the tread that protrudes over the riser beneath. If
it is present, this means that horizontally, the total "run" length
of the stairs is not simply the sum of the tread lengths, the treads
actually overlap each other slightly
Starting step or Bullnose
Where stairs are open on one or both sides, the first step above
the lower floor may be wider than the other steps and rounded.
The balusters typically form a semicircle around the
circumference of the rounded portion and the handrail has a
horizontal spiral called a "volute" that supports the top of the
balusters. Besides the cosmetic appeal, starting steps allow the The simplest form of staircase, down to Man
o'War Cove, Dorset, England
balusters to form a wider, more stable base for the end of the
handrail. Handrails that simply end at a post at the foot of the
stairs can be less sturdy, even with a thick post. A double bullnose can be used when both sides of the stairs
are open.

Stringer, Stringer board or sometimes just String

Stairway 23

The structural member that supports the treads and risers. There
are typically two stringers, one on either side of the stairs;
though the treads may be supported many other ways. The
stringers are sometimes notched so that the risers and treads fit
into them. Stringers on open-sided stairs are often open
themselves so that the treads are visible from the side. Such
stringers are called "cut" stringers. Stringers on a closed side of
the stairs are closed, with the support for the treads routed into
the stringer.
Winders
Winders are steps that are narrower on one side than the other.
They are used to change the direction of the stairs without
landings. A series of winders form a circular or spiral stairway.
When three steps are used to turn a 90° corner, the middle step is
called a kite winder as a kite-shaped quadrilateral.
A Stairway with a landing in the middle.
Trim
Trim (e.g. quarter-round or baseboard trim) is normally applied
where walls meet floors and often underneath treads to hide the
reveal where the tread and riser meet. Shoe moulding may be
used between where the lower floor and the first riser meet.
Trimming a starting step is a special challenge as the last riser
above the lower floor is rounded. Flexible, plastic trim is
available for this purpose, however wooden mouldings are still
used and are either cut from a single piece of rounded wood, or A wide shot of the massacre on the "Odessa
bent with laminations Scotia is concave moulding that is Steps" from The Battleship Potemkin (1925).
underneath the nosing between the riser and the tread above it.

The railing system

The balustrade is the system of railings and balusters that prevents people from falling over the edge.
Banister, Railing or Handrail
The angled member for handholding, as distinguished from the vertical balusters which hold it up for stairs
that are open on one side; there is often a railing on both sides, sometimes only on one side or not at all, on
wide staircases there is sometimes also one in the middle, or even more. The term "banister" is sometimes used
to mean just the handrail, or sometimes the handrail and the balusters or sometimes just the balusters.[1]
Volute
A handrail end element for the bullnose step that curves inward like a spiral. A volute is said to be right
or left-handed depending on which side of the stairs the handrail is as one faces up the stairs.
Turnout
Stairway 24

Instead of a complete spiral volute, a turnout is a

quarter-turn rounded end to the handrail.
Gooseneck
The vertical handrail that joins a sloped handrail to a
higher handrail on the balcony or landing is a gooseneck.
Rosette
Where the handrail ends in the wall and a half-newel is not
used, it may be trimmed by a rosette.
Easings
Wall handrails are mounted directly onto the wall with
wall brackets. At the bottom of the stairs such railings
flare to a horizontal railing and this horizontal portion is
called a "starting easing". At the top of the stairs, the
horizontal portion of the railing is called a "over easing".
Core rail
Wood handrails often have a metal core to provide extra
strength and stiffness, especially when the rail has to curve
against the grain of the wood. The archaic term for the
Example of Winder Stairs
metal core is "core rail".
Baluster
A term for the vertical posts that hold up the handrail.
Sometimes simply called guards or spindles. Treads often
require two balusters. The second baluster is closer to the riser
and is taller than the first. The extra height in the second baluster
is typically in the middle between decorative elements on the
baluster. That way the bottom decorative elements are aligned
with the tread and the top elements are aligned with the railing
angle.
Staircase between levels at Cabot Circus
Newel
shopping centre, Bristol, England, United
Kingdom. A sitting area is provided on the right
of the staircase proper.

A large baluster or post used to anchor the handrail. Since it is a structural element, it extends below the floor
and subfloor to the bottom of the floor joists and is bolted right to the floor joist. A half-newel may be used
where a railing ends in the wall. Visually, it looks like half the newel is embedded in the wall. For open
landings, a newel may extend below the landing for a decorative newel drop.
Baserail or Shoerail
For systems where the baluster does not start at the treads, they go to a baserail. This allows for identical
balusters, avoiding the second baluster problem.
Fillet
A decorative filler piece on the floor between balusters on a balcony railing.
Handrails may be continuous (sometimes called over-the-post) or post-to-post (or more accurately
"newel-to-newel"). For continuous handrails on long balconies, there may be multiple newels and tandem caps to
Stairway 25

cover the newels. At corners, there are quarter-turn caps. For post-to-post systems, the newels project above the
handrails.
Another, more classical, form of handrailing which is still in use is the tangent method. A variant of the Cylindric
method of layout, it allows for continuous climbing and twisting rails and easings. It was defined from principles set
down by architect Peter Nicholson in the 18th century.

Other terminology
Balcony
For stairs with an open concept upper floor or landing, the upper
floor is functionally a balcony. For a straight flight of stairs, the
balcony may be long enough to require multiple newels to
support the length of railing. In modern homes, it is common to
have hardwood floors on the first floor and carpet on the second.
The homeowner should consider using hardwood nosing in place
of carpet. Should the carpet be subsequently replaced with
hardwood, the balcony balustrade may have to be removed to
add the nosing.

Flight
A flight is an uninterrupted series of steps.
Floating stairs
A flight of stairs is said to be "floating" if there is nothing Historical photo of a staircase in the Ford plant in
Los Angeles with a double bullnose and two
underneath. The risers are typically missing as well to emphasize
volutes. The photo also shows an intermediate
the open effect. There may be only one stringer or the stringers landing as part of this U-shaped stair.
otherwise minimized. Where building codes allow, there may
not even be handrails.
Landing or Platform
A landing is the area of a floor near the top or bottom step of a stair. An intermediate landing is a small
platform that is built as part of the stair between main floor levels and is typically used to allow stairs to
change directions, or to allow the user a rest. As intermediate landings consume floor space they can be
expensive to build. However, changing the direction of the stairs allows stairs to fit where they would not
otherwise, or provides privacy to the upper level as visitors downstairs cannot simply look up the stairs to the
upper level due to the change in direction.
Runner
Carpeting that runs down the middle of the stairs. Runners may be directly stapled or nailed to the stairs, or
may be secured by specialized bar that holds the carpet in place where the tread meets the riser.
Spandrel
If there is not another flight of stairs immediately underneath, the triangular space underneath the stairs is
called a "spandrel". It is frequently used as a closet.
Staircase
This term is often reserved for the stairs themselves: the steps, railings and landings; though often it is used
interchangeably with "stairs" and "stairway". In the UK, however, the term "staircase" denotes what in the
U.S. is called "stairway", but usually includes the casing - the walls, bannisters and underside of the stairs or
roof above.
Stairway
Stairway 26

This term is often reserved for the entire stairwell and staircase in combination; though often it is used
interchangeably with "stairs" and "staircase".

Measurements
Stair measurements:
• The rise height or rise of each step is measured from the top of one
tread to the next. It is not the physical height of the riser; the latter
excludes the thickness of the tread. A person using the stairs would
move this distance vertically for each step they take.
• The tread depth is measured from the edge of the nosing to the
vertical riser.
• The going is measured from the edge of the nosing to the edge of
nosing in plan view. A person using the stairs would move this
distance forward with each step they take.
• The total run or total going of the stairs is the horizontal distance from the first riser to the last riser. It is often
not simply the sum of the individual tread lengths due to the nosing overlapping between treads.
• The total rise of the stairs is the height between floors (or landings) that the flight of stairs is spanning.
• The slope or pitch of the stairs is the total rise divided by the total run (not the individual riser and treads due to
the nosing). It is sometimes called the rake of the stairs. The pitch line is the imaginary line along the tip of the
nosing of the treads. In the UK, stair pitch is measured in degrees from the horizontal.
• Headroom is the height above the nosing of a tread to the ceiling above it.
• Walkline - for curved stairs, the inner radius of the curve may result in very narrow treads. The "walkline" is the
imaginary line some distance away from the inner edge on which people are expected to walk. Building code will
specify the distance. Building codes will then specify the minimum tread size at the walkline.
• To avoid confusion, the number of steps in a set of stairs is always the number of risers, not the number of treads.
The easiest way to calculate the rise and run is to use a stair stringer calculator [2].

Ergonomics and building code requirements

Ergonomically and for safety reasons, stairs have to have certain measurements in order for people to comfortably
use them. Building codes will typically specify certain measurements so that the stairs are not too steep or narrow.
Building codes will specify:[3]
• Minimum tread length, typically 9 inches (230 mm) excluding the nosing for private residences.[4] However, most
human feet are longer than this, thus people's feet don't actually fit on the tread of the step.
• Maximum riser height, typically 8.25 inches (210 mm). Note that by specifying the maximum riser height and
minimum tread length, a maximum slope is established. Residential building codes will typically allow for steeper
stairs than public building codes.
• Minimum riser height: Some building codes also specify a minimum riser height, often 5 inches (130 mm).
• Riser-Tread formula: Sometimes the stair parameters will be something like riser + tread equals 17–18 inches
(430–460 mm)[5] or another formula is 2 times riser + tread equals 24 inches (610 mm). Thus a 7 inches (180
mm) rise and a 10 inches (250 mm) tread exactly meets this code. If only a 2 inches (51 mm) rise is used then a
20 inches (510 mm) tread is required. This is based on the principle that a low rise is more like walking up a
gentle incline and so the natural swing of the leg will be longer. This makes low rise stairs very expensive in
terms of the space consumed. Such low rise stairs were built into the Winchester Mystery House to accommodate
the infirmities of the owner, Sarah Winchester, before the invention of the elevator. These stairways, called "Easy
Risers" consist of five flights wrapped into a multi turn arrangement with a total width equal to more than four
times the individual flight width and a depth roughly equal to one flight's run plus this width. The flights have
Stairway 27

varying numbers of steps.

• Variance on riser height and tread depth between steps on the same flight should be very low. Building codes
require variances no larger than 0.1875 inches (4.76 mm) between depth of adjacent treads or the height of
adjacent risers; within a flight, the tolerance between the largest and smallest riser or between the largest and
smallest tread can not exceed 0.375 inches (9.5 mm).[6] The reason is that on a continuous flight of stairs, people
get used to a regular step and may trip if there is a step that is different, especially at night. The general rule is that
all steps on the same flight must be identical. Hence, stairs are typically custom made to fit the particular floor to
floor height and horizontal space available. Special care must be taken on the first and last risers. Stairs must be
supported directly by the subfloor. If thick flooring (e.g. thick hardwood planks) are added on top of the subfloor,
it will cover part of the first riser, reducing the effective height of the first step. Likewise at the top step, if the top
riser simply reaches the subfloor and thick flooring is added, the last rise at the top may be higher than the last
riser. The first and last riser heights of the rough stairs are modified to adjust for the addition of the finished floor.
• Maximum nosing protrusion, typically 1.25 inches (32 mm) to prevent people from tripping on the nosing.
• Height of the handrail. This is typically between 34 and 38 inches (860 and 970 mm), measured to the nose of the
tread. The minimum height of the handrail for landings may be different and is typically 36 inches (910 mm).
• Handrail diameter. The size has to be comfortable for grasping and is typically between 1.25 and 2.675 inches (32
and 67.9 mm).
• Maximum space between the balusters of the handrail. This is typically 4 inches (100 mm).
• Openings (if they exist) between the bottom rail and treads are typically no bigger than 6 inches (150 mm).
• Minimum headroom
• Maximum vertical height between floors or landings. This allows people to rest and limits the height of a fall.
• Mandate handrails if there is more than a certain number of steps (typically 2 risers)
• Minimum width of the stairway, with and without handrails
• Not allow doors to swing over steps; the arc of doors must be completely on the landing/floor.
• A Stairwell may be designated as an Area of refuge as well as a fire escape route, due to its fire-resistance rated
design and fresh air supply.
Jacques-François Blondel in his 1771 Cours d'architecture[7] was the first known person to establish the ergonomic
relationship of tread and riser dimensions.[8] He specified that 2 x riser + tread = step length.[9]
It is estimated that a noticeable mis-step occurs once in 7,398 uses and a minor accident on a flight of stairs occurs
once in 63,000 uses.[10] Some people choose to live in residences without stairs so that they are protected from
injury.
Stairs are not suitable for wheelchairs and other vehicles. A stairlift is a mechanical device for lifting wheelchairs up
and down stairs. For sufficiently wide stairs, a rail is mounted to the treads of the stairs. A chair is attached to the rail
and the person on the chair is lifted as the chair moves along the rail.

Forms
Stairs can take a large number of forms, combining winders and landings.
The simplest form is the straight flight of stairs, without any winders nor landings. It is not often used in modern
homes because:
• the upstairs is directly visible from the bottom of a straight flight of stairs.
• it is potentially more dangerous in that a fall is not interrupted until the bottom of the stairs.
• a straight flight requires enough space for the entire run of the stairs.
However, a straight flight of stairs is easier to design and construct than one with landings. Additionally, the rhythm
of stepping is not interrupted in a straight run, which may offset the increased fall risk by helping to prevent a
misstep in the first place.
Stairway 28

Most modern stairs incorporate at least one landing. "L" shaped stairways have one landing and usually change in
direction by 90 degrees. "U" shaped stairs may employ a single wider landing for a change in direction of 180
degrees, or 2 landings for two changes in direction of 90 degrees each. Use of landings and a possible change of
direction have the following effects:
• The upstairs is not directly visible from the bottom of the stairs, which can provide more privacy for the upper
floor.
• A fall can be arrested at the landing.
• Though the landings consume total floor space, there is no requirement for a large single dimension, allowing
more flexible floorplan designs.
• For larger stairs, particularly in exterior applications, a landing can provide a place to rest the legs.

Spiral and helical stairs

Spiral stairs wind around a central pole. They typically have a handrail
on the outer side only, and on the inner side just the central pole. A
squared spiral stair assumes a square stairwell and expands the steps
and railing to a square, resulting in unequal steps (larger where they
extend into a corner of the square). A pure spiral assumes a circular
stairwell and the steps and handrail are equal and positioned
screw-symmetrically. A tight spiral stair with a central pole is very
space efficient in the use of floor area.

The term "spiral" is used incorrectly for a staircase from a

mathematical viewpoint, as a mathematical spiral lies in a single plane
and moves towards or away from a central point. A spiral staircase by
the mathematical definition therefore would be of little use as it would
afford no change in elevation. The correct mathematical term for
motion where the locus remains at a fixed distance from a fixed line
whilst moving in a circular motion about it is "helix". The presence or
A spiral staircase inside Cremona's Torrazzo,
otherwise of a central pole does not affect the terminology applied to Italy.
the design of the structure.
Spiral stairs in medieval times were generally made of stone and
typically wound in a clockwise direction (from the ascendor's point of
view),[11] in order to place at a disadvantage attacking swordsmen who
were most often right-handed). This asymmetry forces the right-handed
swordsman to engage the central pike and degrade his mobility
compared with the defender who is facing down the stairs. Extant 14th
to 17th century examples of these stairways can be seen at Muchalls
Castle, Crathes Castle and Myres Castle in Scotland. Exceptions to the
rule exist, however, as may be seen in the above image of the Scala of
the Palazzo Contarini del Bovolo, which winds up anti-clockwise. Upward view of the Tulip Stairs & lantern at the
Queen's House, Greenwich, United Kingdom.
Developments in manufacturing and design have led to the
introduction of kit form spiral stair. Steps and handrails can be bolted
together to form a complete unit. These stairs can be made out of steel, timber, concrete or a combination of
materials.
Stairway 29

Helical or circular stairs do not have a central pole and there is a

handrail on both sides. These have the advantage of a more uniform
tread width when compared to the spiral staircase. Such stairs may also
be built around an elliptical or oval planform. A double helix is
possible, with two independent helical stairs in the same vertical space,
allowing one person to ascend and another to descend, without ever
meeting if they choose different helixes (examples : Château de
Chambord, Château de Blois, Crédit Lyonnais headquarters in Paris).
Fire escapes, though built with landings and straight runs of stairs, are
Spiral stairway seen from below; Melk Abbey,
often functionally double helixes, with two separate stairs intertwinned
Austria.
and occupying the same floor space. This is often in support of legal
requirements to have two separate fire escapes.

Both spiral and helical stairs can be characterized by the number of turns that are made. A "quarter-turn" stair
deposits the person facing 90 degrees from the starting orientation. Likewise there are half-turn, three-quarters-turn
and full-turn stairs. A continuous spiral may make many turns depending on the height. Very tall multi turn spiral
staircases are usually found in old stone towers within fortifications, churches and in lighthouses.
Winders may be used in combination with straight stairs to turn the direction of the stairs. This allows for a large
number of permutations.

History
The earliest spiral staircases appear in Temple A in the Greek colony Selinunte, Sicily, to both sides of the cella. The
temple was constructed around 480–470 BC.[12]

Alternating tread stairs

Where there is insufficient space for the full run length of normal
stairs, alternating tread stairs may be used. Alternating tread stairs
allow for safe forward-facing descent of very steep stairs. The treads
are designed such that they alternate between treads for each foot: one
step is wide on the left side; the next step is wide on the right side.
There is insufficient space on the narrow portion of the step for the
other foot to stand, hence the person must always use the correct foot
on the correct step. The slope of alternating tread stairs can be as high
as 65 degrees as opposed to standard stairs which are almost always
less than 45 degrees. The advantage of alternating tread stairs is that
An alternating Duplo tread stair (center) between
people can descend face forward. The only other alternative in such a half-width stair (left) and full-width stair (right).
short spaces would be a ladder which requires backward-facing
descent. Alternating tread stairs may not be safe for small children, the elderly or the physically challenged. Building
codes typically classify them as ladders and will only allow them where ladders are allowed, usually basement or
attic utility or storage areas not frequently accessed.

The image on the right illustrates the space efficiency gained by an alternating tread stair. The alternating tread stair
appearing on the
Stairway 30

image's center, with green-colored treads. The alternating stair requires

one unit of space per step: the same as the half-width step on its left,
and half as much as the full-width stair on its right. Thus, the
horizontal distance between steps is in this case reduced by a factor of
two reducing the size of each step.
The horizontal distance between steps is reduced by a factor less than
two if for constructional reasons there are narrow "unused" steps.
There is often (here also) glide plane symmetry: the mirror image with
respect to the vertical center plane corresponds to a shift by one step.
Alternating tread stairs have been in use since at least 1888.[13]

An alternating tread stair climbing the steep slope

of a pinnacle in Pinnacles National Monument,
California, United States.

Notable stairways
• The longest stairway is listed by Guinness Book of Records as the
service stairway for the Niesenbahn funicular railway near Spiez,
Switzerland, with 11,674 steps and a height of 1669 m (5476 ft).[14]
The stairs are employee-only.
• A flight of 7,200 steps (including inner temple Steps), with 6,293
Official Mountain Walkway Steps, leads up the East Peak of Mount
Tai in China.
• The Haʻikū Stairs, on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaiʻi, are
approximately 4,000 steps which climb nearly 1/2 of a mile.
Originally used to access longwire radio radio antennas which were
strung high above the Haʻikū Valley, between Honolulu and
Kāneʻohe, they are closed to hikers.
• The Flørli stairs, in Lysefjorden, Norway, have 4,444 wooden steps
which climb from sea level to 740 meters. It is a maintenance
stairway for the water pipeline to the old Flørli hydro plant. The
hydro plant is now closed down, and the stairs are open to the
public. The stairway is claimed to be the longest wooden stairway in
The world's longest stairway at the Niesenbahn
the world.[15] funicular in Switzerland has 11,674 steps
• The CN Tower's staircase reaches the main deck level after 1,776
steps and the Sky Pod above after 2,579 steps; it is the tallest metal staircase on Earth.
• The Penrose stairs, devised by Lionel and Roger Penrose, are a famous impossible object. The image distorts
perspective in such a manner that the stairs appear to be never-ending, a physical impossibility. The image was
adopted by M. C. Escher in his iconic lithograph Ascending and Descending.
Stairway 31

Image in art
Stairway is a metaphor of achievement or loss of a position in the society, a metaphor of hierarchy (e.g. Jacob's
Ladder, The Battleship Potemkin).

Gallery

Spiral (double helix) stairs of the Vatican

Museums

Angkor Wat in Cambodia. 

Modified stairway for the elderly in

Thailand. 
Stairway 32

The Potemkin Stairs (1834–41) in Odessa,

Ukraine. 

Spiral stairs with ornamental

balusters. 

Stairs of rock placed in a natural passage. 

Stairway 33

Outdoor stairway on the Alameda Ridge in Portland,

Oregon, United States. 

Emperor's Stairs in the Residenz of Munich,

Bavaria, Germany. 

The 19th century theatre of Weißenhorn,

Germany. 
Stairway 34

External spiral in the Palazzo Contarini del Bovolo in

Venice, Italy. 

Endless stairway at KPMG, Munich,

Germany. 

Ascending and descending, lithograph by M.C. Escher

depicting penrose stairs. 
Stairway 35

See also
• Fire escape
• Fish ladder
• Stair climbing
• Steel square for use in stair framing.
• Cable railings

References
[1] http:/ / m-w. com/ cgi-bin/ dictionary?book=Dictionary& va=banister
[2] http:/ / www. homeconstructionimprovement. com/ 2008/ 06/ stair-stringer-calculator. html
[3] http:/ / www. amezz. com/ ibc-stairs-code. htm
[4] State of California (http:/ / www. dir. ca. gov/ title8/ 3231. html)
[5] http:/ / www. popularmechanics. com/ how_to_central/ home_clinic/ 1275341. html
[6] NFPA 101 Life Safety Code Handbook Tenth Edition 2006, Coté and Harrington, ISBN 0-87765-697-5, pg.167
[7] http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 65/ bl/ BlondelF. html
[8] http:/ / 97. 1911encyclopedia. org/ S/ ST/ STAIRCASE. htm
[9] http:/ / www. generativeart. com/ 2000/ KOUTAMANIS_GA_2000. HTM
[10] http:/ / www. toolbase. org/ Best-Practices/ Codes-Regulations-Standards/ stair-safety
[11] http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ dna/ h2g2/ A506611 Spiral stairways in medieval times clockwise
[12] Ruggeri, Stefania: „Selinunt“, Edizioni Affinità Elettive, Messina 2006, ISBN 88-8405-079-0, p. 77
[13] Moncktons One Plane Method Of Hand Railing and Stair Building, Copyright 1888 by James H. Monckton, Published by John Wiley &
Sons,1891. Plate 2 ,Figure 4
[14] http:/ / www. guinnessworldrecords. com/ gwr5/ content_pages/ record. asp?recordid=49700
[15] http:/ / www. lysefjordeninfo. no/ en/

Maze
A maze is a tour puzzle in the form of a complex branching passage through which the solver must find a route. In
everyday speech, both maze and labyrinth denote a complex and confusing series of pathways, but technically the
maze is distinguished from the labyrinth, as the labyrinth has a single through-route with twists and turns but without
branches, and is not designed to be as difficult to navigate.[1] The pathways and walls in a maze or labyrinth are
fixed (pre-determined) – puzzles where the walls and paths can change during the game are categorised as tour
puzzles. The Cretan labyrinth is the oldest known maze.[2]

Maze construction
Mazes have been built with walls and rooms, with hedges, turf, corn stalks, hay bales,cheese, potatos,old shoes
books, paving stones of contrasting colors or designs, bricks and turf,[3] or in fields of crops such as corn or, indeed,
maize. Maize mazes can be very large; they are usually only kept for one growing season, so they can be different
every year, and are promoted as seasonal tourist attractions. Indoors, Mirror Mazes are another form of maze, where
many of the apparent pathways are imaginary routes seen through multiple reflections in mirrors. Another type of
maze consists of a set of rooms linked by doors (so a passageway is just another room in this definition). Players
enter at one spot, and exit at another, or the idea may be to reach a certain spot in the maze. Mazes can also be
printed or drawn on paper to be followed by a pencil or fingertip.
Maze 36

A small maze. Classical labyrinth. A computer-generated maze.

Generating mazes
Maze generation is the act of designing the layout of passages and walls within a maze. There are many different
approaches to generating mazes, where various maze generation algorithms exist for building them, either by hand or
automatically by computer.
There are two main mechanisms used to generate mazes. "Carving passages" is where one marks out the network of
available routes. "Adding walls" is where one lays out a set of obstructions within an open area. Most mazes drawn
on paper are where one draws the walls, where the spaces in between the markings compose the passages.

Solving mazes
Maze solving is the act of finding a route through the maze from the start to finish. Some maze solving methods are
designed to be used inside the maze by a traveler with no prior knowledge of the maze, whereas others are designed
to be used by a person or computer program that can see the whole maze at once.
The mathematician Leonhard Euler was one of the first to analyze plane mazes mathematically, and in doing so
made the first significant contributions to the branch of mathematics known as topology.
Mazes containing no loops are known as "standard", or "perfect" mazes, and are equivalent to a tree in graph theory.
Thus many maze solving algorithms are closely related to graph theory. Intuitively, if one pulled and stretched out
the paths in the maze in the proper way, the result could be made to resemble a tree.[4]

Mazes in psychology experiments

Mazes are often used in psychology experiments to study spatial navigation and learning. Such experiments typically
use rats or mice. Examples are
• the Barnes maze
• the Morris water maze
• the radial arm maze.
Maze 37

Other types of mazes

Logic mazes
See Logic maze. These are like standard mazes except they use
rules other than "don't cross the lines" to restrict motion.
Mazes in higher dimensions
It is possible for a maze to have three or more dimensions. A
maze with bridges is three dimensional, and some natural cave
systems are three dimensional mazes. The computer game
Descent utilized fully three dimensional mazes. Any maze can
be topologically mapped onto a three-dimensional maze.
Picture maze
See Picture maze. A maze that forms a picture when solved.
Ball-in-a-maze puzzles
Dexterity puzzles which involve navigating a ball through a
maze or labyrinth.
Dead end maze
A maze game where the route creates the dead ends.
Turf mazes and Mizmazes
A pattern like a long rope folded up, without any junctions or
crossings.
A plan of a Loops and Traps maze, Ridgewood,
Loops and Traps Maze NJ

A maze that features one-way doors. The doors can lead to the
correct path or create traps that divert you from the correct path and lead you to the starting point. You may
not return through a door which you have entered. The path is a series of loops interrupted by doors. The maze
is not created with dead ends, but dead ends are created by doors that only open from the other side. The
Halloween Maze in Ridgewood NJ is an example of this type of maze. Through the use of reciprocal doors,
the correct path can intersect the incorrect path on a single plane.

Publications about mazes

Numerous mazes of different kinds have been drawn, painted, published in books and periodicals, used in
advertising, in software, and sold as art. In the 1970s there occurred a publishing "maze craze" in which numerous
books, and some magazines, were commercially available in nationwide outlets and devoted exclusively to mazes of
a complexity that was able to challenge adults as well as children (for whom simple maze puzzles have long been
provided both before, during, and since the 1970s "craze").
Some of the best-selling books in the 1970s and early 1980s included those produced by Vladimir Koziakin,[5] Rick
and Glory Brightfield, Dave Phillips, Larry Evans, and Greg Bright. Koziakin's works were predominantly of the
standard two-dimensional "trace a line between the walls" variety. The works of the Brightfields had a similar
two-dimensional form but used a variety of graphics-oriented "path obscuring" techniques - although the routing was
comparable to or simpler than Koziakin's mazes, the Brightfield's mazes did not allow the various pathway options to
be discerned so easily by the roving eye as it glanced about.
Greg Bright's works went beyond the standard published forms of the time by including "weave" mazes in which
illustrated pathways can cross over and under each other. Bright's works also offered examples of extremely complex
patterns of routing and optical illusions for the solver to work through. What Bright termed "mutually accessible
Maze 38

centers" (The Great Maze Book, 1973) also called "braid" mazes, allowed a proliferation of paths flowing in spiral
patterns from a central nexus and, rather than relying on "dead ends" to hinder progress, instead relied on an
overabundance of pathway choices. Rather than have a single solution to the maze, Bright's routing often offered
multiple equally valid routes from start to finish, with no loss of complexity or diminishment of solver difficulties
because the result was that it became difficult for a solver to definitively "rule out" a particular pathway as
unproductive. Some of Bright's innovative mazes had no "dead ends" - although some clearly had looping sections
(or "islands") that would cause careless explorers to keep looping back again and again to pathways they had already
travelled.
The books of Larry Evans focused on 3-D structures, often with realistic perspective and architectural themes, and
Bernard Meyers (Supermazes No. 1) produced similar illustrations. Both Greg Bright (The Hole Maze Book) and
Dave Phillips (The World's Most Difficult Maze) published maze books in which the sides of pages could be crossed
over and in which holes could allow the pathways to cross from one page to another, and one side of a page to the
other, thus enhancing the 3-D routing capacity of 2-D printed illustrations.
Adrian Fisher is both the most prolific contemporary author on mazes, and also one of the leading maze designers.
His book The Amazing Book of Mazes (2006) contains examples and photographs of numerous methods of maze
construction, several of which have been pioneered by Fisher; The Art of the Maze (Weidenfeld and Nicholson,
1990) contains a substantial history of the subject, whilst Mazes and Labyrinths (Shire Publications, 2004) is a useful
introduction to the subject.
A recent book by Galen Wadzinski (The Ultimate Maze Book) offers formalized rules for more recent innovations
that involve single-directional pathways, 3-D simulating illustrations, "key" and "ordered stop" mazes in which items
must be collected or visited in particular orders to add to the difficulties of routing (such restrictions on pathway
traveling and re-use are important in a printed book in which the limited amount of space on a printed page would
otherwise place clear limits on the amount of choices and pathways that can be contained within a single maze).
Although these innovations are not all entirely new with Wadzinski, the book marks a significant advancement in
published maze puzzles, offering expansions on the traditional puzzles that seem to have been fully informed by
various video game innovations and designs, and adds new levels of challenge and complexity in both the design and
the goals offered to the puzzle-solver in a printed format.

Mazes open to the public

Africa
• Serendipity Maze, Mouille Point, Cape Town, South Africa. Hedge maze by the sea.[6]
• Walkabout Mazes and Botanical Gardens,[7] Robertson, Western Cape, South Africa. 13870 m² net area Google
Maps[8]

Asia

India
• Adham Khan's Tomb, Delhi, India
• A maze inside Bara Imambara is there, which is famous as bhulbhulaiya and is also a popular as tourist place in
Lucknow, India
Maze 39

Dubai
• Gardens Shopping Mall, Dubai (World's Largest Indoor Maze)[9]

Japan
• Hikimi no Meiro,[10] Masuda, Shimane, Japan
• Kodama no Mori,[11] Kiso, Nagano, Japan
• Kyodai Meiro Palladium,[12] Nikkō, Tochigi, Japan
• Sendai Hi-Land,[13] Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
• Shirahama Energy Land,[14] Shirahama, Wakayama, Japan

Oceania

Australia
• The Maze [15], Perth, Western Australia[16]
• Ashcombe Maze, Shoreham, Victoria, Australia,[17]
• Mintaro Maze, Mintaro, South Australia,[18]
• A Maze'N Things,[19] Phillip Island (Victoria), Australia[20]

New Zealand
• The Great Maze, The Puzzling World,[21] Wanaka, South Island (1.5 km of passages)

Europe

Austria

• Schönbrunn Palace, Austria (small entrance fee, tower at the center

to overlook the hedge maze)[22]

Germany

• Altjeßnitz, Germany, Sachsen-Anhalt, near Dessau (hedge maze,

c.1750) (51°41′35.7″N 12°19′23.9″E)
• Aschaffenburg (Park Schönbusch), Germany, Bavaria (hedge maze,
c.1829)(49°57′42″N 9°06′24″E)
Public hedge maze in the "English Garden" at
• Berlin (Erholungspark Marzahn), Germany (hedge maze)[23]
Schönbusch Park, Aschaffenburg, Germany
• Erlebniswelt Hortus Vitalis - Der Irrgarten,[24] Bad Salzuflen,
Germany, North-Rhine-Westphalia (hedge maze)
• Hannover (Herrenhausen Gardens), Germany, Lower Saxony

Greece

• Palace of Knossos
Maze 40

Italy

• Villa Pisani, Stra, near Venice

• Porsenna's Maze,[25] Chiusi, Tuscany (see Pliny's Italian
labyrinth)

Portugal

• Parque de São Roque,[26] District of Porto[27]

• Parque do Arnado,[28] Ponte de Lima, District of Viana do
Castelo
• Reserva Florestal de Recreio do Pinhal da Paz,[29] São
The labyrinth of Barvaux, Durbuy
Miguel Island, Azores

Scandinavia

• The Labyrinth in Moomin World, Finland

• Labyrinttimaailma (Labyrinth world), Finland
• Labyrinthia, Silkeborg, Denmark[30]
• Samsø, Denmark,[31] [32]

Spain

• Amaze'n Laberintos, Spain, Majorca, Alcudia, Playa de

Muro (wooden maze, 1998)
• Parc del Laberint d'Horta, Barcelona, Spain (hedge
maze)[33]
• Labyrinth in the Way of Santiago - Spain [34] Laberinto del
Camino de Santiago - España.

UK
Inside the labyrinth of Villa Pisani
• Noah's Ark Zoo Farm, Bristol, England (longest hedge
maze in the world, planted 2003)[35]
• Alnwick Castle Water Gardens Bamboo Maze, Northumberland. Designed by Adrian Fisher
• Blackpool Pleasure Beach Hedge Maze, Lancashire, England. Designed by Adrian Fisher
• Blake House Craft Centre, Braintree, Essex, England (Open July-September)[36] [37]
• Blenheim Palace Hedge Maze, Oxfordshire, England. Designed by Minotaur Designs, Adrian Fisher, Randoll
Coate and Graham Burgess, 1991[38]
• St. Catherine's Hill, Hampshire near Winchester, old "Miz-Maze" or "Mizmaze" (unusual square design; path is a
narrow groove)[39]
• Castlewellan, Northern Ireland, world's largest permanent hedge maze[40] [41]
• Chatsworth House, England (hedge maze)[42]
• The Crystal Palace, England. A hedge maze built into a copse[43]
• Greys Court 'Archbishop's Maze', Oxfordshire, England. Designed by Adrian Fisher, 1981[44]
• Hampton Court Palace, England (hedge maze)[45]
• Hoo Hill Maze, Shefford, Bedfordshire, England[46] [47]
• Kentwell Hall, Long Melford, Suffolk, England. Designed Minotaur designs, Adrian Fisher, Randoll Coate and
Graham Burgess.
Maze 41

• Leeds Castle, Maidstone, Kent, England. Designed by Minotaur Designs Randoll Coate, Adrian Fisher and
Graham Burgess[48]
• Longleat, Wiltshire, England: hedge maze, designed by Greg Bright, 1978, and mirror maze, designed by Adrian
Fisher; Labyrinth of Love, Renaissance style Rose garden labyrinth designed by Graham Burgess. Sun and Moon
Maze designed by Randoll Coate.
• Murray Star Maze, Scone Palace, Perth, Scotland (hedge maze). Unusual Celtic-weave. Designed by Adrian
Fisher[49]
• Oak Lane Labyrinth, nr Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk. Open all year round. Free entry.[50]
• Paulton's Park, Hampshire, England (hedge maze)[51]
• Richings Park Amazing Maize Maze, Richings Park, near Heathrow, England (Open July-September)[52]
• Saffron Walden, Essex, England (hedge maze),[53] (The town also has an historic turf maze)
• Symonds Yat, Herefordshire, England[54]
• Worden Park, Leyland, Lancashire, England[55]

North America
• Magowan's Infinite Mirror Maze, Pier 39, San Francisco, California
• Amazing Chicago's Funhouse Maze,[56] Navy Pier, Chicago,
Illinois, USA. Designed by Jack Rouse Associates and Adrian
Fisher
• America's Largest Corn Maze, Shakopee, Minnesota, USA Sever's
Corn Maze[57]
• Children's maze (made out of packs of hay), Ashland Berry Farm,
Ashland, Virginia, USA.
• Davis' Mega Maze, Sterling, Massachusetts USA (3-D adventure
Public maze at Wild Adventures theme park,
corn maze). Designed by Adrian Fisher[58] Valdosta, Georgia. It was removed before the
• The Garden Maze at Luray Caverns, Luray, VA, USA 2010 season.
• Dole Plantation, Wahiawa, Hawaii, (21°31′29.5″N 158°2′14.9″W)
home to the World's Largest Maze.[59]
• Labyrinthe du Hangar 16, Montreal, Canada.[60]
• Magnolia Plantation and Gardens (Charleston, South Carolina),
USA
• Maize Quest Fun Park[61] is the "Largest Collection of People-Sized
Mazes in the World" with mazes made of fence, rope, stone, turf,
corn, Invisible Dog Fencing, Straw Bales, Tiles, Living Bamboo,
and Earthen Mounds. New Park, Pennsylvania, USA
• Mall of Georgia Paving Mazes, Atlanta, Georgia, USA. Designed
by Adrian Fisher Maze at Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis
[62]
• Maze Mania , Garden City, South Carolina USA
(Interchangeable fence Maze appropriate for children and adults)
• McMaze,[63] St. Andrew's West, Ontario, Canada. Original corn maze designed by Sandy McDonald.
• Mohonk Mountain House hedge maze, New Paltz, New York
• Mystery Maze, Wild Adventures theme park, Valdosta, Georgia - manufactured by Amazin' Mazes. Removed
before 2010 season.
• Noah's Ark Water Park Mirror Maze, Wisconsin Dells, USA. Designed by Adrian Fisher
• Norton Museum of Art West Palm Beach, USA. Pavement Maze, Serpent Mound and Turf Labyrinth. Designed
by Adrian Fisher.
Maze 42

• Ridgewood Halloween Maze, Ridgewood, New Jersey, USA (Month of October, Loops and Traps
Halloween-themed maze. Designed by Tyler Stewart.) Free attraction.
• Saunders Farm, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. The largest collection of full-sized hedge mazes and labyrinths in North
America (11).
• Skyline Caverns Mirror Maze, Front Royal, Virginia, USA. Designed by Adrian Fisher.
• The Maze at the Governor's Palace, Colonial Williamsburg, Virginia, USA
• The Maze on Centre Island, Toronto, Ontario, was a centennial gift to the city by its Dutch-Canadian community
in 1967 (Topiary maze, open to public, free, year-round)
• Trail of Terror, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA (annual event, 3/4 mile indoor Halloween-themed maze)[64]
• Magical Mystery Mirror Maze, Mission Beach, San Diego, California, USA. Designed by Adrian Fisher.
• Monterey Mirror Maze, Monterey, California, USA. Designed by Adrian Fisher.
• Palace of Sweets Mirror Maze, Wildwood, New Jersey, USA. Designed by Adrian Fisher.

Further reading
• H. Abelson and A. diSessa, Turtle Geometry: The Computer as a Medium for Exploring Mathematics, MIT Press
(1980)
• Adrian Fisher, The Amazing Book of Mazes, Thames & Hudson, London / Harry N Abrams Inc, New York (2006)
ISBN 978-0-500-51247-0
• Adrian Fisher, Armchair Puzzlers: Mad Mazes, University Books, San Francisco, USA (2005) ISBN
978-1-57528-978-6
• Adrian Fisher, Mazes and Follies, Jarrold Publishing, UK (2004) ISBN 978-1-84165-142-2
• Adrian Fisher, Mazes and Labyrinths, Shire Publications, UK (2003) ISBN 978-0-7478-0561-8
• Adrian Fisher and Howard Loxton, Secrets of the Maze, Thames & Hudson, London (1997) / Barron’s
Educational Series Inc, New York (1998) ISBN 978-0-500-01811-8
• Adrian Fisher and Jeff Saward, The British Maze Guide, Minotaur Designs, St Albans, UK (1991) - the definitive
guide to British Mazes
• Adrian Fisher and Georg Gerster, The Art of the Maze, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London (1990) ISBN
0-297-83027-9
• Adrian Fisher and Georg Gerster, Labyrinth - Solving the Riddle of the Maze, Harmony Books USA, New York
(1990) ISBN 978-0-517-58099-8
• W. H. Matthews, Mazes and Labyrinths: Their History and Development[65] (1927). Includes Bibliography. [66]
Dover Publications (1970) ISBN 0-486-22614-X
• Jeff Saward, Magical Paths, Mitchell Beazley (2002) ISBN 1-84000-573-4

See also
• Celtic maze
• Corn maze
• Crop circle
• Garden mazes (article in German Wikipedia)
• Hedge maze
• Logic Quest 3D
• Pac-Man
Maze 43

External links
• WikipediaMaze.com [67]
• Briefing Room [68] CNN's Barry Neild offers escape routes
• Cornmazedir.com [69] Directory of hundreds of mazes in the USA and Canada
• Images Mazes [70] Real mazes that look like an inkblot portrait
• Labyrinth Society [71]
• Labyrinthos [72] Jeff Saward's website
• Learn how to draw mazes [73]
• W. H. Matthews, Mazes and Labyrinths (1922) [74] online version of W. H. Matthew's classic book
• Maze Algorithms [75] This site explains the different types of mazes and how to generate and solve them
• Multiplayer Maze Game [76] Flash-based free maze game in 2D
• 4D Maze Game [77] John McIntosh's Java-based free maze game in 3D and 4D first-perspective
• Times Online: Britain's best mazes [78]
• Ink Blot Mazes [79] Maze Artist, Yonatan Frimer's page of image mazes that mix art and mazes.
• Labyrinth Online [80]
• Quoridor.net [81] Board and online game where players build maze

References
[1] Kern, Through the Labyrinth, p. 23.
[2] AMS.org (http:/ / www. ams. org/ featurecolumn/ archive/ octo-cretan. html)
[3] Lappa Valley Steam Railway - Trevithick Brick Path Maze (http:/ / www. lappavalley. co. uk/ maze. htm), Lappa Valley Steam Railway, ,
retrieved 13 June 2010
[4] Youtube.com (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=k1tSK5V1pds)
[5] Mazes, Vladimir Koziakin (Grosset & Dunlap, 1971) ISBN 0-448-01836-5
[6] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?f=q& source=s_q& hl=en& geocode=& q=South+ Africa+ >>+ Western+ Cape+ >>+
Cape+ Town+ >>+ Mouille+ Point& sll=-38. 487703,145. 26178& sspn=0. 001468,0. 001306& gl=au& ie=UTF8& hq=& hnear=Mouille+
Point,+ Cape+ Town,+ Western+ Cape,+ South+ Africa& ll=-33. 904153,18. 398189& spn=0. 003112,0. 004093& t=h& z=18)
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412319,145. 038275& sspn=0. 002942,0. 004093& ie=UTF8& ll=-33. 810969,19. 980161& spn=0. 00624,0. 008186& t=h& z=17)
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[10] Iwami.or.jp (http:/ / www. iwami. or. jp/ hish/ kankou/ meiro/ maze. htm)
[11] Kisomura.com (http:/ / kankou. kisomura. com/ kodama/ g. html)
[12] Kinugawa.ne.jp (http:/ / www. kinugawa. ne. jp/ facilities/ palladium/ palladium. html)
[13] Hi-land.co.jp (http:/ / www. hi-land. co. jp/ )
[14] Royalpines.co.jp (http:/ / www. royalpines. co. jp/ shirahama/ )
[15] http:/ / www. themaze. com. au/
[16] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=-31. 653852,115. 958204& spn=0. 003306,0. 002419)
[17] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=-38. 41237,145. 037438)
[18] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=-33. 921497,138. 724869)
[19] Amazenthings.com.au (http:/ / www. amazenthings. com. au/ )
[20] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=-38. 487728,145. 262271)
[21] Puzzlingworld.co.nz (http:/ / www. puzzlingworld. co. nz/ )
[22] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=48. 182484,16. 309236)
[23] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=52. 537715,13. 574654)
[24] Hortus-vitalis.de (http:/ / www. hortus-vitalis. de)
[25] Toscanaunderground.it (http:/ / www. toscanaunderground. it/ eng/ labirintoporsenna. htm)
[26] CM-porto.pt (http:/ / www. cm-porto. pt/ gen. pl?p=stories& op=view& fokey=cmp. stories/ 2383)
[27] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=41. 158021,-8. 587639)
[28] Pontedelima.com (http:/ / www. pontedelima. com/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=168:jardins-no-parque-do-arnado&
catid=76:parques-e-jardins& Itemid=170)
[29] Azores.gov.pt (http:/ / www. azores. gov. pt/ Portal/ pt/ entidades/ sraf-drrf/ textoImagem/ Pinhal+ da+ Paz. htm)
[30] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=56. 106007,9. 576414)
Maze 44

[31] Samsolabyrinten.com (http:/ / www. samsolabyrinten. com/ )

[32] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=55. 971925,10. 551124)
[33] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=41. 440237,2. 145832)
[34] http:/ / www. orbigo. org
[35] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=51. 45409,-2. 741877)
[36] Greatmaze.info (http:/ / www. greatmaze. info/ maze. html)
[37] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=51. 881823,0. 474719)
[38] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=51. 837448,-1. 349832)
[39] Google Maps (hard to see) (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=51. 04659,-1. 309712)
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[44] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=51. 545231,-0. 954609)
[45] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=51. 406033,-0. 337712)
[46] ME.uk (http:/ / www. wuff. me. uk/ hoo hill maze/ noj. html)
[47] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=52. 029145,-0. 321728)
[48] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=51. 245228,0. 632325)
[49] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=56. 421373,-3. 43348)
[50] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=52. 217336,0. 799014)
[51] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=50. 947917,-1. 554914)
[52] Farmmaze.co.uk (http:/ / www. farmmaze. co. uk/ )
[53] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=52. 027056,0. 237628)
[54] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=51. 853717,-2. 648365)
[55] Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. com. au/ maps?ll=53. 682094,-2. 702959)
[56] Amazingchicago.com (http:/ / www. amazingchicago. com/ )
[57] Severscornmaze.com (http:/ / www. severscornmaze. com/ )
[58] Davisfarmland.com (http:/ / www. davisfarmland. com/ megamaze/ index. htm)
[59] Dole-plantation.com (http:/ / www. dole-plantation. com/ Maze/ maze. aspx)
[60] Labyrintheduhangar16.com (http:/ / www. labyrintheduhangar16. com/ en/ index. html)
[61] Mazefunpark.com (http:/ / www. MazeFunPark. com)
[62] http:/ / www. mazemaniasc. com
[63] McMaze.ca (http:/ / www. mcmaze. ca/ )
[64] Trailofterrorfest.com (http:/ / www. trailofterrorfest. com/ home. htm)
[65] Sacred-texts.com (http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ etc/ ml/ index. htm)
[66] http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ etc/ ml/ ml27. htm
[67] http:/ / www. wikipediamaze. com
[68] http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2006/ WORLD/ europe/ 09/ 29/ shortcuts. maze/ index. html
[69] http:/ / www. cornmazedir. com
[70] http:/ / teamofmonkeys. com/ html/ jan07. html
[71] http:/ / www. labyrinthsociety. org/
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[73] http:/ / www. amazeingart. com/ maze-faqs/ draw-mazes. html
[74] http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ etc/ ml/
[75] http:/ / www. astrolog. org/ labyrnth/ algrithm. htm
[76] http:/ / www. jointoplay. com/ maz. html
[77] http:/ / www. urticator. net/ maze/ index. html
[78] http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ travel/ holiday_type/ family/ article2378169. ece
[79] http:/ / inkblotmazes. com/
[80] http:/ / www. labyrinthmazegame. com
[81] http:/ / www. quoridor. net
Cardinal directions 45

Cardinal directions
The four cardinal directions or cardinal
points are the directions of north, south,
east, and west, commonly denoted by their
initials: N, S, E, W. East and west are at
right angles to north and south, with east
being in the direction of rotation and west
being directly opposite. Intermediate points
between the four cardinal directions form
the points of the compass. The intermediate
(intercardinal, or ordinal) directions are
north-east (NE), north-west (NW),
south-west (SW), and south-east (SE).

On Earth, upright observers facing north

will have south behind them, east on their
right, and west on their left. Most devices
and methods for orientation therefore
operate by finding north first, although any
other direction is equally valid, if it can be
reliably located. Several of these devices A compass rose showing the four cardinal directions, the four ordinal directions,
and methods are described below. plus eight further divisions.

Locating the directions

The Sun
The position of the Sun in the sky can be used for orientation if the general time of day is known. In the morning, the
Sun rises roughly in the east (due east only on the equinoxes) and tracks upwards. In the evening it sets in the west,
again roughly and only due west exactly on the equinoxes. In the middle of the day it is to the south for viewers in
the Northern Hemisphere, who live north of the Tropic of Cancer, and the north for those in the Southern
Hemisphere, who live south of the Tropic of Capricorn. This method does not work so well closer to the equator (ie
between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn) since, in the northern hemisphere, the sun may be
directly overhead or even to the north in summer. Conversely, at low latitudes in the southern hemisphere the sun
may be to the south of the observer in summer. (See seasons and solstice for more on this). In these locations, one
needs first to determine whether the sun is moving from east to west through north or south by watching its
movements—left to right means it is going through south while right to left means it is going through north; or one
can watch the sun's shadows. If they move clockwise, the sun will be in the south at midday, and if they move
anticlockwise, then the sun will be in the north at midday.
Therefore, a more accurate fix can be made if the time of year and approximate latitude are factored in. It should also
be noted that, due to the Earth's axial tilt, no matter what your location, there are only two days each year when the
sun rises precisely due east. These days are the equinoxes. On all other days, depending on the time of year, the sun
rises either north or south of true east (and sets north or south of true west). For all locations the sun is seen to rise
north of east (and set north of west) from the March equinox to the September equinox, and rise south of east (and
set south of west) from the September equinox to the March equinox.
Cardinal directions 46

It should also be noted that the amount that the sun appears to be either north or south depends on both the time of
year and latitude of the observer. Knowing these will enable the observer to be more precise when determining the
cardinal directions from the sun's position, particularly in the early morning or late afternoon.

Watch face
An analog watch can be used to locate north and south. The Sun
appears to move in the sky over a 24 hour period while the hour hand
of a 12-hour clock face takes twelve hours to complete one rotation. In
the northern hemisphere, if the watch is rotated so that the hour hand
points toward the Sun, the point halfway between the hour hand and 12
o'clock will indicate south. For this method to work in the southern
hemisphere, the 12 is pointed toward the Sun and the point halfway
between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate north. During
daylight saving time, the same method can be employed using 1
Specialized 24-hour watch with compass card
o'clock instead of 12.
dial
There are relatively minor inaccuracies due to the difference between
local time and zone time, and due to the equation of time. The method functions less well as one gets closer to the
equator.
The photograph shows a specialized 24-hour watch designed for finding directions using the Sun in the northern
hemisphere. With the watch set to indicate local time, the hour hand is pointed directly at the Sun. North is then
indicated by the local midnight position.

Nighttime stars
Astronomy provides a more reliable method for finding direction at night. The Earth's axis is currently (but not
permanently) pointed, to within a fraction of 1 degree, toward the bright star Polaris. The exact direction of the axis
changes over thousands of years due to the precession of the equinoxes. We call the end of the Earth's axis that
points to Polaris the North Pole. The opposite end of the axis is named the South Pole. Polaris is also known as the
North Star, and is generically called a pole star or lodestar. Polaris is only visible during fair weather at night to
inhabitants of the Northern Hemisphere.
Picking out a specific single star may leave one uncertain they've found the right one. As an aid to identifying
Polaris, the asterism "Big Dipper" may be employed. The 2 corner stars of the "pan" (those opposite from the handle)
point above the top of the "pan" to Polaris. This is illustrated at this example [1], the beginning of a tutorial that
teaches how to find Polaris. To see the rest of the tutorial click the link at the bottom of the illustration.
From the Southern Hemisphere, nightly observations of the sky directly above the vicinity of the true pole will reveal
that the visible stars appear to be moving in a circular path. (It is actually the observer that is moving in the circular
path.) This becomes completely obvious when a special case of long exposure photography is employed to record
the observations, by locking the shutter open for most of the intensely dark part of a moonless night. The resulting
photograph reveals a multitude of concentric arcs (portions of perfect circles) from which the exact center can be
readily derived. The common center is exactly aligned with the true (as opposed to the magnetic) pole. (This also is
true of the northern hemisphere, and can be used to verify one has correctly identified Polaris, which will not appear
to move.) A published photograph [2] exposed for nearly 8 hours demonstrates this effect.
Cardinal directions 47

Inertial navigation
At the very end of the 19th century, to avoid the need to wait for fair weather at night to precisely verify one's
alignment with true north, the gyrocompass was developed for ship use in scenarios where the magnetic compass
simply wasn't good enough. It has the further advantages of immunity to interference by stray magnetic fields, and
not depending on Earth's magnetic field at all. Its major disadvantage is that it depends on technology that many
individuals might find too expensive to justify outside the context of a large commercial or military operation. It also
requires a continuous power supply for its motors, and that it be allowed to sit in one location for a period of time
while it properly aligns itself.

Satellite navigation
Near the end of the 20th century the advent of satellite-based Global Positioning Systems (GPS) provided yet
another means for any individual to determine true north accurately. While GPS Receivers (GPSRs) function best
with a clear view of the entire sky, they function day or night, and in all but the most severe weather. The
government agencies responsible for the satellites continuously monitor and adjust them to maintain their accurate
alignment with the Earth. There are consumer versions of the receivers that are attractively priced. Since there are no
periodic access fees, or other licensing charges, they have become widely used. GPSR functionality is becoming
more commonly added to other consumer devices such as mobile phones. Handheld GPSRs have modest power
requirements, can be shut down as needed, and recalibrate within a couple of minutes of being restarted. In contrast
with the gyrocompass which is most accurate when stationary, the GPS receiver must be moving, typically at more
than 0.1 mph (0.2 km/h), to correctly display compass directions. Within these limitations GPSRs are considered
both accurate and reliable. The GPSR has thus become the fastest and most convenient way to obtain a verifiable
alignment with the cardinal directions.

Additional points
The directional names are also routinely and very conveniently associated with the degrees of rotation in the unit
circle, a necessary step for navigational calculations (derived from trigonometry) and/or for use with Global
Positioning Satellite (GPS) Receivers. The four cardinal directions correspond to the following degrees of a
compass:
• North (N): 0° = 360°
• East (E): 90°
• South (S): 180°
• West (W): 270°
An ordinal, or intercardinal, or intermediate, direction is one of the four intermediate compass directions located
halfway between the cardinal directions.
• Northeast (NE), 45°, halfway between north and east, is the opposite of southwest.
• Southeast (SE), 135°, halfway between south and east, is the opposite of northwest.
• Southwest (SW), 225°, halfway between south and west, is the opposite of northeast.
• Northwest (NW), 315°, halfway between north and west, is the opposite of southeast.
These 8 words have been further compounded, resulting in a total of 16 named (and numbered) points evenly spaced
around the compass. Some languages do not use compound words to name the points, instead assigning unique
words, colors, and/or associations with phenomena of the natural world.
Cardinal directions 48

Usefulness of cardinal points

With the cardinal points thus accurately defined, by convention cartographers draw standard maps with north (N) at
the top, and east (E) at the right. In turn, maps provide a systematic means to record where places are, and cardinal
directions are the foundation of a structure for telling someone how to find those places.
North does not have to be at the top. Portable GPS-based navigation computers can be set to display maps either
conventionally (N always up, E always right) or with the current instantaneous direction of travel, called the heading,
always up (and whatever direction is +90° from that to the right).
The direction of travel required to reach the intended destination is called the bearing. Since the real world presents
numerous obstacles, a person must adjust their heading accordingly. Upon moving forward, the bearing will change
so that it always points at the destination, thereby giving clues as to which way to turn. When travelling, it is often
easier to work out where the next turn is, and whether to turn left or right, when the direction of travel is always up.

Beyond geography
Children are sometimes taught the order of these directions (clockwise, from North) by using a mnemonic, such as
"Never Eat Shredded Wheat".
In mathematics, cardinal directions or cardinal points are the six principal directions or points along the x-, y- and
z-axis of three-dimensional space.
In the real world there are six cardinal directions not involved with geography which are north, south, east, west, up
and down. In this context, up and down relate to elevation, altitude, or possibly depth (if water is involved). The
topographic map is a special case of cartography in which the elevation is indicated on the map, typically via contour
lines.
In astronomy, cardinal points of the disk of an astronomical body may be four points defined by the direction in
which the celestial poles are located, as seen from the center of the disk.[3] [4]
A line (here it is a great circle on the celestial sphere) drawn from the center of the disk to the North celestial pole
will intersect the body's limb at the North point. Similarly, a line from the center to the South celestial pole will
define the South point by its intersection with the limb. The points at right angles to the North and South points are
the East and West points. The North point will then be the point on the limb that is closest to the North celestial pole.

Germanic origin of names

During the Migration Period, the Germanic languages' names for the cardinal directions entered the Romance
languages, where they replaced the Latin names borealis (or septentrionalis) with north, australis (or meridionalis)
with south, occidentalis with west and orientalis with east. It is possible that some northern people used the
Germanic names for the intermediate directions. Medieval Scandinavian orientation would thus have involved a 45
degree rotation of cardinal directions.[5]
• north (Proto-Germanic *norþ-) from a root *ner- "left, below", i.e. "to the left of the rising Sun".
• east (*aus-to-) from the word for dawn, see Ēostre.
• south (*sunþ-) is root-cognate to Sun itself, thus "the region of the Sun"
• west (*wes-t-) from a word for "evening", root-cognate to Latin vesper.
Cardinal directions 49

Cardinal directions in world cultures

Many cultures not descended from European traditions use cardinal directions, but have a number other than four.
Typically, a “center” direction is added, for a total of five. Rather than the Western use of direction letters, properties
such as colors are often associated with the various cardinal directions—these are typically the natural colors of
human perception rather than optical primary colors. Some examples are shown here; In many regions of the world,
prevalent winds change direction seasonally, and consequently many cultures associate specific named winds with
cardinal and ordinal directions. The classical Greeks personified these winds as Anemoi. The article on boxing the
compass contains a more recent list of directional winds from the Mediterranean Sea.

Far East

Asia N E S W C Source

China [6] [7]

Ainu [8] [9]

Turkic [8]

Kalmyks — [10]

Tibet [8]

Dynastic Chinese culture and some other Central Asian cultures view the center as a fifth principal direction hence
the English translated term "Five Cardinal Points". Where it is different than the west, is that the term is used as a
foundation for I Ching, the Wu Xing and the five Naked-eye planets.
In traditional Chinese astronomy, the zodiacal belt is divided into the four constellation groups corresponding to the
four cardinal directions.
Each direction is often identified with a color, and (at least in China) with a mythological creature of that color.
Geographical or ethnic terms may contain the name of the color instead of the name of the corresponding
direction.[6] [7] These traditions were also carried west by the westward migration of the Turkic peoples.
East: Green (青 "qīng" corresponds to green); Spring; Wood
Qingdao (Tsingtao) "Green Island": a city on the east coast of China
South: Red; Summer; Fire
Red River (Asia): south of China
Red Sea: south of Turkey
West: White; Autumn; Metal
White Sheep Turkmen
Ak Deniz "White Sea" in Turkish indicates the Sea of Marmara, the Aegean Sea, or the Mediterranean Sea
Belarus (literally "White Russia"), according to one of the theories is the name given to the Western Rus by
the Mongols
North: Black; Winter; Water
Heilongjiang "Black Dragon River" province in Northeast China, also the Amur River
Black Sea: north of Turkey
Kara-Khitan Khanate
Center: Yellow; Earth
Cardinal directions 50

Mount Huang "Yellow Mountain" in central China

Golden Horde: "Central Army" of the Mongols

Americas

America N E S W C Source

Apache — [11]

Aztec — [12] [13]

Cherokee [8] [14]

Lakota [8]

Mayan [8] [12]

Navajo — [8] [11]

Pueblo — [8] [14]

Sioux — [8]

In Mesoamerica and North America, many traditional indigenous beliefs include four cardinal directions and a
center. Each direction was associated with a color, which varied between groups but which generally corresponded
to the hues of corn (green, black, red, white, and yellow). There seems to be no “preferred” way of assigning these
colors; as shown in the table, great variety in color symbolism occurs even among cultures that are close neighbors
geographically.

Unique (non-compound) names of ordinal directions

In some languages, such as Finnish, Estonian and Breton, the ordinal directions have names that are not compounds
of the names of the cardinal directions (as, for instance, northeast is compounded from north and east). In Finnish
those are koillinen (northeast), kaakko (southeast), lounas (southwest), and luode (northwest).

Non-compass directional systems

Use of the compass directions is common and deeply embedded in European culture, and also in Chinese culture (see
South Pointing Chariot). Some other cultures make greater use of other referents, such as towards the sea or towards
the mountains (Hawaii, Bali), or upstream and downstream (most notably in ancient Egypt, also in the Yurok and
Karuk languages). Lengo (Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands) has four non-compass directions: landward, seaward,
upcoast, and downcoast.
Cardinal directions 51

See also
• Azimuth
• Boxing the compass for all thirty-two English-named internationally-used principal points of the compass.
• Elevation – the mapping information ignored by the cardinal point system
• Geocaching – a international hobby
• Geographic Information System (GIS)
• Latitude and Longitude
• List of cartographers – about famous cartographers through history
• List of international common standards
• Magnetic deviation – to understand why a compass does not align perfectly with the Earth's north and south
poles.
• Orienteering – to learn about an internationally popular hobby and sport that depends on the above knowledge for
success.
• Uses of trigonometry

References
Notes
[1] http:/ / www. quietbay. net/ Science/ astronomy/ nightsky/ 034. html
[2] http:/ / astro. wsu. edu/ worthey/ astro/ html/ im-sky/ south-pole-star-trails. jpg
[3] Rigge, W. F. "Partial eclipse of the moon, 1918, June 24" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ full/ 1918PA. . . . . 26. . 373R). Popular Astronomy
Vol. 26: 373. . Retrieved 2009-12-15.
[4] Meadows, Peter. "Solar Observing: Parallactic Angle" (http:/ / www. petermeadows. com/ html/ parallactic. html). . Retrieved 15 December
2009.
[5] See e.g. Weibull, Lauritz. De gamle nordbornas väderstrecksbegrepp. Scandia 1/1928; Ekblom, R. Alfred the Great as Geographer. Studia
Neophilologica 14/1941-2; Ekblom, R. Den forntida nordiska orientering och Wulfstans resa till Truso. Förnvännen. 33/1938; Sköld,
Tryggve. Isländska väderstreck. Scripta Islandica. Isländska skällskapet årsbok 16/1965.
[6] "Cardinal colors in Chinese tradition" (http:/ / www. colorsystem. com/ projekte/ engl/ 63chie. htm). . Retrieved 2007-02-17.
[7] "Chinese Cosmogony" (http:/ / ignca. nic. in/ ps_01005. htm). . Retrieved 2007-02-17.
[8] "Colors of the Four Directions" (http:/ / sites. google. com/ site/ colorsofthefourdirections/ ). . Retrieved 2010-05-16.
[9] "Two Studies of Color" (http:/ / links. jstor. org/ sici?sici=0020-7071(198207)48:3<339:"SOCIF>2. 0. CO;2-4). . Retrieved 2008-03-14. "In
Ainu... siwnin means both 'yellow' and 'blue' and hu means 'green' and 'red'"
[10] Krupp, E. C.: "Beyond the Blue Horizon: Myths and Legends of the Sun, Moon, Stars, and Planets", page 371. Oxford University Press,
1992
[11] "Symbolism of Color" (http:/ / www. princetonol. com/ groups/ iad/ lessons/ middle/ color2. htm). . Retrieved 2007-02-17.
[12] "Aztec Calendar and Colors" (http:/ / www. carnaval. com/ dead/ threedaydead. htm). . Retrieved 2007-02-17.
[13] "The Aztec Gateway" (http:/ / www. amoxtli. org/ cuezali/ deities. html). . Retrieved 2007-02-17.
[14] "Native American Quotes & Proverbs" (http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ ok/ nightowlsgazebo/ page8. html). . Retrieved 2007-02-17.
Tattoo 52

Tattoo
A tattoo is a marking made by inserting indelible ink into the dermis layer
of the skin to change the pigment for decorative or other reasons. Tattoos on
humans are a type of decorative body modification, while tattoos on animals
are most commonly used for identification or branding. The term "tattoo" or
from Samoa, "Tatau" is first referred to by Joseph Banks, the naturalist
aboard Cook's ship the "Endeavour" in 1769 where he mentions it in his
journal. To paraphrase. he states, "I shall now mention the way they mark
themselves indelibly, each of them is so marked by their humor or
disposition".

Tattooing has been practiced for centuries worldwide. The Ainu, the
indigenous people of Japan, traditionally wore facial tattoos. Today one can
find Berbers of Tamazgha (North Africa), Māori of New Zealand, Arabic
people in East-Turkey and Atayal of Taiwan with facial tattoos. Tattooing
A Māori Chief with tattoos (moko) seen by
was widespread among Polynesian peoples and among certain tribal groups
Cook and his crew
in the Taiwan, Philippines, Borneo, Mentawai Islands, Africa, North
America, South America, Mesoamerica, Europe, Japan, Cambodia, New
Zealand and Micronesia. Despite some taboos surrounding tattooing, the art
continues to be popular in many parts of the world.

Etymology
The OED gives the etymology of tattoo as "In 18th c. tattaow, tattow. From
Polynesian tatau. In Tahitian, tatu." The word tatau was introduced as a loan
word into English, the pronunciation being changed to conform to English
phonology as "tattoo".[1] Sailors on later voyages introduced both the word
and reintroduced the concept of tattooing to Europe.[2]
Tattoo enthusiasts may refer to tattoos as "Ink", "Tats", "Art", "Pieces", or
"Work"; and to the tattooists as "Artists". The latter usage is gaining greater
support, with mainstream art galleries holding exhibitions of both
conventional and custom tattoo designs. Copyrighted tattoo designs that are
Japanese painting of Yan Qing, who is
mass-produced and sent to tattoo artists are known as flash, a notable
famous for his tattoo in Chinese Classical
instance of industrial design. Flash sheets are prominently displayed in Masterpiece "The Outlaws of the Marsh".
many tattoo parlors for the purpose of providing both inspiration and (c.1800s)
ready-made tattoo images to customers.

The Japanese word irezumi means "insertion of ink" and can mean tattoos using tebori, the traditional Japanese hand
method, a Western-style machine, or for that matter, any method of tattooing using insertion of ink. The most
common word used for traditional Japanese tattoo designs is Horimono. Japanese may use the word "tattoo" to mean
non-Japanese styles of tattooing.
In Taiwan, facial tattoos of the Atayal tribe are named "Badasun"; they are used to demonstrate that an adult man can
protect his homeland, and that an adult woman is qualified to weave cloth and perform housekeeping.
The anthropologist Ling Roth in 1900 described four methods of skin marking and suggested they be differentiated
under the names of tatu, moko, cicatrix, and keloid.[3]
Tattoo 53

History
Tattooing has been a Eurasian practice at least since around Neolithic times. Ötzi
the Iceman, dating from the fourth to fifth millennium BC, was found in the Ötz
valley in the Alps and had approximately 57 carbon tattoos consisting of simple
dots and lines on his lower spine, behind his left knee, and on his right ankle.
These tattoos were thought to be a form of healing because of their placement
which resembles acupuncture. [19] Other mummies bearing tattoos and dating
from the end of the second millennium BC have been discovered, such as the
Mummy of Amunet from Ancient Egypt and the mummies at Pazyryk on the
Ukok Plateau.[4]

Pre-Christian Germanic, Celtic and other central and northern European tribes
were often heavily tattooed, according to surviving accounts. The Picts were
famously tattooed (or scarified) with elaborate dark blue woad (or possibly
copper for the blue tone) designs. Julius Caesar described these tattoos in Book V
of his Gallic Wars (54 BC).
Tattooing in Japan is thought to go back to the Paleolithic era, some ten thousand
years ago. Various other cultures have had their own tattoo traditions, ranging
A tattoo on the right arm of a
from rubbing cuts and other wounds with ashes, to hand-pricking the skin to Scythian chieftain, whose mummy
insert dyes. was discovered at Pazyryk, Russia

Tattooing in the Western world today has its origins in Polynesia, and in the
discovery of tatau by eighteenth century explorers. The Polynesian practice became popular among European
sailors, before spreading to Western societies generally.[5]

Purposes

Decorative and spiritual uses

Tattoos have served as rites of passage, marks of status and rank,
symbols of religious and spiritual devotion, decorations for bravery,
sexual lures and marks of fertility, pledges of love, punishment,
amulets and talismans, protection, and as the marks of outcasts, slaves
and convicts. The symbolism and impact of tattoos varies in different
places and cultures. Tattoos may show how a person feels about a
relative (commonly mother/father or daughter/son) or about an
unrelated person.

Tattooing is a tradition among many of the

indigenous peoples around the world.
Tattoo 54

Today, people choose to be tattooed for cosmetic,

sentimental/memorial, religious, and magical reasons, and to
symbolize their belonging to or identification with particular groups,
including criminal gangs (see criminal tattoos) but also a particular
ethnic group or law-abiding subculture. Some Māori still choose to
wear intricate moko on their faces. In Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand,
the yantra tattoo is used for protection against evil and to increase luck.
A memorial tattoo of a deceased loved one's
In the Philippines certain tribal groups believe that tattoos have initials
magical qualities, and help to protect their bearers. Most traditional
tattooing in the Philippines is related to the bearer's accomplishments in life or rank in the tribe. Among Catholic
Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina, tattoos with Christian symbols would be inked on to protect themselves from the
Muslim Turks.

Extensive decorative tattooing is common among members of traditional freak shows and by performance artists
who follow in their tradition.

Identification
People have also been forcibly tattooed. A well known
example is the identification system for inmates in Nazi
concentration camps during the Holocaust. Tattoos have also
been used for identification in other ways. For example, in
the period of early contact between the Māori and
Europeans, Māori chiefs sometimes drew their moko (facial
tattoo) on documents in place of a signature. Tattoos are
A Nazi concentration camp identification tattoo sometimes used by forensic pathologists to help them
identify burned, putrefied, or mutilated bodies. Tattoo
pigment is buried deep enough in the skin that even severe burns are not likely to destroy a tattoo. For many
centuries seafarers have undergone tattooing for the purpose of enabling identification after drowning. In this way
recovered bodies of such drowned persons could be connected with their family members or friends before burial.
Therefore tattooists often worked in ports where potential customers were numerous. The traditional custom
continues today in the Royal Navy (Great Britain) and in many others.

Tattoos are also placed on animals, though very rarely for

decorative reasons. Pets, show animals, thoroughbred horses
and livestock are sometimes tattooed with identification and
other marks. Pet dogs and cats are often tattooed with a serial
number (usually in the ear, or on the inner thigh) via which
their owners can be identified. Also, animals are occasionally
tattooed to prevent sunburn (on the nose, for example). Such
tattoos are often performed by a veterinarian and in most
cases the animals are anesthetized during the process.
Branding is used for similar reasons and is often performed
without anesthesia, but is different from tattooing as no ink
Mark of a deserter from the British Army. Tattoo on skin and
or dye is inserted during the process.
equipment. Displayed at Army Medical Services Museum.

Cosmetic
Tattoo 55

When used as a form of cosmetics, tattooing includes permanent makeup and hiding or neutralizing skin
discolorations. Permanent makeup is the use of tattoos to enhance eyebrows, lips (liner and/or lipstick), eyes (liner),
and even moles, usually with natural colors as the designs are intended to resemble makeup.

Medical
Medical tattoos are used to ensure instruments are properly located for repeated application of radiotherapy and for
the areola in some forms of breast reconstruction. Tattooing has also been used to convey medical information about
the wearer (e.g. blood group).

Prevalence
Tattoos have experienced a resurgence in popularity in many parts of the world, particularly in North and South
America, Japan, and Europe. The growth in tattoo culture has seen an influx of new artists into the industry, many of
whom have technical and fine arts training. Coupled with advancements in tattoo pigments and the ongoing
refinement of the equipment used for tattooing, this has led to an improvement in the quality of tattoos being
produced.[6]
During the first decade of the 21st century, the presence of tattoos became evident within pop culture, inspiring
television shows such as A&E's Inked and TLC's Miami Ink and LA Ink. The decoration of blues singer Janis Joplin
with a wristlet and a small heart on her left breast, by the San Francisco tattoo artist Lyle Tuttle, has been called a
seminal moment in the popular acceptance of tattoos as art.[7]
Formal interest in the art of the tattoo has become prominent in the
1990s through the beginning of the 21st century. Contemporary art
exhibitions and visual art institutions have featured tattoos as art
through such means as displaying tattoo flash, examining the
works of tattoo artists, or otherwise incorporating examples of
body art into mainstream exhibits. One such 2009 Chicago
exhibition Freaks & Flash featured both examples of historic body
art as well as the tattoo artists which produced it.[8]

Woman with a lower back tattoo

Tattoo 56

In many traditional cultures tattooing has also enjoyed a

resurgence, partially in deference to cultural heritage. Historically,
a decline in traditional tribal tattooing in Europe occurred with the
spread of Christianity. However, some Christian groups, such as
the Knights of St. John of Malta, sported tattoos to show their
allegiance. A decline often occurred in other cultures following
European efforts to convert aboriginal and indigenous people to
Western religious and cultural practices that held tattooing to be a
"pagan" or "heathen" activity. Within some traditional indigenous
cultures, tattooing takes place within the context of a rite of
passage between adolescence and adulthood.

Many studies have been done of the tattooed population and

society's view of tattoos. In June 2006 the Journal of the American
Academy of Dermatology published the results of a telephone
survey which took place in 2004. It found that 36% of Americans
ages 18–29, 24% of those 30-40 and 15% of those 41-51 had a
tattoo.[9] In September 2006, the Pew Research Center conducted
a telephone survey which found that 36% of Americans ages
18–25, 40% of those 26-40 and 10% of those 41-64 had a Woman with Tattoo
[10]
tattoo. In January 2008, a survey conducted online by Harris
Interactive estimated that 14% of all adults in the United States have a tattoo, just slightly down from 2003, when
16% had a tattoo. The highest incidence of tattoos was found among the gay, lesbian and bisexual population (25%)
and people living in the West (20%). Among age groups, 9% of those ages 18–24, 32% of those 25-29, 25% of those
30-39 and 12% of those 40-49 have tattoos, as do 8% of those 50-64. Men are just slightly more likely to have a
tattoo than women (15% versus 13%)[11]

Negative associations
In Japan, tattoos are strongly associated with a particular organized crime
organization known as the yakuza, particularly full body tattoos done the
traditional Japanese way (Tebori). Many public Japanese bathhouses (sentō) and
gymnasiums often openly ban those bearing large or graphic tattoos in an attempt
to prevent Yakuza from entering.[12] The Government of Meiji Japan had
outlawed tattoos in the 19th century, a prohibition that stood for 70 years before
being repealed in 1948.[13]

Conspicuous tattoos and other body
modification can make gainful
employment difficult in many fields.
In the United States many prisoners and criminal gangs use distinctive tattoos to
indicate facts about their criminal behavior, prison sentences, and organizational
affiliation.[14] A tear tattoo, for example, can be symbolic of murder, with each
tear representing the death of a friend. At the same time, members of the U.S.
military have an equally well established and longstanding history of tattooing to
indicate military units, battles, kills, etc., an association which remains
widespread among older Americans. Tattooing is also common in the British
Armed Forces.

Tattooing was also used by the Nazi regime in Nazi concentration camps to tag prisoners.
Insofar as this cultural or subcultural use of tattoos predates the widespread popularity of tattoos in the general
population, tattoos are still associated with criminality. Although the general acceptance of tattoos is on the rise in
Tattoo 57

Western society, they still carry a heavy stigma among certain social groups. Tattoos are generally considered an
important part of the culture of the Russian mafia.
The prevalence of women in the tattoo industry, along with larger numbers of women bearing tattoos, appears to be
changing negative perceptions with the exception of so called "tramp-stamp",a lower back tattoo. A study of
"at-risk" (as defined by school absenteeism and truancy) adolescent girls showed a positive correlation between
body-modification and negative feelings towards the body and self-esteem; however, also illustrating a strong motive
for body-modification as the search for "self and attempts to attain mastery and control over the body in an age of
increasing alienation."[15]

Religious perspectives

Christianity
There is no consistent Christian position on tattooing. The majority of Christians do not take issue with the practice,
while a minority uphold the Hebrew view against tattoos (see below) based on Leviticus 19:28. Tattoos of Christian
symbols are common. When on pilgramage, some Christians get a small tatoo dating the year and a small cross. This
is usually done on the forearm.
Catholic Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina used tattooing, especially of children, for perceived protection against
forced conversion to Islam during Turkish occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1463-1878). This form of
tattooing continued long past its original motivation, though it was forbidden during Yugoslavian communism.
Tattooing was performed during spring time or during special religious celebrations such as the Feast of St. Joseph,
and consisted mostly of Christian crosses on hands, fingers, forearms, and below the neck and on the chest.[16] [17]
[18]

Coptic Christians who live in Egypt tattoo themselves with the symbols of Coptic crosses on their right wrists.

Mormonism
Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (often referred to as "Latter-day Saints" or "Mormons")
have been advised by their church leaders to not tattoo their bodies.[19] In the Articles of Faith of The Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints it states that the Latter-day Saints accept the Bible to be the word of God[20]
Therefore, the church believes that the body is a sacred temple as preached in the New Testament,[21] and that they
should keep it clean, inside and out, which the church interprets as forbidding tattoos.

Islam
Tattoos are usually considered forbidden in Sunni Islam. According to the book of Sunni traditions, Sahih Bukhari,
"The Prophet forbade [...] mutilation (or maiming) of bodies."[22] Sunni Muslims believe tattooing is haraam (i.e.
forbidden) because it involves changing the creation of Allah, and because the Prophet cursed the one who does
tattoos and the one for whom that is done.[23] There is, however, difference of scholarly Sunni Muslim opinion as to
the reason why tattoos are forbidden.[24] The use of temporary tattoo made with Henna is very common in Muslim
North-Africa. The permissibility of tattoos is debated in Shi'a Islam, with some Shi'a pointing to a fatwa by
Ayatollah Sistani stating they are halal (permitted).[25]
Tattoo 58

Judaism
Tattoos are forbidden in Judaism[26] based on the Torah (Leviticus 19:28): "You shall not make gashes in your flesh
for the dead, or incise any marks on yourselves: I am the Lord." The prohibition is explained by contemporary rabbis
as part of a general prohibition on body modification that does not serve a medical purpose (such as to correct a
deformity). Maimonides, a leading 12th century scholar of Jewish law and thought, explains the prohibition against
tattoos as a Jewish response to paganism. Since it was common practice for ancient pagan worshipers to tattoo
themselves with religious iconography and names of gods, Judaism prohibited tattoos entirely in order to
disassociate from other religions. In modern times, the association of tattoos with Nazi concentration camps and the
Holocaust has given an additional level for revulsion to the practice of tattooing, even among many otherwise fairly
secular Jews.

Procedure
Tattooing involves the placement of pigment into the skin's dermis, the
layer of dermal tissue underlying the epidermis. After initial injection,
pigment is dispersed throughout a homogenized damaged layer down
through the epidermis and upper dermis, in both of which the presence
of foreign material activates the immune system's phagocytes to engulf
the pigment particles. As healing proceeds, the damaged epidermis
flakes away (eliminating surface pigment) while deeper in the skin
granulation tissue forms, which is later converted to connective tissue
by collagen growth. This mends the upper dermis, where pigment
remains trapped within fibroblasts, ultimately concentrating in a layer
just below the dermis/epidermis boundary. Its presence there is stable,
but in the long term (decades) the pigment tends to migrate deeper into Modern tattoo machine in use: here outfitted with
the dermis, accounting for the degraded detail of old tattoos.[27] a 5-needle setup, but number of needles depends
on size and shading desired.
Some tribal cultures traditionally created tattoos by cutting designs into
the skin and rubbing the resulting wound with ink, ashes or other agents; some cultures continue this practice, which
may be an adjunct to scarification. Some cultures create tattooed marks by hand-tapping the ink into the skin using
sharpened sticks or animal bones (made like needles) with clay formed disks or, in modern times, needles.
Traditional Japanese tattoos (Horimono) are still "hand-poked," that is, the ink is inserted beneath the skin using
non-electrical, hand-made and hand held tools with needles of sharpened bamboo or steel. This method is known as
tebori.
Tattoo 59

The most common method of tattooing in modern times is the electric

tattoo machine, which inserts ink into the skin via a group of needles
that are soldered onto a bar, which is attached to an oscillating unit.
The unit rapidly and repeatedly drives the needles in and out of the
skin, usually 80 to 150 times a second. This modern procedure is
ordinarily sanitary. The needles are single-use needles that come
packaged individually. The tattoo artist must wash not only his or her
hands, but they must also wash the area that will be tattooed. Gloves
must be worn at all times and the wound must be wiped frequently
with a wet disposable towel of some kind.

Prices for this service vary widely globally and locally, depending on
the complexity of the tattoo, the skill and expertise of the artist, the
Traditional two coil tattoo machine
attitude of the customer, the costs of running a business, the economics
of supply and demand, etc. The time it takes to get a tattoo is in
proportion with its size and complexity. A small one of simple design might take fifteen minutes, whereas an
elaborate sleeve tattoo or back piece requires multiple sessions of several hours each.

The modern electric tattoo machine is far removed from the machine invented by Samuel O'Reilly in 1891.
O'Reilly's machine was based on the rotary technology of the electric engraving device invented by Thomas Edison.
Modern tattoo machines use electromagnetic coils. The first coil machine was patented by Thomas Riley in London,
1891 using a single coil. The first twin coil machine, the predecessor of the modern configuration, was invented by
another Englishman, Alfred Charles South of London, in 1899.

Dyes and pigments

Early tattoo inks were obtained directly from nature and were extremely limited in pigment variety. Today, an almost
unlimited number of colors and shades of tattoo ink are mass-produced and sold to parlors worldwide. Tattoo artists
commonly mix these inks to create their own unique pigments.
A wide range of dyes and pigments can be used in tattoos, from inorganic materials like titanium dioxide and iron
oxides to carbon black, azo dyes, and acridine, quinoline, phthalocyanine and naphthol derivates, dyes made from
ash, and other mixtures. Iron oxide pigments are used in greater extent in cosmetic tattooing.
Modern tattooing inks are carbon based pigments that have uses outside of commercial tattoo applications. In 2005
at Northern Arizona University a study characterized the makeup of tattoo inks (Finley-Jones and Wagner). The
FDA expects local authorities to legislate and test tattoo pigments and inks made for the use of permanent cosmetics.
In California, the state prohibits certain ingredients and pursues companies who fail to notify the consumer of the
contents of tattoo pigments.
There has been concern expressed about the interaction between magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) procedures and
tattoo pigments, some of which contain trace metals. Allegedly, the magnetic fields produced by MRI machines
could interact with these metal particles, potentially causing burns or distortions in the image. The television show
MythBusters tested the hypothesis, and found a slight interaction between commonly used tattoo inks and MRI. The
interaction was stronger with inks containing high levels of iron oxide.[28] [29]
Professional tattooists rely primarily on the same pigment base found in cosmetics. Amateurs will often use drawing
inks such as low grade India ink, but these inks often contain impurities and toxins which can lead to illness or
infection.
Tattoo 60

Studio hygiene
The properly equipped tattoo studio will use biohazard containers for objects that have come into contact with blood
or bodily fluids, sharps containers for old needles, and an autoclave for sterilizing tools.[30] Certain jurisdictions also
require studios by law to have a sink in the work area supplied with both hot and cold water.
Proper hygiene requires a body modification artist to wash his or her hands before starting to prepare a client for the
stencil, between clients, and at any other time where cross contamination can occur. The use of single use disposable
gloves is also mandatory. In some states and countries it is illegal to tattoo a minor even with parental consent, and
(except in the case of medical tattoos) it is usually not allowed to tattoo impaired persons, people with
contraindicated skin conditions, those who are pregnant or nursing, those incapable of consent due to mental
incapacity or those under the influence of alcohol or drugs.
Before the tattooing begins the client is asked to approve the final position of the applied stencil. After approval is
given the artist will open new, sterile needle packages in front of the client, and always use new, sterile or sterile
disposable instruments and supplies, and fresh ink for each session (loaded into disposable ink caps which are
discarded after each client). Also, all areas which may be touched with contaminated gloves will be wrapped in clear
plastic to prevent cross-contamination. Equipment that cannot be autoclaved (such as counter tops, machines, and
furniture) will be wiped with an approved disinfectant.[31]
Membership in professional organizations, or certificates of appreciation/achievement, generally helps artists to be
aware of the latest trends. However, many of the most notable tattooists do not belong to any association. While
specific requirements to become a tattooist vary between jurisdictions, many mandate only formal training in
bloodborne pathogens, and cross contamination. The local department of health regulates tattoo studios in many
jurisdictions.
For example, according to the health departments in Oregon and Hawaii, tattoo artists in these states are required to
take and pass a test ascertaining their knowledge of health and safety precautions, as well as the current state
regulations. Performing a tattoo in Oregon state without a proper and current license or in an unlicensed facility is a
felony offense.[32] Tattooing was legalized in New York City in 1997,[33] and in Massachusetts and Oklahoma
between 2002 and 2006.

Aftercare
Tattoo artists, and people with tattoos, vary widely in their
preferred methods of caring for new tattoos. Some artists
recommend keeping a new tattoo wrapped for the first twenty-four
hours, while others suggest removing temporary bandaging after
two hours or less. Many tattooists advise against allowing too
much contact with hot tub or pool water, or soaking in a tub for the
first two weeks. This is to prevent the tattoo ink from washing out
or fading due to over-hydration and to avoid infection from
exposure to bacteria and chlorine. In contrast, other artists suggest
that a new tattoo be bathed in very hot water early and often.
Tattoo specific salves have become prevalent in recent
years. General consensus for care advises against removing the scab that
forms on a new tattoo, and avoiding exposing one's tattoo to the
sun for extended periods; both of these can contribute to fading of the image. Furthermore, it is agreed that a new
tattoo needs to be kept clean. Various products may be recommended for application to the skin, ranging from those
intended for the treatment of cuts, burns and scrapes, to cocoa butter, hemp, salves, lanolin, A&D or Aquaphor. Oil
based ointments are almost always recommended to be used in very thin layers due to their inability to evaporate and
therefore over-hydrate the already perforated skin. In recent years, specific commercial products have been
Tattoo 61

developed for tattoo aftercare. Although opinions about these products vary, there is near total agreement that either
alone or in addition to some other product, soap and warm water work well to keep a tattoo clean and free from
infection.[34] Ultimately, the amount of ink that remains in the skin throughout the healing process determines, in
large part, how robust the final tattoo will look. If a tattoo becomes infected (uncommon but possible if one neglects
to properly clean their tattoo) or if the scab falls off too soon (e.g., if it absorbs too much water and sloughs off early
or is picked or scraped off), then the ink will not be properly fixed in the skin and the final image will be negatively
affected.

Health risks
Because it requires breaking the skin barrier, tattooing may carry health risks,
including infection and allergic reactions. Modern tattooists reduce such risks by
following universal precautions, working with single-use items, and sterilizing
their equipment after each use. Many jurisdictions require that tattooists have
bloodborne pathogen training, such as is provided through the Red Cross and
OSHA.

In amateur tattoos, such as those applied in prisons, however, there is an elevated

risk of infection. Infections that can theoretically be transmitted by the use of
unsterilized tattoo equipment or contaminated ink include surface infections of
the skin, herpes simplex virus, tetanus, staph, fungal infections, some forms of
hepatitis, tuberculosis, and HIV.[35] In the United States there have been no
reported cases of HIV contracted via commercially-applied tattooing process.[36]

Tattoos increase the risk of hepatitic disease, which will be exacerbated by the Modern tattoo artist's nitrile gloves
steatohepatitis that alcohol induces. Therefore it has been highly reccommended and sterilized equipment

not to drink for at least 2 months after getting a tattoo, though the risk will still
not have completely diminished. Hepatitic disease is a serious condition frequently involving jaundicing - to be
exact, the yellowing appearance of the skin, furthermore, spontaneous bleeding primarily from the joints. Risk of
infections is also increased, and coupled with hepatitic disease, can result in exsanguination.
Tattoo inks have been described as "remarkably nonreactive histologically".[27] However, cases of allergic reactions
to tattoo inks, particularly certain colors, have been medically documented. Occasionally, when a blood vessel is
punctured during the tattooing procedure a bruise/hematoma may appear.[37] [38]

Tattoo removal
While tattoos are considered permanent, it is sometimes possible to remove them with laser treatments, fully or
partially. Typically, black and darker colored inks can be removed more completely. An ink trademarked as
InfinitInk is designed to be removed in a single laser treatment. The expense and pain of removing tattoos will
typically be greater than the expense and pain of applying them. Some jurisdictions will pay for the voluntary
removal of gang tattoos. Pre-laser tattoo removal methods include dermabrasion, salabrasion (scrubbing the skin
with salt), cryosurgery, and excision which is sometimes still used along with skin grafts for larger tattoos.
Tattoo 62

Temporary tattoos
Temporary tattoos are popular with models and children as they involve no
permanent alteration of the skin but produce a similar appearance that can last
anywhere from a few days to several weeks. The most common style is a type of
body sticker similar to a decal, which is typically transferred to the skin using
water. Although the design is waterproof, it can be removed easily with oil-based
creams. Originally inserted as a prize in bubble gum packages, they consisted of
a poor quality ink transfer that would easily come off with water or rubbing.
Today's vegetable dye temporaries can look extremely realistic and adhere up to
3 weeks due to a layer of glue similar to that found on an adhesive bandage.

Henna tattoos (Mehndi) and silver nitrate stains that appear when exposed to
ultraviolet light can take up to two weeks to fade from the skin. Temporary
airbrush tattoos (TATs) are applied by covering the skin with a stencil and Temporary tattoo being applied to a
human ankle
spraying the skin with ink. In the past, this form of tattoo only lasted about a
week. With the newest inks, tattoos can reasonably last for up to two weeks.

Types of tattoos
The American Academy of Dermatology distinguishes 5 types of tattoos:[39] Traumatic tattoos, also called "natural
tattoos", that result from injuries, especially asphalt from road injuries or pencil lead; Amateur tattoos; Professional
tattoos, both via traditional methods and modern tattoo machines; Medical tattoos; Cosmetic tattoos, also known as
"permanent makeup".

Traumatic tattoos
According to George Orwell, coal miners could develop characteristic tattoos owing to coal dust getting into
wounds. This can also occur with substances like gunpowder. Similarly, a traumatic tattoo occurs when a substance
such as asphalt is rubbed into a wound as the result of some kind of accident or trauma. These are particularly
difficult to remove as they tend to be spread across several different layers of skin, and scarring or permanent
discoloration is almost unavoidable depending on the location. In addition, tattooing of the gingiva from
implantation of amalgam particles during dental filling placement and removal is possible and not uncommon. A
common example of such accidental tattoos is the result of a deliberate or accidental stabbing with a pencil or pen,
leaving graphite or ink beneath the skin.

See also
• Chinese character tattoos • Marquesan tattoo
• Five Dots Tattoo • SS blood group tattoo
• Foreign body reaction • Tattoo convention
• Legal status of tattooing in the United States • Tattooing of Minors Act 1969 (in the UK)
• List of tattoo artists • Tear tattoo
• Lucky Diamond Rich, world's most tattooed person. • Three Dots Tattoo
• UV tattoo
Tattoo 63

References

Bibliography
Anthropological
• Buckland, A. W. (1887) "On Tattooing," in Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and
Ireland, 1887/12, p. 318-328
• Caplan, Jane (ed.) (2000): Written on the Body: the Tattoo in European and American History, Princeton U P
• DeMello, Margo (2000) Bodies of Inscription: a Cultural History of the Modern Tattoo Community, California.
Durham NC: Duke University Press
• Fisher, Jill A. (2002). Tattooing the Body, Marking Culture. Body & Society 8 (4): pp. 91–107.
• Gell, Alfred (1993) Wrapping in Images: Tattooing in Polynesia, Oxford: Clarendon Press
• Gilbert, Stephen G. (2001) Tattoo History: a Source Book, New York: Juno Books
• Gustafson, Mark (1997) "Inscripta in fronte: Penal Tattooing in Late Antiquity," in Classical Antiquity, April
1997, Vol. 16/No. 1, p. 79-105
• Hambly, Wilfrid Dyson (1925) The History of Tattooing and Its Significance: With Some Account of Other
Forms of Corporal Marking, London: H. F.& G. Witherby (reissued: Detroit 1974)
• Hesselt van Dinter, Maarten (2005) The World of Tattoo; An Illustrated History. Amsterdam, KIT Publishers
• Jones, C. P. (1987) "Stigma: Tattooing and Branding in Graeco-Roman Antiquity," in Journal of Roman Studies,
77/1987, pp. 139–155
• Juno, Andrea. Modern Primitives. Re/Search #12 (October 1989) ISBN 0965046931
• "Tattooing Among Japan's Ainu People" [40]. Lars Krutak. Retrieved 2009-08-24.
• Lombroso, Cesare (1896) "The Savage Origin of Tattooing," in Popular Science Monthly, Vol. IV., 1896
• Raviv, Shaun (2006) Marked for Life: Jews and Tattoos (Moment Magazine; June 2006)
• Comparative study about Ötzi's therapeutic tattoos (L. Renaut, 2004, French and English abstract) [41]
• Robley, Horatio (1896) Moko, or, Maori tattooing. London: Chapman and Hall
• Roth, H. Ling (1901) Maori tatu and moko. In: Journal of the Anthropological Institute v. 31, January-June 1901
• Rubin, Arnold (ed.) (1988) Marks of Civilization: Artistic Transformations of the Human Body, Los Angeles:
UCLA Museum of Cultural History
• Sanders, Clinton R. (1989) Customizing the Body: the Art and Culture of Tattooing. Philadelphia: Temple
University Press
• Sinclair, A. T. (1909) "Tattooing of the North American Indians," in American Anthropologist 1909/11, No. 3,
p. 362-400
Popular and artistic
• Green, Terisa. Ink: The Not-Just-Skin-Deep Guide to Getting a Tattoo ISBN 0-451-21514-1
• Green, Terisa. The Tattoo Encyclopedia: A Guide to Choosing Your Tattoo ISBN 0-7432-2329-2
• Krakow, Amy. Total Tattoo Book ISBN 0-446-67001-4
Medical
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, CDC's Position on Tattooing and HCV Infection [42], retrieved June
12, 2006
• National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Body Art (workplace hazards) [43], retrieved September 15,
2008
• United States Food and Drug Administration, "Tattoos and Permanent Makeup" [44], CFSAN/Office of Cosmetics
and Colors (2000; updated [2004, 2006]), retrieved June 12, 2006
• Haley R.W. and Fischer R.P., Commercial tattooing as a potential source of hepatitis C infection, Medicine,
March 2000;80:134-151
Tattoo 64

References
[1] Samoa: Samoan Tattoos (http:/ / www. polynesia. com/ samoa/ samoan-tattoos. html), Polynesian Cultural Center,
[2] Tattoo 2. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000 (http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 61/ 89/ T0058900.
html)
[3] Roth, H. Ling (1900) On Permanent Artificial Skin Marks: a definition of terms. Anthropological Section of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, Bradford, September 11th 1900
[4] Tattoos: Egyptian Mummies from BMEzine.com Encyclopedia (http:/ / wiki. bmezine. com/ index. php/ Egyptian_Mummies); Tattoos:
Pazyryk Mummies from BMEzine.com Encyclopedia (http:/ / wiki. bmezine. com/ index. php/ Pazyryk_Mummies)
[5] "Tattoo" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 584263/ tattoo#tab=active~checked,items~checked& title=tattoo -- Britannica
Online Encyclopedia), Encyclopaedia Britannica
[6] Mifflin, Margot. Bodies of Subversion A secret History of Women and Tattoo. New York City: Juno Books, 1997.
[7] Deb Acord "Who knew: Mommy has a tattoo", Maine Sunday Telegram November 19, 2006
[8] The Chicago art exhibition, Freaks & Flash (http:/ / www. art. org/ exhibitions/ archives/ 2009/ tattoo. htm), for example, juxtaposed circus
sideshow banners depicting tattooed performers like "The Tattooed Lady" alongside art inspired by the tattoo Renaissance of the 1960s and
1970s.
[9] Laumann AE, Derick AJ (September 2006), "Tattoos and body piercings in the United States: a national data set", Journal of the American
Academy of Dermatology 55 (3): 413–21, doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2006.03.026, PMID 16908345
[10] The Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. A Portrait of "Generation Next" (http:/ / people-press. org/ report/ 300/
a-portrait-of-generation-next)
[11] Harris Interactive. Three in ten Americans with a tattoo say having one makes them feel sexier or more artsy (http:/ / www. harrisinteractive.
com/ harris_poll/ index. asp?PID=868)
[12] NYtimes.com (http:/ / travel. nytimes. com/ frommers/ travel/ guides/ asia/ japan/ tokyo/ frm_tokyo_0085022417. html)
[13] Ito, Masami, " Whether covered or brazen, tattoos make a statement (http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ cgi-bin/ nn20100608i1. html)",
Japan Times, June 8, 2010, p. 3.
[14] Andrew Lichtenstein, Texas Prison Tattoos (http:/ / www. foto8. com/ issue01/ dprisontattoos/ prisontattoos1. html), , retrieved 2007-12-08
[15] Carroll L, Anderson R (2002), "Body piercing, tattooing, self-esteem, and body investment in adolescent girls", Adolescence 37 (147):
627–37, PMID 12458698
[16] Darko Zubrinic (1995), Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina (http:/ / www. croatianhistory. net/ etf/ et02. html),
[17] Croatianhistory.net (http:/ / www. croatianhistory. net/ etf/ et02. html#tattoo)
[18] Customs and folkways of Jewish life‎, Theodor Herzl Gaster.
[19] Latter-day Saints commanded to not be tattooed (http:/ / lds. org/ ldsorg/ v/ index. jsp?hideNav=1& locale=0&
sourceId=c6f0b5658af22110VgnVCM100000176f620a____& vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD)
[20] "We believe the Bible to be the word of God ..." LDS.org (http:/ / scriptures. lds. org/ en/ a_of_f/ 1/ 8#8)
[21] 1 Cor 3:10-17 (http:/ / scriptures. lds. org/ en/ 1_cor/ 3/ 10-17#10); read all these verses to understand the full context
[22] Sahih Bukhari, Oppressions, Volume 3, Book 43, Number 654
[23] ‘Abd-Allaah ibn Mas’ood wrote: “May or may not Allaah curse the women who do tattoos and those for whom tattoos are done, those who
pluck their eyebrows and nose hairs, and those who file their teeth for the purpose of beautification and alter the creation of Allaah.”
(al-Bukhaari, al-Libaas, 5587; Muslim, al-Libaas, 5538)
[24] "Ruling of Tattoos in Islam". Retrieved 2009-03-25 (http:/ / www. muslimconverts. com/ cosmetics/ tattoos. htm/ )
[25] Rulings of Grand Ayatullah Sistani - Youth's Issues Posted 18 October 2006 (http:/ / www. alulbayt. com/ rulings/ 15. htm)
[26] "Tattooing in Jewish Law". Retrieved 2009-06-25 (http:/ / www. myjewishlearning. com/ practices/ Ethics/ Our_Bodies/
Adorning_the_Body/ Tattoos. shtml)
[27] Tattoo lasers / Histology (http:/ / www. emedicine. com/ derm/ topic563. htm#section~histology), Suzanne Kilmer, eMedicine
[28] "Mythbusters: Can a tattoo explode in an MRI machine?" (http:/ / youtube. com/ watch?v=PAnz95zzEzk). .
[29] Karen L. Hudson. "Tattoos and MRI Scans" (http:/ / tattoo. about. com/ cs/ tatfaq/ a/ mri_scan. htm). about.com. .
[30] National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Body Art: Preventing Needlestick Injuries (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/ topics/ bbp/
bodyart/ needlestick. html). Retrieved September 15, 2008.
[31] Tattoos (http:/ / www. kidshealth. org/ teen/ your_body/ skin_stuff/ safe_tattooing. html), Renee Kottenhahn, TeensHealth
[32] Oregon State Health Department (http:/ / www. oregon. gov/ OHLA/ links. shtml)
[33] NYC24.org (http:/ / www. nyc24. org/ 2003/ issue4/ story4/ page2. html)
[34] Tattoo Post Operative Care (http:/ / www. thetattoocollection. com/ tattoo_post_operative_care. htm)
[35] Tattoos: Risks and precautions to know first - MayoClinic.com (http:/ / www. mayoclinic. com/ health/ tattoos-and-piercings/ MC00020)
[36] HIV and Its Transmission (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ hiv/ resources/ factsheets/ transmission. htm) July 1999, CDC
[37] Bruising (http:/ / wiki. bmezine. com/ index. php/ Bruising#Bruising_around_fresh_tattoos), , retrieved 2009-10-08
[38] All Experts, New Tattoo - Bruising or Leaking (http:/ / en. allexperts. com/ q/ Tattoos-3028/ 2008/ 8/ New-tattoo-Bruising-Leaking. htm), ,
retrieved 2009-10-08
[39] Tattoos, Body Piercings, and Other Skin Adornments (http:/ / www. aad. org/ public/ Publications/ pamphlets/ cosmetic_tattoos. html)
[40] http:/ / www. vanishingtattoo. com/ tattooing_among_japans_ainu. htm
Tattoo 65

[41] http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=GatewayURL& _origin=AUGATEWAY& _method=citationSearch&

_piikey=S0003552103000840& _version=1& md5=f6dd58d559c19d58799b93a66225b038
[42] http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ ncidod/ diseases/ hepatitis/ c/ tattoo. htm
[43] http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/ topics/ bbp/ bodyart/
[44] http:/ / www. cfsan. fda. gov/ ~dms/ cos-204. html

Model (person)
A model (from Middle French modèle),[1] sometimes called a
mannequin, is a person who is employed for the purpose of displaying
and promoting fashion clothing or other products and for advertising or
promotionall purposes or who poses for works of art.
Modeling is distinguished from other types of public performance,
such as an acting, dancing or mime artist, although the boundary is not
well defined. Appearing in a movie or a play is not considered
modeling. However, models may be considered to express emotion in
Cougar in a Dress.
their photographs or video.
Types of modeling include fashion, glamor, fitness, bikini, fine art, and body-part models. Models are features in a
variety of media formats including books, magazines, movies, newspapers, and TV. The models themselves can be a
featured part of a movie (Looker, Tattoo), reality television show (America's Next Top Model, The Janice Dickinson
Modeling Agency), or music video (Freedom! '90", "Wicked Game", "Daughters").

Social construction
Various representations of beauty and fashion using models have caused controversy and is known to have some
social impact, particularly on young people - both male and female.

Fashion models

General
Models may be used to display and promote clothing. Fashion
modeling may involve catwalk or runway modeling or editorial
modeling, covering photography for magazine spreads, ad campaigns,
catalogues, print etc. The emphasis of fashion photography is on the
clothes or accessories, not the model. Fashion models may be used to
display or promote various types of clothing, such as lingerie,
swimsuit, and bikini. Models may be used in showroom, fit modeling,
fitness or sporty modeling. Some are used for petite modeling or Fashion models on the runway.
plus-size modeling.

The first person described as a fashion model is Parisian shopgirl, Marie Vernet Worth. She was a house model in
1852, to her fashion designer husband, Charles Frederick Worth.[2] [3]
Model (person) 66

Body types
Because clothing is needed to be modeled for all people, a variety of shapes and sizes is required in models. Many
models weigh about 110 pounds (50 kg) to 125 pounds (57 kg).

Female body type

The British Association of Model Agents (AMA) says that female models should be around 34-24-34 in
(86-61-86 cm) and between 5 ft 8 in (1.73 m) and 6 ft 1 in (1.85 m) tall.[4] The ideal measurements used to be
35.5-23.5-35.5 in (90-60-90 cm), which were the alleged measurements of Marilyn Monroe. However, today's
fashion models tend to have measurements closer to the AMA recommended shape, although by no means do all
models have these exact statistics, and fashion houses may require other sizes for their models. Although in some
fashion industries, a size 00 is more ideal than a size 0.[5]
The often thin shape of many fashion models has been criticized for allegedly warping girls' body image and
encouraging eating disorders.[6] Organizers of a fashion show in Madrid in September 2006 turned away models who
were judged to be underweight by medical personnel who were on hand.[7] In February 2007, six months after her
sister, Luisel Ramos - also a model - died, Uruguayan model Eliana Ramos became the third international model to
die of malnutrition in six months. The second victim was Ana Carolina Reston.[8] Luisel Ramos died of heart failure
caused by anorexia nervosa just after stepping off the catwalk.

Male body type

The preferred average dimensions for a male model are a height of 5 ft 10 in (1.78 m) to 6 ft 3 in (1.91 m), a waist of
26–33 in (66.04–83.82 cm) and a chest measurement of 32–40 in (81.28–101.60 cm).[4] Male runway models have
been noted as being skinny and well toned to fit the clothes, whereas editorial models cover all body types from
slender to muscular.[9]

Supermodels
Supermodels are highly paid, high profile fashion models. These (usually female) celebrities, also known as cover
girls, appear on top fashion magazine covers, in catalogues and in fashion shows.
The first model widely considered to have paved the way for what would become the supermodel was Lisa
Fonssagrives.[10] The relationship between her image on over 200 Vogue covers and her name recognition led to the
importance of Vogue in shaping future supermodels. Her image appeared on the cover of fashion magazine during
the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s from Town & Country, Life and Vogue to the original Vanity Fair. Models like Dorian
Leigh and Jean Shrimpton have also been dubbed the first supermodels.
Model (person) 67

Glamour models
Glamour photography emphasizes the model and the model's sexuality rather
than products, fashion or the environment. Glamour modelling often focuses
on the body of the subject and insinuations of sexuality serve to enhance a
product's attractiveness. Glamour models may be used for mass-produced
calendars, pinup and for men's magazines, such as Playboy magazine.
Famous glamour models include Pamela Anderson, Jordan, Jodie Marsh,
Lucy Pinder, and Louise Glover.

Glamour models posing on the red carpet

- Hollywood, CA 03/09/2008

Fitness models
Fitness modeling centers on displaying an athletic physique. Fitness models usually
have defined muscles like bodybuilders, but with less emphasis on muscle size.
Their body weight is usually similar to (or heavier than) fashion models, but they
have a lower body fat percentage due to increased muscle mass relative to fat mass.

Bikini models
Bikini models are also usually required to be obviously fit and with an appealing
body shape. Bikini models can usually be shorter, around 5 ft 5 in (1.65 m) to
5 ft 8 in (1.73 m)

Fitness model posing with

dumbbell
Model (person) 68

Artist's models
Art models are models who pose for photographers, painters,
sculptors, and other artists as part of their work of art.
Models are frequently used for training art students, but are also
employed by accomplished artists. The most common types of art
created using models are figure drawing, figure painting, sculpture
and photography. Although commercial motives dominate over
the esthetics in advertising, its 'artwork' commonly employs
models.

Throughout the history of Western Art, drawing the human figure

from living models was considered the most useful tool in
developing the skill of draftsmanship. In the art school classroom
setting, the purpose is to learn how to draw humans of all different
shapes, ages and ethnicities, so there are no real limitations on who
the model can be. In some cases, the model may pose with various
props, one or more other models, animals etc., against real or
artificial background, in natural or artificial light and so on.

Models for life drawing classes are often entirely nude, apart from
visually non-obstructive personal items such as small jewelry and
Artist's model at work
sometimes eyeglasses. In a job advertisement seeking nude
models, this may be referred to as being "undraped" or "disrobed".
(Alternatively, a cache-sexe may be worn. Eadward Muybridge's historic scientific studies of the male and female
form in motion, for example, has examples of both usages.)

In Western countries, there is generally no objection to either sex posing nude for or drawing members of the
opposite sex. However, this was not always so in the past, particularly prior to the 20th century. In 1886 Thomas
Eakins was famously dismissed from the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Art for removing the loincloth from a male
model in a mixed classroom. Similarly, Victorian modesty required the female model to pose nude with her face
draped (illustration). European arts academies did not allow women to study the nude at all until the end of the
nineteenth century. Up into the present day some rare art classes prefer male models to wear a jockstrap.
Policies vary regarding male models having an erection. Some instructors don't
mind at all (especially with younger or inexperienced models), while others,
including the Register of Artists' Models (RAM) in the United Kingdom,
consider this as cause for termination.[11] In any case, it may be inconvenient for
the artists, as the subject is not exactly the same as when the drawing session
commenced.

Alternative models
An alternative model is any model that does not fit into the conventional model
types, and may include emo, punk, goth, fetish, tattooed models or having a
distinctive attribute. These mix with high fashion and art models. Publishers such Masked nude, drawing by Thomas
as Goliath in Germany have enabled alternative models and punk photography to Eakins (c. 1863–66)
become known to a larger audience.
Model (person) 69

Body part modeling

Some models are employed for their particularly attractive body parts. For example, hand models may be used to
promote nail care products, leg models are useful for showcasing tights, and wrist models are used to showcase
watches or bracelets. Petite models or females who are under 5 ft 6 in (1.68 m) have found success through body part
modeling.

Working conditions
Despite the stereotype of modeling as a lucrative and glamorous profession, according to the US Bureau of Labor
Statistics the median wage for models was only $11.22 per hour in 2006.[12] MarketWatch listed modeling as one of
the ten worst jobs in America.[12]

See also
• Child modeling
• Figure drawing
• Hip hop model
• House model
• Internet modeling
• List of black fashion models
• Modeling agency
• Plus-size model
• Promotional model
• Spokesmodel
• Supermodel
• Time for print

References
[1] http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ model
[2] History from Modelworker (http:/ / www. modelworker. com/ history. html)
[3] Walker, Harriet (4 May 2009). "Fabulous faces of fashion: A century of modelling" (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ life-style/ fashion/
features/ fabulous-faces-of-fashion-a--century-of-modelling-1678417. html). The Independent. .
[4] AMA - AMA code of practice - Getting Started as a Model (http:/ / www. associationofmodelagents. org/ become-a-model/
getting-started-as-a-model. html)
[5] Where Size 0 Doesn't Make the Cut (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 09/ 22/ opinion/ 22fri4. html?_r=1& scp=1& sq=Where Size 0
Doesn't Make the Cut& st=cse)
[6] Nanci Hellmich, Do thin models warp girls' body image? (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ news/ health/ 2006-09-25-thin-models_x. htm) USA
Today 9/26/2006
[7] Skinny models banned from catwalk (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2006/ WORLD/ europe/ 09/ 13/ spain. models/ index. html). CNN. September
13, 2006.
[8] Ban on stick-think models illegal (http:/ / www. news. com. au/ dailytelegraph/ story/ 0,22049,21232157-5001021,00. html), Jennifer
Melocco, The Daily Telegraph, February 16, 2007.
[9] The Vanishing Point (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 02/ 07/ fashion/ shows/ 07DIARY. html)
[10] Rosemary Ranck, "The First Supermodel" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1997/ 02/ 09/ books/ the-first-supermodel. html), The New York
Times February 9, 1997. Retrieved September 24, 2006
[11] RAM Guidelines on selection of life models - Register of Artists' Models (http:/ / www. modelreg. co. uk/ 4. htm)
[12] Mantell, Ruth (November 1, 2007). "The 10 worst jobs in America: Low pay, no benefits put these workers in a tough spot" (http:/ / www.
marketwatch. com/ news/ story/ 10-worst-jobs-america/ story. aspx?guid={6345DDB1-03BA-4760-B763-4F98BA9D9145}&
dist=MostReadHome). MarketWatch (Dow Jones). . Retrieved 2008-01-31.
Photography 70

Photography
Photography is the process, activity and art of creating still or moving pictures by recording radiation on a
radiation-sensitive medium, such as a photographic film, or an electronic sensor. Photography uses foremost
radiation in the UV, visible and near-IR spectrum.[1] For common purposes the term light is used in stead of
radiation. Light reflected or emitted from objects form a real image on a light sensitive area (film or plate) or a FPA
pixel array sensor by means of a pin hole or lens in a device known as a camera during a timed exposure. The result
on film or plate is a latent image, subsequently developed into a visual image (negative or diapositive). An image on
paper base is known as a print. The result on the FPA pixel array sensor is an electrical charge at each pixel which is
electronically processed and stored in a computer (raster)-image file for subsequent display or processing.
Photography has many uses for business, science, manufacturing (f.i. Photolithography), art, and recreational
purposes.
As far as can be ascertained, it was Sir John Herschel in a lecture
before the Royal Society of London, on March 14, 1839 who made the
word "photography" known to the whole world. But in an article
published on February 25 of the same year in an unknown and quite
anonymous newspaper called the Vossische Zeitung, Johann von
Maedler, a Berlin astronomer, used the word photography already.[2]
The word photography is based on the Greek φῶς (photos) "light" and
γραφή (graphé) "representation by means of lines" or "drawing",
together meaning "drawing with light".[3]

Function
The camera or camera obscura is the image-forming device, and
photographic film or a silicon electronic image sensor is the sensing
medium. The respective recording medium can be the film itself, or a Lens and mounting of a large-format camera.

digital electronic or magnetic memory.

Photographers control the camera and lens to "expose" the light
recording material (such as film) to the required amount of light to
form a "latent image" (on film) or "raw file" (in digital cameras) which,
after appropriate processing, is converted to a usable image. Digital
cameras use an electronic image sensor based on light-sensitive
electronics such as charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary
metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology. The resulting digital
image is stored electronically, but can be reproduced on paper or film.

The movie camera is a type of photographic camera which takes a A historic camera: the Contax S of 1949 — the
rapid sequence of photographs on strips of film. In contrast to a still first pentaprism SLR.
camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time, the movie camera
takes a series of images, each called a "frame". This is accomplished through an intermittent mechanism. The frames
are later played back in a movie projector at a specific speed, called the "frame rate" (number of frames per second).
While viewing, a person's eyes and brain merge the separate pictures together to create the illusion of motion.[4]
Photography 71

In all but certain specialized cameras, the process of obtaining a usable

exposure must involve the use, manually or automatically, of a few
controls to ensure the photograph is clear, sharp and well illuminated.
The controls usually include but are not limited to the following:

Nikon F of 1959 — the first 35mm film system

camera.

Late Production Minox B camera with later style

"honeycomb" selenium light meter

A portable folding reflector positioned to

"bounce" sunlight onto a model
Photography 72

Control Description

Focus The adjustment to place the sharpest focus where it is desired on the subject.

Aperture Adjustment of the lens opening, measured as f-number, which controls the amount of light passing through the lens. Aperture also has
an effect on depth of field and diffraction – the higher the f-number, the smaller the opening, the less light, the greater the depth of
field, and the more the diffraction blur. The focal length divided by the f-number gives the effective aperture diameter.

Shutter Adjustment of the speed (often expressed either as fractions of seconds or as an angle, with mechanical shutters) of the shutter to
speed control the amount of time during which the imaging medium is exposed to light for each exposure. Shutter speed may be used to
control the amount of light striking the image plane; 'faster' shutter speeds (that is, those of shorter duration) decrease both the amount
of light and the amount of image blurring from motion of the subject and/or camera.

White On digital cameras, electronic compensation for the color temperature associated with a given set of lighting conditions, ensuring that
balance white light is registered as such on the imaging chip and therefore that the colors in the frame will appear natural. On mechanical,
film-based cameras, this function is served by the operator's choice of film stock or with color correction filters. In addition to using
white balance to register natural coloration of the image, photographers may employ white balance to aesthetic end, for example white
balancing to a blue object in order to obtain a warm color temperature.

Metering Measurement of exposure so that highlights and shadows are exposed according to the photographer's wishes. Many modern cameras
meter and set exposure automatically. Before automatic exposure, correct exposure was accomplished with the use of a separate light
metering device or by the photographer's knowledge and experience of gauging correct settings. To translate the amount of light into a
usable aperture and shutter speed, the meter needs to adjust for the sensitivity of the film or sensor to light. This is done by setting the
"film speed" or ISO sensitivity into the meter.

ISO speed Traditionally used to "tell the camera" the film speed of the selected film on film cameras, ISO speeds are employed on modern digital
cameras as an indication of the system's gain from light to numerical output and to control the automatic exposure system. The higher
the ISO number the greater the film sensitivity to light, whereas with a lower ISO number, the film is less sensitive to light. A correct
combination of ISO speed, aperture, and shutter speed leads to an image that is neither too dark nor too light, hence it is 'correctly
exposed,' indicated by a centered meter.

Autofocus On some cameras, the selection of a point in the imaging frame upon which the auto-focus system will attempt to focus. Many
point Single-lens reflex cameras (SLR) feature multiple auto-focus points in the viewfinder.

Many other elements of the imaging device itself may have a pronounced effect on the quality and/or aesthetic effect
of a given photograph; among them are:
• Focal length and type of lens (telephoto or "long" lens, macro, wide angle, fisheye, or zoom)
• Filters placed between the subject and the light recording material, either in front of or behind the lens
• Inherent sensitivity of the medium to light intensity and color/wavelengths.
• The nature of the light recording material, for example its resolution as measured in pixels or grains of silver
halide.

Exposure and rendering

Camera controls are inter-related. The total amount of light reaching the film plane (the "exposure") changes with the
duration of exposure, aperture of the lens, and on the effective focal length of the lens (which in variable focal length
lenses, can force a change in aperture as the lens is zoomed). Changing any of these controls can alter the exposure.
Many cameras may be set to adjust most or all of these controls automatically. This automatic functionality is useful
for occasional photographers in many situations.
The duration of an exposure is referred to as shutter speed, often even in cameras that don't have a physical shutter,
and is typically measured in fractions of a second. Aperture is expressed by an f-number or f-stop (derived from
focal ratio), which is proportional to the ratio of the focal length to the diameter of the aperture. If the f-number is
decreased by a factor of , the aperture diameter is increased by the same factor, and its area is increased by a
factor of 2. The f-stops that might be found on a typical lens include 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, where going up
"one stop" (using lower f-stop numbers) doubles the amount of light reaching the film, and stopping down one stop
halves the amount of light.
Photography 73

Image capture can be achieved through various combinations of shutter speed, aperture, and film or sensor speed.
Different (but related) settings of aperture and shutter speed enable photographs to be taken under various conditions
of film or sensor speed, lighting and motion of subjects and/or camera, and desired depth of field. A slower speed
film will exhibit less "grain", and a slower speed setting on an electronic sensor will exhibit less "noise", while
higher film and sensor speeds allow for a faster shutter speed, which reduces motion blur or allows the use of a
smaller aperture to increase the depth of field. For example, a wider aperture is used for lower light and a lower
aperture for more light. If a subject is in motion, then a high shutter speed may be needed. A tripod can also be
helpful in that it enables a slower shutter speed to be used.
For example, f/8 at 8 ms (1/125th of a second) and f/5.6 at 4 ms (1/250th of a second) yield the same amount of light.
The chosen combination has an impact on the final result. The aperture and focal length of the lens determine the
depth of field, which refers to the range of distances from the lens that will be in focus. A longer lens or a wider
aperture will result in "shallow" depth of field (i.e. only a small plane of the image will be in sharp focus). This is
often useful for isolating subjects from backgrounds as in individual portraits or macro photography. Conversely, a
shorter lens, or a smaller aperture, will result in more of the image being in focus. This is generally more desirable
when photographing landscapes or groups of people. With very small apertures, such as pinholes, a wide range of
distance can be brought into focus, but sharpness is severely degraded by diffraction with such small apertures.
Generally, the highest degree of "sharpness" is achieved at an aperture near the middle of a lens's range (for example,
f/8 for a lens with available apertures of f/2.8 to f/16). However, as lens technology improves, lenses are becoming
capable of making increasingly sharp images at wider apertures.
Image capture is only part of the image forming process. Regardless of material, some process must be employed to
render the latent image captured by the camera into a viewable image. With slide film, the developed film is just
mounted for projection. Print film requires the developed film negative to be printed onto photographic paper or
transparency. Digital images may be uploaded to an image server (e.g., a photo-sharing web site), viewed on a
television, or transferred to a computer or digital photo frame.
Prior to the rendering of a viewable image,
modifications can be made using several controls.
Many of these controls are similar to controls during
image capture, while some are exclusive to the
rendering process. Most printing controls have
equivalent digital concepts, but some create different
effects. For example, dodging and burning controls are
different between digital and film processes. Other
printing modifications include:

• Chemicals and process used during film

A photographer using a tripod for greater stability during long
development
exposure
• Duration of print exposure – equivalent to shutter
speed
• Printing aperture – equivalent to aperture, but has no effect on depth of field
• Contrast – changing the visual properties of objects in an image to make them distinguishable from other objects
and the background
• Dodging – reduces exposure of certain print areas, resulting in lighter areas
• Burning in – increases exposure of certain areas, resulting in darker areas
• Paper texture – glossy, matte, etc.
• Paper type – resin-coated (RC) or fiber-based (FB)
• Paper size
• Toners – used to add warm or cold tones to black and white prints
Photography 74

Uses
Photography gained the interest of many scientists and artists from its inception. Scientists have used photography to
record and study movements, such as Eadweard Muybridge's study of human and animal locomotion in 1887. Artists
are equally interested by these aspects but also try to explore avenues other than the photo-mechanical representation
of reality, such as the pictorialist movement. Military, police, and security forces use photography for surveillance,
recognition and data storage. Photography is used by amateurs to preserve memories of favorite times, to capture
special moments, to tell stories, to send messages, and as a source of entertainment.

History
First known surviving heliographic engraving, made by
Joseph Nicéphore Niépce in 1825 by contact under an
[5]
engraving with the "heliographic process". This
seminal work was a step towards the first permanent
photography from nature taken with a camera obscura,
in 1826.
Photography is the result of combining several technical
discoveries. Long before the first photographs were made, Chinese
philosopher Mo Di and Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid
described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BC.[6] [7]
In the 6th century CE, Byzantine mathematician Anthemius of
Tralles used a type of camera obscura in his experiments,[8] Ibn
al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965–1040) studied the camera obscura and
pinhole camera,[7] [9] Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) discovered
silver nitrate,[10] and Georges Fabricius (1516–1571) discovered
silver chloride.[11] Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in
1568.[12] Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some
chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694.[13] The fiction book
Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la
Roche, described what can be interpreted as photography.[12]

Invented in the first decades of the nineteenth century, photography (by way of the camera) seemed able to capture
more detail and information than traditional mediums, such as painting and sculpting.[14] Photography as a usable
process goes back to the 1820s with the development of chemical photography. The first permanent photoetching
was an image produced in 1822[5] by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed by a later attempt
to duplicate it.[5] Niépce was successful again in 1825. He made the first permanent photograph from nature with a
camera obscura in 1826.[15] However, because his photographs took so long to expose (8 hours), he sought to find a
new process. Working in conjunction with Louis Daguerre, they experimented with silver compounds based on a
Johann Heinrich Schultz discovery in 1816 that a silver and chalk mixture darkens when exposed to light. Niépce
died in 1833, but Daguerre continued the work, eventually culminating with the development of the daguerreotype in
1837. Daguerre took the first ever photo of a person in 1839 when, while taking a daguerreotype of a Paris street, a
pedestrian stopped for a shoe shine, long enough to be captured by the long exposure (several minutes). Eventually,
France agreed to pay Daguerre a pension for his formula, in exchange for his promise to announce his discovery to
the world as the gift of France, which he did in 1839.

Daguerre continued work on the Daguerreotype in hopes of reducing exposure and furthering the development of
photography, eventually culminating in financial discrepancies between the two men concerning Niépce's original
work not being accredited by Daguerre (consider the name "Daguerreotype"). Because of these discrepancies, the
two men discontinued their partnership and retired from photographical research after selling the rights to the
Daguerreotype to the French government.
Photography 75

Meanwhile, Hercules Florence had already created a very similar

process in 1832, naming it Photographie, and William Fox Talbot had
earlier discovered another means to fix a silver process image but had
kept it secret. After reading about Daguerre's invention, Talbot refined
his process so that portraits were made readily available to the masses.
By 1840, Talbot had invented the calotype process, which creates
negative images. John Herschel made many contributions to the new
Mid 19th century "Brady stand" photo model's methods. He invented the cyanotype process, now familiar as the
armrest table, meant to keep portrait models more "blueprint". He was the first to use the terms "photography", "negative"
still during long exposure times (studio
and "positive". He discovered sodium thiosulphate solution to be a
equipment nicknamed after the famed US
photographer, Mathew Brady). solvent of silver halides in 1819, and informed Talbot and Daguerre of
his discovery in 1839 that it could be used to "fix" pictures and make
them permanent. He made the first glass negative in late 1839.

In March 1851, Frederick Scott Archer published his findings in "The Chemist" on the wet plate collodion process.
This became the most widely used process between 1852 and the late 1860s when the dry plate was introduced.
There are three subsets to the Collodion process; the Ambrotype (positive image on glass), the Ferrotype or Tintype
(positive image on metal) and the negative which was printed on Albumen or Salt paper.
Many advances in photographic glass plates and printing were made in through the nineteenth century. In 1884,
George Eastman developed the technology of film to replace photographic plates, leading to the technology used by
film cameras today.
In 1908 Gabriel Lippmann won the Nobel Laureate in Physics for his method of reproducing colors photographically
based on the phenomenon of interference, also known as the Lippmann plate.

Processes

Black-and-white
All photography was originally monochrome, or black-and-white. Even after
color film was readily available, black-and-white photography continued to
dominate for decades, due to its lower cost and its "classic" photographic
look. It is important to note that some monochromatic pictures are not always
pure blacks and whites, but also contain other hues depending on the process.
The cyanotype process produces an image of blue and white for example. The
albumen process, first used more than 150 years ago, produces brown tones.

Many photographers continue to produce some monochrome images, often

because of the established archival permanence of well processed silver
halide based materials.
Some full color digital images are processed using a variety of techniques to
create black and whites, and some manufacturers produce digital cameras that
exclusively shoot monochrome.
A black-and-white image showing a
Color (monochrome) photograph being
developed.
Color photography was explored beginning in the mid 1800s. Early
experiments in color could not fix the photograph and prevent the color from fading. The first permanent color photo
was taken in 1861 by the physicist James Clerk Maxwell.
Photography 76

One of the early methods of taking color photos was to use three
cameras. Each camera would have a color filter in front of the lens.
This technique provides the photographer with the three basic channels
required to recreate a color image in a darkroom or processing plant.
Russian photographer Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii
developed another technique, with three color plates taken in quick
succession.

Practical application of the technique was held back by the very limited
color response of early film; however, in the early 1900s, following the
work of photo-chemists such as H. W. Vogel, emulsions with adequate
sensitivity to green and red light at last became available. Early color photograph taken by
Prokudin-Gorskii (1915).
The first commercially successful color process, the Autochrome,
invented by the French Lumière brothers, reached the market in 1907.
It was based on a 'screen-plate' filter made of dyed grains of potato starch, and was one of many additive color screen
products available between the 1890s and the 1950s. The presumably final use of the additive screen process for
color photography on film was Polachrome, an "instant" 35 mm slide film introduced in the mid-1980s and
discontinued in the mid-2000s. In 1935, American Kodak introduced the first modern ('integrated tri-pack') color
film which was developed by two musicians Leopold Mannes and Leopold Godowsky ("Man" and "God") working
with the Kodak Research Labs. It was Kodachrome, based on multiple layered silver gelatin emulsions that were
each sensitized to one of the three additive colors—red, green, and blue. The cyan, magenta, and yellow dyes were
created in those layers by adding color couplers during processing. This was followed in 1936 by Agfa's Agfacolor
Neu. Unlike the Kodachrome tri-pack process, the color couplers in Agfacolor Neu were incorporated into the
emulsion layers during manufacture, which greatly simplified the film processing. Most modern color films, except
Kodachrome, use such incorporated-coupler techniques, though since the 1970s nearly all have used a technique
developed by Kodak to accomplish this, rather than the original Agfa method. Instant color film was introduced by
Polaroid in 1963.

Color photography may form images as a positive transparency, intended for use in a slide projector, or as color
negatives intended for use in creating positive color enlargements on specially coated paper. The latter is now the
most common form of film (non-digital) color photography owing to the introduction of automated photoprinting
equipment.

Full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared

Ultraviolet and infrared films have been available for many decades and employed in a variety of photographic
avenues since the 1960s. New technological trends in digital photography have opened a new direction in full
spectrum photography, where careful filtering choices across the ultraviolet, visible and infrared lead to new artistic
visions.
Modified digital cameras can detect some ultraviolet, all of the visible and much of the near infrared spectrum, as
most digital imaging sensors are sensitive from about 350 nm to 1000 nm. An off-the-shelf digital camera contains
an infrared hot mirror filter that blocks most of the infrared and a bit of the ultraviolet that would otherwise be
detected by the sensor, narrowing the accepted range from about 400 nm to 700 nm.[16] Replacing a hot mirror or
infrared blocking filter with an infrared pass or a wide spectrally transmitting filter allows the camera to detect the
wider spectrum light at greater sensitivity. Without the hot-mirror, the red, green and blue (or cyan, yellow and
magenta) colored micro-filters placed over the sensor elements pass varying amounts of ultraviolet (blue window)
and infrared (primarily red, and somewhat lesser the green and blue micro-filters).
Photography 77

Uses of full spectrum photography are for fine art photography, geology, forensics & law enforcement, and even
some claimed use in ghost hunting.

Digital photography
Traditional photography burdened photographers working at remote
locations without easy access to processing facilities, and competition
from television pressured photographers to deliver images to
newspapers with greater speed. Photo journalists at remote locations
often carried miniature photo labs and a means of transmitting images
through telephone lines. In 1981, Sony unveiled the first consumer
camera to use a charge-coupled device for imaging, eliminating the
need for film: the Sony Mavica. While the Mavica saved images to
disk, the images were displayed on television, and the camera was not A handheld digital camera, Canon Ixus class.

fully digital. In 1990, Kodak unveiled the DCS 100, the first
commercially available digital camera. Although its high cost
precluded uses other than photojournalism and professional
photography, commercial digital photography was born.

Digital imaging uses an electronic image sensor to record the image as

a set of electronic data rather than as chemical changes on film. The
primary difference between digital and chemical photography is that
chemical photography resists manipulation because it involves film
and photographic paper, while digital imaging is a highly manipulative
Olympus E-420 Four Thirds entry-level DSLR.
medium. This difference allows for a degree of image post-processing
that is comparatively difficult in film-based photography and permits
different communicative potentials and applications.

Digital point-and-shoot cameras have become widespread consumer

products, outselling film cameras, and including new features such as
video and audio recording. Kodak announced in January 2004 that it
would no longer sell reloadable 35 mm cameras in western Europe,
Canada and the United States after the end of that year. Kodak was at
that time a minor player in the reloadable film cameras market. In
January 2006, Nikon followed suit and announced that they will stop
the production of all but two models of their film cameras: the low-end The Nikon D1, the first DSLR to truly compete
Nikon FM10, and the high-end Nikon F6. On May 25, 2006, Canon with, and begin to replace, film cameras in the

announced they will stop developing new film SLR cameras.[17] professional photojournalism and sports
photography fields.
Though most new camera designs are now digital, a new
6x6cm/6x7cm medium format film camera was introduced in 2008 in a
cooperation between Fuji and Voigtländer.[18] [19]

According to a survey made by Kodak in 2007, 75 percent of professional photographers say they will continue to
use film, even though some embrace digital.[20]
According to the U.S. survey results, more than two-thirds (68 percent) of professional photographers prefer the
results of film to those of digital for certain applications including:
Photography 78

• film’s superiority in capturing more information on medium and

large format films (48 percent);
• creating a traditional photographic look (48 percent);
• capturing shadow and highlighting details (45 percent);
• the wide exposure latitude of film (42 percent); and
• archival storage (38 percent)
Digital imaging has raised many ethical concerns because of the ease
of manipulating digital photographs in post processing. Many
photojournalists have declared they will not crop their pictures, or are Nikon DSLR and scanner, which converts film
forbidden from combining elements of multiple photos to make images to digital

"illustrations," passing them as real photographs. Today's technology

has made picture editing relatively simple for even the novice
photographer. However, recent changes of in-camera processing allows
digital fingerprinting of RAW photos to verify against tampering of
digital photos for forensics use.
Camera phones, combined with sites like Flickr, have led to a new kind
of social photography.

Modes of production Sony Ericsson K800i camera phone.

Amateur
An amateur photographer is one who practices photography as a hobby
and not for profit. The quality of some amateur work is comparable to
that of many professionals and may be highly specialized or eclectic in
its choice of subjects. Amateur photography is often pre-eminent in
photographic subjects which have little prospect of commercial use or
reward.

Commercial
Commercial photography is probably best defined as any photography
for which the photographer is paid for images rather than works of art.
In this light money could be paid for the subject of the photograph or
the photograph itself. Wholesale, retail, and professional uses of
photography would fall under this definition. The commercial Manual shutter control and exposure settings can
photographic world could include: achieve unusual results.

• Advertising photography: photographs made to illustrate and

usually sell a service or product. These images, such as packshots, are generally done with an advertising agency,
design firm or with an in-house corporate design team.
• Fashion and glamour photography: This type of photography usually incorporates models. Fashion photography
emphasizes the clothes or product, glamour emphasizes the model. Glamour photography is popular in advertising
and in men's magazines. Models in glamour photography may be nude, but this is not always the case.
• Crime Scene Photography: This type of photography consists of photographing scenes of crime such as robberies
and murders. A black and white camera or an infrared camera may be used to capture specific details.
Photography 79

• Still life photography usually depicts inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects which may be
either natural or man-made.
• Food photography can be used for editorial, packaging or advertising use. Food photography is similar to still life
photography, but requires some special skills.
• Editorial photography: photographs made to illustrate a story or idea within the context of a magazine. These are
usually assigned by the magazine.
• Photojournalism: this can be considered a subset of editorial photography. Photographs made in this context are
accepted as a documentation of a news story.
• Portrait and wedding photography: photographs made and sold directly to the end user of the images.
• Landscape photography: photographs of different locations.
• Wildlife photography that demonstrates life of the animals.
• Photo sharing: publishing or transfer of a user's digital photos online.
• Paparazzi
The market for photographic services demonstrates the aphorism "A picture is worth a thousand words", which has
an interesting basis in the history of photography. Magazines and newspapers, companies putting up Web sites,
advertising agencies and other groups pay for photography.
Many people take photographs for self-fulfillment or for commercial purposes. Organizations with a budget and a
need for photography have several options: they can employ a photographer directly, organize a public competition,
or obtain rights to stock photographs. Photo stock can be procured through traditional stock giants, such as Getty
Images or Corbis; smaller microstock agencies, such as Fotolia; or web marketplaces, such as Cutcaster.

Art
During the twentieth century, both fine art photography and
documentary photography became accepted by the English-speaking
art world and the gallery system. In the United States, a handful of
photographers, including Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, John
Szarkowski, F. Holland Day, and Edward Weston, spent their lives
advocating for photography as a fine art. At first, fine art
photographers tried to imitate painting styles. This movement is called
Pictorialism, often using soft focus for a dreamy, 'romantic' look. In
reaction to that, Weston, Ansel Adams, and others formed the Group
f/64 to advocate 'straight photography', the photograph as a (sharply
focused) thing in itself and not an imitation of something else.

The aesthetics of photography is a matter that continues to be discussed

regularly, especially in artistic circles. Many artists argued that
photography was the mechanical reproduction of an image. If
Classic Alfred Stieglitz photograph, The Steerage photography is authentically art, then photography in the context of art
shows unique aesthetic of black and white photos.
would need redefinition, such as determining what component of a
photograph makes it beautiful to the viewer. The controversy began
with the earliest images "written with light"; Nicéphore Niépce, Louis Daguerre, and others among the very earliest
photographers were met with acclaim, but some questioned if their work met the definitions and purposes of art.

Clive Bell in his classic essay Art states that only "significant form" can distinguish art from what is not art.
There must be some one quality without which a work of art cannot exist; possessing which, in the least
degree, no work is altogether worthless. What is this quality? What quality is shared by all objects that
provoke our aesthetic emotions? What quality is common to Sta. Sophia and the windows at Chartres,
Photography 80

Mexican sculpture, a Persian bowl, Chinese carpets, Giotto's frescoes at Padua, and the masterpieces of
Poussin, Piero della Francesca, and Cezanne? Only one answer seems possible - significant form. In each,
lines and colors combined in a particular way, certain forms and relations of forms, stir our aesthetic emotions.
—[21]
On February 14, 2006 Sotheby’s London sold the 2001 photograph "99 Cent II Diptychon" for an unprecedented
$3,346,456 to an anonymous bidder making it the most expensive of all time.
• Conceptual photography
Photography that turns a concept or idea into a photograph. Even though what is depicted in the photographs
are real objects, the subject is strictly abstract.

Science and forensics

The camera has a long and distinguished
history as a means of recording phenomena
from the first use by Daguerre and
Fox-Talbot, such as astronomical events
(eclipses for example), small creatures and
plants when the camera was attached to the
eyepiece of microscopes (in
photomicroscopy) and for macro
photography of larger specimens. The Wootton bridge collapse in 1861

camera also proved useful in recording

crime scenes and the scenes of accidents,
such as the Wootton bridge collapse in 1861
and the Staplehurst rail crash of 1865. One
of the first systematic applications occurred
at the scene of the Tay Rail Bridge disaster
of 1879. The court, just a few days after the
accident, ordered James Valentine of
Dundee to record the scene using both long
distance shots and close-ups of the debris.
The set of over 50 accident photographs was
Original Tay Bridge from the north showing structure based on towers built from
used in the subsequent court of inquiry so cast iron columns. When enlarged this plate shows a key design flaw in the bridge:
that witnesses could identify pieces of the the smaller surviving towers were supported by a continuous girder at their tops,
wreckage, and the technique is now while the fallen towers lack this essential reinforcing element.

commonplace both at accident scenes and

subsequent cases in courts of law. The set of over 50 Tay bridge photographs are of very high quality, being made on
a large plate camera with a small aperture and using fine grain emulsion film on a glass plate. When the surviving
positive prints are scanned at high resolution, they can be enlarged to show details of the failed components such as
broken cast iron lugs and the tie bars
Photography 81

which failed to hold the towers in place. The

set of original photographs is held at
Dundee City Library. The photographs show
that, in the words of the Public Inquiry the
bridge was "badly designed, badly built and
badly maintained". The methods used in
analysing old photographs are collectively
known as forensic photography.

Between 1846 and 1852 Charles Brooke

invented a technology for the automatic
registration of instruments by photography.
These instruments included barometers,
thermometers, psychrometers, and
Fallen Tay Bridge from the north. The two surviving high towers show a gap in
their tops when the picture is enlarged. magnetometers, which recorded their
readings by means of an automated
photographic process.

Photography has become ubiquitous in recording events and data in

science and engineering, and at crime scenes or accident scenes. The
method has been much extended by using other wavelengths, such as
infrared photography and ultraviolet photography, as well as
spectroscopy. Those methods were first used in the Victorian era and
developed much further since that time.

Other image forming techniques

5×7 in. unretouched photograph of the Wright
Besides the camera, other methods of forming images with light are brothers' first flight, 1903.
available. For instance, a photocopy or xerography machine forms
permanent images but uses the transfer of static electrical charges rather than photographic film, hence the term
electrophotography. Photograms are images produced by the shadows of objects cast on the photographic paper,
without the use of a camera. Objects can also be placed directly on the glass of an image scanner to produce digital
pictures.

Social and cultural implications

There are many ongoing questions about different aspects of photography. In her writing "On Photography" (1977),
Susan Sontag discusses concerns about the objectivity of photography. This is a highly debated subject within the
photographic community.[22] Sontag argues, "To photograph is to appropriate the thing photographed. It means
putting one’s self into a certain relation to the world that feels like knowledge, and therefore like power."[23]
Photographers decide what to take a photo of, what elements to exclude and what angle to frame the photo, and these
factors may reflect a particular socio-historical context. Along these lines it can be argued that photography is a
subjective form of representation.
Modern photography has raised a number of concerns on its impact on society. In Alfred Hitchcock's Rear Window
(1954), the camera is presented as a promoter of voyeuristic inhibitions. 'Although the camera is an observation
station, the act of photographing is more than passive observing'.[23] Michal Powell's Peeping Tom (1960) portrays
the camera as both sexual and sadistically violent technology that literally kills in this picture and at the same time
captures images of the pain and anguish evident on the faces of the female victims.
Photography 82

"The camera doesn't rape or even possess, though it may presume, intrude, trespass, distort, exploit, and,
at the farthest reach of metaphor, assassinate - all activities that, unlike the sexual push and shove, can
be conducted from a distance, and with some detachment."[23]
Photography is one of the new media forms that changes perception and changes the structure of society.[24] Further
unease has been caused around cameras in regards to desensitization. Fears that disturbing or explicit images are
widely accessible to children and society at large have been raised. Particularly, photos of war and pornography are
causing a stir. Sontag is concerned that "to photograph is to turn people into objects that can be symbolically
possessed." Desensitization discussion goes hand in hand with debates about censored images. Sontag writes of her
concern that the ability to censor pictures means the photographer has the ability to construct reality.[23]
One of the practices through which photography constitutes society is tourism. Tourism and photography combine to
create a "tourist gaze"[25] in which local inhabitants are positioned and defined by the camera lens. However, it has
also been argued that there exists a "reverse gaze"[26] through which indigenous photographees can position the
tourist photographer as a shallow consumer of images.

Law
Photography is both restricted and protected by the law in many jurisdictions. Protection of photographs is typically
achieved through the granting of copyright or moral rights to the photographer. In the UK a recent law
(Counter-Terrorism Act 2008) increases the power of the police to prevent people, even press photographers, from
taking pictures in public places.[27]

Computational Inference of Photo Aesthetics

Since 2005, computer and information scientists at Penn State University have been developing a real-time system,
ACQUINE (Aesthetic Quality Inference Engine), to infer photo aesthetics. The system leverages machine learning
and statistical modeling techniques, as well as online manual ratings of photos. After a photograph is uploaded to the
system, a score between 0 and 100 is given.[28]

See also
Forms
• Aviation photography
• Architectural photography
• Candid photography
• Cloudscape photography
• Digiscoping
• Documentary photography
• Erotic photography
• Fashion photography
• Fine art photography
• Fire photography
• Food photography
• Forensic photography
• Glamour photography
• Head shot
• Landscape art
• Landscape photography
• Miksang (contemplative photography)
Photography 83

• Nature photography
• Wedding photography
• Social photography
• Nude photography
• Old-time photography
• Photojournalism
• Portrait photography
• Sports photography
• Still life photography
• Stock photography
• Street photography
• Travel photography
• Underwater photography
• Vernacular photography
• VR photography
• War photography
• Wedding photography
• Wildlife photography
Photographers and photographs
• List of most expensive photographs
• List of photographers
• Movie stills photographer
Equipment (cameras, etc.)
• Camera
• Camera Phone
• Color chart
• Digital camera
• Digital single-lens reflex camera
• Dry box
• Film base
• Film format
• Film holder
• Film scanner
• Film stock
• Filter
• Flash
• Gray card
• Lenses for SLR and DSLR cameras
• List of photographic equipment makers
• Monopod
• Movie projector
• Perspective control lens
• Photographic film
• Photographic lens
• Reflector
• Rangefinder camera
Photography 84

• SD Card(for digital photography)

• Single-lens reflex camera
• Slide projector
• Soft box
• Still camera
• Toy camera
• Tripod
• Twin-lens reflex camera
• Video camera
• View camera
• Zone plate
History
• Albumen print
• Calotype
• Daguerreotype
• Timeline of photography technology
Techniques
• Aerial Photography
• Afocal photography
• Astrophotography
• Bokeh
• Contre-jour
• Cross processing
• Cyanotype
• Fill flash
• Film developing
• Full spectrum photography
• Harris Shutter
• High dynamic range imaging
• High speed photography
• Image fusion
• Infrared photography
• Kinetic photography
• Kite aerial photography
• Lead room
• Light painting
• Lith-Print
• Macro photography
• Micrography, or Photomicrography
• Monochrome Photography
• Motion blur
• Night photography
• Panning
• Panoramic photography
• Photogram
• Photograph conservation
Photography 85

• Photographic mosaic
• Photographic print toning
• Push printing
• Push processing
• Rephotography
• Rollout photography
• Sabatier Effect
• Schlieren photography
• Stereoscopy
• Sun printing
• Tilted plane focus
• Time-lapse
• Ultraviolet photography
• Wide dynamic range
• Zoom burst
General concepts
• Adobe Photoshop
• Camera obscura
• Composition in visual arts
• Diana camera
• Early photographers of York
• Gelatin-silver process
• Gum printing
• Hand-coloring
• Holography
• Kirlian photography
• Lomography
• Mourning portraits
• Negative
• North American Nature Photography Association
• Photograph
• Print permanence
• Vignetting
Technical principles
• Angle of view
• Aperture
• Color temperature
• Depth of field
• Depth of focus
• Digital versus film photography
• Double exposure
• Exposure
• F-number
• Film format
• Film speed
• Perspective distortion
Photography 86

• Photographic printing
• Photographic processes
• Pinhole camera
• Reciprocity (photography)
• Red-eye effect
• Rule of thirds
• Science of photography
• Shutter speed
• Zone System

Further reading
• Tom Ang (2002). Dictionary of Photography and Digital Imaging: The Essential Reference for the Modern
Photographer [29]. Watson-Guptill. ISBN 0817437894.
• Freeman Patterson, Photography and The Art of Seeing, 1989, Key Porter Books, ISBN 1-55013-099-4.
• The Oxford Companion to the Photograph, ed. by Robin Lenman, Oxford University Press 2005
• Image Clarity: High Resolution Photography by John B. Williams, Focal Press 1990, ISBN 0-240-80033-8.
• Franz-Xaver Schlegel, Das Leben der toten Dinge - Studien zur modernen Sachfotografie in den USA 1914-1935,
2 Bände, Stuttgart/Germany: Art in Life 1999, ISBN 3-00-004407-8.

External links
• The Center for Fine Art Photography [30] A non profit organization dedicated to promoting Photography as an Art
Form.
• World History of Photography [31] From The History of Art.
• Daguerreotype to Digital: A Brief History of the Photographic Process [32] From the State Library & Archives of
Florida.
• Judging the authenticity of Photographs: 1800s to Today [33] Guide for collectors and historians
• Rarities of the USSR photochronicles [34] Pioneers of Soviet Photography.
• Aperture [35] A not-for-profit organisation dedicated to the advancement of photography.
• "Every Picture Has a Story" [36] – uses pictures from the Smithsonian's collections to show the development of
the technology through the nineteenth century.
• Shades of Light (Australian Photography 1839 - 1988) [37] the online version of the original Shades of Light
published 1998, Gael Newton, National Gallery of Australia.
• The Royal Photographic Society [38] Promotes the art and science of photography in the U.K.
• The virtual Cabinet Card museum [39] Historical photography of the 19th century

References
[1] Spencer, D A (1973). The Focal Dictionary of Photographic Technologies. Focal Press. p. 454. ISBN 240 50747 9.
[2] Eder, J.M (1945) [1932]. History of Photography, 4th. edition [Geschichte der Photographie]. New York: Dover Publications, Inc..
pp. 258–259. ISBN 0486235866.
[3] Online Etymology Dictionary (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?search=photography& searchmode=none)
[4] Joseph and Barbara Anderson, "The Myth of Persistence of Vision Revisited," Journal of Film and Video, Vol. 45, No. 1 (Spring 1993):
3–12. http:/ / www. uca. edu/ org/ ccsmi/ ccsmi/ classicwork/ Myth%20Revisited. htm
[5] "The First Photograph - Heliography" (http:/ / www. hrc. utexas. edu/ exhibitions/ permanent/ wfp/ heliography. html). . Retrieved
2009-09-29. "from Helmut Gernsheim's article, "The 150th Anniversary of Photography," in History of Photography, Vol. I, No. 1, January
1977: ... In 1822, Niépce coated a glass plate ... The sunlight passing through ... This first permanent example ... was destroyed ... some years
later."
[6] Jan Campbell (2005). " Film and cinema spectatorship: melodrama and mimesis (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=lOEqvkmSxhsC&
pg=PA114& dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". Polity. p.114. ISBN 074562930X
Photography 87

[7] Robert E. Krebs (2004). Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (http:/ /
books. google. com/ ?id=MTXdplfiz-cC& pg=PA20& dq=Mo-Ti+ pinhole+ camera+ obscura). Greenwood Publishing Group.
ISBN 0313324336. .
[8] Alistair Cameron Crombie, Science, optics, and music in medieval and early modern thought,p.205
[9] Wade, Nicholas J.; Finger, Stanley (2001). "The eye as an optical instrument: from camera obscura to Helmholtz's perspective". Perception
30 (10): 1157–1177. doi:10.1068/p3210. PMID 11721819.
[10] Davidson, Michael W.; National High Magnetic Field Laboratory at The Florida State University (2003-08-01). "Molecular Expressions:
Science, Optics and You - Timeline - Albertus Magnus" (http:/ / micro. magnet. fsu. edu/ optics/ timeline/ people/ magnus. html). The Florida
State University. . Retrieved 2009-11-28.
[11] Georges Potonniée (1973). "The history of the discovery of photography". Arno Press. p.50. ISBN 0405049293
[12] Helmut Gernsheim (1986). " A concise history of photography (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=GDSRJQ3BZ5EC& pg=PA3& dq&
hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". Courier Dover Publications. pp.3-4. ISBN 0486251284
[13] Helmut Gernsheim, Alison Gernsheim (1955). "The history of photography from the earliest use of the camera obscura in the eleventh
century up to 1914". Oxford University Press. p.20.
[14] Witt, Brown, Dunbar, Tirro, Witt. The Humanities, Cultural Roots and Continuities, Seventh Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company. Boston.
New York. 2005
[15] Seizing the Light: A History of Photography (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vftTAAAAMAAJ& q=Joseph+ Nicephore+ Niepce+
View+ From+ the+ Window+ of+ Gras& dq=Joseph+ Nicephore+ Niepce+ View+ From+ the+ Window+ of+ Gras& client=safari& cd=3) By
Robert Hirsch
[16] Spectral curves of RGB and Hot Mirror filters. (http:/ / surrealcolor. 110mb. com/ IR_explained_web/ IR_explained. htm#CamColor)
[17] “Canon to Stop Making Single-Lens Camera” (http:/ / www. indexstockimagery. com/ archives/ 2006/ 05/ canon_to_stop_m. html)
Associated Press, 25 May 2006. Retrieved 2 September 2006.
[18] www.voigtlaender.de (http:/ / www. voigtlaender. de/ cms/ voigtlaender/ voigtlaender_cms. nsf/ id/ pa_fdih7jzkae. html)
[19] The new Voigtlaender Vitolux S70 and Bessa III 667 (http:/ / www. dcviews. com/ press/ Voigtlaender-Bessa. htm)
[20] www.photographypress.co.uk (http:/ / www. photographypress. co. uk/ news/ news. phtml/ 6443/ 7467/
Kodak-Survey-Photographers-Use-Film. phtml)
[21] Clive Bell. " Art (http:/ / www. csulb. edu/ ~jvancamp/ 361r13. html)", 1914. Retrieved 2 September 2006.
[22] Bissell, K.L., Photography and Objectivity (2000) findarticles.com (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_qa3677/ is_200007/
ai_n8895320) (accessed 24/10/2008).
[23] Sontag, S., On Photography, Penguin, London (1977), pp 3–24.
[24] Levinson, P., The Soft Edge: a Natural History and Future of the Information Revolution, Routledge, London and New York (1997), pp
37–48.
[25] John Urry (2002). The tourist gaze (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=bhhtg1sz0YAC& printsec=frontcover#v=onepage& q=) (2nd ed.).
SAGE. ISBN 9780761973478. .
[26] Alex Gillespie. "Tourist Photography and the Reverse Gaze" (http:/ / stir. academia. edu/ documents/ 0011/ 0117/
Gillespie_tourist_photography_and_the_reverse_gaze. pdf). .
[27] British Journal of Photography article (http:/ / www. bjp-online. com/ public/ showPage. html?page=836675)
[28] ACQUINE Aesthetic Quality Inference Engine acquine.alipr.com (http:/ / acquine. alipr. com)
[29] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=fu3akyrFZEMC& pg=PP1& dq=intitle:Dictionary+ intitle:of+ intitle:Photography+ intitle:and+
intitle:Digital+ intitle:Imaging+ inauthor:ang
[30] http:/ / www. c4fap. org
[31] http:/ / all-art. org/ history658_photography1. html
[32] http:/ / www. floridamemory. com/ photographiccollection/ photo_exhibits/ photographic-processes/
[33] http:/ / www. cycleback. com/ photoguide/ index. html
[34] http:/ / www. borodulincollection. com/ index_eng. html
[35] http:/ / www. aperture. org/
[36] http:/ / www. smithsonianeducation. org/ educators/ lesson_plans/ every_picture/ index. html
[37] http:/ / www. photo-web. com. au/ shadesoflight
[38] http:/ / www. rps. org/
[39] http:/ / kabinettfoto. de/
Videotape 88

Videotape
Videotape is a means of recording images
and sound on to magnetic tape as opposed to
movie film or random access digital media.
Videotapes are also used for storing
scientific or medical data, such as the data
produced by an electrocardiogram. In most
cases, a helical scan video head rotates
against the moving tape to record the data in
two dimensions, because video signals have
a very high bandwidth, and static heads
would require extremely high tape speeds.
Videotape is used in both video tape
recorders (VTRs) or, more commonly and An assortment of video tapes
more recently, video cassette recorders
(VCRs) and video cameras. Tape is a linear method of storing information and, since nearly all video recordings
made nowadays are digital, it is expected to gradually lose importance as non-linear/random-access methods of
storing digital video data become more common.

Early formats
The electronics division of entertainer Bing Crosby's production company, Bing Crosby Enterprises (BCE), gave the
world's first demonstration of a videotape recording in Los Angeles on November 11, 1951. Developed by John T.
Mullin and Wayne R. Johnson since 1950, the device gave what were described as "blurred and indistinct" images,
using a modified Ampex 200 tape recorder and standard quarter-inch (0.6 cm) audio tape moving at 360 inches (9.1
m) per second.[1] [2] A year later, an improved version, using one-inch (2.6 cm) magnetic tape, was shown to the
press, who reportedly expressed amazement at the quality of the images, although they had a "persistent grainy
quality that looked like a worn motion picture". Overall, the picture quality was still considered inferior to the best
kinescope recordings on film.[3] Bing Crosby Enterprises hoped to have a commercial version available in 1954, but
none came forth.[4] BCE demonstrated a color model in February 1955, using a longitudinal recording on half-inch
(1.3 cm) tape, essentially similar to what RCA had demonstrated in 1953 (see below). CBS, RCA's competitor, was
about to order BCE machines when Ampex introduced the superior Quadruplex system (see below).[5]
RCA demonstrated the magnetic tape recording of both black-and-white and color programs at its Princeton
laboratories on December 1, 1953.[6] [7] The high-speed longitudinal tape system, called Simplex, in development
since 1951, could record and play back only a few minutes of a program. The color system used half-inch (1.3 cm)
tape to record five tracks — one each for red, blue, green, synchronization, and audio. The black-and-white system
used quarter-inch (0.6 cm) tape with two tracks, one for picture and one for sound. Both systems ran at 360 inches
(9.1 m) per second.[8] RCA-owned NBC first used it on The Jonathan Winters Show on October 23, 1956, when a
pre-recorded song sequence by Dorothy Collins in color was included in the otherwise live program.[9] [10] The BBC
experimented from 1952 to 1958 with a high-speed linear videotape system called VERA, but this was ultimately
unfeasible. It used half-inch (1.27 cm) tape traveling at 200 inches (5.08 m) per second.
Videotape 89

Broadcast video

Quad
The first practical professional videotape machines
capable of replacing kinescopes were the Quadruplex
machines introduced by Ampex on April 14, 1956 at
the National Association of Broadcasters convention in
Chicago. Quad employed a transverse (scanning the
tape across its width) four-head system on a two-inch
(5.08 cm) tape, and linear heads for the sound track.
CBS first used the Ampex VRX-1000[11] Mark IV at its
Television City studios in Hollywood on November 30,
1956 to play a delayed broadcast of Douglas Edwards
and the News from New York to the Pacific Time
Zone.[11] [12] On January 22, 1957, the NBC game
show Truth or Consequences, produced in Hollywood, A reel of 2-inch quad videotape compared with a modern-day
miniDV videocassette
became the first program to be broadcast in all time
zones from a prerecorded videotape.[13] Ampex
introduced a color videotape recorder in 1958 in a cross-licensing agreement with RCA, whose engineers had
developed it from an Ampex black-and-white recorder.[14] NBC's 1958 special, An Evening With Fred Astaire, is the
oldest surviving network color videotape.

Although Quad became the industry standard for over 20 years, it had drawbacks such as an inability to freeze
pictures, and no picture search; also, in early machines, a tape could reliably be played back using only the same set
of hand-made tape heads, which wore out very quickly. Despite these problems, Quad could produce excellent
images. Subsequent videotape systems have used helical scan, where the video heads record diagonal tracks (of
complete fields) on to the tape.
Very few early videotapes still exist.[15] While much less expensive and more convenient than kinescope, the high
cost of 3M Scotch 179[11] and other early videotapes ($300 per one-hour reel)[16] meant that most broadcasters
erased and reused them, and (in the United States) regarded videotape as simply a better and more cost-effective
means of time-delaying broadcasts than kinescopes. It was the four time zones of the continental United States which
had made the system very desirable in the first place.

Type C and Type B

The next format to gain widespread usage was the 1" (2.54 cm) Type C format from 1976 onward. It introduced
features such as shuttling and still framing, but the sound and picture reproduction attainable on the format were of
just slightly lower quality than Quad (although 1" Type C's quality was still quite high). However, unlike Quad, 1"
Type C machines required much less maintenance, took up less space, and consumed much less electrical power.
In Europe a similar tape format was developed, called Type B. Type B machines (also known as BCN) used the
same 1" tape as Type C but they lacked C's shuttle and slow-motion options. The picture quality was slightly better,
though. Type B was the broadcast norm in continental Europe for most of the 1980s.
December 7, 1963 - Instant Replay is used for the first time during the live transmission of the Army Navy Game by
its inventor, director, Tony Verna.
Videotape 90

Cassette formats
In 1969, Sony introduced a prototype for the first
widespread video cassette, the 3/4" (1.905 cm)
composite U-matic system, which Sony introduced
commercially in September 1971 after working out
industry standards with other manufacturers. Sony later
refined it to Broadcast Video U-matic or BVU. Sony
continued its hold on the professional market with its
ever-expanding 1/2" (1.27 cm) component video
Betacam family (introduced in 1982), which, in its
digital variants, is still among the professional market
leaders. Panasonic had some limited success with its
MII system, but never could compare to Betacam in
terms of market share. A U-matic tape

The next step was the digital revolution. Among the first digital video formats Sony's D-1, which featured
uncompressed digital component recording. Because D-1 was extremely expensive, the composite D-2 and D-3 (by
Sony and Panasonic, respectively) were introduced soon after. Ampex introduced the first compressed component
recording with its DCT series in 1992. Panasonic trumped D-1 with its D-5 format, which was uncompressed as
well, but much more affordable.
The DV standard, which debuted in 1996, has become widely used both in its native form and in more robust forms
such as Sony's DVCAM and Panasonic's DVCPRO as an acquisition and editing format. However, due to concerns
by the entertainment industry about the format's lack of copy protection, only the smaller MiniDV cassettes used
with camcorders became commonplace, with the full-sized DV cassettes restricted entirely to professional
applications.
For camcorders, Sony adapted the Betacam system with its Digital Betacam format, later following it up with the
cheaper Betacam SX and MPEG IMX formats, and the semiprofessional DV-based DVCAM system. Panasonic
used its DV variant DVCPRO for all professional cameras, with the higher-end format DVCPRO50 being a direct
descendant. JVC developed the competing D9/Digital-S format, which compresses video data in a way similar to
DVCPRO but uses a cassette similar to S-VHS media.
Videotape 91

High definition
The introduction of HDTV production necessitated a medium for storing high-resolution video information. In 1997,
Sony bumped its Betacam series up to HD with the HDCAM standard and its higher-end cousin HDCAM SR.
Panasonic's competing format for cameras was based on DVCPRO and called DVCPRO HD. For VTR and archive
use, Panasonic expanded the D-5 specification to store compressed HD streams and called it D-5 HD. By Don Ortiz

Home video

VCRs
The first consumer videocassette recorders were
launched in 1971 (based around U-matic technology).
Philips entered the domestic market the following year
with the N1500[17] . Sony's Betamax (1975) and JVC's
VHS (1976) created a mass-market for VCRs and the
two competing systems battled the "videotape format
war", which VHS ultimately won. At first VCRs were
very expensive, but by the late 1980s the price had
come down enough to make them affordable to a
mainstream audience. Videocassettes finally made it
possible for consumers to buy or rent a complete film
and watch it at home whenever they wished, rather than
simply catching it at a movie theatre or having to wait Bottom view of VHS videotape cassette with magnetic tape exposed
until it was telecast. It also made it possible for a VCR
owner to record films and other television programs "off the air". This caused an enormous change in viewing
practices, as one no longer had to wait for a repeat of a program that had been missed. The shift to home viewing
also changed the movie industry's revenue streams, because home renting created an additional "window" in which a
film could make money. In some cases, films that did only modestly in their theater releases went on to have strong
performance in the rental market (e.g., cult films).

VHS has become the leading consumer VCR format after the "war", though its follow-ups S-VHS, W-VHS and
D-VHS never caught up in popularity. In the late 1990s in the prerecorded video market, VHS began to be displaced
by DVD. The DVD format had several advantages over VHS tape. A DVD disk is much better able to take repeated
viewings than VHS tape, which can crack or break, which makes DVDs a better format from a rental store's
perspective. As well, whereas a VHS tape can be erased if it is exposed to a magnetic field (such as by being left
near a speaker), DVDs are not affected by magnetic fields. Even though DVDs do not have the problems of tapes,
such as breakage of the tape or the cassette mechanism, DVDs can still be damaged by scratches. Another factor for
movie rental stores is that DVDs are smaller and take less space to store. DVDs offer a number of advantages for the
viewer: DVDs can support both standard 4x3 and widescreen 16x9 screen aspect ratios and DVDs can provide twice
the video resolution than VHS. As well, a viewer who wants to skip ahead to the end of a movie can do so much
quicker with a DVD than with a VHS tape (that has to be rewound). DVDs can have interactive menus, multiple
language tracks, audio commentaries, Closed Captioning and subtitling (with the option of turning the subtitles on or
off, or selecting subtitles in several languages). Moreover, a DVD can be played on a computer.
Due to these advantages, by the mid-2000s, DVDs were the dominant form of prerecorded video movies in both the
rental film and new movie markets. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, though, consumers continued to use VCRs to
record over-the-air TV shows, because consumers could not make home recordings onto DVD disks. This last
barrier to DVD domination was broken in the late 2000s, with the advent of inexpensive DVD recorders and digital
Videotape 92

video recorders (DVR). DVR devices, which record shows onto a hard disk, can be purchased from electronics stores
or rented from cable or satellite TV providers. Despite the mainstream dominance of DVD, VHS continues to have a
role. The conversion to DVD has led to the marketplace being flooded with used VHS films, which are available at
pawnshops and second-hand stores, typically for a cheaper price than the equivalent film on a used DVD. As well,
due to the large number of VHS players in schools and libraries, VHS tapes are still produced for the educational
market.

Camcorders
Early consumer camcorders used full-size VHS or
Betamax cassettes. Later models switched to more
compact formats, designed explicitly for camcorder
use, like VHS-C and Video8. VHS-C was a downsized
version of VHS, using the same recording method and
the same tape, but in a smaller cassette. It was possible
to play VHS-C tapes in a regular VHS tape recorder by
using an adaptor. After Super VHS had appeared, a
corresponding compact version, Super VHS-C, was
released as well. Video8 was an indirect descendant of
Betamax, using narrower tape and a smaller cassette.
Because of its intricate U-shaped tape loading and
DV cassettes
narrower tape, it was not possible to develop an adapter Left to right: DVCAM-L, DVCPRO-M, DVC/MiniDV
from Video8 to Betamax. Video8 was later replaced
with Hi8, which provided better resolution and high-quality sound recording, and was similar to Super VHS-C.

The first consumer digital video recording format, introduced in 1995, used a smaller Digital Video Cassette
(DVC).[18] The format was later renamed MiniDV to reflect the DV encoding scheme, but the tapes still carry
"DVC" mark. Some later formats like DVC Pro from Panasonic reflect the original name. The DVC/MiniDV format
provided near-broadcast quality video and sophisticated nonlinear editing capability on consumer equipment. In
1999 Sony backported the DV recording scheme to 8-mm systems, creating Digital8. By using the same cassettes as
Hi8, many Digital8 camcorders were able to play analog Video8/Hi8 recordings, preserving compatibility with
already recorded analog tapes. As of 2008, Digital8 camcorders have been removed from the equipment offered by
Sony.
Sony introduced another camcorder cassette format called MicroMV, but consumer interest was low due to the
proprietary nature of the format and limited support for anything but low-end Windows video editors, and Sony
shipped the last MicroMV unit in 2005. In the late 2000s, MiniDV and its high-definition cousin, HDV, are the two
most popular consumer tape-based formats. The formats use different encoding methods, but the same cassette type.
Since 2001, when MicroMV was presented, no new tape form factors have been introduced.

Future of tape
The latest trend in consumer camcorders shows the switch from tape-based to tapeless solutions, like built-in hard
disk drives, optical discs and solid-state memory. In particular, Canon have not introduced a completely new HDV
consumer camcorder for a third year in a row, confining itself to minor modifications to the 2007 model. Sony and
Panasonic have removed their consumer tape-based camcorders from the North American market completely. In
professional video recording settings, such as broadcast television, videotape was still heavily used in the mid- to late
2000s, but tapeless formats like DVCPRO P2, XDCAM and AVCHD, are gaining broader acceptance.
Videotape 93

External links
• The Loss of Early Video Recordings [19]
• History of Recording Technology [20] (WayBack Machine)
• History of Magnetic Tape [21] (WayBack Machine)

References
[1] "Tape Recording Used by Filmless 'Camera'," New York Times, Nov. 12, 1951, p. 21.
[2] Eric D. Daniel, C. Denis Mee, and Mark H. Clark (eds.), Magnetic Recording: The First 100 Years, IEEE Press, 1998, p. 141. ISBN
0-070-41275-8
[3] "Tape-Recorded TV Nears Perfection," New York Times, Dec. 31, 1952, p. 10.
[4] "New Deal on TV Seen at Parley," New York Times, May 1, 1953, p. 30.
[5] Daniel et al., p. 148. BCE was acquired by 3M Company in 1956.
[6] "Magnetic Tape Used By RCA to Photograph Television Program," The Wall Street Journal, Dec. 2, 1953, p. 1.
[7] " Color TV on Tape (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Nd8DAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA157)", Popular Mechanics, April 1954, p. 157.
[8] Stewart Wolpin, "The Race to Video" (http:/ / www. americanheritage. com/ articles/ magazine/ it/ 1994/ 2/ 1994_2_52. shtml), Invention &
Technology, Fall 1994.
[9] " TV Goes to Tape (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vyoDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA238)", Popular Science, Feb. 1960, p. 238.
[10] Ed Reitan, RCA-NBC Firsts in Color Television (commented) (http:/ / novia. net/ ~ereitan/ rca-nbc_firsts. html).
[11] " Charles P. Ginsburg (http:/ / books. nap. edu/ openbook. php?record_id=4779& page=84)". Memorial Tributes: National Academy of
Engineering, Vol. 7. 1994: The National Academies Press, Washington DC.
[12] Ampex Corporation, Ampex Chronology (http:/ / www. ampex. com/ 03corp/ 03corp. html).
[13] "Daily N.B.C. Show Will Be on Tape", New York Times, Jan. 18, 1957, p. 31.
[14] " Industry Agrees to Standardize Tape Recording on Ampex Lines (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ICkEAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA3)",
Billboard, Oct. 28, 1957, p. 3.
[15] Some early broadcast videotapes have survived, including The Edsel Show, broadcast live in 1957, and 1958's An Evening With Fred
Astaire, the oldest color videotape of an entertainment program known to exist (the oldest color videotape is the May 1958 dedication of the
WRC-TV studios in Washington, DC). In 1976, NBC's 50th anniversary special included an excerpt from a 1957 color special starring Donald
O'Connor; despite some obvious technical problems, the color tape was remarkably good.
[16] Elen, Richard G. " TV Technology (http:/ / www. screenonline. org. uk/ tv/ technology/ technology10. html)". BFI Screenonline.
[17] http:/ / www. rewindmuseum. com/ philips. htm
[18] "DVC Product Probe" (http:/ / www. videomaker. com/ article/ 2381/ ). .
[19] http:/ / palimpsest. stanford. edu/ byorg/ abbey/ an/ an21/ an21-7/ an21-708. html
[20] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20040603152849/ http:/ / www. tvhandbook. com/ History/ History_recording. htm
[21] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20040603153341/ www. tvhandbook. com/ History/ History_tape. htm
Check mark 94

Check mark
A tick (known as a check mark or check in American English) is
a mark (✓, ✔, ☑, etc.) used to indicate the concept "yes", for
example "yes; this has been verified" or, "yes; that is the correct
answer". The x mark is also sometimes used for this purpose (most
notably on election ballot papers), but otherwise usually indicates
"no", incorrectness, or failure.

As a verb, to tick (off) or to check (off) means to add such a mark.

It is quite common, especially on printed forms, printed
documents, and computers (see check box), for there to be squares
in which to place ticks.
In some European countries (e.g., Finland and Sweden), and in
Japan, the tick can be used as an error mark and indicates "no"
rather than "yes". In Japan, an "O Mark" (in the appearance of a
circle, Unicode symbol "◯"), also known as "丸印" marujirushi, is used instead of a tick to mean "yes"; this symbol
is also used in Korea and China. A tick placed in brackets can mean a previously used or acceptable fact or definition
is being looked into, usually for the purpose of expanding academic research.

A rainbow-colored tick was also used for the Amiga logo during the Commodore era of the Amiga (1985–1994).

Unicode
Unicode provides various related symbols, including:

Symbol Unicode Codepoint (Hex) Name

✓ U+2713 CHECK MARK (tick)

✔ U+2714 HEAVY CHECK MARK (bold tick)

☐ U+2610 BALLOT BOX (square)

☑ U+2611 BALLOT BOX WITH CHECK (square with tick)

See also
• Tally marks
• X mark
• Brackets

External links
• http://www.fileformat.info/info/unicode/char/2713/index.htm
Liberty Bell 95

Liberty Bell
Geographical coordinates: 39°56′58.15″N 75°9′1.06″W

Liberty Bell
Independence Bell, Old State House Bell

Tower Bell

Country United States

State Pennsylvania

City Philadelphia

Location Liberty Bell Center

 - elevation 30 ft (9 m)

 - coordinates 39°56′58.15″N 75°9′1.06″W

Circumference 12 ft (3.7 m)

Weight 2080 lb (900 kg)

Caster Whitechapel Bell Foundry

Materials Copper, Tin

Cast 1752 (Recast 1753 by Pass and Stow)

Owner City of Philadelphia

Location of the Liberty Bell within Pennsylvania

[1]
Website: nps.gov/inde/liberty-bell-center.htm
Liberty Bell Center

The Liberty Bell is one of the iconic symbols of American independence. Located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, it
most likely was rung to mark the public reading of the American Declaration of Independence on July 8, 1776.
Liberty Bell 96

The bell was commissioned from the London firm of Lester and Pack (today the Whitechapel Bell Foundry) in 1752,
and was inscribed with part of a verse from the Book of Leviticus (25:10): "Proclaim LIBERTY throughout all the
land unto all the inhabitants thereof." It originally cracked when first rung after arrival in Philadelphia, and was twice
recast by local workmen John Pass and John Stow, whose last names appear on the bell. The bell hung for years in
the steeple of the Pennsylvania State House (today known as Independence Hall), and was used to summon
lawmakers to legislative sessions and to alert citizens to public meetings and proclamations. Bells were rung to mark
the reading of the Declaration on July 8, 1776, and while there is no contemporary account of the Liberty Bell
ringing, most historians believe it was one of the bells rung. After American independence was secured, it fell into
relative obscurity for some years. In the 1830s, the bell was adopted as a symbol by abolitionist societies, who
dubbed it the "Liberty Bell". It acquired its distinctive large crack sometime in the early 19th century—a widespread
story claims it cracked while ringing after the death of Chief Justice John Marshall in 1835.
The bell became widely famous after a 1847 short story claimed that an aged bell-ringer rang it on July 4, 1776,
upon hearing of the Second Continental Congress's vote for independence. While the bell could not have been rung
on that Fourth of July, as no announcement of the Declaration was made that day, the tale was widely accepted as
fact, even by some historians. Beginning in 1885, the City of Philadelphia, which owns the bell, allowed it to go to
various expositions and patriotic gatherings. The bell attracted huge crowds wherever it went, but returned to
Philadelphia with additional cracking and with pieces chipped away by souvenir hunters, and the city put an end to
these journeys after 1915.
After World War II, the city allowed the National Park Service to take custody of the bell, while retaining
ownership. The bell was used as a symbol of freedom during the Cold War and was a popular site for protests in the
1960s. It was moved from its longstanding home in Independence Hall to a nearby glass pavilion on Independence
Mall in 1976, and then to the larger Liberty Bell Center adjacent to the pavilion in 2003. The bell has been featured
on coins and stamps, and its name and image have been widely used by corporations.

Founding (1751–1753)
Philadelphia's city bell had been used to alert the public to proclamations or civic danger since the city's 1682
founding. The original bell hung from a tree behind the Pennsylvania State House (now known as Independence
Hall) and was said to have been brought to the city by its founder, William Penn. In 1751, with a bell tower being
built in the Pennsylvania State House, civic authorities sought a bell of better quality, which could be heard at a
further distance in the rapidly-expanding city.[2] Isaac Norris, speaker of the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly,
gave orders to the colony's London agent, Robert Charles, to obtain a "good Bell of about two thousands pound
weight".[3]
We hope and rely on thy care and assistance in this affair and that thou wilt procure and forward it by the first
good oppo as our workmen inform us it will be much less trouble to hang the Bell before their Scaffolds are
struck from the Building where we intend to place it which will not be done 'till the end of next Summer or
beginning of the Fall. Let the bell be cast by the best workmen & examined carefully before it is Shipped with
the following words well shaped around it vizt.
By Order of the Assembly of the Povince  [sic] of Pensylvania  [sic] for the State house in the City of Philada
1752
and Underneath
Proclaim Liberty thro' all the Land to all the Inhabitants thereof.-Levit. XXV. 10.[3]
Charles duly ordered the bell from Thomas Lester of the London bellfounding firm of Lester and Pack (today the
Whitechapel Bell Foundry)[4] for the sum of £150 13s 8d,[5] (equivalent to approximately $36,400 today)[6]
including freight to Philadelphia and insurance. It arrived in Philadelphia in August 1752; Norris wrote to Charles
that the bell was in good order, but they had not yet sounded it, as they were building a clock for the State House's
Liberty Bell 97

tower.[7] The bell was mounted on a stand to test the sound, and at the first strike of the clapper, the bell's rim
cracked. The episode would be used to good account in later stories of the bell;[8] in 1893, former President
Benjamin Harrison, speaking as the bell passed through Indianapolis, stated, "This old bell was made in England, but
it had to be re-cast in America before it was attuned to proclaim the right of self-government and the equal rights of
men."[9] Philadelphia authorities tried to return it by ship, but the master of the vessel which had brought it was
unable to take it on board.[10]
Two local founders, John Pass and John Stow, offered
to recast the bell. Though they were inexperienced in
bell casting, Pass had headed the Mount Holly Iron
Foundry in neighboring New Jersey and came from
Malta, which had a tradition of bell casting. Stow, on
the other hand, was only four years out of his
apprenticeship as a brass founder. At Stow's foundry on
Second Street, the bell was broken into small pieces,
melted down, and cast into a new bell. The two
founders decided that the metal was too brittle, and
augmented the bell metal by about ten percent, using
The Bell's First Note by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris
copper. The bell was ready in March 1753, and Norris
reported that the lettering (which included the founders'
names and the year) was even clearer on the new bell than on the old.[11]

City officials scheduled a public celebration with free food and drink for the testing of the recast bell. When the bell
was struck, it did not break, but the sound produced was described by one hearer as like two coal scuttles being
banged together. Mocked by the crowd, Pass and Stow hastily took the bell away and again recast it. At the time,
metalworkers were not aware that repeated recasting of a bell would weaken it. When the fruit of the two founders'
renewed efforts was brought forth in June 1753, the sound was deemed satisfactory, though Norris indicated that he
did not personally like it. The bell was hung in the steeple of the State House the same month.[12]
The reason for the difficulties with the bell is not certain. The Whitechapel Foundry, still in business today, takes the
position that the bell was either damaged in transit or was broken by an inexperienced bell ringer, who incautiously
sent the clapper flying against the rim, rather than the body of the bell.[13] In 1975, the Winterthur Museum
conducted an analysis of the metal in the bell, and concluded that 'a series of errors made in the construction,
reconstruction, and second reconstruction of the Bell resulted in a brittle bell that barely missed being broken up for
scrap".[14] The Museum found a considerably higher level of tin in the Liberty Bell than in other Whitechapel bells
of that era, and suggested that Whitechapel made an error in the alloy, perhaps by using scraps with a high level of
tin to begin the melt instead of the usual pure copper.[15] The analysis found that, on the second recasting, instead of
adding pure tin to the bell metal, Pass and Stow added cheap pewter with a high lead content, and incompletely
mixed the new metal into the mold.[16] The result was "an extremely brittle alloy which not only caused the Bell to
fail in service but made it easy for early souvenir collectors to knock off substantial trophies from the rim".[17]
Liberty Bell 98

Early days (1754–1846)

Dissatisfied with the bell, Norris instructed Charles to order a
second one, and see if Whitechapel would take back the first bell
and credit the value of the metal towards the bill. In 1754, the
Assembly decided to keep both bells; the new one was attached to
the tower clock[18] while the old bell was, by vote of the
Assembly, devoted "to such Uses as this House may hereafter
appoint."[18] The Pass and Stow bell was used to summon the
Assembly.[19] One of the earliest documented mentions of the
bell's use is in a letter from Benjamin Franklin to Catherine Ray
Independence Hall as it appeared in the 1770s dated October 16, 1755: "Adieu. The Bell rings, and I must go
among the Grave ones, and talk Politiks. [sic]"[20] The bell was
rung in 1760 to mark the accession of George III to the throne.[19] In the early 1760s, the Assembly allowed a local
church to use the State House for services and the bell to summon worshipers, while the church's building was being
constructed.[20] The bell was also used to summon people to public meetings, and in 1772, a group of citizens
complained to the Assembly that the bell was being rung too frequently.[19]

Despite the legends that have grown up about the Liberty Bell, it did not ring on July 4, 1776, as no public
announcement was made of the Declaration of Independence. When the Declaration was publicly read on July 8,
1776, there was a ringing of bells, and while there is no contemporary account of this particular bell ringing, most
authorities agree that the Liberty Bell was among the bells that rang.[21] [22] However, there is some chance that the
poor condition of the State House bell tower prevented the bell from ringing.[22] According to John C. Paige, who
wrote a historical study of the bell for the National Park Service, "We do not know whether or not the steeple was
still strong enough to permit the State House bell to ring on this day. If it could possibly be rung, we can assume it
was. Whether or not it did, it has come to symbolize all of the bells throughout the United States which proclaimed
Independence."[23]
If the bell was rung, it would have been most likely rung by Andrew McNair, who was the doorkeeper both of the
Assembly and of the Congress, and was responsible for ringing the bell. As McNair was absent on two unspecified
days between April and November, it might have been rung by William Hurry, who succeeded him as doorkeeper
for Congress.[24] Bells were also rung to celebrate the first anniversary of Independence on July 4, 1777.[22]
After Washington's defeat at the Battle of Brandywine on September
11, 1777, the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia was defenseless,
and the city prepared for what was seen as an inevitable British attack.
Bells could easily be recast into munitions, and locals feared the
Liberty Bell and other bells would meet this fate. The bell was hastily
taken down from the tower, and sent by heavily-guarded wagon train
to the town of Bethlehem. Local wagoneers transported the bell to the
Zion German Reformed Church in Allentown, where it waited out the
British occupation of Philadelphia behind a false wall.[25] It was
returned to Philadelphia in June 1778, after the British departure. With
The Liberty Bell is paraded through the streets of
the steeple of the State House in poor condition (the steeple was Philadelphia, 1908, in a recreation of its 1777
subsequently torn down and later restored), the bell was placed in journey to Allentown
storage, and it was not until 1785 that it was again mounted for
ringing.[26]

Mounted on an upper floor of the State House, the bell was rung in the early years of independence on the Fourth of
July and on Washington's Birthday, as well as on Election Day to remind voters to hand in their ballots. It also rang
Liberty Bell 99

to call students at the University of Pennsylvania to their classes at nearby Philosophical Hall. Until 1799, when the
state capital was moved to Lancaster, it again rang to summon legislators into session.[27] When the State of
Pennsylvania, having no further use for its State House, proposed to tear it down and sell the land for building lots,
the City of Philadelphia purchased the land, together with the building, including the bell, for $70,000.[28] In 1828,
the city sold the second Whitechapel bell to St. Augustine's Roman Catholic Church, which was burned down by an
anti-Catholic mob in the Philadelphia Nativist Riots of 1844. The remains of the bell were recast into a new bell,
which is found at Villanova University.[29]
It is uncertain how the bell came to be cracked; the damage occurred sometime between 1817 and 1846. The bell is
mentioned in a number of newspaper articles during that time; no mention of a crack can be found until 1846. In fact,
in 1837, the bell was depicted in an anti-slavery publication—uncracked. In February 1846 Public Ledger reported
that the bell had been rung on February 23, 1846 in celebration of Washington's Birthday (as February 22 fell on a
Sunday, the celebration occurred the next day), and also reported that the bell had long been cracked, but had been
"put in order" by having the sides of the crack filed. The paper reported that around noon, it was discovered that the
ringing had caused the crack to be greatly extended, and that "the old Independence Bell...now hangs in the great city
steeple irreparably cracked and forever dumb".[30]
The most common story about the cracking of the bell is that it happened when the bell was rung upon the 1835
death of the Chief Justice of the United States, John Marshall. This story originated in 1876, when the volunteer
curator of Independence Hall, Colonel Frank Etting, announced that he had ascertained the truth of the story. While
there is little evidence to support this view, it has been widely accepted and taught. Other claims regarding the crack
in the bell include stories that it was damaged while welcoming Lafayette on his return to the United States in 1824,
that it cracked announcing the passing of the British Catholic Relief Act 1829, and that some boys had been invited
to ring the bell, and inadvertently damaged it. David Kimball, in his book compiled for the National Park Service,
suggests that it most likely cracked sometime between 1841 and 1845, either on the Fourth of July or on
Washington's Birthday.[31]
The Pass and Stow bell was first termed "the Liberty Bell" in the New York Anti-Slavery Society's journal,
Anti-Slavery Record. In an 1835 piece, "The Liberty Bell", Philadelphians were castigated for not doing more for the
abolitionist cause. Two years later, another work of that society, the journal Liberty featured an image of the bell as
its frontispiece, with the words "Proclaim Liberty".[32] In 1839, Boston's Friends of Liberty, another abolitionist
group, titled their journal The Liberty Bell. The same year, William Lloyd Garrison's anti-slavery publication The
Liberator reprinted a Boston abolitionist pamphlet containing a poem entitled, "The Liberty Bell," which noted that,
at that time, despite its inscription, the bell did not proclaim liberty to all the inhabitants of the land.[33]
Liberty Bell 100

Becoming a symbol (1847–1865)

A great part of the modern image of the bell as a relic of the proclamation of
American independence was forged by writer George Lippard. On January 2,
1847, his story "Fourth of July, 1776" appeared in Saturday Review magazine.
The short story depicted an aged bellman on July 4, 1776, sitting morosely by the
bell, fearing that Congress would not have the courage to declare independence.
At the most dramatic moment, a young boy appears with instructions for the old
man: to ring the bell. The story was widely reprinted and closely linked the
Liberty Bell to the Declaration of Independence in the public mind.[34] The
elements of the story were reprinted in early historian Beson J. Lossing's The
Pictorial Field Guide to the Revolution (published in 1850) as historical fact,[35]
and the tale was widely repeated for generations to come in school primers.[36]

In 1848, with the rise of interest in the bell, the city decided to move it to the The Bellman Informed of the
Passage of the Declaration of
Assembly Room (also known as the Declaration Chamber) on the first floor,
Independence: an 1854 depiction of
where the Declaration and United States Constitution had been debated and the story of the Liberty Bell being
signed.[37] The city constructed an ornate pedestal for the bell. The Liberty Bell rung on July 4, 1776
was displayed on that pedestal for the next quarter-century, surmounted by an
eagle (originally sculpted, later stuffed).[38] In 1853, President Franklin Pierce visited Philadelphia and the bell, and
spoke of the bell as symbolizing the American Revolution and American liberty.[39] At the time, Independence Hall
was also used as a courthouse, and African-American newspapers pointed out the incongruity of housing a symbol of
liberty in the same building in which federal judges were holding hearings under the Fugitive Slave Act.[40]

In February 1861, the President-elect, Abraham Lincoln, came to the Assembly Room and delivered an address en
route to his inauguration in Washington DC.[41] In 1865, Lincoln's body was returned to the Assembly Room after
his assassination for a public viewing of his body, en route to his burial in Springfield, Illinois. Due to time
constraints, only a small fraction of those wishing to pass by the coffin were able to; the lines to see the coffin were
never less than 3 miles (4.8 km) long.[42] Nevertheless, between 120,000 and 140,000 people were able to pass by
the open casket and then the bell, carefully placed at Lincoln's head so mourners could read the inscription,
"Proclaim Liberty throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof."[41]

Traveling icon of freedom (1866–1947)

In 1876, city officials discussed what role the bell should play in the
nation's Centennial festivities. Some wanted to repair it so it could
sound at the Centennial Exposition being held in Philadelphia, but the
idea was not adopted; the bell's custodians concluded that it was
unlikely that the metal could be made into a bell which would have a
pleasant sound, and that the crack had become part of the bell's
character. Instead, a replica weighing 13000 pounds (5900 kg)
(1,000 pounds for each of the original states) was cast. The metal used
for what was dubbed "the Centennial Bell" included four melted-down
cannons: one used by each side in the American Revolutionary War,
and one used by each side in the Civil War. That bell was sounded at
The Liberty Bell on its ornate stand, 1872
the Exposition grounds on July 4, 1876, was later recast to improve the
sound, and today is the bell attached to the clock in the steeple of
Liberty Bell 101

Independence Hall.[43] While the Liberty Bell did not go to the Exposition, a great many Exposition visitors came to
visit it, and its image was ubiquitous at the Exposition grounds—myriad souvenirs were sold bearing its image or
shape, and state pavilions contained replicas of the bell made of substances ranging from stone to tobacco.[44] In
1877, the bell was hung from the ceiling of the Assembly Room by a chain with thirteen links.[45]
Between 1885 and 1915, the Liberty Bell made seven trips to various expositions and celebrations. Each time, the
bell traveled by rail, making a large number of stops along the way so that local people could view it.[46] By 1885,
the Liberty Bell was internationally recognized as a symbol of freedom, and as a treasured relic of independence, and
was growing still more famous as versions of Lippard's legend were reprinted in history and school books.[47] In
early 1885, the city agreed to let it travel to New Orleans for the World Cotton Centennial exposition. Large crowds
mobbed the bell at each stop. In Biloxi, Mississippi, the former President of the Confederate States of America,
Jefferson Davis came to the bell. Davis delivered a speech paying homage to it, and urging national unity.[48] In
1893, it was sent to Chicago's World Columbian Exposition to be the centerpiece of the state's exhibit in the
Pennsylvania Building.[49] On July 4, 1893, in Chicago, the bell was honored with the first performance of The
Liberty Bell March, conducted by "America's Bandleader", John Phillip Sousa.[50] Philadelphians began to cool to
the idea of sending it to other cities when it returned from Chicago bearing a new crack, and each new proposed
journey met with increasing opposition.[51] It was also found that the bell's private watchman had been cutting off
small pieces for souvenirs. The city placed the bell in a glass-fronted oak case in the Assembly Room.[52] In 1898, it
was taken out of the glass case and hung from its yoke again in the tower hall of Independence Hall, a room which
would remain its home until the end of 1975. A guard was posted to discourage souvenir hunters who might
otherwise chip at it. [53]
By 1909, the bell had made six trips, and not only had the cracking
become worse, but souvenir hunters had deprived it of over one
percent of its weight. When, in 1912, the organizers of the
Panama-Pacific International Exposition requested the bell for the
1915 fair in San Francisco, the city was reluctant to let it travel again.
The city finally decided to let it go as the bell had never been west of
St. Louis, and it was a chance to bring it to millions who might never
see it otherwise.[54] However, in 1914, fearing that the cracks might
lengthen during the long train ride, the city installed a metal support
The Liberty Bell visits Bunker Hill (obelisk
structure inside the bell, generally called the "spider."[55] In February visible background left) in 1903.
1915, the bell was tapped gently with wooden mallets to produce
sounds which were transmitted to the fair as the signal to open it, a transmission which also inaugurated
transcontinental telephone service.[56] Some five million Americans saw the bell on its train journey west.[57] It is
estimated that nearly two million kissed it at the fair, with an uncounted number viewing it. The bell was taken on a
different route on its way home; again, five million saw it on the return journey.[58] Since the bell returned to
Philadelphia, it has been moved out of doors only five times: three times for patriotic observances during and after
World War I, and twice as the bell occupied new homes in 1976 and 2003.[51] [59] Chicago and San Francisco had
obtained its presence after presenting petitions signed by hundreds of thousands of children. Chicago tried again,
with a petition signed by 3.4 million schoolchildren, for the 1933 Century of Progress Exhibition and New York
presented a petition to secure a visit from the bell for the 1939 New York World's Fair. Both efforts failed.[60]

In 1924, one of Independence Hall's exterior doors was replaced by glass, allowing some view of the bell even when
the building was closed.[61] When Congress enacted the nation's first peacetime draft in 1940, the first Philadelphians
required to serve took their oaths of enlistment before the Liberty Bell. Once the war started, the bell was again a
symbol, used to sell war bonds.[62] In the early days of World War II, it was feared that the bell might be in danger
from saboteurs or enemy bombing, and city officials considered moving the bell to Fort Knox, to be stored with the
nation's gold reserves. The idea provoked a storm of protest from around the nation, and was abandoned. Officials
Liberty Bell 102

then considered building an underground steel vault above which it would be displayed, and into which it could be
lowered if necessary. The project was dropped when studies found that the digging might undermine the foundations
of Independence Hall.[63] The bell was again tapped on D-Day, as well as in victory on V-E Day and V-J Day.[64]

Park Service administration (1948–present)

After World War II, and following considerable controversy, the City of
Philadelphia agreed that it would transfer custody of the bell and Independence
Hall, while retaining ownership, to the federal government. The city would also
transfer various colonial-era buildings it owned. Congress agreed to the transfer
in 1948, and three years later Independence National Historical Park was
founded, incorporating those properties and administered by the National Park
Service (NPS or Park Service).[65] The Park Service would be responsible for
maintaining and displaying the bell.[66] The NPS would also administer the three
blocks just north of Independence Hall, which had been condemned by the state,
razed, and developed into a park, Independence Mall. [65]

In the postwar period, the bell became a symbol of freedom used in the Cold
War. The bell was chosen for the symbol of a savings bond campaign in 1950. A National Park Service ranger gives
a talk about the Liberty Bell to
The purpose of this campaign, as Vice President Alben Barkley put it, was to
tourists, Independence Hall, July
make the country "so strong that no one can impose ruthless, godless ideologies 1951
on us".[66] In 1955, former residents of nations behind the Iron Curtain were
allowed to tap the bell as a symbol of hope and encouragement to their compatriots.[67] Foreign dignitaries, such as
Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion and West Berlin Mayor Ernst Reuter were brought to the bell, and they
commented that the bell symbolized the link between the United States and their nations.[66] During the 1960s, the
bell was the site of several protests, both for the civil rights movement, and by various protesters supporting or
opposing the Vietnam War.[68]

Almost from the start of its stewardship, the Park Service sought to move the bell from Independence Hall to a
structure where it would be easier to care for the bell and accommodate visitors. The first such proposal was
withdrawn in 1958, after considerable public protest. [69] The Park Service tried again as part of the planning for the
United States Bicentennial. The Independence National Historical Park Advisory Committee proposed in 1969 that
the bell be moved out of Independence Hall, as the building could not accommodate the millions expected to visit
Philadelphia for the Bicentennial.[70] In 1972, the Park Service announced plans to build a large glass tower for the
bell at South Third Street and Chestnut Street, two blocks east of Independence Hall, at a cost of $5 million, but
citizens again protested the move. Instead, in 1973, the Park Service proposed to build a smaller glass pavilion for
the bell at the north end of Independence Mall, between Arch and Race Streets. Philadelphia Mayor Frank Rizzo
agreed with the pavilion idea, but proposed that the pavilion be built across Chestnut Street from Independence Hall,
which the state feared would destroy the view of the historic building from the mall area.[71] Rizzo's view prevailed,
and the bell was moved to a glass and steel pavilion, about 100 yards (91 m) from its old home at Independence Hall
as the Bicentennial year began.[72]
Liberty Bell 103

During the Bicentennial, members of the Procrastinator's Club of America

jokingly picketed the Whitechapel Bell Foundry with signs "We got a lemon"
and "What about the warranty?" The foundry told the protesters that it would be
glad to replace the bell—so long as it was returned in the original packaging.[10]
In 1958, the foundry (then trading under the name Mears and Stainbank
Foundry) had offered to recast the bell, and and was told by the Park Service that
neither it nor the public wanted the crack removed.[69] The foundry was called
upon, in 1976, to cast a full-size replica of the Liberty Bell, which was presented
to the United States by the British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, and which is
now in a tower adjacent to one of the Park Service's buildings on South Third
Street.[73]

In 2001, the Park Service began work on a new home for the Liberty Bell, on the
A crowd of tourists gathers around
the Liberty Bell, Independence Hall,
same block as the pavilion, but significantly larger, allowing for exhibit space
July 1951
and an interpretative center. Archaeologists discovered evidence that the
construction site included an area that was once the location of a structure used
by George Washington, while living in Philadelphia as president, to house his slaves. The Park Service was reluctant
to include exhibits commemorating the slaves at the new Liberty Bell Center, but after protests by Black activists,
agreed. The new facility, which opened after the bell was installed on October 9, 2003, is adjacent to an outline of
the slaves' house marked in the pavement, with interpretive signs explaining the significance of what was found.
Inside, visitors pass through a number of exhibits about the bell before reaching the Liberty Bell itself. Due to
security concerns following an attack on the bell by a visitor with a hammer in 2001, the bell is hung out of easy
reach of visitors, who are no longer allowed to touch it, and all visitors undergo a security screening.[74]

Today, the Liberty Bell weighs 2080 pounds (940 kg). Its metal is 70% copper and 25% tin, with the remainder
consisting of lead, zinc, arsenic, gold and silver. It hangs from what is believed to be its original yoke, made from
American elm.[75] While the crack in the bell appears to end at the abbreviation "Philada" in the last line of the
inscription, that is merely the 19th century widened crack which was filed out in the hopes of allowing the bell to
continue to ring; a hairline crack, extending through the bell to the inside continues generally right and gradually
moving to the top of the bell, through the word "and" in "Pass and Stow", then through the word "the" before the
word "Assembly" in the second line of text, and through the letters "rty" in the word "Liberty" in the first line. The
crack ends near the attachment with the yoke.[76]

Replicas and popular culture

In addition to the replicas which are seen at Independence National
Historical Park, early replicas of the Liberty Bell include the so-called
Justice Bell or Women's Liberty Bell, commissioned in 1915 by
suffragists to advocate for women's suffrage. This bell had the same
legend as the Liberty Bell, with two added words, "establish justice",
words taken from the Preamble to the United States Constitution. It
also had the clapper chained to the bell so it could not sound,
symbolizing the inability of women, lacking the vote, to influence
political events. The Justice Bell toured extensively to publicize the
cause. After the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment (granting
women the vote), the Justice Bell was brought to the front of
Bicentennial dollar
Liberty Bell 104

Independence Hall on August 26, 1920 to finally sound. It remained on a platform before Independence Hall for
several months before city officials required that it be taken away, and today is at the Washington Memorial Chapel
at Valley Forge.[77]
As part of the Liberty Bell Savings Bonds drive in 1950, 55 replicas of the Liberty Bell (one each for the 48 states,
the District of Columbia, and the territories) were ordered by the United States Department of the Treasury and were
cast in France. The bells were to be displayed and rung on patriotic occasions.[78] Many of the bells today are sited
near state capitol buildings.[78] Although Wisconsin's bell is now at its state capitol, initially it was sited on the
grounds of the state's Girls Detention Center. Texas's bell is at Texas A & M University in College Station.[78] The
Texas bell was presented to the university in appreciation of the service of the school's graduates.[78]
The Liberty Bell appeared on a commemorative coin in 1926 to mark
the sesquicentennial of American independence.[79] Its first use on a
circulating coin was on the reverse side of the Franklin half dollar,
struck between 1948 and 1963.[80] It also appeared on the Bicentennial
design of the Eisenhower dollar, superimposed against the moon.[81]
The first U.S. stamp showing a depiction of the Liberty Bell was issued
for the Sesquicentennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1926,[82] though
this stamp actually depicts the replica bell erected at the entrance to the
exposition grounds. [83] The bell appears on the forever stamp issued
Outline of the bell at Citizens Bank Park, fully
since 2007, which increases in face value as postal rates rise.[84]
illuminated when a Phillies player hits a home
The name "Liberty Bell" or "Liberty Belle" is commonly used for run

commercial purposes, and has denoted brands and business names

ranging from a life insurance company to a Montana escort service.[85] A large outline of the bell hangs over the
right-field bleachers at Citizens Bank Park, home of the Philadelphia Phillies baseball team, and is illuminated
whenever one of their players hits a home run.[86] This bell outline replaced one at the Phillies' former home,
Veterans Stadium.[87] On April 1, 1996, Taco Bell announced via ads and press releases that it had purchased the
Liberty Bell and changed its name to the Taco Liberty Bell. The bell, the ads related, would henceforth spend half
the year at Taco Bell corporate headquarters in Irvine, California. Outraged calls flooded Independence National
Historical Park, and Park Service officials hastily called a press conference to deny that the bell had been sold. After
several hours, Taco Bell admitted that it was an April Fools Day joke. Despite the protests, company sales of tacos,
enchiladas, and burritos rose by more than a half million dollars that week.[88]
Liberty Bell 105

Inscription
The bell's inscription is given below:
PROCLAIM LIBERTY THROUGHOUT ALL THE LAND UNTO
ALL THE INHABITANTS THEREOF LEV. XXV. V X.
BY ORDER OF THE ASSEMBLY OF THE PROVINCE OF
PENSYLVANIA FOR THE STATE HOUSE IN PHILADA
PASS AND STOW
PHILADA
MDCCLIII[89]
At the time, “Pensylvania” was an accepted alternative spelling for
“Pennsylvania.” That spelling was used by Alexander Hamilton, a graduate
of Columbia University, in 1787 on the signature page of the United States
The Liberty Bell in the new Liberty
Constitution.[89]
Bell Center. The former State House
(now Independence Hall) is in the
background, with the Centennial Bell
See also visible in its steeple.

• The Mercury spacecraft that astronaut Gus Grissom flew on July 21, 1961,
was dubbed Liberty Bell 7. Mercury capsules were somewhat bell-shaped, and this one received a painted crack to
mimic the original bell.
• Margaret Buechner composed a work for chorus and orchestra, "Liberty Bell", that incorporates a 1959 recording
of the actual bell made by Columbia Records.
• The superhero Liberty Belle whose powers are derived from the ringing of the bell.

Bibliography
• de Bolla, Peter (2008). The Fourth of July and the Founding of America. Woodstock, NY: The Overlook Press.
ISBN 978-1-58567-933-1.
• The Franklin Institute. (1962) Report of the Committee for the Preservation of the Liberty Bell. Philadelphia, PA:
The Franklin Institute. (Report). (reprinted in The Journal of the Franklin Institute, Volume 275, Number 2,
February 1963), obtained from Independence National Historical Park Library and Archive, 143 S. 3rd St.,
Philadelphia PA 19106)
• Hanson, Victor F.; Carlson, Janice H.; Papauchado, Karen .. (1975) Analysis of the Liberty Bell: Analytical
Laboratory Report #379. Winterthur, DE: Winterthur Museum. (Report). (obtained from Independence National
Historical Park Library and Archive, 143 S. 3rd St., Philadelphia PA 19106)
• Hudgeons Jr., Tom (2009). The Official Blackbook Price Guides to United States Coins 2010 [90] (48th ed.). New
York, NY: Random House. ISBN 0375723188.
• Kimball, David (2006). The Story of the Liberty Bell (revised ed.). Washington, DC: Eastern National (National
Park Service). ISBN 0915992434.
• Nash, Gary B. (2010). The Liberty Bell. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300139365.
• Paige, John C. (1988) The Liberty Bell: A Special History Study. Denver, CO: National Park Service (Denver
Service Center and Independence National Historical Park). (Report). (obtained from Independence National
Historical Park Library and Archive, 143 S. 3rd St., Philadelphia PA 19106)
Liberty Bell 106

External links
• Liberty Bell Center [1]. Independence National Historical Park. National Park Service official website
• The Liberty Bell: From Obscurity to Icon, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson
plan [91]. National Park Service official website
• Liberty Bell Center, National Park Service [92]. Bohlin Cywinski Jackson (architects) website. Retrieved
2010–03–16.

References
[1] http:/ / www. nps. gov/ inde/ liberty-bell-center. htm
[2] Nash, pp. 1–2
[3] Paige, pp. 2–3
[4] The Franklin Institute, p. 19
[5] One hundred fifty pounds, thirteen shillings and eightpence.
[6] Purchasing power of British Pounds from 1264 to present (http:/ / www. measuringworth. com/ ppoweruk/ result. php?use[]=CPI&
use[]=NOMINALEARN& year_early=1752& pound71=150& shilling71=13& pence71=8& amount=150. 68333333333334&
year_source=1752& year_result=2008). measuringworth.com. . Retrieved 2010–08–26. The same site indicates that the pound sterling was
worth $1.85 in 2008.
[7] Kimball, p. 20
[8] Nash, p. 7
[9] Pierce, James Wilson (1893). Photographic History of the World's fair and Sketch of the City of Chicago (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=guZNAAAAMAAJ& printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_atb#v=onepage& q=Liberty Bell& f=false). Baltimore: R. H. Woodward
& Co. p. 491. . Retrieved 2010–08–17.
[10] "The Liberty Bell" (http:/ / www. whitechapelbellfoundry. co. uk/ liberty. htm). Whitechapel Bell Foundry. . Retrieved 2010–08–09.
[11] Nash, p. 7–10
[12] Nash, pp. 10–11
[13] Nash, p. 9
[14] Hanson, p. 7
[15] Hanson, p. 5
[16] Hanson, p. 4
[17] Hanson, p. 3
[18] Nash, pp. 11–12
[19] Kimball, pp. 31–32
[20] Paige, p. 13
[21] Kimball, pp. 32–33
[22] Nash, pp. 17–18
[23] Paige, p. 18
[24] Paige, pp. 17–18
[25] Nash, p. 19
[26] Kimball, p. 37
[27] Kimball, pp. 37–38
[28] Kimball, p. 38
[29] Kimball, p. 70
[30] Kimball, pp. 43–45
[31] Kimball, pp. 43–47
[32] Nash, p. 36
[33] Nash, pp. 37–38
[34] Kimball, p. 56
[35] Paige, p. 83
[36] de Bolla, p. 108
[37] Nash, p. 47
[38] Nash, pp. 50–51
[39] Kimball, p. 60
[40] Nash, pp. 48–49
[41] Hoch, Bradley R. (Summer 2004). "The Lincoln landscape: Looking for Lincoln's Philadelphia: A personal journey from Washington
Square to Independence Hall" (http:/ / www. historycooperative. org/ journals/ jala/ 25. 2/ hoch. html). Journal of the Abraham Lincoln
Association 25 (2): 59–70. . Retrieved 2010–08–10.
Liberty Bell 107

[42] Schwartz, Barry (2003). Abraham Lincoln and the Forge of National Memory (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=7hL8-GLkHaYC&
dq=abraham+ lincoln+ liberty+ bell& source=gbs_navlinks_s). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 40. ISBN 0226741982. . Retrieved
2010–08–10.
[43] Nash, pp. 63–65
[44] Nash, pp. 66–68
[45] Kimball, p. 68
[46] de Bolla, p. 111
[47] Nash, p. 77
[48] Nash, pp. 79–80
[49] Nash, pp. 84–85
[50] Nash, pp. 89–90
[51] Kimball, p. 69
[52] Nash, p. 98
[53] Paige, p. 43
[54] Nash, pp. 110–112
[55] The Franklin Institute, pp. 28–29
[56] Nash, p. 113
[57] Nash, p. 123
[58] Nash, pp. 113–115
[59] Paige, p. 54
[60] Nash, p. 140
[61] Paige, p. 57
[62] Nash, pp. 148–151
[63] Paige, pp. 64–65
[64] Kimball, p. 71
[65] Nash, pp. 172–173
[66] Paige, p. 69
[67] Paige, p. 71
[68] Paige, pp. 76–78
[69] Paige, p. 72
[70] Paige, p. 78
[71] "New home sought for Liberty Bell" (http:/ / select. nytimes. com/ gst/ abstract.
html?res=F50714FB3A59137A93C6A91782D85F478785F9& scp=5& sq=liberty+ bell& st=p). The New York Times (New York): p. 15.
1973–09–04. . Retrieved 2010–08–10 (subscription required).
[72] Wooten, James T. (1976–01–01). "Move of Liberty Bell opens Bicentennial" (http:/ / select. nytimes. com/ gst/ abstract.
html?res=F1091FF73B5514758DDDA80894D9405B868BF1D3& scp=1& sq=liberty+ bell+ pavilion& st=p). The New York Times (New
York): p. 1. . Retrieved 2010–08–10 (subscription required).
[73] Nash, pp. 177–178
[74] Yamin, Rebecca (2008). Digging in the City of Brotherly Love: Stories from Philadelphia Archeology (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=AL_G5WIDbqkC& pg=PA52& dq=liberty+ bell+ october+ 9+ 2003& hl=en& ei=aM5hTM_vA8H98Ab2xLjaCQ& sa=X&
oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=3& ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage& q=liberty bell october 9 2003& f=false). New Haven, Ct.: Yale
University Press. pp. 39–53. ISBN 0300100914. . Retrieved 2010–08–09.
[75] "The Liberty Bell" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ inde/ planyourvisit/ upload/ english. pdf) (pdf). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2010–08–11.
[76] The Franklin Institute, p. 21
[77] Nash, pp. 114–117
[78] "Replicas of the Liberty Bell owned by U.S. state governments" (http:/ / www. libertybellmuseum. com/ exhibits/ statebells/ index. htm).
Liberty Bell Museum. . Retrieved 2010–08–11.
[79] Hudgeons, p. 493
[80] Hudgeons, p. 389
[81] Hudgeons, p. 413
[82] Nash, p. 126
[83] Annual Report of the Postmaster General. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1926. p. 6.
[84] "Save forever on postage price increases with Forever Stamps" (http:/ / www. usps. com/ communications/ newsroom/ localnews/ co/
co_wy_mt_2008_0507. htm). United States Postal Service. 2008–05–08. . Retrieved 2010–08–11.
[85] Nash, p. 184
[86] Nash, p. 183
[87] Ahuja, Jay (2001). Fields of Dreams: A Guide to Visiting and Enjoying All 30 Major League Ballparks (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=qQjs_j59H4sC& pg=PA62& dq=bell+ veterans+ stadium& hl=en& ei=FAFiTPGhLcOB8gb9_rWACg& sa=X& oi=book_result&
ct=result& resnum=4& ved=0CEEQ6AEwAw#v=onepage& q=bell veterans stadium& f=false). Citadel Press. p. 62. ISBN 0806521937. .
Liberty Bell 108

Retrieved 2010–08–11.
[88] Nash, pp. 141–143
[89] Paige, p. 9
[90] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vH5qsRYJxgcC& dq=sesquicentennial+ half+ dollar+ bell& source=gbs_navlinks_s
[91] http:/ / www. nps. gov/ history/ NR/ twhp/ wwwlps/ lessons/ 36liberty/ 36liberty. htm
[92] http:/ / www. bcj. com/ public/ projects/ project/ 44. html

Parallax
Parallax is an apparent displacement or
difference in the apparent position of an
object viewed along two different lines of
sight, and is measured by the angle or
semi-angle of inclination between those two
lines.[1] [2] The term is derived from the
Greek παράλλαξις (parallaxis), meaning
"alteration". Nearby objects have a larger
parallax than more distant objects when
observed from different positions, so
parallax can be used to determine distances.
Astronomers use the principle of parallax to
measure distances to objects (typically stars)
beyond the Solar System. The Hipparcos
A simplified illustration of the parallax of an object against a distant background
satellite has taken these measurements for due to a perspective shift. When viewed from "Viewpoint A", the object appears to
over 100,000 nearby stars. This provides the be in front of the blue square. When the viewpoint is changed to "Viewpoint B",
basis for all other distance measurements in the object appears to have moved in front of the red square.

astronomy, the cosmic distance ladder.

Here, the term "parallax" is the angle or
semi-angle of inclination between two
sightlines to the star.

Parallax also affects optical instruments

such as binoculars, microscopes, and
twin-lens reflex cameras that view objects
from slightly different angles. Many
animals, including humans, have two eyes
with overlapping visual fields to use
parallax to gain depth perception; this
process is known as stereopsis. This animation is an example of parallax. As the viewpoint
moves side to side, the objects in the distance appear to
A simple everyday example of parallax can move more slowly than the objects close to the camera.
be seen in the dashboard of motor vehicles
that use a "needle" type speedometer gauge (when the needle is mounted in front of its dial scale in a way that leaves
a noticeable spacing between them). When viewed from directly in front, the speed may show 60 (i.e. the needle
appears against the '60' mark on the dial behind); but when viewed from the passenger seat (i.e. from an oblique
angle) the needle can appear against a slightly lower or higher mark (depending on whether it is viewed from the left
or from the right), because of the combined effect of the spacing and the angle of view.
Parallax 109

Distance measurement in astronomy

Stellar parallax
On an interstellar scale, parallax created by the different orbital positions of the Earth causes nearby stars to appear
to move relative to more distant stars. By observing parallax, measuring angles and using geometry, one can
determine the distance to various objects. When the object in question is a star, the effect is known as stellar
parallax.
Stellar parallax is most often measured using annual parallax, defined as the difference in position of a star as seen
from the Earth and Sun, i. e. the angle subtended at a star by the mean radius of the Earth's orbit around the Sun. The
parsec (3.26 light-years) is defined as the distance for which the annual parallax is 1 arcsecond. Annual parallax is
normally measured by observing the position of a star at different times of the year as the Earth moves through its
orbit. Measurement of annual parallax was the first reliable way to determine the distances to the closest stars. The
first successful measurements of stellar parallax were made by Friedrich Bessel in 1838 for the star 61 Cygni using a
heliometer.[3] Stellar parallax remains the standard for calibrating other measurement methods. Accurate calculations
of distance based on stellar parallax require a measurement of the distance from the Earth to the Sun, now based on
radar reflection off the surfaces of planets.[4]
The angles involved in these calculations are very small and thus
difficult to measure. The nearest star to the Sun (and thus the star with
the largest parallax), Proxima Centauri, has a parallax of
0.7687 ± 0.0003 arcsec.[5] This angle is approximately that subtended
by an object 2 centimeters in diameter located 5.3 kilometers away.
The fact that stellar parallax was so small that it was unobservable at
the time was used as the main scientific argument against
heliocentrism during the early modern age. It is clear from Euclid's
geometry that the effect would be undetectable if the stars were far
enough away, but for various reasons such gigantic distances involved
seemed entirely implausible: it was one of Tycho's principal objections
to Copernican heliocentrism that in order for it to be compatible with
the lack of observable stellar parallax, there would have to be an
This image demonstrates parallax. The Sun is enormous and unlikely void between the orbit of Saturn and the eighth
visible above the streetlight. The reflection in the
sphere (the fixed stars).[6]
water shows a virtual image of the Sun and the
streetlight. The location of the virtual image is
In 1989, the satellite Hipparcos was launched primarily for obtaining
below the surface of the water and thus
parallaxes and proper motions of nearby stars, increasing the reach of
simultaneously offers a different vantage point of
the method tenfold. Even so, Hipparcos is only able to measure
the streetlight, which appears to be shifted
parallax angles for stars up to about 1,600 light-years away, a little
relative to the stationary, background Sun.

more than one percent of the diameter of the Milky Way Galaxy. The
European Space Agency's Gaia mission, due to launch in 2012 and come online in 2013, will be able to measure
parallax angles to an accuracy of 10 microarcseconds, thus mapping nearby stars (and potentially planets) up to a
distance of tens of thousands of light-years from earth.[7]
Parallax 110

Computation
Distance measurement by parallax is a special case of the principle of
triangulation, which states that one can solve for all the sides and angles
in a network of triangles if, in addition to all the angles in the network,
the length of at least one side has been measured. Thus, the careful
measurement of the length of one baseline can fix the scale of an entire
triangulation network. In parallax, the triangle is extremely long and
narrow, and by measuring both its shortest side (the motion of the
observer) and the small top angle (always less than 1 arcsecond,[3]
leaving the other two close to 90 degrees), the length of the long sides
(in practice considered to be equal) can be determined.

Stellar parallax motion

Assuming the angle is small (see derivation below), the distance to an object (measured in parsecs) is the reciprocal
of the parallax (measured in arcseconds): For example, the distance to Proxima Centauri
is 1/0.7687=1.3009 parsecs (4.243 ly).[5]

Diurnal parallax
Diurnal parallax is a parallax that varies with rotation of the Earth or with difference of location on the Earth. The
Moon and to a smaller extent the terrestrial planets or asteroids seen from different viewing positions on the Earth (at
one given moment) can appear differently placed against the background of fixed stars.[8] [9]

Lunar parallax
Lunar parallax (often short for lunar horizontal parallax or lunar equatorial horizontal parallax), is a special case
of (diurnal) parallax: the Moon, being the nearest celestial body, has by far the largest maximum parallax of any
celestial body, it can exceed 1 degree.[10]
The diagram (above) for stellar parallax can illustrate lunar parallax as well, if the diagram is taken to be scaled right
down and slightly modified. Instead of 'near star', read 'Moon', and instead of taking the circle at the bottom of the
diagram to represent the size of the Earth's orbit around the Sun, take it to be the size of the Earth's globe, and of a
circle around the Earth's surface. Then, the lunar (horizontal) parallax amounts to the difference in angular position,
relative to the background of distant stars, of the Moon as seen from two different viewing positions on the Earth:-
one of the viewing positions is the place from which the Moon can be seen directly overhead at a given moment (that
is, viewed along the vertical line in the diagram); and the other viewing position is a place from which the Moon can
be seen on the horizon at the same moment (that is, viewed along one of the diagonal lines, from an Earth-surface
Parallax 111

position corresponding roughly to one of the blue dots on the modified diagram).
The lunar (horizontal) parallax can alternatively be defined as the angle subtended at the distance of the Moon by the
radius of the Earth[11] -- equal to angle p in the diagram when scaled-down and modified as mentioned above.
The lunar horizontal parallax at any time depends on the linear distance of the Moon from the Earth. The
Earth-Moon linear distance varies continuously as the Moon follows its perturbed and approximately elliptical orbit
around the Earth. The range of the variation in linear distance is from about 56 to 63.7 earth-radii, corresponding to
horizontal parallax of about a degree of arc, but ranging from about 61.4' to about 54'.[10] The Astronomical
Almanac and similar publications tabulate the lunar horizontal parallax and/or the linear distance of the Moon from
the Earth on a periodical e.g. daily basis for the convenience of astronomers (and formerly, of navigators), and the
study of the way in which this coordinate varies with time forms part of lunar theory.
Parallax can also be used to determine the
distance to the Moon.
One way to determine the lunar parallax
from one location is by using a lunar
eclipse. A full shadow of the Earth on the
Moon has an apparent radius of curvature
equal to the difference between the
apparent radii of the Earth and the Sun as
seen from the Moon. This radius can be
seen to be equal to 0.75 degree, from which
(with the solar apparent radius 0.25 degree)
we get an Earth apparent radius of 1
degree. This yields for the Earth-Moon
distance 60 Earth radii or 384,000 km. This
procedure was first used by Aristarchus of
Samos[12] and Hipparchus, and later found
its way into the work of Ptolemy. The
diagram at right shows how daily lunar
parallax arises on the geocentric and
geostatic planetary model in which the
Earth is at the centre of the planetary
system and does not rotate. It also
illustrates the important point that parallax Diagram of daily lunar parallax
need not be caused by any motion of the
observer, contrary to some definitions of parallax that say it is, but may arise purely from motion of the observed.

Another method is to take two pictures of the Moon at exactly the same time from two locations on Earth and
compare the positions of the Moon relative to the stars. Using the orientation of the Earth, those two position
measurements, and the distance between the two locations on the Earth, the distance to the Moon can be
triangulated:
Parallax 112

This is the method referred to by Jules Verne in From the Earth to the
Moon:
Until then, many people had no idea how one could
calculate the distance separating the Moon from the Earth.
The circumstance was exploited to teach them that this
distance was obtained by measuring the parallax of the
Moon. If the word parallax appeared to amaze them, they
were told that it was the angle subtended by two straight
lines running from both ends of the Earth's radius to the
Moon. If they had doubts on the perfection of this method,
they were immediately shown that not only did this mean Example of lunar parallax: Occultation of
distance amount to a whole two hundred thirty-four Pleiades by the Moon
thousand three hundred and forty-seven miles (94,330
leagues), but also that the astronomers were not in error by more than seventy miles (≈ 30 leagues).

Solar parallax
After Copernicus proposed his heliocentric system, with the Earth in revolution around the Sun, it was possible to
build a model of the whole solar system without scale. To ascertain the scale, it is necessary only to measure one
distance within the solar system, e.g., the mean distance from the Earth to the Sun (now called an astronomical unit,
or AU). When found by triangulation, this is referred to as the solar parallax, the difference in position of the Sun as
seen from the Earth's centre and a point one Earth radius away, i. e., the angle subtended at the Sun by the Earth's
mean radius. Knowing the solar parallax and the mean Earth radius allows one to calculate the AU, the first, small
step on the long road of establishing the size and expansion age[13] of the visible Universe.
A primitive way to determine the distance to the Sun in terms of the distance to the Moon was already proposed by
Aristarchus of Samos in his book On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon. He noted that the Sun, Moon,
and Earth form a right triangle (right angle at the Moon) at the moment of first or last quarter moon. He then
estimated that the Moon, Earth, Sun angle was 87°. Using correct geometry but inaccurate observational data,
Aristarchus concluded that the Sun was slightly less than 20 times farther away than the Moon. The true value of this
angle is close to 89° 50', and the Sun is actually about 390 times farther away.[12] He pointed out that the Moon and
Sun have nearly equal apparent angular sizes and therefore their diameters must be in proportion to their distances
from Earth. He thus concluded that the Sun was around 20 times larger than the Moon; this conclusion, although
incorrect, follows logically from his incorrect data. It does suggest that the Sun is clearly larger than the Earth, which
could be taken to support the heliocentric model.
Although Aristarchus' results were incorrect due to observational
errors, they were based on correct geometric principles of parallax, and
became the basis for estimates of the size of the solar system for almost
2000 years, until the transit of Venus was correctly observed in 1761
and 1769.[12] This method was proposed by Edmond Halley in 1716,
although he did not live to see the results. The use of Venus transits
was less successful than had been hoped due to the black drop effect, Measuring Venus transit times to determine solar
but the resulting estimate, 153 million kilometers, is just 2% above the parallax
currently accepted value, 149.6 million kilometers.

Much later, the Solar System was 'scaled' using the parallax of asteroids, some of which, like Eros, pass much closer
to Earth than Venus. In a favourable opposition, Eros can approach the Earth to within 22 million kilometres.[14]
Both the opposition of 1901 and that of 1930/1931 were used for this purpose, the calculations of the latter
Parallax 113

determination being completed by Astronomer Royal Sir Harold Spencer Jones.[15]

Also radar reflections, both off Venus (1958) and off asteroids, like Icarus, have been used for solar parallax
determination. Today, use of spacecraft telemetry links has solved this old problem. The currently accepted value of
solar parallax is 8".794 143.[16]

Dynamic or moving-cluster parallax

The open stellar cluster Hyades in Taurus extends over such a large part of the sky, 20 degrees, that the proper
motions as derived from astrometry appear to converge with some precision to a perspective point north of Orion.
Combining the observed apparent (angular) proper motion in seconds of arc with the also observed true (absolute)
receding motion as witnessed by the Doppler redshift of the stellar spectral lines, allows estimation of the distance to
the cluster (151 light-years) and its member stars in much the same way as using annual parallax.[17]
Dynamic parallax has sometimes also been used to determine the distance to a supernova, when the optical wave
front of the outburst is seen to propagate through the surrounding dust clouds at an apparent angular velocity, while
its true propagation velocity is known to be the speed of light.[18]

Derivation
For a right triangle,

where is the parallax, 1 AU (149600000 km) is approximately the average distance from the Sun to Earth, and
is the distance to the star. Using small-angle approximations (valid when the angle is small compared to 1 radian),

so the parallax, measured in arcseconds, is

If the parallax is 1", then the distance is

This defines the parsec, a convenient unit for measuring distance using parallax. Therefore, the distance, measured in
parsecs, is simply , when the parallax is given in arcseconds.[19]

Parallax error
Precise parallax measurements of distance have an associated error. However this error in the measured parallax
angle does not translate directly into an error for the distance, except for relatively small errors. The reason for this is
that an error toward a smaller angle results in a greater error in distance than an error toward a larger angle.
However, an approximation of the distance error can be computed by

where d is the distance and p is the parallax. The approximation is far more accurate for parallax errors that are small
relative to the parallax than for relatively large errors.
Parallax 114

Visual perception
As the eyes of humans and other animals are in different positions on the head, they present different views
simultaneously. This is the basis of stereopsis, the process by which the brain exploits the parallax due to the
different views from the eye to gain depth perception and estimate distances to objects.[20] Animals also use motion
parallax, in which the animal (or just the head) moves to gain different viewpoints. For example, pigeons (whose
eyes do not have overlapping fields of view and thus cannot use stereopsis) bob their heads up and down to see
depth.[21]

Parallax and measurement instruments

If an optical instrument — e.g., a telescope, microscope, or theodolite — is imprecisely focused, its cross-hairs will
appear to move with respect to the object focused on if one moves one's head horizontally in front of the eyepiece.
This is why it is important, especially when performing measurements, to focus carefully in order to eliminate the
parallax, and to check by moving one's head.
Also, in non-optical measurements the thickness of a ruler can create parallax in fine measurements. To avoid
parallax error, one should take measurements with one's eye on a line directly perpendicular to the ruler so that the
thickness of the ruler does not create error in positioning for fine measurements. A similar error can occur when
reading the position of a pointer against a scale in an instrument such as a galvanometer (for example, in an
analog-display multimeter.) To help the user avoid this problem, the scale is sometimes printed above a narrow strip
of mirror, and the user positions his eye so that the pointer obscures its own reflection. This guarantees that the user's
line of sight is perpendicular to the mirror and therefore to the scale.
Parallax can cause a speedometer reading to appear different to a car's passenger than to the driver.

Photogrammetric parallax
Aerial picture pairs, when viewed through a stereo viewer, offer a pronounced stereo effect of landscape and
buildings. High buildings appear to 'keel over' in the direction away from the centre of the photograph.
Measurements of this parallax are used to deduce the height of the buildings, provided that flying height and baseline
distances are known. This is a key component to the process of photogrammetry.

Parallax error in photography

Parallax error can be seen when taking photos with many types of cameras, such as twin-lens reflex cameras and
those including viewfinders (such as rangefinder cameras). In such cameras, the eye sees the subject through
different optics (the viewfinder, or a second lens) than the one through which the photo is taken. As the viewfinder is
often found above the lens of the camera, photos with parallax error are often slightly lower than intended, the
classic example being the image of person with his or her head cropped off. This problem is addressed in single-lens
reflex cameras, in which the viewfinder sees through the same lens through which the photo is taken (with the aid of
a movable mirror), thus avoiding parallax error.
Parallax is also an issue in image stitching, such as for panoramas.

In computer graphics
In many early graphical applications, such as video games, the scene was constructed of independent layers that were
scrolled at different speeds when the player/cursor moved. Some hardware had explicit support for such layers, such
as the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. This gave some layers the appearance of being farther away than
others and was useful for creating an illusion of depth, but only worked when the player was moving. Now, most
games are based on much more comprehensive three-dimensional graphic models, although portable game systems
Parallax 115

(such as Nintendo DS) still often use parallax. Parallax-based graphics continue to be used for many online
applications where the bandwidth required by three-dimensional graphics is excessive.

In gunfire
Owing to the positioning of gun turrets on a warship or in the field, each one has a slightly different perspective of
the target relative to the location of the fire control system itself. Therefore, when aiming its guns at the target, the
fire control system must compensate for parallax in order to assure that fire from each turret converges on the target.
This is also true of small arms, as the distance between the sighting mechanism and the weapon's bore can introduce
significant errors when firing at close range, particularly when firing at small targets.
This also applies to archery where the shooter frequently relies on a single pin at close range.

As a metaphor
In a philosophic/geometric sense: An apparent change in the direction of an object, caused by a change in
observational position that provides a new line of sight. The apparent displacement, or difference of position, of an
object, as seen from two different stations, or points of view. In contemporary writing parallax can also be the same
story, or a similar story from approximately the same time line, from one book told from a different perspective in
another book. The word and concept feature prominently in James Joyce's 1922 novel, Ulysses. Orson Scott Card
also used the term when referring to Ender's Shadow as compared to Ender's Game.
The metaphor is invoked by Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Žižek in his work The Parallax View. Žižek borrowed the
concept of "parallax view" from the Japanese philosopher and literary critic Kojin Karatani. "The philosophical twist
to be added (to parallax), of course, is that the observed distance is not simply subjective, since the same object that
exists 'out there' is seen from two different stances, or points of view. It is rather that, as Hegel would have put it,
subject and object are inherently mediated so that an 'epistemological' shift in the subject's point of view always
reflects an ontological shift in the object itself. Or—to put it in Lacanese—the subject's gaze is always-already
inscribed into the perceived object itself, in the guise of its 'blind spot,' that which is 'in the object more than object
itself', the point from which the object itself returns the gaze. Sure the picture is in my eye, but I am also in the
picture."[22]

References
• Hirshfeld, Alan w. (2001). Parallax: The Race to Measure the Cosmos. New York: W. H. Freeman.
ISBN 0716737116
• Whipple, Fred L. (2007). Earth Moon and Planets. Read Books. ISBN 1406764132.
• Zeilik, Michael A.; Gregory, Stephan A. (1998). Introductory Astronomy & Astrophysics (4th ed.). Saunders
College Publishing. ISBN 0030062284.
Parallax 116

See also
• Triangulation, wherein a point is calculated given its angles from other known points
• Trilateration, wherein a point is calculated given its distances from other known points
• Disparity
• Spectroscopic parallax
• Trigonometry
• Xallarap

External links
• Instructions for having background images on a web page use parallax effects [23]
• Actual parallax project measuring the distance to the moon within 2.3% [24]
• BBC's Sky at Night [25] programme: Patrick Moore demonstrates Parallax using Cricket. (Requires RealPlayer)
• Berkely Center for Cosmological Physics Parallax [26]
• Parallax [27] on an educational website, including a quick estimate of distance based on parallax using eyes and a
thumb only

References
[1] Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. 1968. "Mutual inclination of two lines meeting in an angle".
[2] "Parallax" (http:/ / dictionary. oed. com/ cgi/ entry/ 50171114?single=1& query_type=word& queryword=parallax& first=1&
max_to_show=10). Oxford English Dictionary (Second Edition ed.). 1989. . "Astron. Apparent displacement, or difference in the apparent
position, of an object, caused by actual change (or difference) of position of the point of observation; spec. the angular amount of such
displacement or difference of position, being the angle contained between the two straight lines drawn to the object from the two different
points of view, and constituting a measure of the distance of the object.".
[3] Zeilik & Gregory 1998, p. 44.
[4] Zeilik & Gregory 1998, § 22-3.
[5] Benedict, G. Fritz et al. (1999). "Interferometric Astrometry of Proxima Centauri and Barnard's Star Using HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE
Fine Guidance Sensor 3: Detection Limits for Substellar Companions" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1999astro. ph. . 5318B). The
Astronomical Journal 118 (2): 1086–1100. doi:10.1086/300975. . Retrieved 2010-02-17.
[6] See p.51 in The reception of Copernicus' heliocentric theory: proceedings of a symposium organized by the Nicolas Copernicus Committee of
the International Union of the History and Philosophy of Science, Torun, Poland, 1973, ed. Jerzy Dobrzycki, International Union of the
History and Philosophy of Science. Nicolas Copernicus Committee; ISBN 9027703116, ISBN 9789027703118
[7] Henney, Paul J.. "ESA's Gaia Mission to study stars" (http:/ / www. astronomytoday. com/ exploration/ gaia. html). Astronomy Today. .
Retrieved 2008-03-08.
[8] Seidelmann, P. Kenneth (2005). Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac. University Science Books. pp. 123–125.
ISBN 1891389459.
[9] Barbieri, Cesare (2007). Fundamentals of astronomy. CRC Press. pp. 132–135. ISBN 0750308869.
[10] Astronomical Almanac e.g. for 1981, section D
[11] Astronomical Almanac, e.g. for 1981: see Glossary; for formulae see Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, 1992, p.400
[12] Gutzwiller, Martin C. (1998). "Moon-Earth-Sun: The oldest three-body problem". Reviews of Modern Physics 70: 589.
doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.70.589.
[13] Freedman, W.L. (2000). "The Hubble constant and the expansion age of the Universe" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2000PhR. . . 333. .
. 13F). Physics Reports 333: 13. doi:10.1016/S0370-1573(00)00013-2. arXiv:astro-ph/9909076. .
[14] Whipple 2007, p. 47.
[15] Whipple 2007, p. 117.
[16] US Naval Observatory, Astronomical Constants (http:/ / asa. usno. navy. mil/ SecK/ 2010/ Astronomical_Constants_2010. pdf)
[17] Vijay K. Narayanan; Andrew Gould (1999). "A Precision Test of Hipparcos Systematics toward the Hyades". The Astrophysical Journal
515: 256. doi:10.1086/307021. arXiv:astro-ph/9808284.
[18] Panagia, N.; Gilmozzi, R.; MacChetto, F.; Adorf, H.-M.; Kirshner, R. P. (1991). "Properties of the SN 1987A circumstellar ring and the
distance to the Large Magellanic Cloud". The Astrophysical Journal 380: L23. doi:10.1086/186164.
[19] Similar derivations are in most astronomy textbooks. See, e. g., Zeilik & Gregory 1998, § 11-1.
[20] Steinman, Scott B.; Garzia, Ralph Philip (2000). Foundations of Binocular Vision: A Clinical perspective. McGraw-Hill Professional.
pp. 2–5. ISBN 0-8385-2670-5
[21] Steinman & Garzia 2000, p. 180.
Parallax 117

[22] Žižek, Slavoj (2006). The Parallax View. The MIT Press. pp. 17. ISBN 0262240513.
[23] http:/ / inner. geek. nz/ javascript/ parallax/
[24] http:/ / www. perseus. gr/ Astro-Lunar-Parallax. htm
[25] http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ science/ space/ realmedia/ skymedia_justnotcricket. ram
[26] http:/ / bccp. lbl. gov/ Academy/ pdfs/ Parallax. pdf
[27] http:/ / www. phy6. org/ stargaze/ Sparalax. htm
Gold 118

Gold
Gold

Appearance

metallic yellow

General properties

Name, symbol, number gold, Au, 79

Pronunciation English pronunciation: /ˈɡoʊld/

Element category transition metal

Group, period, block 11, 6, d

Standard atomic weight 196.966569(4) g·mol

−1

Electron configuration 14
[Xe] 4f 5d 6s
10 1

Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 1 (Image)

Physical properties

Phase solid

Density (near r.t.) 19.30 g·cm

−3

Liquid density at m.p. 17.31 g·cm

−3

Melting point 1337.33 K,1064.18 °C,1947.52 °F

Boiling point 3129 K,2856 °C,5173 °F

Heat of fusion 12.55 kJ·mol−1

Heat of vaporization 324 kJ·mol−1

Specific heat capacity (25 °C) 25.418 J·mol−1·K−1

Vapor pressure

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k

at 1646 1814 2021 2281 2620 3078

T/K

Atomic properties

Oxidation states -1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

(amphoteric oxide)

Electronegativity 2.54 (Pauling scale)

Gold 119

Ionization energies 1st: 890.1 kJ·mol−1

2nd: 1980 kJ·mol−1

Atomic radius 144 pm

Covalent radius 136±6 pm

Van der Waals radius 166 pm

Miscellanea

Crystal structure Lattice face centered cubic

Magnetic ordering diamagnetic

Electrical resistivity (20 °C) 22.14 nΩ·m

Thermal conductivity (300 K) 318 W·m−1·K−1

Thermal expansion −1
(25 °C) 14.2 µm·m ·K
−1

Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) 2030 m·s−1

Tensile strength 120 MPa

Young's modulus 79 GPa

Shear modulus 27 GPa

Bulk modulus 180 GPa

Poisson ratio 0.44

Mohs hardness 2.5

Vickers hardness 216 MPa

Brinell hardness 25 HB MPa

CAS registry number 7440-57-5

Most stable isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of gold

iso NA half-life DM DE DP
(MeV)

195
Au syn 186.10 d ε 0.227 195
Pt

196
Au syn 6.183 d ε 1.506 196
Pt

β− 0.686 196
Hg

197
Au 100% 197
Au is stable with 118 neutron

198
Au syn 2.69517 d β− 1.372 198
Hg

199
Au syn 3.169 d β− 0.453 199
Hg

Gold (pronounced /ˈɡoʊld/) is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from Latin: aurum, "shining dawn", hence
adjective, aureate) and an atomic number of 79. It has been a highly sought-after precious metal for coinage, jewelry,
and other arts since the beginning of recorded history. The metal occurs as nuggets or grains in rocks, in veins and in
alluvial deposits. Gold is dense, soft, shiny and the most malleable and ductile pure metal known. Pure gold has a
bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water.
Gold 120

Gold is one of the coinage metals and has served as a symbol of wealth and a store of value throughout history. Gold
standards have provided a basis for monetary policies. It also has been linked to a variety of symbolisms and
ideologies.
A total of 165,000 tonnes of gold have been mined in human history, as of 2009.[1] This is roughly equivalent to 5.3
billion troy ounces or, in terms of volume, about 8,500 cubic meters, or a 20.4m cube.
Although primarily used as a store of value, gold has many modern industrial uses including dentistry and
electronics. Gold has traditionally found use because of its good resistance to oxidative corrosion and excellent
quality as a conductor of electricity.
Chemically, gold is a transition metal and can form trivalent and univalent cations in solutions. Compared with other
metals, pure gold is chemically least reactive, but it is attacked by aqua regia (a mixture of acids), forming
chloroauric acid, but not by the individual acids, and by alkaline solutions of cyanide. Gold dissolves in mercury,
forming amalgam alloys, but does not react with it. Gold is insoluble in nitric acid, which dissolves silver and base
metals. This property is exploited in the gold refining technique known as "inquartation and parting". Nitric acid has
long been used to confirm the presence of gold in items, and this is the origin of the colloquial term "acid test",
referring to a gold standard test for genuine value.

Characteristics
Gold is the most malleable and ductile of all metals; a single gram can be beaten
into a sheet of 1 square meter, or an ounce into 300 square feet. Gold leaf can be
beaten thin enough to become translucent. The transmitted light appears greenish
blue, because gold strongly reflects yellow and red.[2] Such semi-transparent
sheets also strongly reflect infrared light, making them useful as infrared (radiant
heat) shields in visors of heat-resistant suits, and in sun-visors for spacesuits.[3]

Gold readily creates alloys with many other metals. These alloys can be
produced to modify the hardness and other metallurgical properties, to control
melting point or to create exotic colors (see below).[4] Gold is a good conductor
of heat and electricity and reflects infrared radiation strongly. Chemically, it is
unaffected by air, moisture and most corrosive reagents, and is therefore well
suited for use in coins and jewelry and as a protective coating on other, more
Native gold nuggets
reactive, metals. However, it is not chemically inert.

Common oxidation states of gold include +1 (gold(I) or aurous compounds) and

+3 (gold(III) or auric compounds). Gold ions in solution are readily reduced and
precipitated out as gold metal by adding any other metal as the reducing agent.
The added metal is oxidized and dissolves allowing the gold to be displaced from
solution and be recovered as a solid precipitate.
High quality pure metallic gold is tasteless and scentless; in keeping with its
resistance to corrosion (it is metal ions which confer taste to metals).[5]
In addition, gold is very dense, a cubic meter weighing 19,300 kg. By
comparison, the density of lead is 11,340 kg/m3, and that of the densest element,
Gold nuggets found in Arizona
osmium, is 22,610 kg/m3.
Gold 121

Color
Whereas most other pure metals are gray or
silvery white, gold is yellow. This color is
determined by the density of loosely bound
(valence) electrons; those electrons oscillate
as a collective "plasma" medium described
in terms of a quasiparticle called plasmon.
The frequency of these oscillations lies in
the ultraviolet range for most metals, but it
falls into the visible range for gold due to
subtle relativistic effects that affect the
orbitals around gold atoms.[6] [7] Similar
effects impart a golden hue to metallic
cesium (see relativistic quantum chemistry).

Common colored gold alloys such as rose

gold can be created by the addition of
various amounts of copper and silver, as
Different colors of Ag-Au-Cu alloys
indicated in the triangular diagram to the
left. Alloys containing palladium or nickel
are also important in commercial jewelry as these produce white gold alloys. Less commonly, addition of
manganese, aluminium, iron, indium and other elements can produce more unusual colors of gold for various
applications.[4]

Isotopes
Gold has only one stable isotope, 197Au, which is also its only naturally occurring isotope. Thirty six radioisotopes
have been synthesized ranging in atomic mass from 169 to 205. The most stable of these is 195Au with a half-life of
186.1 days. 195Au is also the only gold isotope to decay by electron capture. The least stable is 171Au, which decays
by proton emission with a half-life of 30 µs. Most of gold's radioisotopes with atomic masses below 197 decay by
some combination of proton emission, α decay, and β+ decay. The exceptions are 195Au, which decays by electron
capture, and 196Au, which has a minor β- decay path. All of gold's radioisotopes with atomic masses above 197
decay by β- decay.[8]
At least 32 nuclear isomers have also been characterized, ranging in atomic mass from 170 to 200. Within that range,
only 178Au, 180Au, 181Au, 182Au, and 188Au do not have isomers. Gold's most stable isomer is 198 m2Au with a
half-life of 2.27 days. Gold's least stable isomer is 177 m2Au with a half-life of only 7 ns. 184 m1Au has three decay
paths: β+ decay, isomeric transition, and alpha decay. No other isomer or isotope of gold has three decay paths.[8]
Gold 122

Use and applications

Monetary exchange
Gold has been widely used throughout the world as a vehicle for monetary exchange, either by issuance and
recognition of gold coins or other bare metal quantities, or through gold-convertible paper instruments by
establishing gold standards in which the total value of issued money is represented in a store of gold reserves.
However, the amount of gold in the world is finite and production has not grown in relation to the world's
economies. Today, gold mining output is declining.[9] With the sharp growth of economies in the 20th century, and
increasing foreign exchange, the world's gold reserves and their trading market have become a small fraction of all
markets and fixed exchange rates of currencies to gold were no longer sustained. At the beginning of World War I
the warring nations moved to a fractional gold standard, inflating their currencies to finance the war effort. After
World War II gold was replaced by a system of convertible currency following the Bretton Woods system. Gold
standards and the direct convertibility of currencies to gold have been abandoned by world governments, being
replaced by fiat currency in their stead. Switzerland was the last country to tie its currency to gold; it backed 40% of
its value until the Swiss joined the International Monetary Fund in 1999.[10]
Pure gold is too soft for day-to-day monetary use and is typically hardened by alloying with copper, silver or other
base metals. The gold content of alloys is measured in carats (k). Pure gold is designated as 24k. Gold coins intended
for circulation from 1526 into the 1930s were typically a standard 22k alloy called crown gold, for hardness.

Investment
Many holders of gold store it in form of bullion coins or bars as a hedge against inflation or other economic
disruptions. However, some economists do not believe gold serves as a hedge against inflation or currency
depreciation.[11]
The ISO 4217 currency code of gold is XAU.
Modern bullion coins for investment or collector purposes do not require good mechanical wear properties; they are
typically fine gold at 24k, although the American Gold Eagle, the British gold sovereign, and the South African
Krugerrand continue to be minted in 22k metal in historical tradition. The special issue Canadian Gold Maple Leaf
coin contains the highest purity gold of any bullion coin, at 99.999% or 0.99999, while the popular issue Canadian
Gold Maple Leaf coin has a purity of 99.99%. Several other 99.99% pure gold coins are available. In 2006, the
United States Mint began production of the American Buffalo gold bullion coin with a purity of 99.99%. The
Australian Gold Kangaroos were first coined in 1986 as the Australian Gold Nugget but changed the reverse design
in 1989. Other popular modern coins include the Austrian Vienna Philharmonic bullion coin and the Chinese Gold
Panda.
Gold 123

Jewelry
Because of the softness of pure (24k) gold, it is usually alloyed with
base metals for use in jewelry, altering its hardness and ductility,
melting point, color and other properties. Alloys with lower caratage,
typically 22k, 18k, 14k or 10k, contain higher percentages of copper,
or other base metals or silver or palladium in the alloy. Copper is the
most commonly used base metal, yielding a redder color.
Eighteen-carat gold containing 25% copper is found in antique and
Russian jewelry and has a distinct, though not dominant, copper cast,
creating rose gold. Fourteen-carat gold-copper alloy is nearly identical Moche gold necklace depicting feline heads.
in color to certain bronze alloys, and both may be used to produce Larco Museum Collection. Lima-Peru

police, as well as other, badges. Blue gold can be made by alloying

with iron and purple gold can be made by alloying with aluminium, although rarely done except in specialized
jewelry. Blue gold is more brittle and therefore more difficult to work with when making jewelry. Fourteen and
eighteen carat gold alloys with silver alone appear greenish-yellow and are referred to as green gold. White gold
alloys can be made with palladium or nickel. White 18-carat gold containing 17.3% nickel, 5.5% zinc and 2.2%
copper is silvery in appearance. Nickel is toxic, however, and its release from nickel white gold is controlled by
legislation in Europe. Alternative white gold alloys are available based on palladium, silver and other white
metals,[12] but the palladium alloys are more expensive than those using nickel. High-carat white gold alloys are far
more resistant to corrosion than are either pure silver or sterling silver. The Japanese craft of Mokume-gane exploits
the color contrasts between laminated colored gold alloys to produce decorative wood-grain effects.

Medicine
In medieval times, gold was often seen as beneficial for the health, in the belief that something that rare and beautiful
could not be anything but healthy. Even some modern esotericists and forms of alternative medicine assign metallic
gold a healing power.[13] Some gold salts do have anti-inflammatory properties and are used as pharmaceuticals in
the treatment of arthritis and other similar conditions.[14] However, only salts and radioisotopes of gold are of
pharmacological value, as elemental (metallic) gold is inert to all chemicals it encounters inside the body. In modern
times, injectable gold has been proven to help to reduce the pain and swelling of rheumatoid arthritis and
tuberculosis.[14] [15]
Gold alloys are used in restorative dentistry, especially in tooth restorations, such as crowns and permanent bridges.
The gold alloys' slight malleability facilitates the creation of a superior molar mating surface with other teeth and
produces results that are generally more satisfactory than those produced by the creation of porcelain crowns. The
use of gold crowns in more prominent teeth such as incisors is favored in some cultures and discouraged in others.
Colloidal gold preparations (suspensions of gold nanoparticles) in water are intensely red-colored, and can be made
with tightly controlled particle sizes up to a few tens of nanometers across by reduction of gold chloride with citrate
or ascorbate ions. Colloidal gold is used in research applications in medicine, biology and materials science. The
technique of immunogold labeling exploits the ability of the gold particles to adsorb protein molecules onto their
surfaces. Colloidal gold particles coated with specific antibodies can be used as probes for the presence and position
of antigens on the surfaces of cells.[16] In ultrathin sections of tissues viewed by electron microscopy, the
immunogold labels appear as extremely dense round spots at the position of the antigen.[17] Colloidal gold is also the
form of gold used as gold paint on ceramics prior to firing.
Gold, or alloys of gold and palladium, are applied as conductive coating to biological specimens and other
non-conducting materials such as plastics and glass to be viewed in a scanning electron microscope. The coating,
which is usually applied by sputtering with an argon plasma, has a triple role in this application. Gold's very high
Gold 124

electrical conductivity drains electrical charge to earth, and its very high density provides stopping power for
electrons in the electron beam, helping to limit the depth to which the electron beam penetrates the specimen. This
improves definition of the position and topography of the specimen surface and increases the spatial resolution of the
image. Gold also produces a high output of secondary electrons when irradiated by an electron beam, and these
low-energy electrons are the most commonly used signal source used in the scanning electron microscope.[18]
The isotope gold-198, (half-life 2.7 days) is used in some cancer treatments and for treating other diseases.[19]

Food and drink

• Gold can be used in food and has the E number 175.[20]
• Gold leaf, flake or dust is used on and in some gourmet foods, notably sweets and drinks as decorative
ingredient.[21] Gold flake was used by the nobility in Medieval Europe as a decoration in food and drinks, in the
form of leaf, flakes or dust, either to demonstrate the host's wealth or in the belief that something that valuable
and rare must be beneficial for one's health. Gold foil along with silver is sometimes used in South Asian sweets
such as barfi.[22]
• Danziger Goldwasser (German: Gold water of Danzig) or Goldwasser (English: Goldwater) is a traditional
German herbal liqueur[23] produced in what is today Gdańsk, Poland, and Schwabach, Germany, and contains
flakes of gold leaf. There are also some expensive (~$1000) cocktails which contain flakes of gold leaf.[24]
However, since metallic gold is inert to all body chemistry, it adds no taste nor has it any other nutritional effect
and leaves the body unaltered.[25]

Industry
• Gold solder is used for joining the components of gold jewelry by
high-temperature hard soldering or brazing. If the work is to be of
hallmarking quality, gold solder must match the carat weight of the
work, and alloy formulas are manufactured in most
industry-standard carat weights to color match yellow and white
gold. Gold solder is usually made in at least three melting-point
ranges referred to as Easy, Medium and Hard. By using the hard,
high-melting point solder first, followed by solders with
progressively lower melting points, goldsmiths can assemble
The 220 kg gold brick displayed in Chinkuashi
complex items with several separate soldered joints.
Gold Museum, Taiwan, Republic of China
• Gold can be made into thread and used in embroidery.
• Gold is ductile and malleable, meaning it can be drawn into very thin wire and can be beaten into very thin sheets
known as gold leaf.
• Gold produces a deep, intense red color when used as a coloring agent in cranberry glass.
• In photography, gold toners are used to shift the color of silver bromide black and white prints towards brown or
blue tones, or to increase their stability. Used on sepia-toned prints, gold toners produce red tones. Kodak
published formulas for several types of gold toners, which use gold as the chloride.[26]
• As gold is a good reflector of electromagnetic radiation such as infrared and visible light as well as radio waves, it
is used for the protective coatings on many artificial satellites, in infrared protective faceplates in thermal
protection suits and astronauts' helmets and in electronic warfare planes like the EA-6B Prowler.
Gold 125

• Gold is used as the reflective layer on some high-end CDs.

• Automobiles may use gold for heat dissipation. McLaren uses gold
foil in the engine compartment of its F1 model.[27]
• Gold can be manufactured so thin that it appears transparent. It is
used in some aircraft cockpit windows for de-icing or anti-icing by
passing electricity through it. The heat produced by the resistance of
the gold is enough to deter ice from forming.[28]

Electronics
The concentration of free electrons in gold metal is 5.90×1022 cm−3.
Gold is highly conductive to electricity, and has been used for
electrical wiring in some high-energy applications (only silver and
copper are more conductive per volume, but gold has the advantage of
corrosion resistance). For example, gold electrical wires were used
during some of the Manhattan Project's atomic experiments, but large The world's largest gold bar weighs 250 kg. Toi
high current silver wires were used in the calutron isotope separator museum, Japan.

magnets in the project.

Though gold is attacked by free chlorine, its good conductivity and

general resistance to oxidation and corrosion in other environments
(including resistance to non-chlorinated acids) has led to its widespread
industrial use in the electronic era as a thin layer coating electrical
connectors of all kinds, thereby ensuring good connection. For
example, gold is used in the connectors of the more expensive
electronics cables, such as audio, video and USB cables. The benefit of
using gold over other connector metals such as tin in these applications
is highly debated. Gold connectors are often criticized by audio-visual
experts as unnecessary for most consumers and seen as simply a
marketing ploy. However, the use of gold in other applications in
electronic sliding contacts in highly humid or corrosive atmospheres,
and in use for contacts with a very high failure cost (certain computers,
communications equipment, spacecraft, jet aircraft engines) remains
very common.[29]
A gold nugget of 5 mm in diameter (bottom) can
Besides sliding electrical contacts, gold is also used in electrical be expanded through hammering into a gold foil
contacts because of its resistance to corrosion, electrical conductivity, of about 0.5 square meter. Toi museum, Japan.

ductility and lack of toxicity.[30] Switch contacts are generally

subjected to more intense corrosion stress than are sliding contacts. Fine gold wires are used to connect
semiconductor devices to their packages through a process known as wire bonding.

Chemistry
Gold is attacked by and dissolves in alkaline solutions of potassium or sodium cyanide, and gold cyanide is the
electrolyte used in commercial electroplating of gold onto base metals and electroforming. Gold chloride
(chloroauric acid) solutions are used to make colloidal gold by reduction with citrate or ascorbate ions. Gold chloride
and gold oxide are used to make highly valued cranberry or red-colored glass, which, like colloidal gold suspensions,
contains evenly sized spherical gold nanoparticles.[31]
Gold 126

History
Gold has been known and used by artisans since the Chalcolithic. Gold
artifacts in the Balkans appear from the 4th millennium BC, such as
that found in the Varna Necropolis. Gold artifacts such as the golden
hats and the Nebra disk appeared in Central Europe from the 2nd
millennium BC Bronze Age.
The Turin Papyrus Map
Egyptian hieroglyphs from as early as 2600 BC describe gold, which
king Tushratta of the Mitanni claimed was "more plentiful than dirt" in
Egypt.[32] Egypt and especially Nubia had the resources to make them
major gold-producing areas for much of history. The earliest known
map is known as the Turin Papyrus Map and shows the plan of a gold
mine in Nubia together with indications of the local geology. The
primitive working methods are described by both Strabo and Diodorus
Siculus, and included fire-setting. Large mines were also present across
the Red Sea in what is now Saudi Arabia.

The legend of the golden fleece may refer to the use of fleeces to trap
gold dust from placer deposits in the ancient world. Gold is mentioned
frequently in the Old Testament, starting with Genesis 2:11 (at
Havilah) and is included with the gifts of the magi in the first chapters
of Matthew New Testament. The Book of Revelation 21:21 describes
the city of New Jerusalem as having streets "made of pure gold, clear Funerary mask of Tutankhamun

as crystal". The south-east corner of the Black Sea was famed for its
gold. Exploitation is said to date from the time of Midas, and this gold
was important in the establishment of what is probably the world's
earliest coinage in Lydia around 610 BC.[33] From the 6th or 5th
century BC, the Chu (state) circulated the Ying Yuan, one kind of
square gold coin.

In Roman metallurgy, new methods for extracting gold on a large scale

were developed by introducing hydraulic mining methods, especially
in Hispania from 25 BC onwards and in Dacia from 150 AD onwards.
One of their largest mines was at Las Medulas in León (Spain), where
seven long aqueducts enabled them to sluice most of a large alluvial
deposit. The mines at Roşia Montană in Transylvania were also very
large, and until very recently, still mined by opencast methods. They
Jason returns with the golden fleece
also exploited smaller deposits in Britain, such as placer and hard-rock on an Apulian red-figure calyx
deposits at Dolaucothi. The various methods they used are well krater, ca. 340–330 BC.
described by Pliny the Elder in his encyclopedia Naturalis Historia
written towards the end of the first century AD.

The Mali Empire in Africa was famed throughout the old world for its large amounts of gold. Mansa Musa, ruler of
the empire (1312–1337) became famous throughout the old world for his great hajj to Mecca in 1324. When he
passed through Cairo in July 1324, he was reportedly accompanied by a camel train that included thousands of
people and nearly a hundred camels. He gave away so much gold that it depressed the price in Egypt for over a
decade.[34] A contemporary Arab historian remarked:
Gold 127

“
Gold was at a high price in Egypt until they came in that year. The mithqal did not go below 25 dirhams and was generally above, but from
that time its value fell and it cheapened in price and has remained cheap till now. The mithqal does not exceed 22 dirhams or less. This has
been the state of affairs for about twelve years until this day by reason of the large amount of gold which they brought into Egypt and spent
there [...] ”
[35]
—Chihab Al-Umari

The European exploration of the Americas was fueled in no small part by reports of the gold ornaments displayed in
great profusion by Native American peoples, especially in Central America, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. The
Aztecs regarded gold as literally the product of the gods, calling it "god excrement" (teocuitlatl in Nahuatl).[36]
Although the price of some platinum group metals can be much higher, gold has long been considered the most
desirable of precious metals, and its value has been used as the standard for many currencies (known as the gold
standard) in history. Gold has been used as a symbol for purity, value, royalty, and particularly roles that combine
these properties. Gold as a sign of wealth and prestige was made fun of by Thomas More in his treatise Utopia. On
that imaginary island, gold is so abundant that it is used to make chains for slaves, tableware and lavatory-seats.
When ambassadors from other countries arrive, dressed in ostentatious gold jewels and badges, the Utopians mistake
them for menial servants, paying homage instead to the most modestly dressed of their party.
There is an age-old tradition of biting gold to test its authenticity. Although this is certainly not a professional way of
examining gold, the bite test should score the gold because gold is a soft metal, as indicated by its score on the Mohs'
scale of mineral hardness. The purer the gold the easier it should be to mark it. Painted lead can cheat this test
because lead is softer than gold (and may invite a small risk of lead poisoning if sufficient lead is absorbed by the
biting).
Gold in antiquity was relatively easy to obtain geologically; however, 75% of all gold ever produced has been
extracted since 1910.[37] It has been estimated that all gold ever refined would form a single cube 20 m (66 ft) on a
side (equivalent to 8000 m3).[37]
One main goal of the alchemists was to produce gold from other substances, such as lead — presumably by the
interaction with a mythical substance called the philosopher's stone. Although they never succeeded in this attempt,
the alchemists promoted an interest in what can be done with substances, and this laid a foundation for today's
chemistry. Their symbol for gold was the circle with a point at its center (☉), which was also the astrological symbol
and the ancient Chinese character for the Sun. For modern creation of artificial gold by neutron capture, see gold
synthesis.
During the 19th century, gold rushes occurred whenever large gold deposits were discovered. The first documented
discovery of gold in the United States was at the Reed Gold Mine near Georgeville, North Carolina in 1803.[38] The
first major gold strike in the United States occurred in a small north Georgia town called Dahlonega.[39] Further gold
rushes occurred in California, Colorado, the Black Hills, Otago, Australia, Witwatersrand, and the Klondike.
Because of its historically high value, much of the gold mined throughout history is still in circulation in one form or
another.
Gold 128

Occurrence
Gold's atomic number of 79 makes it one of the higher atomic number
elements which occur naturally. Like all elements with atomic numbers
larger than iron, gold is thought to have been formed from a supernova
nucleosynthesis process. Their explosions scattered metal-containing
dusts (including heavy elements like gold) into the region of space in
which they later condensed into our solar system and the Earth.[40]

On Earth, whenever elemental gold occurs, it appears most often as a

metal solid solution of gold with silver, i.e. a gold silver alloy. Such
alloys usually have a silver content of 8–10%. Electrum is elemental
gold with more than 20% silver. Electrum's color runs from
golden-silvery to silvery, dependent upon the silver content. The more
silver, the lower the specific gravity.
This 156-ounce (4.85 kg) nugget was found by an
individual prospector in the Southern California
Desert using a metal detector.

Gold is found in ores made up of rock with very small or microscopic

particles of gold. This gold ore is often found together with quartz or
sulfide minerals such as Fool's Gold, which is a pyrite.[41] These are
called lode deposits. Native gold is also found in the form of free
flakes, grains or larger nuggets that have been eroded from rocks and
end up in alluvial deposits (called placer deposits). Such free gold is
always richer at the surface of gold-bearing veins owing to the
oxidation of accompanying minerals followed by weathering, and
washing of the dust into streams and rivers, where it collects and can
be welded by water action to form nuggets. Relative sizes of an 860 kg block of gold ore, and
the 30 g of gold that can be extracted from it. Toi
Gold sometimes occurs combined with tellurium as the minerals gold mine, Japan.
calaverite, krennerite, nagyagite, petzite and sylvanite, and as the rare
bismuthide maldonite (Au2Bi) and antimonide aurostibite (AuSb2).
Gold also occurs in rare alloys with copper, lead, and mercury: the
minerals auricupride (Cu3Au), novodneprite (AuPb3) and weishanite
((Au, Ag)3Hg2).

Recent research suggests that microbes can sometimes play an

important role in forming gold deposits, transporting and precipitating
gold to form grains and nuggets that collect in alluvial deposits.[42]
The world's oceans contain gold. Measured concentrations of gold in
the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific are 50–150 fmol/L or 10-30 parts
per quadrillion. In general, Au concentrations for Atlantic and Pacific Gold left behind after a pyrite cube was oxidized
samples are the same (~50 fmol/L) but less certain. Mediterranean to hematite. Note cubic shape of cavity.

deep waters contain higher concentrations of Au (100–150 fmol/L)

attributed to wind-blown dust and/or rivers. At 10 parts per quadrillion the Earth's oceans would hold 15,000 tons of
gold[43] . These figures are three orders of magnitude less than reported in the literature prior to 1988, indicating
contamination problems with the earlier data.

A number of people have claimed to be able to economically recover gold from sea water, but so far they have all
been either mistaken or crooks. A so-called reverend, Prescott Jernegan ran a gold-from-seawater swindle in the
United States in the 1890s. A British fraudster ran the same scam in England in the early 1900s.[44] Fritz Haber (the
Gold 129

German inventor of the Haber process) did research on the extraction of gold from sea water in an effort to help pay
Germany's reparations following World War I.[45] Based on the published values of 2 to 64 ppb of gold in seawater a
commercially successful extraction seemed possible. After analysis of 4000 water samples yielding an average of
0.004 ppb it became clear that the extraction would not be possible and he stopped the project.[46] No commercially
viable mechanism for performing gold extraction from sea water has yet been identified. Gold synthesis is not
economically viable and is unlikely to become so in the foreseeable future

Gallery of specimens of crystalline native gold

"Rope gold" from Lena River, Crystalline gold from Mina Zapata, Santa Gold leaf from Harvard
Sakha Republic, Russia. Size: Elena de Uairen, Venezuela. Size: Mine, Jamestown,
2.5×1.2×0.7 cm. 3.7×1.1×0.4 cm. California, USA. Size
9.3×3.2× >0.1 cm.

Production
Gold extraction is most economical in large, easily
mined deposits. Ore grades as little as 0.5 mg/kg (0.5
parts per million, ppm) can be economical. Typical ore
grades in open-pit mines are 1–5 mg/kg (1–5 ppm); ore
grades in underground or hard rock mines are usually at
least 3 mg/kg (3 ppm). Because ore grades of 30 mg/kg
(30 ppm) are usually needed before gold is visible to
the naked eye, in most gold mines the gold is invisible.

Since the 1880s, South Africa has been the source for a
large proportion of the world's gold supply, with about
50% of all gold ever produced having come from South World gold production trend

Africa. Production in 1970 accounted for 79% of the

world supply, producing about 1,480 tonnes. 2008 production was 2,260 tonnes. In 2007 China (with 276 tonnes)
overtook South Africa as the world's largest gold producer, the first time since 1905 that South Africa has not been
the largest.[47]
Gold 130

The city of Johannesburg located in South Africa was

founded as a result of the Witwatersrand Gold Rush
which resulted in the discovery of some of the largest
gold deposits the world has ever seen. Gold fields
located within the basin in the Free State and Gauteng
provinces are extensive in strike and dip requiring some
of the world's deepest mines, with the Savuka and
TauTona mines being currently the world's deepest Gold output in 2005
gold mine at 3,777 m. The Second Boer War of
1899–1901 between the British Empire and the
Afrikaner Boers was at least partly over the rights of
miners and possession of the gold wealth in South
Africa.

Other major producers are the United States, Australia,

Russia and Peru. Mines in South Dakota and Nevada
supply two-thirds of gold used in the United States. In
South America, the controversial project Pascua Lama
aims at exploitation of rich fields in the high mountains
of Atacama Desert, at the border between Chile and
Argentina. Today about one-quarter of the world gold
The entrance to an underground gold mine in Victoria, Australia
output is estimated to originate from artisanal or small
scale mining.[48]

After initial production, gold is often subsequently

refined industrially by the Wohlwill process which is
based on electrolysis or by the Miller process, that is
chlorination in the melt. The Wohlwill process results
in higher purity, but is more complex and is only
applied in small-scale installations.[49] [50] Other
methods of assaying and purifying smaller amounts of
gold include parting and inquartation as well as
cupellation, or refining methods based on the
dissolution of gold in aqua regia.[51]

At the end of 2009, it was estimated that all the gold

ever mined totaled 165,000 tonnes[52] This can be
represented by a cube with an edge length of about
20.28 meters. The value of this is very limited; at
Pure gold precipitate produced by the aqua regia refining process
$1200 per ounce, 165,000 tons of gold would have a
value of only 6.6 trillion dollars.

The average gold mining and extraction costs were about US$317/oz in 2007, but these can vary widely depending
on mining type and ore quality; global mine production amounted to 2,471.1 tonnes.[53]
Gold is so stable and so valuable that it is always recovered and recycled. There is no true consumption of gold in the
economic sense; the stock of gold remains essentially constant while ownership shifts from one party to another.[54]
Gold 131

Consumption
India is the world's largest consumer of gold, as Indians buy about 25% of the world's gold,[55] purchasing
approximately 800 tonnes of gold every year. India is also the largest importer of the yellow metal; in 2008, India
imported around 400 tonnes of gold.[56]

Chemistry
Although gold is a noble metal, it forms many and diverse compounds. The oxidation state of gold in its compounds
ranges from −1 to +5, but Au(I) and Au(III) dominate its chemistry. Au(I), referred to as the aurous ion, is the most
common oxidation state with soft ligands such as thioethers, thiolates, and tertiary phosphines. Au(I) compounds are
typically linear. A good example is Au(CN)2−, which is the soluble form of gold encountered in mining. Curiously,
aurous complexes of water are rare. The binary gold halides, such as AuCl, form zigzag polymeric chains, again
featuring linear coordination at Au. Most drugs based on gold are Au(I) derivatives.[57]
Au(III) (auric) is a common oxidation state and is illustrated by gold(III) chloride, AuCl3. Au(III) complexes, like
other d8 compounds, are typically square planar.
Aqua regia, a 1:3 mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid, dissolves gold. Nitric acid oxidizes the metal to +3
ions, but only in minute amounts, typically undetectable in the pure acid because of the chemical equilibrium of the
reaction. However, the ions are removed from the equilibrium by hydrochloric acid, forming AuCl4− ions, or
chloroauric acid, thereby enabling further oxidation.
Some free halogens react with gold.[58] Gold also reacts in alkaline solutions of potassium cyanide. With mercury, it
forms an amalgam.

Less common oxidation states

Less common oxidation states of gold include −1, +2, and +5.
The −1 oxidation state occurs in compounds containing the Au− anion, called aurides. Caesium auride (CsAu), for
example, crystallizes in the caesium chloride motif.[59] Other aurides include those of Rb+, K+, and
tetramethylammonium (CH3)4N+.[60]
Gold(II) compounds are usually diamagnetic with Au–Au bonds such as [Au(CH2)2P(C6H5)2]2Cl2. The evaporation
of a solution of Au(OH)3 in concentrated H2SO4 produces red crystals of gold(II) sulfate, AuSO4. Originally thought
to be a mixed-valence compound, it has been shown to contain Au4+2 cations.[61] [62] A noteworthy, legitimate
gold(II) complex is the tetraxenonogold(II) cation, which contains xenon as a ligand, found in [AuXe4](Sb2F11)2.[63]
Gold pentafluoride and its derivative anion, AuF−6, is the sole example of gold(V), the highest verified oxidation
state.[64]
Some gold compounds exhibit aurophilic bonding, which describes the tendency of gold ions to interact at distances
that are too long to be a conventional Au–Au bond but shorter that van der Waals bonding. The interaction is
estimated to be comparable in strength to that of a hydrogen bond.
Gold 132

Mixed valence compounds

Well-defined cluster compounds are numerous.[60] In such cases, gold has a fractional oxidation state. A
representative example is the octahedral species {Au(P(C6H5)3)}62+. Gold chalcogenides, such as gold sulfide,
feature equal amounts of Au(I) and Au(III).

Toxicity
Pure metallic (elemental) gold is non-toxic and non-irritating when ingested[65] and is sometimes used as a food
decoration in the form of gold leaf. Metallic gold is also a component of the alcoholic drinks Goldschläger, Gold
Strike, and Goldwasser. Metallic gold is approved as a food additive in the EU (E175 in the Codex Alimentarius).
Although gold ion is toxic, the acceptance of metallic gold as a food additive is due to its relative chemical inertness,
and resistance to being corroded or transformed into soluble salts (gold compounds) by any known chemical process
which would be encountered in the human body.
Soluble compounds (gold salts) such as gold chloride are toxic to the liver and kidneys. Common cyanide salts of
gold such as potassium gold cyanide, used in gold electroplating, are toxic both by virtue of their cyanide and gold
content. There are rare cases of lethal gold poisoning from potassium gold cyanide.[66] [67] Gold toxicity can be
ameliorated with chelation therapy with an agent such as Dimercaprol.
Gold metal was voted Allergen of the Year in 2001 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society. Gold contact
allergies affect mostly women.[68] Despite this, gold is a relatively non-potent contact allergen, in comparison with
metals like nickel.[69]

Price
Like other precious metals, gold is measured by troy
weight and by grams. When it is alloyed with other
metals the term carat or karat is used to indicate the
amount of gold present, with 24 carats being pure gold
and lower ratings proportionally less. The purity of a
gold bar or coin can also be expressed as a decimal
figure ranging from 0 to 1, known as the millesimal
fineness, such as 0.995 being very pure.

The price of gold is determined through trading in the

gold and derivatives markets, but a procedure known as
the Gold Fixing in London, originating in September Gold price per troy ounce in USD since 1960, in nominal US$ and
inflation adjusted in 2009 US$.
1919, provides a daily benchmark price to the industry.
The afternoon fixing was introduced in 1968 to provide
a price when US markets are open.

Historically gold coinage was widely used as currency; when paper money was introduced, it typically was a receipt
redeemable for gold coin or bullion. In an economic system known as the gold standard, a certain weight of gold was
given the name of a unit of currency. For a long period, the United States government set the value of the US dollar
so that one troy ounce was equal to $20.67 ($664.56/kg), but in 1934 the dollar was devalued to $35.00 per troy
ounce ($1125.27/kg). By 1961, it was becoming hard to maintain this price, and a pool of US and European banks
agreed to manipulate the market to prevent further currency devaluation against increased gold demand.
Gold 133

On March 17, 1968, economic circumstances caused the collapse of

Swiss-cast 1 kg gold bar
the gold pool, and a two-tiered pricing scheme was established
whereby gold was still used to settle international accounts at the old
$35.00 per troy ounce ($1.13/g) but the price of gold on the private
market was allowed to fluctuate; this two-tiered pricing system was
abandoned in 1975 when the price of gold was left to find its
free-market level. Central banks still hold historical gold reserves as a
store of value although the level has generally been declining. The
largest gold depository in the world is that of the U.S. Federal Reserve
Bank in New York, which holds about 3% of the gold ever mined, as
does the similarly laden U.S. Bullion Depository at Fort Knox.

In 2005 the World Gold Council estimated total global gold supply to be 3,859 tonnes and demand to be 3,754
tonnes, giving a surplus of 105 tonnes.[70]
Since 1968 the price of gold has ranged widely, from a high of $850/oz ($27,300/kg) on January 21, 1980, to a low
of $252.90/oz ($8,131/kg) on June 21, 1999 (London Gold Fixing).[71] The period from 1999 to 2001 marked the
"Brown Bottom" after a 20-year bear market.[72] Prices increased rapidly from 1991, but the 1980 high was not
exceeded until January 3, 2008 when a new maximum of $865.35 per troy ounce was set (a.m. London Gold
Fixing).[73] Another record price was set on March 17, 2008 at $1023.50/oz ($32,900/kg)(am. London Gold
Fixing).[73] In the fall of 2009, gold markets experienced renewed momentum upwards due to increased demand and
a weakening US dollar. On December 2, 2009, Gold passed the important barrier of US$1200 per ounce to close at
$1215.[74] Gold further rallied hitting new highs in May of 2010 after the European Union debt crisis prompted
further purchase of gold as a safe asset.[75] [76]
Since April 2001 the gold price has more than tripled in value against the US dollar,[77] prompting speculation that
this long secular bear market has ended and a bull market has returned.[78]

Symbolism
Gold has been highly valued in many societies throughout the ages. In
keeping with this it has often had a strongly positive symbolic meaning
closely connected to the values held in the highest esteem in the
society in question. Gold may symbolize power, strength, wealth,
warmth, happiness, love, hope, optimism, intelligence, justice, balance,
perfection, summer, harvest and the sun.
Great human achievements are frequently rewarded with gold, in the
form of gold medals, golden trophies and other decorations. Winners
of athletic events and other graded competitions are usually awarded a
Gold bars at the Emperor Casino in Macau
gold medal (e.g., the Olympic Games). Many awards such as the Nobel
Prize are made from gold as well. Other award statues and prizes are
depicted in gold or are gold plated (such as the Academy Awards, the Golden Globe Awards, the Emmy Awards, the
Palme d'Or, and the British Academy Film Awards).

Aristotle in his ethics used gold symbolism when referring to what is now commonly known as the "golden mean".
Similarly, gold is associated with perfect or divine principles, such as in the case of Phi, which is sometimes called
the "golden ratio".
Gold represents great value. Respected people are treated with the most valued rule, the "golden rule". A company
may give its most valued customers "gold cards" or make them "gold members". We value moments of peace and
therefore we say: "silence is golden". In Greek mythology there was the "golden fleece".
Gold 134

Gold is further associated with the wisdom of aging and fruition. The fiftieth wedding anniversary is golden. Our
precious latter years are sometimes considered "golden years". The height of a civilization is referred to as a "golden
age".
In Christianity gold has sometimes been associated with the extremities of utmost evil and the greatest sanctity. In
the Book of Exodus, the Golden Calf is a symbol of idolatry. In the Book of Genesis, Abraham was said to be rich in
gold and silver, and Moses was instructed to cover the Mercy Seat of the Ark of the Covenant with pure gold. In
Christian art the halos of Christ, Mary and the Christian saints are golden.
Medieval kings were inaugurated under the signs of sacred oil and a golden crown, the latter symbolizing the eternal
shining light of heaven and thus a Christian king's divinely inspired authority. Wedding rings have long been made
of gold. It is long lasting and unaffected by the passage of time and may aid in the ring symbolism of eternal vows
before God and/or the sun and moon and the perfection the marriage signifies. In Orthodox Christianity, the wedded
couple is adorned with a golden crown during the ceremony, an amalgamation of symbolic rites.
In popular culture gold holds many connotations but is most generally connected to terms such as good or great, such
as in the phrases: "has a heart of gold", "that's golden!", "golden moment", "then you're golden!" and "golden boy".
Gold also still holds its place as a symbol of wealth and through that, in many societies, success.

State emblem
In 1965, the California Legislature designated gold "the State Mineral and mineralogical emblem."[79]
In 1968, the Alaska Legislature named gold "the official state mineral."[80]

See also
• Altai Mountains
• ChipGold
• Commodity fetishism (Marxist economic theory)
• Digital gold currency
• Gold Anti-Trust Action Committee
• Gold bubble
• Gold fingerprinting
• Gold Prospectors Association of America
• Mining in Roman Britain
• Prospecting
• Roman engineering
• Tumbaga

External links
• Getting Gold 1898 book [81], www.lateralscience.co.uk
• Technical Document on Extraction and Mining of Gold [82], www.epa.gov
• Picture in the Element collection from Heinrich Pniok [83], www.pniok.de
• WebElements.com — Gold [84] n www.webelements.com
• Chemistry in its element podcast [85] (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry's Chemistry World: Gold [86]
www.rsc.org
Gold 135

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[78] "Gold starts 2006 well, but this is not a 25-year high!" (http:/ / www. ameinfo. com/ 75511. html). Ameinfo.com. . Retrieved 2009-04-05.
[79] California Government Code selection 420-429.8 (http:/ / www. leginfo. ca. gov/ cgi-bin/ displaycode?section=gov& group=00001-01000&
file=420-429. 8) (see § 425.1)
[80] Alaska Statutes (http:/ / www. legis. state. ak. us/ cgi-bin/ folioisa. dll/ stattx08/ query=*/ doc/ {@17998}?) (see§ 44.09.110)
[81] http:/ / www. lateralscience. co. uk/ gold/ auriferous. html
[82] http:/ / www. epa. gov/ epaoswer/ other/ mining/ techdocs/ gold. pdf
[83] http:/ / www. pniok. de/ au. htm
[84] http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Au/ index. html
[85] http:/ / www. rsc. org/ chemistryworld/ podcast/ element. asp
[86] http:/ / www. rsc. org/ images/ CIIE_Gold_48k_tcm18-118269. mp3
Minotaur 138

Minotaur

Minotaur bust, (National Archaeological Museum of Athens)

Mythology Greek

Grouping Legendary creature

Parents Cretan Bull and Pasiphaë

Region Crete

Topics in Greek mythology

Gods
• Primordial gods and Titans
• Zeus and the Olympians
• Pan and the nymphs
• Apollo and Dionysus
• Sea-gods and Earth-gods

Heroes
• Heracles and his Labors
• Achilles and the Trojan War
• Odysseus and the Odyssey
• Jason and the Argonauts
• Perseus and
Medusa/Gorgon
• Oedipus and Thebes
• Theseus and the Minotaur
• Triptolemus and the
Eleusinian Mysteries

Related
• Satyrs, centaurs and dragons
• Religion in Ancient Greece

In Greek mythology, the Minotaur (Greek: Μῑνώταυρος, Latin: Minotaurus, Etruscan Θevrumineś), as the Greeks
imagined him, was a creature with the head of a bull on the body of a man[1] or, as described by Ovid, "part man and
part bull".[2] He dwelt at the center of the Cretan Labyrinth, which was an elaborate maze-like construction[3] built
for King Minos of Crete and designed by the architect Daedalus and his son Icarus who were ordered to build it to
hold the Minotaur. The Minotaur was eventually killed by the Athenian founder-hero Theseus. Theseus was the son
of Aethra, and fathered by both Poseidon and Aegeus.
The term Minotaur derives from the Greek Μῑνώταυρος, etymologically compounding the name Μίνως (Minos) and
the noun ταύρος "bull", translating as "(the) Bull of Minos". In Crete, the Minotaur was known by its proper name,
Asterion,[4] a name shared with Minos' foster-father.[5]
Minotaur 139

Minotaur was originally a proper noun in reference to this mythical figure. The use of minotaur as a common noun
to refer to members of a generic race of bull-headed creatures developed much later, in 20th-century fantasy genre
fiction.

Birth and appearance

After he ascended the throne of Crete, Minos struggled with his
brothers for the right to rule. Minos prayed to Poseidon to send him a
snow-white bull, as a sign of approval. He was to sacrifice the bull in
honor of Poseidon but decided to keep it instead because of its beauty.
To punish Minos, Aphrodite made Pasiphaë, Minos' wife, fall madly in
love with the bull from the sea, the Cretan Bull.[6] She had Daedalus,
the famous architect, make a wooden cow for her. Pasiphaë climbed
into the bait in order to copulate with the white bull. The offspring of
their coupling was a monster called the Minotaur. Pasiphaë nursed him
in his infancy, but he grew and became ferocious; being the unnatural
Pasiphaë and the Minotaur, Attic red-figure kylix, offspring of man and beast, he had no natural source of nourishment
Cabinet des Médailles (Paris) and thus devoured man for sustenance. Minos, after getting advice
from the Oracle at Delphi, had Daedalus construct a gigantic labyrinth
to hold the Minotaur. Its location was near Minos' palace in Knossos.

Nowhere has the essence of the myth been expressed more succinctly than in the Heroides attributed to Ovid, where
Pasiphaë's daughter complains of the curse of her unrequited love: "the bull's form disguised the god, Pasiphaë, my
mother, a victim of the deluded bull, brought forth in travail her reproach and burden."[7] Literalist and prurient
readings that emphasize the machinery of actual copulation may, perhaps intentionally, obscure the mystic marriage
of the god in bull form, a Minoan mythos alien to the Greeks.[8]
The Minotaur is commonly represented in Classical art with the body of a man and the head and tail of a bull. One of
the figurations assumed by the river god Achelous in wooing Deianira is as a man with the head of a bull, according
to Sophocles' Trachiniai.
From Classical times through the Renaissance, the Minotaur appears at the center of many depictions of the
Labyrinth.[9] Ovid's Latin account of the Minotaur, which did not elaborate on which half was bull and which half
man, was the most widely available during the Middle Ages, and several later versions show the reverse of the
Classical configuration: a man's head and torso on a bull's body, reminiscent of a centaur.[10] This alternative
tradition survived into the Renaissance, and still figures in some modern depictions, such as Steele Savage's
illustrations for Edith Hamilton's Mythology (1942).
Minotaur 140

Tribute price that brought Theseus to Crete

Androgeus, son of Minos, had been killed by the Athenians, who were
jealous of the victories he had won at the Panathenaic festival. Others
say he was killed at Marathon by the Cretan bull, his mother's former
taurine lover, which Aegeus, king of Athens, had commanded him to
slay. The common tradition is that Minos waged war to avenge the
death of his son, and won. Catullus, in his account of the Minotaur's
birth,[11] refers to another version in which Athens was "compelled by
the cruel plague to pay penalties for the killing of Androgeos." Aegeus
must avert the plague caused by his crime by sending "young men at
the same time as the best of unwed girls as a feast" to the Minotaur.
Minos required that seven Athenian youths and seven maidens, drawn
by lots, be sent every ninth year (some accounts say every year[12] ) to
be devoured by the Minotaur.

When the third sacrifice approached, Theseus volunteered to slay the

monster. He promised to his father, Aegeus, that he would put up a
Rhyton in the shape of a bull's head at the Greek
pavilion at Expo '88 white sail on his journey back home if he was successful and would
have the crew put up black sails if he was killed. In Crete, Ariadne, the
daughter of Minos, fell in love with Theseus and helped him navigate the labyrinth, which had a single path to the
center. In most accounts she gave him a ball of thread, allowing him to retrace his path. Theseus killed the Minotaur
with the sword of Aegeus and led the other Athenians back out of the labyrinth. But he forgot to put up the white
sail, so when his father saw the ship he presumed Theseus was dead and threw himself into the sea, thus committing
suicide.[13]

Etruscan view
This essentially Athenian view of the Minotaur as the antagonist of Theseus reflects the literary sources, which are
biased in favour of Athenian perspectives. The Etruscans, who paired Ariadne with Dionysus, never with Theseus,
offered an alternative Etruscan view of the Minotaur, never seen in Greek arts: on an Etruscan red-figure wine-cup of
the early-to-mid fourth century Pasiphaë tenderly dandles an infant Minotaur on her knee.[14]

Interpretations
The Minotaur in the Labyrinth, engraving of a
16th-century gem in the Medici Collection in the
[15]
Palazzo Strozzi, Florence
The contest between Theseus and the Minotaur was frequently
represented in Greek art. A Knossian didrachm exhibits on one side the
labyrinth, on the other the Minotaur surrounded by a semicircle of
small balls, probably intended for stars; one of the monster's names
was Asterion ("star").
The ruins of Minos' palace at Knossos have been found, but the
labyrinth has not. The enormous number of rooms, staircases and
corridors in the palace has led some archaeologists to suggest that the
palace itself was the source of the labyrinth myth, an idea generally
discredited today.[16] Homer, describing the shield of Achilles,
remarked that the labyrinth was Ariadne's ceremonial dancing ground.
Minotaur 141

Some modern mythologists regard the Minotaur as a solar

personification and a Minoan adaptation of the Baal-Moloch of the
Phoenicians. The slaying of the Minotaur by Theseus in that case
indicates the breaking of Athenian tributary relations with Minoan
Crete.
According to A. B. Cook, Minos and Minotaur are only different forms
of the same personage, representing the sun-god of the Cretans, who
depicted the sun as a bull. He and J. G. Frazer both explain Pasiphae's
union with the bull as a sacred ceremony, at which the queen of
Knossos was wedded to a bull-formed god, just as the wife of the
Tyrant in Athens was wedded to Dionysus. E. Pottier, who does not
dispute the historical personality of Minos, in view of the story of
Phalaris, considers it probable that in Crete (where a bull-cult may Theseus fighting the Minotaur by Jean-Etienne
have existed by the side of that of the labrys) victims were tortured by Ramey, marble, 1826, Tuileries Gardens, Paris.

being shut up in the belly of a red-hot brazen bull. The story of Talos,
the Cretan man of brass, who heated himself red-hot and clasped
strangers in his embrace as soon as they landed on the island, is
probably of similar origin.

A historical explanation of the myth refers to the time when Crete was
the main political and cultural potency in the Aegean Sea. As the
fledgling Athens (and probably other continental Greek cities) was
under tribute to Crete, it can be assumed that such tribute included
young men and women for sacrifice. This ceremony was performed by
a priest disguised with a bull head or mask, thus explaining the
imagery of the Minotaur. It may also be that this priest was son to
Minos.
Once continental Greece was free from Crete's dominance, the myth of
the Minotaur worked to distance the forming religious consciousness
of the Hellene poleis from Minoan beliefs.

The Minotaur in Dante's Inferno

The Minotaur, the infamia di Creti, appears briefly in Dante's Inferno, The bronze "Horned God" from Enkomi, Cyprus
Canto 12,11-15, where, picking their way among boulders dislodged
on the slope and preparing to enter into the Seventh Circle,[17] Dante and Virgil, his guide, encounter the beast first
among those damned for their violent natures, the "men of blood", though the creature is not actually named until
line 25.[18] At Virgil's taunting reminder of the "king of Athens", the Minotaur rises enraged and distracted, and
Virgil and Dante pass quickly by to the centaurs, who guard the Flegetonte, "river of blood". This unusual
association of the Minotaur with centaurs, not made in any Classical source, is shown visually in William Blake's
rendering of the Minotaur (illustration) as a kind of taurine centaur himself.

See also
• Apis, the Egyptian god is often depicted as a bull, or bull-headed man.
• Michael Ayrton 20th century British artist whose work included many interpretations of the Minotaur, Daedalus,
mazes and the Labyrinth.
Minotaur 142

• William Blake
• Mesopotamian mythology: Shedu had a bull body and a human head.
• Molech or Ba'al worshipped in the Middle East, and depicted as a man with the head of a bull.
• Sarangay, a creature resembling a bull with a huge muscular body and a jewel attached to its ears
• Ushi-oni Another bull-headed monster; from Japanese folklore.

References
• Minotaur in Greek Myth [19] source Greek texts and art.

References
[1] "Minotaur" (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ Minotaur) at dictionary.reference.com
[2] semibovemque virum semivirumque bovem, according to Ovid, Ars Amatoria 2.24, one of the three lines that his friends would have deleted
from his work, and one of the three that he, selecting independently, would preserve at all cost, in the apocryphal anecdote told by
Albinovanus Pedo. (noted by J. S. Rusten, "Ovid, Empedocles and the Minotaur" The American Journal of Philology 103.3 (Autumn 1982,
pp. 332-333) p. 332.
[3] Labyrinth patterns as painted or inscribed do not have dead ends like a maze; instead, a single path winds to the center, where, with a single
turn, the alternate path leads out again. See Kern, Through the Labyrinth, Prestel, 2000, Chapter 1, and Doob, The Idea of the Labyrinth,
Cornell University Press, 1990, Chapter 2.
[4] Pausanias, Description of Greece 2. 31. 1
[5] The Hesiodic Catalogue of Women, says of Zeus' establishment of Europa in Crete: "...he made her live with Asterion the king of the Cretans.
There she conceived and bore three sons, Minos, Sarpedon and Rhadamanthys."
[6] In Greek mythology, the Cretan Bull was equally the bull that carried away Europa.
[7] Walter Burkert notes the fragment of Euripides' The Cretans (C. Austin's frs. 78-82) as the "authoritative version" for the Hellenes.
[8] See R.F. Willetts, Cretan Cults and Festivals (London, 1962); Pasiphaë's union with the bull has been recognized as a mystical union for over
a century: F. B. Jevons, )"Report on Greek Mythology" Folklore 2.2 (June 1891:220-241) p. 226) notes of Europa and Pasiphaë, "The kernel
of both myths is the union of the moon-spirit (in human shape) with a bull; both myths, then, have to do with a sacred marriage."
[9] Several examples are shown in Kern, Through the Labyrinth, Prestel, 2000.
[10] Examples include illustrations 204, 237, 238, and 371 in Kern. op. cit.
[11] Carmen 64 (http:/ / rudy. negenborn. net/ catullus/ text2/ e64. htm).
[12] The annual period is given by J. E. Zimmerman, Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Harper & Row, 1964, article "Androgeus"; and H. J.
Rose, A Handbook of Greek Mythology, Dutton, 1959, p. 265. Zimmerman cites Virgil, Apollodorus, and Pausanias. The nine-year period
appears in Plutarch and Ovid.
[13] Plutarch, Theseus, 15—19; Diodorus Siculus i. I6, iv. 61; Bibliotheke iii. 1,15
[14] The wine cup is illustrated in Larissa Bonfante and Judith Swaddling, Etruscan Mythology (Series The Legendary Past, British Museum /
University of Texas) 2006, fig.29 p. 44 ("early fourth century") ( on-line illustration (http:/ / bama. ua. edu/ ~ksummers/ cl222/ LECT14/
sld029. htm)).
[15] Paolo Alessandro Maffei, Gemmae Antiche, 1709, Pt. IV, pl. 31; Hermann Kern, Through the Labyrinth, Prestel, 2000, fig. 371, p. 202):
Maffei "erroneously deemed the piece to be from Classical antiquity".
[16] Sir Arthur Evans, the first of many archaeologists who have worked at Knossos, is often given credit for this idea, but he did not himself
believe it; see David McCullough, The Unending Mystery, Pantheon, 2004, p. 34-36. Modern scholarship generally discounts the idea; see
Kern, Through the Labyrinth, Prestel, 2000, p. 42-43, and Doob, The Idea of the Labyrinth, Cornell University Press, p. 1990, p. 25.
[17] The traverse of this circle is a long one, filling Cantos 12 to 17.
[18] Jeremy Tambling, "Monstrous Tyranny, Men of Blood: Dante and "Inferno" XII" The Modern Language Review 98.4 (October
2003:881-897).
[19] http:/ / www. theoi. com/ Ther/ Minotauros. html
Labyrinth 143

Labyrinth
In Greek mythology, the Labyrinth (Greek λαβύρινθος labyrinthos) was an
elaborate structure designed and built by the legendary artificer Daedalus for
King Minos of Crete at Knossos. Its function was to hold the Minotaur, a
creature that was half man and half bull and was eventually killed by the
Athenian hero Theseus. Daedalus had made the Labyrinth so cunningly that he
himself could barely escape it after he built it.[1] Theseus was aided by Ariadne,
who provided him with a skein of thread, literally the "clew", or "clue", so he
could find his way out again.
Classical labyrinth.
In colloquial English labyrinth is generally synonymous with maze, but many
contemporary scholars observe a distinction between the two: maze refers to a
complex branching (multicursal) puzzle with choices of path and direction; while
a single-path (unicursal) labyrinth has only a single, non-branching path, which
leads to the center. A labyrinth in this sense has an unambiguous route to the
center and back and is not designed to be difficult to navigate.[2]

Although early Cretan coins occasionally exhibit multicursal patterns,[3] the

unicursal seven-course "Classical" design became associated with the Labyrinth
on coins as early as 430 BC,[4] and became widely used to represent the
Labyrinth – even though both logic and literary descriptions make it clear that
the Minotaur was trapped in a complex branching maze.[5] Even as the designs
became more elaborate, visual depictions of the Labyrinth from Roman times
until the Renaissance are almost invariably unicursal. Branching mazes were
reintroduced only when garden mazes became popular in the Renaissance. Atlantic Bronze Age labyrinth. Meis,
Galicia.
Labyrinths appeared as designs on pottery or basketry, as body art, and etched on
walls of caves or churches. The Romans built many primarily decorative
labyrinth designs on walls and floors in tile or mosaic. Many labyrinths set in
floors or on the ground are large enough that the path to the center and back can
be walked. They have historically been used both in group ritual and for private
meditation.

Ancient labyrinths
Roman mosaic picturing Theseus and
Pliny's Natural History mentions four ancient labyrinths: the Cretan labyrinth, an the Minotaur. Rhaetia, Switzerland.
Egyptian labyrinth, a Lemnian labyrinth and an Italian labyrinth.
Labyrinth is a word of pre-Greek (Minoan) origin absorbed by Classical Greek and is perhaps related to the Lydian
labrys ("double-edged axe", a symbol of royal power, which fits with the theory that the labyrinth was originally the
royal Minoan palace on Crete and meant "palace of the double-axe"), with -inthos meaning "place" (as in Corinth).
A lot of these symbols were found in the Minoan palace and they usually accompanied female goddesses. It was
probably the symbol of the arche (Mater-arche:matriarchy). This theory is confirmed by the worship of Zeus
Labraundos (Ζεύς Λαβρυάνδις) in Caria of Anatolia, where
Labyrinth 144

also existed a sacred site named Labraunda. Zeus is depicted holding a

double-edged axe.[6] In classical Greece the priests at Delphi were called
Labryades (Λαβρυάδες) - the men of the double axe.[7] The complex palace of
Knossos in Crete is usually implicated, though the actual dancing-ground,
depicted in frescoed patterns at Knossos, has not been found. Something was
being shown to visitors as a labyrinth at Knossos in the 1st century AD
(Philostratos, De vita Apollonii Tyanei iv.34).[8] A palace of similar complicated
structure was discovered at Beycesultan in Anatolia, on the headwaters of
Meander river.[9]
Medieval labyrinth.
The word labyrinthos (Mycenaean daburinthos[10] ) may possibly show the same
equivocation between initial d- and l- as is found in the variation of the early
Hittite royal name Tabarna / Labarna (where written t- may represent phonetic
d-). If so, the equivocation would be similar to the Vedic sandhi representation of
intervocalic retroflex -ḍ- as -ḷ-. It is possible that daburinthos may be cognate
with the name of Mt. Tābôr,but this is not generally accepted.

Greek mythology did not recall, however, that in Crete there was a Lady or
mistress who presided over the Labyrinth, although the goddess of mysteries of
Arcadian cults was called Despoine (miss)[11] . A tablet inscribed in Linear B Walking the famous labyrinth on
found at Knossos records a gift "to all the gods honey; to the mistress of the floor of Chartres Cathedral.

labyrinth honey." All the gods together receive as much honey as the Mistress of
the Labyrinth alone. The Mycenean Greek word is potnia. "She must have been a
Great Goddess," Kerényi observes.[12] It is possible that the Cretan labyrinth and
the Lady were connected with a cult which was transmitted later to the
Eleusinian mysteries.[13] [14]

The labyrinth is the referent in the familiar Greek patterns of the endlessly
running meander, to give the "Greek key" its common modern name. In the 3rd
century BC, coins from Knossos were still struck with the labyrinth symbol. The
predominant labyrinth form during this period is the simple seven-circuit style
known as the classical labyrinth.
Chakravyuha, a threefold seed
The term labyrinth came to be applied to any unicursal maze, whether of a pattern with a spiral at the centre, one
of the troop formations employed at
particular circular shape (illustration) or rendered as square. At the center, a
the battle of Kurukshetra, as
decisive turn brought one out again. In the Socratic dialogue that Plato produced recounted in the Mahabharata.
as Euthydemus, Socrates describes the labyrinthine line of a logical argument:
"Then it seemed like falling into a labyrinth: we thought we were at the
finish, but our way bent round and we found ourselves as it were back at
the beginning, and just as far from that which we were seeking at first." ...
Thus the present-day notion of a labyrinth as a place where one can lose
[his] way must be set aside. It is a confusing path, hard to follow without a
thread, but, provided [the traverser] is not devoured at the midpoint, it
leads surely, despite twists and turns, back to the beginning.[15] I'itoi, the "Man in the Maze", a
popular design in Native American
basketry.
Labyrinth 145

Cretan labyrinth at Knossos

Wrapped in legend, but also clearly manifested in the archaeological record, is
the huge Bronze Age labyrinth at Knossos. The Cretan labyrinth had been a
dancing-ground and was made for Ariadne rather than for Minos. This was
mentioned by Homer in the Iliad xviii.590–593, where, in the pattern that
Hephaestus inscribed on Achilles' shield, one incident pictured was a
Labyrinth among rock drawings in
dancing-ground "like the one that Daedalus designed in the spacious town of Valcamonica, Italy
Knossos for Ariadne of the lovely locks." Even the labyrinth dance was depicted
on the shield, where "youths and marriageable maidens were dancing on it with their hands on one another's wrists...
circling as smoothly on their accomplished feet as the wheel of a potter...and there they ran in lines to meet each
other."

Herodotus' Egyptian labyrinth

Even more generally, labyrinth might be applied to any extremely complicated maze-like structure. Herodotus, in
Book II of his Histories, describes as a "labyrinth" a building complex in Egypt, "near the place called the City of
Crocodiles," that he considered to surpass the pyramids in its astonishing ambition:
It has twelve covered courts — six in a row facing north, six south — the gates of the one range exactly
fronting the gates of the other. Inside, the building is of two storeys and contains three thousand rooms, of
which half are underground, and the other half directly above them. I was taken through the rooms in the upper
storey, so what I shall say of them is from my own observation, but the underground ones I can speak of only
from report, because the Egyptians in charge refused to let me see them, as they contain the tombs of the kings
who built the labyrinth, and also the tombs of the sacred crocodiles. The upper rooms, on the contrary, I did
actually see, and it is hard to believe that they are the work of men; the baffling and intricate passages from
room to room and from court to court were an endless wonder to me, as we passed from a courtyard into
rooms, from rooms into galleries, from galleries into more rooms and thence into yet more courtyards. The
roof of every chamber, courtyard, and gallery is, like the walls, of stone. The walls are covered with carved
figures, and each court is exquisitely built of white marble and surrounded by a colonnade.[16]

During the 19th century, the remains of the Labyrinth were discovered "11½ miles from the pyramid of Hawara, in
the province of Faioum."[17] The Labyrinth was likely modified and added upon "at various times. The names of
more than one king have been found there, the oldest" name being that of Amenemhat III.[17] "It is unnecessary to
imagine more than that it was monumental, and a monument of more than one king of Egypt."[17]
In 1898, the Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities described the structure as "the largest of all the temples of
Egypt, the so-called Labyrinth, of which, however, only the foundation stones have been preserved."[18]
Herodotus' description of the Egyptian Labyrinth, in Book II of The Histories, inspired some central scenes in
Bolesław Prus' 1895 historical novel, Pharaoh.
Labyrinth 146

Pliny's Lemnian labyrinth

Pliny the Elder's Natural History (36.90) lists the legendary Smilis, reputed to be a contemporary of Daedalus,
together with the historical mid-sixth-century BC architects and sculptors Rhoikos and Theodoros as two of the
makers of the Lemnian labyrinth, which Andrew Stewart[19] regards as "evidently a misunderstanding of the Samian
temple's location en limnais ['in the marsh']."

Pliny's Italian labyrinth

According to Pliny, the tomb of the great Etruscan general Lars Porsena contained an underground maze. Pliny's
description of the exposed portion of the tomb is intractable; Pliny, it seems clear, had not observed this structure
himself, but is quoting the historian and Roman antiquarian Varro.

Ancient labyrinths outside Europe

At about the same time as the appearance of the Greek labyrinth, a
topologically identical pattern appeared in Native American culture,
the Tohono O'odham labyrinth which features I'itoi, the "Man in the
Maze". The Tonoho O'odham pattern has two distinct differences from
the Greek: it is radial in design, and the entrance is at the top, where
traditional Greek labyrinths have the entrance at the bottom (see
below).

A prehistoric petroglyph on a riverbank in Goa shows the same pattern

and has been dated to circa 2500 BC. Other examples have been found Carving showing the warrior Abhimanyu entering
among cave art in northern India and on a dolmen shrine in the Nilgiri the chakravyuha – Hoysaleswara temple,
Mountains, but are difficult to date accurately. Early labyrinths in India Halebidu, India

all follow the Classical pattern; some have been described as plans of
forts or cities.[20]

Labyrinths appear in Indian manuscripts and Tantric texts from the 17th century onward. They are often called
"Chakravyuha" in reference to an impregnable battle formation described in the ancient Mahabharata epic. Lanka,
the capital city of mythic Rāvana, is described as a labyrinth in the 1910 translation of Al-Beruni's India (c.1030CE)
p. 306 (with a diagram on the following page).[21]
By the White Sea, notably on the Solovetsky Islands, there have been preserved more than 30 stone labyrinths. The
most remarkable monument is the Stone labyrinths of Bolshoi Zayatsky Island - a group of 13–14 stone labyrinths
on 0.4 km2 area of one small island. It is considered that these labyrinths are 2,000–3,000 years old.[22]

Labyrinth as pattern
In antiquity, the less complicated labyrinth pattern familiar from medieval examples was already developed. In
Roman floor mosaics, the simple classical labyrinth is framed in the meander border pattern, squared off as the
medium requires, but still recognisable. Often an image of the Minotaur appears in the centre of these mosaic
labyrinths. Roman meander patterns gradually developed in complexity towards the fourfold shape that is now
familiarly known as the medieval form. The labyrinth retains its connection with death and a triumphant return: at
Hadrumentum in North Africa (now Sousse), a Roman family tomb has a fourfold labyrinth mosaic floor with a
dying minotaur in the center and a mosaic inscription: HICINCLUSUS.VITAMPERDIT "Enclosed here, he loses life"
(Kerenyi, fig.31).
Labyrinth 147

Earliest recovered Minotaur in Labyrinth—a Roman Sketch by Wall maze in Lucca

labyrinth, incised mosaic at Conímbriga, Portugal. Villard de Cathedral, Italy (probably
on a clay tablet Honnecourt medieval).
from Pylos. (c.1230)

Illustration of Jericho Basilica of St-Quentin, Aisne, Cathedral of Amiens, France Stone labyrinth on Blå Jungfrun
in a Farhi Bible (14th France (Blue Virgin) island, Sweden
century)

Seven-ring classical labyrinth of Small turf maze near Dalby, Turf maze at Wing in Rutland, Portrait of a
unknown age in Rocky Valley North Yorkshire, UK. UK. man, by
near Tintagel, Cornwall, UK. Bartolomeo
Veneto, Italy,
early 16th
century

Minotaur at center of Edinburgh labyrinth, George 9/11 memorial labyrinth, Boston

labyrinth, on a 16th-century Square Gardens, Edinburgh, College, USA.
gem. Scotland, UK
Labyrinth 148

Medieval labyrinths and turf mazes

The full flowering of the medieval labyrinth design came about during
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries with the grand pavement
labyrinths of the gothic cathedrals, notably Chartres, Reims and
Amiens in northern France and the Duomo di Siena in Tuscany. These
labyrinths may have originated as symbolic allusion to the Holy City;
and some modern thinkers have theorized that prayers and devotions
may have accompanied the perambulation of their intricate paths.[23]
However, no contemporary evidence supports the idea that labyrinths
had such a purpose for early Christians.[24] It is this version of the Labyrinth in the Trappist Abbey of Our Lady of
Saint-Remy, Wallonia, Belgium.
design that is thought to be the inspiration for the many turf mazes in
the UK, such as survive at Wing, Hilton, Alkborough, and Saffron
Walden.

Over the same period, some 500 or more non-ecclesiastical labyrinths were constructed in Scandinavia. These
labyrinths, generally in coastal areas, are marked out with stones, most often in the simple classical form. They often
have names which translate as "Troy Town". They are thought to have been constructed by fishing communities:
trapping malevolent trolls or winds in the labyrinth's coils might ensure a safe fishing expedition. There are also
stone labyrinths on the Isles of Scilly, although none is known to date back as far as the earliest Scandinavian ones.
There are examples of labyrinths in many disparate cultures. The symbol has appeared in various forms and media
(petroglyphs, classic-form, medieval-form, pavement, turf, and basketry) at some time throughout most parts of the
world, from Native North and South America to Australia, Java, India, and Nepal.

Modern labyrinths
In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in the labyrinth
symbol, which has inspired a revival in labyrinth building.
Countless computer games depict mazes and labyrinths.
On bobsled, luge, and skeleton tracks, a labyrinth is where there are
three to four curves in succession without a straight line in between
any of the turns.
In modern imagery, the labyrinth of Daedalus is often represented by a Labyrinth at St. Lambertus,
Mingolsheim, Germany.
multicursal maze, in which one may become lost.
The Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges was entranced with the idea of
the labyrinth, and used it extensively in his short stories (such as "The
House of Asterion" in The Aleph). His use of it has inspired other
authors' works (e.g. Umberto Eco's The Name of the Rose, Mark Z.
Danielewski's House of Leaves). Additionally, Roger Zelazny's fantasy
series, The Chronicles of Amber, features a labyrinth, called "the
Pattern", which grants those who walk it the power to move between
parallel worlds. The avant-garde multi-screen film, In the Labyrinth,
presents a search for meaning in a symbolic modern labyrinth. In Rick
Riordan's series Percy Jackson & the Olympians, the events of the
Labyrinth on floor of Grace Cathedral, San
fourth novel The Battle of the Labyrinth predominantly take place
Francisco.
Labyrinth 149

within the labyrinth of Daedalus, which has followed the heart of the West to settle beneath the United States.
Australian author Sara Douglass incorporated some labyrinthine ideas in her series The Troy Game, in which the
Labyrinth on Crete is one of several in the ancient world, created with the cities as a source of magical power.
The labyrinth is also treated in contemporary fine arts. Examples include Piet Mondrian's Dam and Ocean (1915),
Joan Miró's Labyrinth (1923), Pablo Picasso's Minotauromachia (1935), M. C. Escher's Relativity (1953),
Friedensreich Hundertwasser's Labyrinth (1957), Jean Dubuffet's Logological Cabinet (1970), Richard Long's
Connemara sculpture (1971), Joe Tilson's Earth Maze (1975), Richard Fleischner's Chain Link Maze (1978), István
Orosz's Atlantis Anamorphosis (2000), Dmitry Rakov's Labyrinth (2003), and Labyrinthine projection by
contemporary American artist Mo Morales (2000).

Cultural meanings
Prehistoric labyrinths are believed to have served as traps for malevolent spirits or as defined paths for ritual dances.
In medieval times, the labyrinth symbolized a hard path to God with a clearly defined center (God) and one entrance
(birth).
Labyrinths can be thought of as symbolic forms of pilgrimage; people can walk the path, ascending toward salvation
or enlightenment. Many people could not afford to travel to holy sites and lands, so labyrinths and prayer substituted
for such travel. Later, the religious significance of labyrinths faded, and they served primarily for entertainment,
though recently their spiritual aspect has seen a resurgence.
Many newly made labyrinths exist today, in churches and parks. Labyrinths are used by modern mystics to help
achieve a contemplative state. Walking among the turnings, one loses track of direction and of the outside world, and
thus quiets the mind. The Labyrinth Society[25] provides a locator for modern labyrinths all over the world.

See also
• Caerdroia
• Celtic maze
• Julian's Bower
• Maze
• Mizmaze
• Prayer Labyrinth
• Stone labyrinths of Bolshoi Zayatsky Island
• Troy Town
• Turf maze

References
• Hermann Kern, Through the Labyrinth, ed. Robert Ferré and Jeff Saward, Prestel, 2000, ISBN 3-7913-2144-7.
(This is an English translation of Kern's original German monograph Labyrinthe published by Prestel in 1982.)
• Penelope Reed Doob, The Idea of the Labyrinth: from Classical Antiquity through the Middle Ages, Cornell
University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-80142-393-7.
• Herodotus, The Histories, Newly translated and with an introduction by Aubrey de Sélincourt, Harmondsworth,
England, Penguin Books, 1965.
• Karl Kereny, Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life, Princeton University Press, 1976.
• Helmut Jaskolski, The Labyrinth: Symbol of Fear, Rebirth and Liberation, Shambala, 1997.
• Adrian Fisher & Georg Gerster, The Art of the Maze, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1990. ISBN 0-297-83027-9.
• Jeff Saward, Labyrinths and Mazes, Gaia Books Ltd, 2003, ISBN 1-85675-183-X.
• Jeff Saward, Magical Paths, Mitchell Beazley, 2002, ISBN 1-84000-573-4.
Labyrinth 150

• W.H. Matthews, Mazes and Labyrinths: Their History and Development [26], Longmans, Green & Co., 1922.
Includes bibliography [66]. Dover Publications reprint, 1970, ISBN 0-486-22614-X.
• Andrew Stewart, One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works.
• Henning Eichberg, 2005: "Racing in the labyrinth? About some inner contradictions of running." [27] In: Athletics,
Society & Identity. Imeros, Journal for Culture and Technology, 5:1. Athen: Foundation of the Hellenic World,
169-192.
• Edward Hays, The Lenten Labyrinth: Daily Reflections for the Journey of Lent, Forest of Peace Publishing, 1994.

External links
• Labyrinthos.net [28] maintained by Jeff Saward
• The Labyrinth Society [71]
• Sunysb.edu [29], Through Mazes to Mathematics, Exposition by Tony Phillips
• Astrolog.org [75], Maze classification, Extensive classification of labyrinths and algorithms to solve them.
• Irrgartenwelt.de [30], Lars O. Heintel's collection of handdrawn labyrinths and mazes
• Begehbare-labyrinthe.de [31] Website (German) with diagrams and photos of virtually all the public labyrinths in
Germany.
• MyMaze.de [32], German website (German) and MyMaze.de [33] (English) with descriptions, animations, links,
and especially photos of (mostly European) labyrinths.
• IndigoGroup.co.uk [34], British turf labyrinths by Marilyn Clark. Photos and descriptions of the surviving
historical turf mazes in Britain.
• Gwydir.Demon.co.uk [35], Jo Edkins's Maze Page, an early website providing a clear overview of the territory and
suggestions for further study.
• Gottesformel.ch [36], "Die Kretische Labyrinth-Höhle" by Thomas M. Waldmann, rev. 2009 (German) (English)
(French) (Greek). Description of a labyrinthine artificial cave system near Gortyn, Crete, widely considered the
original labyrinth on Crete. (Presentation somewhat amateurish – including <blink> tags – but many detailed
photos.)
• SpiralZoom.com [37] an educational website about the science of pattern formation, spirals in nature, and spirals in
the mythic imagination & labyrinths.
• Sanu.ac.rs [38], "The Geometry of History", Tessa Morrison, University of Newcastle, Australia. An attempt to
extend Phillips's topological classification to more general unicursal labyrinths.

References
[1] Penelope Reed Doob, The Idea of the Labyrinth, p 36.
[2] Kern, Through the Labyrinth, p. 23. The usage restricting maze to patterns that involve choices of path is mentioned by Matthews (p. 2-3) as
early as 1922, though he argues against it.
[3] Kern, Through the Labyrinth, 2000, item 43, p. 53.
[4] Kern, Through the Labyrinth, 2000, item 50, p. 54.
[5] Penelope Reed Doob, The Idea of the Labyrinth, pp. 40–41.
[6] Schachermeyer."Die Minoische Kultur des alten Kreta".
[7] R.Wunderlich."The secret of Creta".Efstathiadis group.Athens 1987.p 233
[8] Kerenyi, Dionysos, p. 101, n. 171.
[9] F.Schachermeyer."Die Minoische Kultur of Ancient Kreta"
[10] da-pu2-ri-to-yo po-ti-ni-ja (KN Gg 702), daburinthoyo potnia meaning "mistress or lady of the Labyrinth".
[11] Pausanias:Description of Greece VII Arcadia chapter 25.7
[12] Kerenyi, Dionysos, p. 91.
[13] R. Wunderlich."The secret of Creta." Efstathiadis group. Athens 1987 p.143
[14] Karl Kerenyi
[15] Kerenyi, Dionysos, p. 92f.
[16] Herodotus, The Histories, translated by Aubrey de Sélincourt, Book II, pp. 160–61.
Labyrinth 151

[17] Leonhard Schmitz, George Eden Marindin, Labyrinthus entry, in William Smith et al. (editors), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities,
published 1890.
[18] Peck, Harry Thurston (chief editor). "Hieratic Papyrus. (Twentieth Dynasty.)" in the Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, published
1898, page 29.
[19] Andrew Stewart, One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works, "Smilis."
[20] Labyrinthos.net (http:/ / www. labyrinthos. net/ indialabs. html)
[21] [[Abu Rayhan Biruni|Al-Beruni (http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ cu/ lweb/ digital/ collections/ cul/ texts/ ldpd_5949073_001/ pages/
ldpd_5949073_001_00000362. html)], India, (c.1030 CE), Edward C. Sachau (translator), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co, London, 1910]
Online version from Columbia University Libraries (accessed 5 December 2009)
[22] Stone labyrinths of Bolshoi Zayatsky Island (http:/ / www. wondermondo. com/ Countries/ E/ RUS/ Arkhangelsk/ Bolshoi_Zayatsky. htm)
Wondermondo.com (accessed 5 December 2009)
[23] Labyrinth in Catholic Encyclopedia (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 08728b. htm)
[24] Russell, W. M. S.; Claire Russell (1991). "English Turf Mazes, Troy, and the Labyrinth" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 1260358?seq=2).
Folklore (Taylor and Francis) 102 (1): 77–88. . Retrieved 2009-03-26.
[25] Labyrinth.Society.org (http:/ / wwll. veriditas. labyrinthsociety. org/ )
[26] http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ etc/ ml/ index. htm
[27] http:/ / www. cisc. sdu. dk/ Publikationer/ qHE2004_13. pdf
[28] http:/ / www. labyrinthos. net
[29] http:/ / www. math. sunysb. edu/ ~tony/ mazes/
[30] http:/ / www. irrgartenwelt. de
[31] http:/ / www. begehbare-labyrinthe. de/
[32] http:/ / www. mymaze. de/
[33] http:/ / www. mymaze. de/ home_e. htm
[34] http:/ / www. indigogroup. co. uk/ edge/ Mazes. htm
[35] http:/ / gwydir. demon. co. uk/ jo/ maze/ index. htm
[36] http:/ / www. gottesformel. ch/ Labyrinth/ Labyrinth-Hoehle. html
[37] http:/ / SpiralZoom. com
[38] http:/ / www. mi. sanu. ac. rs/ vismath/ morrison
Morse code 152

Morse code
Morse code is a method of transmitting textual
information as a series of on-off tones, lights, or
clicks that can be directly understood by a
skilled listener or observer without special
equipment. The International Morse Code
encodes the Roman alphabet, the Arabic
numerals and a small set of punctuation and
procedural signals as standardized sequences of
short and long "dots" and "dashes", or "dits"
and "dahs". Because many non-English natural
languages use more than the 26 Roman letters,
extensions to the Morse alphabet exist for those
languages.

Morse code speed is specified in words per

minute (WPM) and associated with an "element
time" equal to 1.2 seconds divided by the speed
in WPM. A dot consists of an "on" element
followed by an "off" element, and a dash is
three "on" elements and one "off" element.
Each character is a sequence of dots and
dashes, with the shorter sequences assigned to
the more frequently used letters in English –
the letter 'E' represented by a single dot, and the Chart of the Morse code letters and numerals
letter 'T' by a single dash. A speed of 12 WPM
is therefore associated with an element time of 100 milliseconds, so each dot is 100 ms long and each dash is 300 ms
long, each followed by 100 ms of silence.

A related but different code was originally created for Samuel F. B. Morse's electric telegraph in the early 1840s. In
the 1890s it began to be extensively used for early radio communication before it was possible to transmit voice. In
the early part of the twentieth century, most high-speed international communication used Morse code on telegraph
lines, undersea cables and radio circuits. However, on-off keying, variable character lengths, the limited character set
and the lack of forward error correction are inefficient and poorly suited to computer reception, so
machine-to-machine communication generally uses frequency shift keying (FSK) or phase shift keying (PSK) and
encodes text in the Baudot, ASCII and Unicode character sets.
Morse code is most popular among amateur radio operators although it is no longer required for licensing in most
countries, including the US. Pilots and air traffic controllers are usually familiar with Morse code and require a basic
understanding. Aeronautical navigational aids, such as VORs and NDBs, constantly identify in Morse code.
Because it can be read by humans without a decoding device, Morse is sometimes a useful alternative to synthesized
speech for sending automated digital data to skilled listeners on voice channels. Many amateur radio repeaters, for
example, identify with Morse even though they are used for voice communications.
For emergency signals, Morse code can be sent by way of improvised sources that can be easily "keyed" on and off,
making it one of the simplest and most versatile methods of telecommunication.
Morse code 153

Development and history

Beginning in 1836, Samuel F. B. Morse and Alfred
Vail developed an electric telegraph, which sent pulses
of electrical current to control an electromagnet that
was located at the receiving end of the telegraph wire.
The technology available at the time made it impossible
to print characters in a readable form, so the inventors
had to devise an alternate means of communication. In
1837, William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone began
operating electric telegraphs in England that also had
electromagnets in the receivers; however, their systems
used needle pointers that rotated to indicate the
alphabetic characters being sent.
A typical "straight key." This U.S. model, known as the J-38, was
In contrast, Morse's and Vail's initial telegraph, which manufactured in huge quantities during World War II, and remains in
first went into operation in 1844, made indentations on widespread use today. In a straight key, the signal is "on" when the
knob is pressed, and "off" when it is released. Length and timing of
a paper tape when an electrical current was transmitted.
the dots and dashes are entirely controlled by the operator.
Morse's original telegraph receiver used a mechanical
clockwork to move a paper tape. When an electrical
current was received, an electromagnet engaged an armature that pushed a stylus onto the moving paper tape,
making an indentation on the tape. When the current was interrupted, the electromagnet retracted the stylus, and that
portion of the moving tape remained unmarked.
The Morse code was developed so that operators could translate the indentations marked on the paper tape into text
messages. In his earliest code, Morse had planned to only transmit numerals, and use a dictionary to look up each
word according to the number which had been sent. However, the code was soon expanded by Alfred Vail to include
letters and special characters, so it could be used more generally. The shorter marks were called "dots", and the
longer ones "dashes", and the letters most commonly used in the English language were assigned the shortest
sequences.
In the original Morse telegraphs, the receiver's armature made a clicking noise as it moved into and out of position to
mark the tape. Operators soon learned to translate the clicks directly into dots and dashes, making it unnecessary to
use the paper tape. When Morse code was adapted to radio, the dots and dashes were sent as short and long pulses. It
was later found that people become more proficient at receiving Morse code when it is taught as a language that is
heard, instead of one read from a page.[1] To reflect the sound of Morse code, practitioners began to vocalise a dot as
"dit", and a dash as "dah". Dots which are not the final element of a character became vocalised as "di"; the letter "C"
for instance is vocalised as "dah-di-dah-dit".[2] [3]
Morse code was an integral part of international aviation. Commercial and military pilots were required to be
familiar with it, both for use with early communications systems and identification of navigational beacons which
transmitted continuous two- or three-letter identifiers in Morse code. Aeronautical charts show the identifier of each
navaid next to its location on the map.
Morse code was also used as an international standard for maritime communication until 1999, when it was replaced
by the Global Maritime Distress Safety System. When the French navy ceased using Morse code in 1997, the final
message transmitted was "Calling all. This is our last cry before our eternal silence." See also: 500 kHz
Morse code 154

Modern International Morse Code

Morse code has been in use for more than 160 years — longer than any other electronic encoding system. What is
called Morse code today is actually somewhat different from what was originally developed by Vail and Morse. The
Modern International Morse code, or continental code, was created by Friedrich Clemens Gerke in 1848 and initially
used for telegraphy between Hamburg and Cuxhaven in Germany. Gerke changed nearly half of the alphabet and all
of the figures resulting in substantially the modern form of the code. After some minor changes, in 1865 it was
standardised at the International Telegraphy congress in Paris (1865), and later made the norm by the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) as International Morse code. Morse's original code specification, largely limited to
use in the United States, became known as American Morse code or "railroad code." American Morse is now very
rarely used except in historical re-enactments.

Aviation
In aviation, instrument pilots use radio navigation aids. To ensure the stations they are using are serviceable they all
emit a short set of identification letters (usually a two- to five-letter version of the station name) in Morse code.
Station identification letters are shown on air navigation charts. For example the Manchester VOR based at
Manchester Airport is cut down to MCT, and Morse code MCT is broadcast on the radio frequency. If a station is
unserviceable then it broadcasts TST (for TEST) and tells pilots that the station is unreliable. Like many morse code
abbreviations, TST has a particularly noticeable sound—dah di-di-dit dah.

Amateur radio
International Morse code today is most popular among
amateur radio operators, where it is used as the pattern
to key a transmitter on and off in the radio
communications mode commonly referred to as
"continuous wave" or "CW". The original amateur
radio operators used Morse code exclusively, as
voice-capable radio transmitters did not become
commonly available until around 1920. Until 2003 the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
mandated Morse code proficiency as part of the
amateur radio licensing procedure worldwide.
However, the World Radiocommunication Conference Vibroplex semiautomatic key (also called a "bug"). The paddle,
of 2003 (WRC-03) made the Morse code requirement when pressed to the right by the thumb, generates a series of dits, the
length and timing of which are controlled by a sliding weight toward
for amateur radio licensing optional.[4] Many countries
the rear of the unit. When pressed to the left by the knuckle of the
subsequently removed the Morse requirement from index finger, the paddle generates a dah, the length of which is
their licence requirements.[5] controlled by the operator. Multiple dahs require multiple presses.
Left-handed operators use a key built as a mirror image of this one.
Until 1991, a demonstration of the ability to send and
receive Morse code at 5 words per minute (WPM) was required to receive an amateur radio license for use in the
United States from the Federal Communications Commission. Demonstration of this ability was still required for the
privilege to use the HF bands. Until 2000, proficiency at the 20 WPM level was required to receive the highest level
of amateur license (Extra Class); effective April 15, 2000, the FCC reduced the Extra Class requirement to 5
WPM.[6] Finally, effective February 23, 2007, the FCC eliminated the Morse code proficiency requirements for all
amateur licenses.

While voice and data transmissions are limited to specific amateur radio bands under U.S. rules, CW is permitted on
all amateur bands—LF, MF, HF, UHF, and VHF, with one notable exception being the 60 meter band in the US. In
Morse code 155

some countries, certain portions of the amateur radio bands are reserved for transmission of Morse code signals only.
Because Morse transmissions employ an on-off keyed radio signal, it requires less complex transmission equipment
than other forms of radio communication. Morse code also requires less signal bandwidth than voice communication,
typically 100–150 Hz, compared to the roughly 2400 Hz used by single-sideband voice, although at a lower data
rate. Morse code is received as a high-pitched audio tone, so transmissions are easier to copy than voice through the
noise on congested frequencies, and it can be used in very high noise / low signal environments. The fact that the
transmitted energy is concentrated into a very limited bandwidth makes it possible to use narrow receiver filters,
which suppress or eliminate interference on nearby frequencies. The narrow signal bandwidth also takes advantage
of the natural aural selectivity of the human brain, further enhancing weak signal readability. This efficiency makes
CW extremely useful for DX (distance) transmissions, as well as for low-power transmissions (commonly called
"QRP operation", from the Q-code for "reduce power"). There are several amateur clubs that require solid high speed
copy, the highest of these has a standard of 60 WPM. The American Radio Relay League offers a code proficiency
certification program that starts at 10 WPM.
The relatively limited speed at which Morse code can be sent led to the development of an extensive number of
abbreviations to speed communication. These include prosigns and Q codes, plus a restricted standardized format for
typical messages. For example, CQ is broadcast to be interpreted as "seek you" (I'd like to converse with anyone who
can hear my signal). OM (old man), YL (young lady) and XYL ("ex YL" - wife) are common pronouns. YL or OM
is used by an operator when referring to the other operator, XYL or OM is used by an operator when referring to his
or her spouse.
This use of abbreviations for common terms permits conversation even when the operators speak different
languages.
Although the traditional telegraph key (straight key) is still used by many amateurs, the use of mechanical
semi-automatic keyers (known as "bugs") and of fully-automatic electronic keyers is prevalent today. Computer
software is also frequently employed to produce and decode Morse code radio signals.

Speed records
Operators skilled in Morse code can often understand ("copy") code in
their heads at rates in excess of 40 WPM. International contests in code
copying are still occasionally held. In July 1939 at a contest in
Asheville, NC in the United States Ted R. McElroy set a still-standing
record for Morse copying, 75.2 WPM.[7] In his online book on high
speed sending, William Pierpont N0HFF notes some operators may
have passed 100 WPM. By this time they are "hearing" phrases and
sentences rather than words. The fastest speed ever sent by a straight
A commercially manufactured iambic paddle
key was achieved in 1942 by Harry Turner W9YZE (d. 1992) who
used in conjunction with an electronic keyer to
reached 35 WPM in a demonstration at a U.S. Army base. generate high-speed Morse code, the timing of
which is controlled by the electronic keyer.
Manipulation of dual-lever paddles is similar to
the Vibroplex, but pressing the right paddle
generates a series of dahs, and squeezing the
paddles produces dit-dah-dit-dah sequence. The
actions are reversed for left-handed operators.
Morse code 156

Other uses
As of 2009 commercial radiotelegraph licenses are still being issued in
the United States by the Federal Communications Commission.
Designed for shipboard and coast station operators, they are awarded to
applicants who pass written examinations on advanced radio theory
and show 20 WPM code proficiency [this requirement is waived for
"old" (20 WPM) Amateur Extra Class licensees]. However, since 1999
the use of satellite and very high frequency maritime communications
systems (GMDSS) have essentially made them obsolete.

Radio navigation aids such as VORs and NDBs for aeronautical use
broadcast identifying information in the form of Morse Code, though
many VOR stations now also provide voice identification.[8]
Military ships, including those of the U.S. Navy, have long used signal
lamps to exchange messages in Morse code. Modern use continues, in
part, as a way to communicate while maintaining radio silence.
A U.S. Navy seaman sends Morse code signals in
2005.

Applications for the general public

An important application is signalling for help through SOS,
"· · · — — — · · ·". This can be sent many ways: keying a radio on and off, Representation of SOS-Morse code.
flashing a mirror, toggling a flashlight and similar methods.

Morse code as an assistive technology

Morse code has been employed as an assistive technology, helping people with a variety of disabilities to
communicate. Morse can be sent by persons with severe motion disabilities, as long as they have some minimal
motor control. In some cases this means alternately blowing into and sucking on a plastic tube ("puff and sip"
interface). People with severe motion disabilities in addition to sensory disabilities (e.g. people who are also deaf or
blind) can receive Morse through a skin buzzer.
In one case reported in the radio amateur magazine QST, an old shipboard radio operator who had a stroke and lost
the ability to speak or write was able to communicate with his physician (a radio amateur) by blinking his eyes in
Morse. Another example occurred in 1966 when prisoner of war Jeremiah Denton, brought on television by his
North Vietnamese captors, Morse-blinked the word TORTURE.
Morse code 157

Representation and timing

International Morse code is composed of five elements:
1. short mark, dot or 'dit' (·) — one unit long
2. longer mark, dash or 'dah' (–) — three units long
3. inter-element gap between the dots and dashes within a character — one unit long
4. short gap (between letters) — three units long
5. medium gap (between words) — seven units long[9]
Morse code can be transmitted in a number of ways: originally as electrical pulses along a telegraph wire, but also as
an audio tone, a radio signal with short and long tones, or as a mechanical or visual signal (e.g. a flashing light) using
devices like an Aldis lamp or a heliograph.
Morse code is transmitted using just two states (on and off) so it was an early form of a digital code. Strictly
speaking it is not binary, as there are five fundamental elements (see quinary). However, this does not mean Morse
code cannot be represented as a binary code. In an abstract sense, this is the function that telegraph operators perform
when transmitting messages. Working from the above definitions and further defining a 'unit' as a bit, we can
visualize any Morse code sequence as a combination of the following five elements:
1. short mark, dot or 'dit' (·) — 1
2. longer mark, dash or 'dah' (–) — 111
3. intra-character gap (between the dots and dashes within a character) — 0
4. short gap (between letters) — 000
5. medium gap (between words) — 0000000
Note that this method works only under the assumption that dits and dahs are always separated by gaps, and that
gaps are always separated by dits and dahs.
Morse messages are generally transmitted by a hand-operated device such as a telegraph key, so there are variations
introduced by the skill of the sender and receiver — more experienced operators can send and receive at faster
speeds. In addition, individual operators differ slightly, for example using slightly longer or shorter dashes or gaps,
perhaps only for particular characters. This is called their "fist", and receivers can recognize specific individuals by it
alone.
The speed of Morse code is measured in wpm or cpm, according to the Paris standard which defines the speed of
Morse transmission as the timing needed to send the word "Paris" a given number of times per minute. The word
Paris is used because it is representative for a typical text in the English language, and the choice was influenced by
the fact that the decision was taken at the International Telegraph Conference in Paris 1865.
Today the length of the reference word is 50 units (including 7 units of word spacing). At the Paris Conference the
standard word spacing was specified to be only 5 units, making the total length of the reference word only 48 units,
which may be seen in older literature.
The 40 % difference of the two word spacing lengths does have an impact on the evaluation of the results of
receiving speed competitions performed at various occasions. X WPM at 5 units word spacing is more difficult to
copy than the same text sent at the same nominal speed with 7 units word spacing.
Incidentally the word "Morse" is also 50 units.
The time for one unit can be computed by the formula:
T = 1200 / W
or
T = 6000 / C
Where: T is the unit time in milliseconds, W is the speed in wpm, and C is the speed in cpm.
Morse code 158

Below is an illustration of timing conventions. The phrase "MORSE CODE", in Morse code format, would normally
be written something like this, where - represents dahs and · represents dits:

-- --- ·-· ··· ·       -·-· --- -·· ·
M   O   R   S  E        C    O   D  E

Next is the exact conventional timing for this phrase, with = representing "signal on", and . representing "signal
off", each for the time length of exactly one dit:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
12345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789
 
M------ O---------- R------ S---- E C---------- O---------- D------ E
===.===...===.===.===...=.===.=...=.=.=...=.......===.=.===.=...===.===.===...===.=.=...=
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
| dah dit | |
symbol space letter space word space

Morse code is often spoken or written with "dah" for dashes, "dit" for dots located at the end of a character, and "di"
for dots located at the beginning or internally within the character. Thus, the following Morse code sequence:

M   O   R   S  E         C    O   D  E
-- --- ·-· ··· · (space) -·-· --- -·· ·

is verbally:
Dah-dah dah-dah-dah di-dah-dit di-di-dit dit, Dah-di-dah-dit dah-dah-dah dah-di-dit dit.
Note that there is little point in learning to read written Morse as above; rather, the sounds of all of the letters and
symbols need to be learnt, for both sending and receiving.

Learning Morse Code

People learning Morse code using the Farnsworth method, named for Donald R. "Russ" Farnsworth, also known by
his call sign, W6TTB, are taught to send and receive letters and other symbols at their full target speed, that is with
normal relative timing of the dots, dashes and spaces within each symbol for that speed. However, initially
exaggerated spaces between symbols and words are used, to give "thinking time" to make the sound "shape" of the
letters and symbols easier to learn. The spacing can then be reduced with practice and familiarity. Another popular
teaching method is the Koch method, named after German psychologist Ludwig Koch, which uses the full target
speed from the outset, but begins with just two characters. Once strings containing those two characters can be
copied with 90% accuracy, an additional character is added, and so on until the full character set is mastered. In
North America, many thousands of individuals have increased their code recognition speed (after initial
memorization of the characters) by listening to the regularly scheduled code practice transmissions broadcast by
W1AW, the American Radio Relay League's headquarters station. In the United Kingdom many people learnt the
morse code by means of a series of words or phrases that have the same rhythm a Morse character. For instance "Q"
in Morse is dah - dah - di - dah, which can be memorized by the phrase "God save the Queen"; and the Morse for "F"
is di - di - dah - dit, which can be memorized as "Did she like it."
Morse code 159

Letters, numbers, punctuation

Character Code Character Code Character Code Character Code Character Code Character Code

A · — J · — — — S · · · 1 · — — — — Period [.] · — · — · — Colon [:] — — — · · ·

B — · · · K — · — T — 2 · · — — — Comma [,] — — · · — — Semicolon — · — · — ·

[;]

C — · — · L · — · · U · · — 3 · · · — — Question · · — — · · Double — · · · —

mark [?] dash [=]

D — · · M — — V · · · — 4 · · · · — Apostrophe · — — — — · Plus [+] · — · — ·

[']

E · N — · W · — — 5 · · · · · Exclamation — · — · — — Hyphen, — · · · · —

mark [!] Minus [-]

F · · — · O — — — X — · · — 6 — · · · · Slash [/], — · · — · Underscore · · — — · —

Fraction [_]
bar

G — — · P · — — · Y — · — — 7 — — · · · Parenthesis — · — — · Quotation · — · · — ·

open [(] mark ["]

H · · · · Q — — · — Z — — · · 8 — — — · · Parenthesis — · — — · — Dollar · · · — · · —

closed [)] sign [$]

I · · R · — · 0 — — — — — 9 — — — — · Ampersand · — · · · At sign · — — · — ·

[&], Wait [@]

There is no standard representation for the exclamation mark (!), although the KW digraph (— · — · — —) was
proposed in the 1980s by the Heathkit Company (a vendor of assembly kits for amateur radio equipment). While
Morse code translation software prefers this version, on-air use is not yet universal as some amateur radio operators
in Canada and the USA continue to prefer the older MN digraph (— — — ·) carried over from American landline
telegraphy code.
The &, $ and the _ signs are not defined inside the ITU recommendation on Morse code. The $ sign code was
represented in the Phillips Code, a huge collection of abbreviations used on land line telegraphy, as SX. The
representation of the &-sign given above is also the Morse prosign for wait.
On May 24, 2004—the 160th anniversary of the first public Morse telegraph transmission—the
Radiocommunication Bureau of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU-R) formally added the @
("commercial at" or "commat") character to the official Morse character set, using the sequence denoted by the AC
digraph (· — — · — ·). This sequence was reportedly chosen to represent "A[T] C[OMMERCIAL]" or a letter "a"
inside a swirl represented by a "C".[10] The new character facilitates sending electronic mail addresses by Morse
code and is notable since it is the first official addition to the Morse set of characters since World War I.

Prosigns
Morse code 160

Character(s) Code Character(s) Code Character(s) Code

Wait · - · · ·  Error · · · · · · · ·  Understood · · · - · 

Invitation to transmit - · - End of work · · · - · - Starting - · - · -

Signal

Defined in the ITU recommendation.

Non-English extensions to the Morse code

Char. Code Char. Code Char. Code

ä (also æ and ą) · — · — è (also ł) · — · · – ñ (also ń) — — · — —

à (also å) · — — · — é (also đ and ę) · · — · · ö (also ø and — — — ·

ó)

ç (also ĉ and ć) — · — · · ĝ — — · — · ŝ · · · — ·

ch (also š) — — — — ĥ — · — — · (Obsolete) þ ("Thorn") · — — · ·

— — — —   (New)

ð ("Eth") · · — — · ĵ · — — — · ü (also ŭ) · · — —

ś · · · — · · · ź — — · · — · ż — — · · —

Non-Latin extensions to Morse code

For Chinese, Chinese telegraph code is used to map Chinese characters to four-digit codes and send these digits out
using standard Morse code. Korean Morse code [11] uses the SKATS mapping, originally developed to allow Korean
to be typed on western typewriters. SKATS maps hangul characters to arbitrary letters of the Roman alphabet and
has no relationship to pronunciation in Korean.

Alternative display of more common characters for the international code

Some methods of teaching or learning morse code use the dichotomic search table below.

A graphical representation of the dichotomic search table: the user branches left at every dot and right at every dash until the character is finished.
Morse code 161

See also
• Russian Morse code
• ACP-131
• Chinese telegraph code
• Guglielmo Marconi
• High Speed Telegraphy
• Instructograph
• List of international common standards
• Morse code abbreviations
• Morse code mnemonics
• NATO phonetic alphabet
• Wabun Code

External links
• Morse code [12] at the Open Directory Project
• http://www.justlearnmorsecode.com/Free Morse Code Trainer

References
[1] ARRLWeb: ARRLWeb: Learning Morse Code (CW)! (http:/ / www. arrl. org/ learning-morse-code)
[2] L. Peter Carron, "Morse code-the essential language", Radio amateur's library, issue 69, American Radio Relay League, 1986 ISBN
0872590356.
[3] R. J. Eckersley, Amateur radio operating manual, Radio Society of Great Britain, 1985 ISBN 090061269X.
[4] IARUWeb: The International Amateur Radio Union (http:/ / www. iaru. org/ rel030703att2. html)
[5] ARRLWeb: Italy Joins No-Code Ranks as FCC Revives Morse Debate in the US (http:/ / www. arrl. org/ news/ stories/ 2005/ 08/ 10/ 1/
?nc=1)
[6] "1998 Biennial Regulatory Review — Amendment of Part 97 of the Commission's Amateur Service Rules." (http:/ / www. arrl. org/
announce/ regulatory/ wt98-143ro. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved December 4, 2005.
[7] "The Art & Skill of Radio Telegraphy" (http:/ / www. qsl. net/ n9bor/ n0hff. htm). April 20, 2002. . Retrieved 2006-04-21.
[8] "Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)" (http:/ / www. faa. gov/ air_traffic/ publications/ ATpubs/ AIM/ Chap1/ aim0101. html). .
Retrieved 2007-12-10.
[9] International Morse Code (http:/ / www. godfreydykes. info/ international morse code. pdf). ITU-R M. 1677. 2004. . Retrieved 2008-01-02
[10] "International Morse Code Gets a New ITU Home, New Character" (http:/ / www. arrl. org/ news/ stories/ 2003/ 12/ 10/ 2/ ?nc=1). .
Retrieved February 27, 2007.
[11] http:/ / homepages. cwi. nl/ ~dik/ english/ codes/ morse. html#korean
[12] http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Recreation/ Radio/ Amateur/ Morse_Code/ /
SOS 162

SOS
SOS is the commonly used description for the international Morse code distress signal (· · · — — — · · ·). This
distress signal was first adopted by the German government in radio regulations effective April 1, 1905, and became
the worldwide standard under the second International Radiotelegraphic Convention, which was signed on
November 3, 1906 and became effective on July 1, 1908. SOS remained the maritime radio distress signal until
1999, when it was replaced by the Global Maritime Distress Safety System.[1] SOS is still recognized as a visual
distress signal.[2]
From the beginning, the SOS distress signal has actually consisted of a continuous sequence of
three-dits/three-dahs/three-dits, all run together without letter spacing. In International Morse Code, three dits form
the letter S, and three dahs make the letter O, so "SOS" became an easy way to remember the correct order of the dits
and dahs. In modern terminology, SOS is a Morse "procedural signal" or "prosign", and the formal way to write it is
with a bar above the letters, i.e. SOS.
In popular usage, SOS became associated with phrases such as "save our ship" or "save our souls". These were a
later development, most likely used to help remember the correct letters (a backronym). As the SOS signal is a
prosign, its respective letters have no inherent meaning per se, it was simply chosen due to it being easy to
remember.

Formalization
The use of the SOS signal was first introduced in Germany as part of a set of national radio regulations, effective
April 1, 1905. These regulations introduced three new Morse code sequences, including the SOS distress signal.
In 1906, at the second International Radiotelegraphic Convention in Berlin, an extensive collection of Service
Regulations was developed to supplement the main agreement, which was signed on November 3, 1906, becoming
effective on July 1, 1908. Article XVI of the regulations adopted Germany's Notzeichen distress signal as the
international standard, reading: "Ships in distress shall use the following signal: · · · — — — · · ·  repeated at brief
intervals". The first ship to transmit an SOS distress call appears to have been the Cunard liner Slavonia on June 10,
1909, according to "Notable Achievements of Wireless" in the September, 1910 Modern Electrics. However, there
was some resistance among the Marconi operators to the adoption of the new signal, and, as late as the April, 1912
sinking of the RMS Titanic, the ship's Marconi operators intermixed CQD and SOS distress calls. However, in the
interests of consistency and water safety, the use of CQD appears to have died out after this point.
In both the April 1, 1905 German law, and the 1906 International regulations, the distress signal was specified as a
continuous Morse code sequence of three-dits/three-dahs/three-dits, with no mention of any alphabetic equivalents.
However, in International Morse, three dits comprise the letter S, and three dahs the letter O. It therefore soon
became common to refer to the distress signal as "SOS." An early report on "The International Radio-Telegraphic
Convention" in the January 12, 1907 Electrical World stated that "Vessels in distress use the special signal, SOS,
repeated at short intervals." (In American Morse code, which was used by many coastal ships in the United States
through the first part of the twentieth century, three dahs stood for the numeral "5", so in a few cases the distress
signal was informally referred to as "S5S").
In contrast to CQD, which was sent as three separate letters with spaces between each letter, the SOS distress call
has always been transmitted as a continuous sequence of dits-and-dahs, and not as individual letters. There was no
problem as long as operators were aware that "SOS" was technically just a convenient way for remembering the
proper sequence of the distress signal's total of nine dits and dahs. In later years, the number of special Morse
symbols increased. In order to designate the proper sequence of dits-and-dahs for a long special symbol, the standard
practice is to list alphabetic characters which contain the same dits-and-dahs in the same order, with a bar atop the
character sequence to indicate that there should not be any internal spaces in the transmission. Thus, under the
SOS 163

modern notation, the distress signal becomes SOS. (In International Morse, VTB, IJS and SMB, among others,
would also correctly translate into the · · · — — — · · ·  distress call sequence, but traditionally only SOS is used).
It has also sometimes been used as a visual distress signal, consisting of three short, three long, three short light
flashes such as from a survival mirror, or with "SOS" spelled out in individual letters, for example, stamped in a
snowbank or formed out of logs on a beach. The fact that SOS can be read right side up as well as upside down
became important for visual recognition if viewed from above.

Later developments
Additional warning and distress signals followed the introduction of SOS. On January 20, 1914, the London
International Convention on Safety of Life at Sea adopted the Morse code signal TTT ( —  —  —), three letter T's
(—) spaced correctly as three letters so as not to be confused with the letter O (- - -), as the "Safety Signal," used for
messages to ships "involving safety of navigation and being of an urgent character."
With the development of audio radio transmitters, there was a need for a spoken distress phrase, and "Mayday" was
adopted by the 1927 International Radio Convention as the equivalent of SOS. For TTT the equivalent audio signal
is "Securité" for navigational safety.
During the Second World War, additional codes were employed to include immediate details about attacks by enemy
vessels, especially in the Battle of the Atlantic. The signal SSS signalled attacked by submarines, whilst RRR
warned of an attack by a surface raider, QQQ warned of an unknown raider (usually an auxiliary cruiser), and AAA
indicated an attack by aircraft. They were usually sent in conjunction with the SOS distress code. All of these codes
later switched from three repeats of the letter to four repeats ("RRRR", etc.).
None of these signals were used on their own. Sending SOS as well as other warning signals (TTT, XXX etc.) used
similar procedures for effectiveness. These were always followed correctly. Here is an example of an SOS signal; the
portions in brackets are an explanation only.
SOS SOS SOS de (this is) GBTT GBTT GBTT (call sign of the QE2 repeated 3 times) Queen Elizabeth 2
(name of ship) psn (position) 49.06.30 North, 04.30.20 West. Ship on fire, crew abandoning ship (nature of
distress) AR (end of transmission) K (invitation to reply).
Ships and coastal stations would normally have required quiet times twice an hour to listen for priority signals.
However, many merchant vessels carried only one or two radio operators in which case the SOS may not be heard by
operators off duty. Eventually equipment was invented to summon off-duty operators by ringing an alarm in the
operators berth. This was triggered by the operator of the ship in distress transmitting twelve long dashes of four
seconds duration each. These were sent prior to the SOS hopefully ringing the automatic alarm in ships so equipped.
If possible a short delay was given before transmission of the SOS proper. This was to give those off watch operators
time to get to their radio office.

Cultural references
• S.O.S. is the title of a 1975 song by the Swedish pop group ABBA.
• The Delorean time machine, in the 1985 sci-fi/comedy film Back to the Future, flashed its headlights to
this-during the climax; as the engine stalled, low on fuel.
• The same-named brand of kitchen scouring pads had a popular television commercial in 1994. Kitchen and
tablewares alike all clinged and tapped the original jingle in unison, to signal being in need of the product.
• 2007 saw the famous Kool-Aid beverage mix air its "Singles" flavours. The commercial began with an aerial
view of an island, advertising, "S.U.S.: Stirring Up Singles", on the sand below. Inviting those from a helicopter
to try the individual packs.
SOS 164

Famous SOS calls

• HMHS Britannic
• RMS Lusitania
• RMS Titanic (used CQD as well)
• SS Andrea Doria

See also
• 500 kHz
• 2182 kHz
• Call for help
• Distress signal
• GMDSS
• Mayday
• Pan-pan
• Securite
• Vessel emergency codes
• CQD

Further reading
• "The Wireless Telegraph Conference". The Electrician: 157–160, 214. 27 November 1903.
• Final Protocol, First International Radio Telegraphic Conference [3], Berlin, 1903.
• "Regelung der Funkentelegraphie im Deutschen Reich" [4]. Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift: 413–414. 27 April
1905.
• "German Regulations for the Control of Spark Telegraphy" [5]. The electrician: 94–95. 5 May 1905.
• Robison, Samuel (1906). Manual of Wireless Telegraphy for the Use of Naval Electricians (1st ed.).
• 1906 International Wireless Telegraph Convention [6], U.S. Government Printing Office.
• "The International Radio-Telegraphic Convention". Electrical World: 83–84. 12 January 1907.
• "S 5 S" Rivals "C Q D" for Wireless Honors [7], Popular Mechanics, February, 1910, page 156.
• Notable Achievements of Wireless [8], Modern Electrics, September, 1910, page 315.
• Collins, Francis A., Some Stirring Wireless Rescues [9], from "The Wireless Man", 1912, pages 104–141.
• Turnball, G. E., "Distress Signalling" [10], The Yearbook of Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony, 1913, pages
318–322 (includes text of "Circular 57").
• Dilks, John H. III, "Why SOS?" in OSS, June, 2007, pages 88–89.

References
[1] "GMDSS Resolution COM/Circ.115 "Discontinuation of morse code services in the MF radiotelegraphy band" 10.02.93" (http:/ / www. imo.
org/ includes/ blastData. asp/ doc_id=1196/ GMDSS (13 April 2005). doc). GMDSS. . Retrieved 2008-07-02.
[2] US Coast Guard Visual Distress Signals (http:/ / www. uscg. mil/ hq/ cg5/ cg5214/ vds. asp)
[3] http:/ / earlyradiohistory. us/ 1903conv. htm
[4] http:/ / www. earlyradiohistory. us/ 1905funk. htm
[5] http:/ / www. earlyradiohistory. us/ 1905germ. htm
[6] http:/ / www. earlyradiohistory. us/ 1906conv. htm
[7] http:/ / www. earlyradiohistory. us/ 1910S5S. htm
[8] http:/ / www. earlyradiohistory. us/ 1910note. htm
[9] http:/ / www. earlyradiohistory. us/ 1912wm2. htm
[10] http:/ / www. earlyradiohistory. us/ 1913dist. htm
Time-Life 165

Time-Life
Time–Life is a creator and direct marketer of books, music,
video/DVD, and multimedia products. Its products are sold throughout
North America, Europe, Australia, and Asia through television, print,
retail, the Internet, telemarketing, and direct sales.
Time-Life was founded in 1961 as the book division of Time Inc. It
took its name from Time Inc.'s cornerstone magazines, Time and Life,
but remained independent of both. During 1966, Time Life combined
its book offerings with music collections (two to five records) and
packaged them as a sturdy box set. Throughout the '70s and '80s, the
selection of books, music and videos grew and was diversified into
more genres. When record labels stopped producing vinyl albums in
1990, Time Life switched to CD only. In the mid-90s, Time–Life
acquired Heartland Music, with the Heartland Music label now
appearing as a brand.

At the end of 2003 Time Life was acquired by Ripplewood Holdings

L.L.C. and ZelnickMedia Corporation to become part of Direct
Holdings Worldwide L.L.C. Direct Holdings Americas Inc. operates as
a leader in the sale of music and video products under the Time Life
brand. Since 2003, Direct Holdings US Corp is the legal name of
Time Life, and is no longer owned by its former parent Time Warner
(formerly Time Inc.). In March 2007, Ripplewood led a group that
took The Reader's Digest Association private and has since put Time
Life as a division of RDA. By 2003 onward, a disclaimer on the
copyright stated that it is "not affiliated with Time Warner Inc. or Time Time-Life building in Rockefeller Center in New
York City
Inc.", who owns the Time and Life magazines which this company
name came from.

The British television company, Time Life Television was a producer

of BBC programs, which was renamed Lionheart Television in 1982.

Book series
The Time Life company was founded by Time, Incorporated in 1961,
as a book marketing division. It takes its name from Time and Life
magazines, two of the most popular weeklies of the era. It was based in
the Time Life building in Rockefeller Center.
Time-Life statue in New York City, in front of
Time Life gained fame as a seller of book series that would be mailed the Time-Life building
to households in monthly installments. Several of these book series
garnered substantial critical acclaim unusual for a mass-market mail order house. For example, the series Library of
Photography of the early-1970s featured very high-quality duo-tone printing for its black-and-white reproductions in
its original edition, and was of course able to draw on Life Magazine's vast archive of journalistic and art
photographs from virtually every major photographer; Foods Of The World featured contributions by M.F.K. Fisher,

James Beard, Julia Child, Craig Claiborne and many others; and The Good Cook series, edited by Richard Olney,
featured contributions from Jeremiah Tower, Jane Grigson, Michel Lemonnier and many others. Other series of high
Time-Life 166

regard covered nature and the sciences, as well as the history of world civilizations. The science books are
interesting as ephemera of their time. The content of these series was more or less encyclopedic, providing the basics
of the subjects in the way it might be done in a lecture aimed at the general public. There was also a series on
contemporary life in various countries of the world. Some other series are much less highly regarded, especially the
later output as the publisher moved away from soberly presented science and history towards sensationalism,
pop-history, and DIY-themed books. The books, whatever their quality, are easy to find at low prices on the
used-book market, due to their being published in the millions of copies. (Some of the items in this list may also be
single books not in a series, but followed the same types of themes as the book series.)
• The American Wilderness[1]
• The Art of Sewing[1]
• A Child's First Library Of Learning, a series of educational books by Time–Life
• Classics of the Old West[1] (not the same as "The Old West")
• Collector's Library of the Civil War[1]
• The Emergence of Man[1]
• Enchanted World Series, a best-selling Time–Life series, 21 volumes
• The Encyclopedia of Collectibles[1]
• The Epic of Flight[1]
• Family Library ("How Things Work in your Home", "The Time-Life Book of the Family Car", "The Time-Life
Family Legal Guide", and "The Time-Life Book of Family Finance")[1]
• Foods of the World[1]
• The Good Cook[1]
• Great Ages of Man—history of each of the major civilizations of human history[1]
• The Great Cities[1]
• Home Repair and Improvement[1]
• Human Behavior[1]
• Library of Health[1]
• Library of Nations
• The LIFE History of the United States[1]
• LIFE Library of Photography[1]
• LIFE Nature Library, 25 volumes[1]
• LIFE Science Library, 26 volumes[1]
• LIFE World Library[1]
• Mysteries of the Unknown, a best-selling Time–Life series, 33 volumes
• The Old West[1]
• Planet Earth Series[1]
• The New Face of War, A 9-volume survey of the major fields of modern warfare
• The Seafarers Series[1]
• The Third Reich, 21 volumes
• This Fabulous Century[1]
• Time Frame—A survey of history by time periods instead of by civilization
• Time–Life Library of America[1]
• Time–Life Library of Art[1]
• The Time–Life Library of Boating[1]
• The Time–Life Library of Gardening[1]
• Time Life Library of Curious and Unusual Facts
• Time Reading Program[1]
• Understanding Computers
Time-Life 167

• Voyage Through the Universe—series on Astronomy

• Wild, Wild World of Animals
• The World's Wild Places[1]
• Wings of War, 26 Volumes
• World War II, 31 volumes
Time Life no longer publishes books as its book division was closed in 2003. A possible cause is that production and
printing costs reached the point where people were unwilling to purchase them, even directly from the publisher.
Time Inc./Time Warner, however, continues to publish similar material through Time Inc. Home Entertainment.

Music
Time Life added music in 1962, selling box sets and collections through Time Life Records, eventually advertising
these collections through infomercials (including Country Music Explosion and Ultimate Rock Ballads), which often
air in the early morning (3 am to 6 am). A few of these collections were not just music, but included books with the
records as well, and some were not music at all, but informational, educational, or "audio documentaries", which
tended to follow the themes of the Time–Life Books series. When Time merged with Warner Communications in
1989, the label became a Time Warner division. Warner Music Group, which grouped all of Time-Warner's music
companies (save for New Line Records, which was merely distributed by WMG), was sold to a group of investors
led by Edgar Bronfman, Jr. in late 2003.
A key selling point of these collections is that each track was digitally transferred to CD using the original master
recordings, as opposed to being "re-records" whereby only an old phonograph record, or an old radio copy is used
for the transfer.
The following list shows many of the collections the company has released, but is by no means exhaustive.
• AM Gold (discontinued)
• Billboard #1 Hits of the 70's
• Body and Soul
• Classic Bluegrass (discontinued)
• Classic Country
• Classic Love Songs of the 60's
• Classic Rock (discontinued)
• Classic Rhythm and Blues
• Classic Soft Rock
• Classic Soul Ballads
• Classic Love Songs of Rock N' Roll (discontinued)
• Contemporary Country
• Country Music Explosion
• Country USA (discontinued)
• Disco Fever
• 80's Music Explosion
• The Fabulous Fifties
• Flower Power
• Folk Years (discontinued)
• Giants of Jazz (discontinued)
• Great American Songbook
• Golden Age of Country
• Golden Age of Pop
• Hard & Heavy
Time-Life 168

• It All Started with Doo Wop

• Lifetime of Country Romance
• Lifetime of Romance (discontinued)
• Legends: The Ultimate Rock (discontinued)
• Living the Blues (http://www.bsnpubs.com/warner/time-life/31livingblues/31livingblues.html)
• Magic of Love
• Malt Shop Memories
• Midnight Soul
• The Motown Collection
• Opry Video Classics
• Oldies But Goodies
• Pop Memories of the 60's
• Prom Night
• Rock N' Roll Era (discontinued)
• Pure Rhythm and Blues
• Rock N' Roll: Legendary Years (discontinued)
• Romancing the 70's
• Classic Soul Ballads
• 70's Music Explosion
• Singers & Songwriters
• 60's Gold (discontinued)
• Songs 4 Ever (discontinued)
• Soul Story
• Sounds of the Seventies (discontinued)
• Sounds of the Eighties (discontinued)
• Sounds of the Nineties (discontinued)
• Superstars of Country
• Superstars of the 80's
• Sweet Soul of the 70's
• The Rock Collection (discontinued)
• To The Moon, a 6-record set: a documentary with accompanying book about the early space program, the space
race, the missions to the moon and the first moon landing, published soon after Apollo 11 completed its mission
to the moon. (discontinued)
• Ultimate Seventies (discontinued)
• Ultimate Love Songs
• Ultimate Rock Ballads
• Uptown Saturday Night
• Your Hit Parade (discontinued)

Controversy
In recent years, the company has been subject to bad press due to questionable billing practices. Some customers
claim that they have been tricked into purchasing multiple CDs from Time Life. Buyers, wishing to purchase single
CDs, do not fully understand that they are entering into "Continuity Programs," despite the promotional
advertisements stating they will be introduced into a series of CDs shipped "every few weeks," automatically billing
the credit card. Critics contend that the company's disclosure about automatic follow-up orders is intentionally and
deceptively placed in areas where it is unlikely to be read. Time Life does, however, back every product with a 30
day money-back guarantee and the customer's account will be refunded upon receipt of the returned item. As a
Time-Life 169

benefit, customers can call customer service to cancel at any time, whereas services such as BMG Music Service and
Columbia House (which have since merged) require the customer to buy a certain number of CDs before they can
cancel.

See also
• FreeRice, a program sponsored by Time Life.
• List of record labels

External links
• Official site [2]
• Time Life Australia website [3]
• Time Life Canada website [4]
• List of Time Life book series and volumes [5]
• Time-Life Music discography [6]

References
[1] From a list of "Other Publications" on the copyright page of "The Commandos", the final volume of the Time-Life Books Series, "World War
II"
[2] http:/ / www. timelife. com
[3] http:/ / www. timelife. com. au
[4] http:/ / www. timelife. ca/
[5] http:/ / www. volumelists. com/
[6] http:/ / www. bsnpubs. com/ warner/ time-life/ time-lifestory. html

String Quartet No. 16 (Beethoven)

The String Quartet No. 16 in F major, op. 135, by Ludwig van Beethoven was written in October 1826[1] and was
the last substantial work he finished. Only the last movement of the Quartet op. 130, written as a replacement for the
Große Fuge, was written later. It was premiered by the Schuppanzigh Quartet in March 1828.
The work is on a smaller scale than his other late quartets. For the third movement, Beethoven used variation
techniques; he also did this in the second movement of his Quartet op. 127.[2] Under the introductory slow chords in
the last movement Beethoven wrote in the manuscript "Muß es sein?" (Must it be?) to which he responds, with the
faster main theme of the movement, "Es muß sein!" (It must be!). The whole movement is headed "Der schwer
gefaßte Entschluß" (The Difficult Resolution).
It is in four movements:
1. Allegretto
2. Vivace
3. Lento assai, cantante e tranquillo
4. “Der schwer gefaßte Entschluß:” Grave — Allegro — Grave ma non troppo tratto — Allegro
String Quartet No. 16 (Beethoven) 170

External links
• Project Gutenberg E-Book of the Quartet [3]
• String Quartet No. 16: Free scores at the International Music Score Library Project.

References
[1] Steinberg, Michael (1994). Robert Winter, Robert Martin. ed. The Beethoven Quartet Companion. University of California Press. p. 274.
ISBN 0-520-08211-7.
[2] Bernard Jacobson. "Beethoven: The Complete String Quartets." EMI 5736062. CD liner notes, 24.
[3] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 12237
 171

Technicals

Bluescreen
Chroma key compositing (or chroma keying) is a technique for
compositing two images or frames together in which a color (or a small
color range) from one image is removed (or made transparent),
revealing another image behind it. This technique is also referred to as
color keying, colour-separation overlay (CSO; primarily by the
BBC[1] ), greenscreen, and bluescreen. It is commonly used for
weather forecast broadcasts, wherein the presenter appears to be
standing in front of a large map, but in the studio it is actually a large
blue or green background. The meteorologist stands in front of a
bluescreen, and then different weather maps are added on those parts in Example of a basic blue screen set.
the image where the color is blue. If the meteorologist wears blue
clothes, their clothes will become replaced with the background video. This also works for greenscreens, since blue
and green are considered the colors least like skin tone.[2] This technique is also used in the entertainment industry,
the iconic theatre shots in Mystery Science Theater 3000, for example.

History
For motion-pictures the process was a complex and time consuming one known as "travelling matte" prior to the
introduction of digital compositing. The blue screen and traveling matte method were developed in the 1930s at
RKO Radio Pictures and other studios, and were used to create special effects for The Thief of Bagdad (1940). At
RKO, Linwood Dunn used travelling matte to create "wipes" – where there were transitions like a windshield wiper
in films such as Flying Down to Rio (1933).
The credit for development of the bluescreen is given to Larry Butler, who won the Academy Award for special
effects for The Thief of Bagdad. He had invented the blue screen and traveling matte technique in order to achieve
the visual effects which were unprecedented in 1940. He was also the first special effects man to have created these
effects in Technicolor, which was in its infancy at the time.
In 1950, Warner Brothers employee and ex-Kodak researcher Arthur Widmer began working on an ultra violet
traveling matte process. He also began developing bluescreen techniques: one of the first films to use them was the
1958 adaptation of the Ernest Hemingway novella, The Old Man and the Sea, starring Spencer Tracy.[3]
The background footage is shot first and the actor or model is filmed against a bluescreen carrying out their actions.
To simply place the foreground shot over the background shot would create a ghostly image over a blue-tinged
background. The actor or model must be separated from the background and placed into a specially-made "hole" in
the background footage. The bluescreen shot was first rephotographed through a blue filter so that only the
background is exposed. A special film is used that creates a black and white negative image — a black background
with a subject-shaped hole in the middle. This is called a 'female matte'. The bluescreen shot was then
rephotographed again, this time through a red and green filter so that only the foreground image was cast on film,
creating a black silhouette on an unexposed (clear) background. This is called a 'male matte'.
The background image is then rephotographed through the male matte, and the shot rephotographed through the
female matte. An optical printer with two projectors, a film camera and a 'beam splitter' combines the images
Bluescreen 172

together one frame at a time. This part of the process must be very carefully controlled to ensure the absence of
'black lines'. During the 1980s, minicomputers were used to control the optical printer. For The Empire Strikes Back,
Richard Edlund created a 'quad optical printer' that accelerated the process considerably and saved money. He
received a special Academy Award for his innovation.
One drawback to the traditional traveling matte is that the cameras shooting the images to be composited can't be
easily synchronized. For decades, such matte shots had to be done "locked-down" so that neither the matted subject
nor the background could shift their camera perspective at all. Later, computer-timed motion control cameras
alleviated this problem, as both the foreground and background could be filmed with the same camera moves.
Petro Vlahos was awarded an Academy Award for his development of these techniques. His technique exploits the
fact that most objects in real-world scenes have a color whose blue color component is similar in intensity to their
green color component. Zbigniew Rybczyński also contributed to bluescreen technology.
For Star Trek: The Next Generation, an ultraviolet light matting process was proposed by Don Lee of CIS and
developed by Gary Hutzel and the staff of Image G. This involved a fluorescent orange backdrop which made it
easier to generate a holdout matte, thus allowing the effects team to produce effects in a quarter of the time needed
for other methods.[4]
Some films make heavy use of chroma key to add backgrounds that are constructed entirely using
computer-generated imagery (CGI). Performances from different takes can even be composited together, which
allows actors to be filmed separately and then placed together in the same scene. Chroma key allows performers to
appear to be in any location without even leaving the studio.
Computer development also made it easier to incorporate motion into composited shots, even when using handheld
cameras. Reference-points can now be placed onto the colored background (usually as a painted grid, X's marked
with tape, or equally spaced tennis balls attached to the wall). In post-production, a computer can use the references
to adjust the position of the background, making it match the movement of the foreground perfectly. Modern
advances in software and computational power have even eliminated the need to use grids or tracking marks – the
software analyzes the relative motion of colored pixels against other colored pixels and solves the 'motion' to create a
camera motion algorithm which can be used in compositing software to match the motion of composited elements to
a moving background plate.
Weathermen often use a field monitor to the side of the screen to see where they are putting their hands. A newer
technique is to project a faint image onto the screen.

The process
The principal subject is filmed or photographed against a background
consisting of a single color or a relatively narrow range of colors,
usually blue or green because these colors are considered to be the
furthest away from skin tone.[2] The portions of the video which match
the preselected color are replaced by the alternate background video.
This process is commonly known as "keying", "keying out" or simply a
"key".
Film set for The Spiderwick Chronicles, where a
Green is currently used as a backdrop more than any other color special effects scene using bluescreen chroma key
because image sensors in digital video cameras are most sensitive to is in preparation.

green, due to the Bayer pattern allocating more pixels to the green
channel, this mimicks the human increased sensitivity to green light.[5] Therefore the green camera channel contains
the least "noise" and can produce the cleanest key/matte/mask. Additionally, less light is needed to illuminate green,
again because of the higher sensitivity to green in image sensors.[6] Bright green has also become favored as a blue
background may match a subject's eye color or common items of clothing, such as jeans, or a dark-navy suit.
Bluescreen 173

Blue was used before digital keying became commonplace because it was necessary for the optical process, but it
needed more illumination than green. However, it is also further in the visual spectrum from red, the predominant
color in human skin.
The most important factor for a key is the color separation of the foreground (the subject) and background (the
screen) – a bluescreen will be used if the subject is predominately green (for example plants), despite the camera
being more sensitive to green light.
In analog color TV, color is represented by the phase of the chroma subcarrier relative to a reference oscillator.
Chroma key is achieved by comparing the phase of the video to the phase corresponding to the preselected color.
In-phase portions of the video are replaced by the alternate background video.
In digital color TV, color is represented by three numbers (red, green, blue). Chroma key is achieved by a simple
numerical comparison between the video and the preselected color. If the color at a particular point on the screen
matches (either exactly, or in a range), then the video at that point is replaced by the alternate background video.

Clothing
A chroma key subject must not wear clothing similar in color to the chroma key color(s) (unless intentional), because
the clothing may be replaced with the background video. An example of intentional use of this is when an actor
wears a blue covering over a part of his body to make it invisible in the final shot. This technique can be used to
achieve an effect similar to that used in the Harry Potter films to create the effect of an invisibility cloak. The actor
can also be filmed against a chroma key background and inserted into the background shot with a distortion effect in
order to create a cloak that is marginally detectable.[7]
Difficulties emerge with bluescreen when a costume in an effects shot must be blue, such as Superman's traditional
blue outfit. In the 2002 film Spider-Man, in scenes where both Spider-Man and the Green Goblin are in the air,
Spider-Man had to be shot in front of the greenscreen and the Green Goblin had to be shot in front of a bluescreen,
because Spider-Man wears a costume which is red and blue in color and the goblin wears a costume which is entirely
green in color. If both were shot in front of same screen, one character would have been partially erased from the
shot.

Background
Blue is generally used for both weather maps and special effects
because it is complementary to human skin tone. The use of blue is
also tied to the fact that the blue emulsion layer of film has the finest
crystals and thus good detail and minimal grain (in comparison to the
red and green layers of the emulsion.) In the digital world, however
green has become the favored color because digital cameras retain
more detail in the green channel and it requires less light than blue.
Green not only has a higher luminance value than blue but also in early
digital formats the green channel was sampled twice as often as the
blue, making it easier to work with. The choice of color is up to the
effects artists and the needs of the specific shot. In the past decade, the
use of green has become dominant in film special effects. Also, the Demonstration of the creation of special effects
green background is favored over blue for outdoors filming where the techniques utilising chroma key.

blue sky might appear in the frame and could accidentally be replaced
in the process. Although green and blue are the most common, any color can be used. Red is usually avoided due to
its prevalence in normal human skin pigments, but can be often used for objects and scenes which do not involve
people.
Bluescreen 174

Occasionally, a magenta background is used, as in some software applications where the magenta or fuchsia key
value #FF00FF is sometimes referred to as "magic pink".[8]
With better imaging and hardware, many companies are avoiding the confusion often experienced by weather
presenters, who must otherwise watch themselves on a monitor to see the image shown behind them, by lightly
projecting a copy of the background image onto the blue/green screen. This allows the presenter to accurately point
and look at the map without referring to monitors.
A newer technique is to use a retroreflective curtain in the background, along with a ring of bright LEDs around the
camera lens. This requires no light to shine on the background other than the LEDs, which use an extremely small
amount of power and space unlike big stage lights, and require no rigging. This advance was made possible by the
invention of practical blue LEDs in the 1990s, which also allow for emerald green LEDs.
There is also a form of color keying that uses light spectrum invisible to human eye. Called Thermo-Key, it uses
infrared as the key color, which would not be replaced by background image during postprocessing.[9] [10]

Even lighting
The biggest challenge when setting up a bluescreen or greenscreen is even lighting and the avoidance of shadow,
because it is best to have as narrow a color range as possible being replaced. A shadow would present itself as a
darker color to the camera and might not register for replacement. This can sometimes be seen in low-budget or live
broadcasts where the errors cannot be manually repaired. The material being used affects the quality and ease of
having it evenly lit. Materials which are shiny will be far less successful than those that are not. A shiny surface will
have areas that reflect the lights making them appear pale, while other areas may be darkened. A matte surface will
diffuse the reflected light and have a more even color range. In order to get the cleanest key from shooting
greenscreen it is necessary to create a value difference between the subject and the greenscreen. In order to
differentiate the subject and screen a two-stop difference can be used, either by making the greenscreen two stops
higher than the subject or vice versa.
Sometimes a shadow can be used to create a special effect. Areas of the bluescreen or greenscreen with a shadow on
them can be replaced with a darker version of the desired background video image, making it look like the person
casting the shadow is actually casting a shadow on the background image instead.

Use in virtual set technology

Chroma key compositing is integral in the use of virtual set technology; the real-time combination of people and
computer generated environments.

Programming
There are several different quality- and speed-optimized techniques for
implementing color keying in software.[11]
In most versions, a function f(r, g, b) → α is applied to every pixel in the
image. α (alpha) has a meaning similar to that in alpha compositing
techniques. α ≤ 0 means the pixel is the green screen, α ≥ 1 means the pixel
is in the foreground object. Values between 0 and 1 indicate a pixel that is
partially covered by the foreground object. A usable green screen example, A short demo of a chroma key effect,
superimposing a cat onto a log.
which matches how chroma key was done on an optical printer, is f(r, g, b)
= K0 * b − K1 * g + K2 (K0..2 are user-adjustable constants, 1 is a good
initial guess for all of them).
Bluescreen 175

Often the software does screen spill removal from the colors as well as figure out the alpha. This may be a separate
function g(r, g, b) → (r, g, b), a very simple green screen example is g(r, g, b) → (r, min(g, b), b). Or f is changed to
return (r, g, b, a) all at once, this is useful if part of the calculation is shared.
Most keyers use far more complicated functions. A popular approach is to describe a closed 3D surface in RGB
space and determine the signed distance the point (r, g, b) is from this surface, or to find the distance the point (r, g,
b) is between two closed nested surfaces. It is also very common for f() to depend on more than just the current
pixel's color, it may also use the (x, y) position, the values of nearby pixels, the value from reference images, and
values from user-drawn masks.
A different class of algorithm tries to figure out a 2D path that separates the foreground from the background. This
path can be the output, or the image can be drawn by filling the path with α = 1 as a final step. An example of such
an algorithm is the use of active contour. Most research in recent years has been into these algorithms.

See also
• Compositing
• Federal Standard 1037C
• Filmmaking
• Drew Carey's Green Screen Show
• Film production
• Front projection effect
• Matte (filmmaking)
• Muslin
• Optical printer
• Primatte chromakey technology
• Rear projection effect
• Reverse bluescreen
• Schüfftan process
• Signal processing
• Sodium vapor process
• Special effects
• Video
• Virtual set

External links
• How to build a mobile green/blue screen [12]
• Building a Chroma Key on a low budget (Google Knol) [13]
• How Blue Screens Work [14]
• Stargate Studios Virtual Backlot Reel 2009 -- A demonstration of green screen scenes [15]

References
[1] "Glossary: Post Production" (http:/ / www. theproductionguide. co. uk/ glos_post_prod. aspx). The Production Guide. . Retrieved 2009-01-21.
[2] "The Chroma Effect" (http:/ / www. borisfx. com/ tutorials/ chroma_key. php). Chroma Key Tutorial. BorisFX. . Retrieved 11 January 2010.
"If the foreground is a person then blue or green backing color is recommended as these colors are not present in human flesh pigments. In
fact, human skin color is 70% red for all people regardless of race."
[3] "Illusions Take Home First Oscars" (http:/ / en. chinabroadcast. cn/ 2246/ 2005-2-14/ 90@206385. htm). CRI English. 2005-02-14. .
Retrieved 2009-01-21.
[4] Sternbach, Rick; Okuda, Michael (1991). Star Trek: The Next Generation Technical Manual. Pocket Books. p. 13. ISBN 0-671-70427-3.
[5] http:/ / www. sjsu. edu/ faculty/ watkins/ eye. htm
Bluescreen 176

[6] http:/ / www. destudiodublin. com/ Facilities/ Greenscreen-deStudio. htm

[7] Creating an invisible cape in After Effects (http:/ / library. creativecow. net/ articles/ stern_eran/ Invisible_Cape. php)
[8] "So you wanna make a theme?" (http:/ / www. skinyourscreen. com/ site/ Articles/ so-you-wanna-make-a-theme). skinyourscreen.com
articles. . Retrieved 2008-08-23.
[9] "What is Thermo-Key?" (http:/ / www. hc. t. u-tokyo. ac. jp/ project/ thermo-key/ ). University of Tokyo. . Retrieved 2009-01-21.
[10] Yasuda, K.; Naemura, T.; Harashima, H.. "Thermo-key: human region segmentation from video" (http:/ / ieeexplore. ieee. org/ xpl/
freeabs_all. jsp?arnumber=1255805). IEEE. . Retrieved 2009-01-21.
[11] Ashihkmin, Michael. "High Quality Chroma Key" (http:/ / www. cs. utah. edu/ ~michael/ chroma/ ). .
[12] http:/ / www. stormforcepictures. com/ howto-buildamobilegreenscreen. php
[13] http:/ / knol. google. com/ k/ richard-brooks/ making-a-chroma-key-on-a-low-budget/ g6bxq3348xjd/ 3#view
[14] http:/ / entertainment. howstuffworks. com/ blue-screen. htm
[15] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=clnozSXyF4k

True north
True north is the direction along the earth's surface towards the geographic North Pole.
True north usually differs from magnetic north (the direction of the magnetic north pole)
and grid north (the direction northwards along the grid lines of a map projection).
The direction of true north is marked in the skies by the north celestial pole. For most
practical purposes, this is the position of Polaris. However, due to the precession of the
Earth's axis, true north rotates in an arc that takes approximately 25,000 years to
complete. In 2102[1] Polaris will make its closest approach to the celestial north pole.
5,000 years ago, the closest star to the celestial north pole was Thuban.
On maps published by the United States Geological Survey, and the U.S. military, true
north is marked with a line terminating in a five-pointed star. The east and west edges of
the USGS topographic quadrangle maps of the United States are meridians of longitude,
thus indicating true north (so they're not exactly parallel). Maps issued by the United
Kingdom Ordnance Survey contain a diagram showing the difference between true
north, grid north and magnetic north at a point on the sheet; the edges of the map are Change of magnetic
likely to follow grid directions rather than true, and the map will thus be truly declination in Israel map
(Statement for 2001)
rectangular/square.

References
• Meeus, Jean (1997). Mathematical Astronomy Morsels. Richmond, VA: Willmann-Bell. ISBN 0-943396-51-4.

References
[1] Meeus (1997), p.305.
Hexadecimal 177

Hexadecimal
Numeral systems by culture

Hindu-Arabic numerals

Burmese Mongolian
Eastern Arabic Thai
Indian family Western Arabic
Khmer

East Asian numerals

Chinese Korean
Japanese Vietnamese
Suzhou Counting rods

Alphabetic numerals

Abjad Ge'ez
Armenian Greek (Ionian)
Āryabhaṭa Hebrew
Cyrillic

Other systems

Aegean Inuit
Attic Mayan
Babylonian Quipu
Brahmi Roman
Egyptian Sumerian
Etruscan Urnfield

List of numeral system topics

Positional systems by base

Decimal (10)

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 12, 16, 20, 60

more…

In mathematics and computer science, hexadecimal (also base 16, or hex) is a positional numeral system with a
radix, or base, of 16. It uses sixteen distinct symbols, most often the symbols 0–9 to represent values zero to nine,
and A, B, C, D, E, F (or alternatively a through f) to represent values ten to fifteen. For example, the hexadecimal
number 2AF3 is equal, in decimal, to (2 × 163) + (10 × 162) + (15 × 161) + (3 × 160) , or 10,995.
Each hexadecimal digit represents four binary digits (bits) (also called a "nibble"), and the primary use of
hexadecimal notation is as a human-friendly representation of binary coded values in computing and digital
electronics. For example, byte values can range from 0 to 255 (decimal) but may be more conveniently represented
as two hexadecimal digits in the range 00 through FF. Hexadecimal is also commonly used to represent computer
memory addresses.
Hexadecimal 178

Representing hexadecimal

0hex = 0dec = 0oct 0 0 0 0

1hex = 1dec = 1oct 0 0 0 1

2hex = 2dec = 2oct 0 0 1 0

3hex = 3dec = 3oct 0 0 1 1

4hex = 4dec = 4oct 0 1 0 0

5hex = 5dec = 5oct 0 1 0 1

6hex = 6dec = 6oct 0 1 1 0

7hex = 7dec = 7oct 0 1 1 1

8hex = 8dec = 10oct 1 0 0 0

9hex = 9dec = 11oct 1 0 0 1

Ahex = 10dec = 12oct 1 0 1 0

Bhex = 11dec = 13oct 1 0 1 1

Chex = 12dec = 14oct 1 1 0 0

Dhex = 13dec = 15oct 1 1 0 1

Ehex = 14dec = 16oct 1 1 1 0

Fhex = 15dec = 17oct 1 1 1 1

In situations where there is no context, a hexadecimal number might be ambiguous and confused with numbers
expressed in other bases. There are several conventions for expressing values unambiguously. A numerical subscript
(itself written in decimal) can give the base explicitly: 15910 is decimal 159; 15916 is hexadecimal 159, which is
equal to 34510. Other authors prefer a text subscript, such as 159decimal and 159hex, or 159d and 159h.
In linear text systems, such as those used in most computer programming environments, a variety of methods have
arisen:
• In URLs, character codes are written as hexadecimal pairs prefixed with %:
http://www.example.com/name%20with%20spaces where %20 is the space (blank) character (code value 20 in
hex, 32 in decimal).
• In XML and XHTML, characters can be expressed as hexadecimal numeric character references using the
notation &#xcode;, where code is the 1- to 6-digit hex number assigned to the character in the Unicode standard.
Thus &#x2019; represents the curled right single quote (Unicode value 2019 in hex, 8217 in decimal).
• Color references in HTML and CSS can be expressed with six hexdigits (two each for the red, green, and blue
components, in that order) prefixed with #: white, for example, is represented #FFFFFF .[1] CSS allows 3-hexdigit
abbreviations with one hexdigit per component: #FA3 abbreviates #FFAA33 (a golden orange).
• *nix (Unix and related) shells, and likewise the C programming language, which was designed for Unix (and the
syntactic descendants of C[2] ) use the prefix 0x for numeric constants represented in hex: 0x5A3. Character and
string constants may express character codes in hexadecimal with the prefix \x followed by two hex digits: '\x1B'
represents the Esc control character; "\x1B[0m\x1B[25;1H" is a string containing 11 characters (plus a trailing
NUL to mark the end of the string) with two embedded Esc characters.[3] To output an integer as hexadecimal
with the printf function family, the format conversion code %X or %x is used.
• In the Unicode standard, a character value is represented with U+ followed by the hex value: U+20AC is the Euro
sign (€).
Hexadecimal 179

• In MIME (e-mail extensions) quoted-printable encoding, characters that cannot be represented as literal ASCII
characters are represented by their codes as two hexadecimal digits (in ASCII) prefixed by an equal to sign =, as
in Espa=F1a to send "España" (Spain). (Hexadecimal F1, equal to decimal 241, is the code number for the lower
case n with tilde in the ISO/IEC 8859-1 character set.)
• In Intel-derived assembly languages, hexadecimal is indicated with a suffixed H or h: FFh or 05A3H. Some
implementations require a leading zero when the first hexadecimal digit character is not a decimal digit: 0FFh
• Other assembly languages (6502, AT&T, Motorola), Pascal, Delphi, some versions of BASIC (Commodore) and
Forth use $ as a prefix: $5A3.
• Some assembly languages (Microchip) use the notation H'ABCD' (for ABCD16).
• Ada and VHDL enclose hexadecimal numerals in based "numeric quotes": 16#5A3#. VHDL also supports
x"5A3".
• Verilog represents hexadecimal constants in the form 8'hFF, where 8 is the number of bits in the value and FF is
the hexadecimal constant.
• Modula-2 and some other languages use # as a prefix: #05A3
• The Smalltalk programming language uses the prefix 16r: 16r5A3
• Postscript indicates hex with prefix 16#: 16#5A3. Binary data (such as image pixels) can be expressed as
unprefixed consecutive hexadecimal pairs: AA213FD51B3801043FBC...
• In early systems when a Macintosh crashed, one or two lines of hexadecimal code would be displayed under the
Sad Mac to tell the user what went wrong.
• Common Lisp use the prefixes #x and #16r.
• QuickBASIC, FreeBASIC and Visual Basic prefix hexadecimal numbers with &H: &H5A3
• BBC BASIC and Locomotive BASIC use & for hex.[4]
• TI-89 and 92 series uses a 0h prefix: 0h5A3
• Notations such as X'5A3' are sometimes seen, such as in PL/I. This is the most common format for hexadecimal
on IBM mainframes (zSeries) and midrange computers (iSeries) running traditional OS's (zOS, zVSE, zVM, TPF,
OS/400), and is used in Assembler, PL/1, Cobol, JCL, scripts, commands and other places. This format was
common on other (and now obsolete) IBM systems as well.
• Donald Knuth introduced the use of a particular typeface to represent a particular radix in his book The
TeXbook.[5] Hexadecimal representations are written there in a typewriter typeface: 5A3
• Any IPv6 address can be written as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits, where each group is separated by a
colon (:). This, for example, is a valid IPv6 address: 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
There is no universal convention to use lowercase or uppercase for the
letter digits, and each is prevalent or preferred in particular
environments by community standards or convention.
The choice of the letters A through F to represent the digits above nine
was not universal in the early history of computers. During the 1950s,
some installations favored using the digits 0 through 5 with a macron
character ("¯") to indicate the values 10–15. Users of Bendix G-15
computers used the letters U through Z. Bruce A. Martin of
Brookhaven National Laboratory considered the choice of A–F Bruce A. Martin's hexadecimal notation proposal

"ridiculous" and in a 1968 letter to the editor of the CACM proposed

an entirely new set of symbols based on the bit locations, which did not gain much acceptance.[6]
Hexadecimal 180

Verbal and digital representations

There are no traditional numerals to represent the quantities from ten to fifteen—letters are used as a substitute—and
most Western European languages lack non-decimal names for the numerals above ten. Even though English has
names for several non-decimal powers (pair for the first binary power, score for the first vigesimal power, dozen,
gross, and great gross for the first three duodecimal powers), no English name describes the hexadecimal powers
(decimal 16, 256, 4096, 65536, ... ). Some people read hexadecimal numbers digit by digit like a phone number: 4DA
is "four-dee-ay". However, the letter A sounds like "eight", C sounds like "three", and D can easily be mistaken for
the "-ty" suffix: Is it 4D or forty? Other people avoid confusion by using the NATO phonetic alphabet: 4DA is
"four-delta-alfa"; or the Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet ("four-dog-able"); or a similar ad hoc system.
Systems of counting on digits have been devised for both binary and
hexadecimal. Arthur C. Clarke suggested using each finger as an on/off
bit, allowing finger counting from zero to 1023 on ten fingers. Another
system for counting up to FF (255) is illustrated on the right; it seems
to be an extension of an existing system for counting in twelves
(dozens and grosses), that is common in South Asia and elsewhere.

Signs
The hexadecimal system can express negative numbers the same way Hexadecimal finger-counting scheme.
as in decimal: –2A to represent –42 and so on.

However, some prefer instead to express the exact bit patterns used in the processor and consider hexadecimal values
best handled as signed values. This way, the negative number –42 can be written as FFFF FFD6 in a 32-bit CPU
register, as C228 0000 in a 32-bit FPU register or C045 0000 0000 0000 in a 64-bit FPU register (assuming certain
representation schemes, two's-complement in the 32-bit non-FPU instance and sign-magnitude in the FPU instances.)

Binary conversion
Most computers manipulate binary data, but it is difficult for humans to work with the large number of digits for
even a relatively small binary number. Although most humans are familiar with the base 10 system, it is much easier
to map binary to hexadecimal than to decimal because each hexadecimal digit maps to a whole number of bits (410).
This example converts 11112 to base ten. Since each position in a binary numeral can contain either a 1 or 0, its
value may be easily determined by its position from the right:
• 00012 = 110
• 00102 = 210
• 01002 = 410
• 10002 = 810
Therefore:

11112 = 810 + 410 + 210 + 110

= 1510

With surprisingly little practice, mapping 11112 to F16 in one step becomes easy: see table in Representing
hexadecimal. The advantage of using hexadecimal rather than decimal increases rapidly with the size of the number.
When the number becomes large, conversion to decimal is very tedious. However, when mapping to hexadecimal, it
is trivial to regard the binary string as 4-digit groups and map each to a single hexadecimal digit.
Hexadecimal 181

This example shows the conversion of a binary number to decimal, mapping each digit to the decimal value, and
adding the results.

010111101011010100102 = 26214410 + 6553610 + 3276810 + 1638410 + 819210 + 204810 + 51210 + 25610 + 6410 + 1610 + 210

= 38792210

Compare this to the conversion to hexadecimal, where each group of four digits can be considered independently,
and converted directly:

010111101011010100102 = 0101 1110 1011 0101 00102

= 5 E B 5 216

= 5EB5216

The conversion from hexadecimal to binary is equally direct.

The octal system can also be useful as a tool for people who need to deal directly with binary computer data. Octal
represents data as three bits per character, rather than four.

Converting from other bases

Division-remainder in source base

As with all bases there is a simple algorithm for converting a representation of a number to hexadecimal by doing
integer division and remainder operations in the source base. Theoretically this is possible from any base but for
most humans only decimal and for most computers only binary (which can be converted by far more efficient
methods) can be easily handled with this method.
Let d be the number to represent in hexadecimal, and the series hihi-1...h2h1 be the hexadecimal digits representing
the number.
1. i := 1
2. hi := d mod 16
3. d := (d-hi) / 16
4. If d = 0 (return series hi) else increment i and go to step 2
"16" may be replaced with any other base that may be desired.
The following is a JavaScript implementation of the above algorithm for converting any number to a hexadecimal in
String representation. Its purpose is to illustrate the above algorithm. To work with data seriously however, it is
much more advisable to work with bitwise operators.

function toHex(d) {
var r = d % 16;
var result;
if (d-r == 0)
result = toChar(r);
else
result = toHex( (d-r)/16 ) + toChar(r);
return result;
}

function toChar(n) {
const alpha = "0123456789ABCDEF";
Hexadecimal 182

return alpha.charAt(n);
}

Addition and multiplication

It is also possible to make the conversion by assigning each place in
the source base the hexadecimal representation of its place value and
then performing multiplication and addition to get the final
representation. I.e. to convert the number B3AD to decimal one can
split the conversion into D (1310), A (1010), 3 (310) and B (1110) then
get the final result by multiplying each decimal representation by 16p,
where 'p' is the corresponding position from right to left, beginning
with 0. In this case we have 13*(160) + 10*(161) + 3*(162) + 11*(163),
which is equal 45997 in the decimal system.

Tools for conversion

A hexadecimal multiplication table
Most modern computer systems with graphical user interfaces provide
a built-in calculator utility, capable of performing conversions between
various radixes, generally including hexadecimal.
In Microsoft Windows, the Calculator utility can be set to Scientific mode (called Programmer mode in some
versions), which allows conversions between radix 16 (hexadecimal), 10 (decimal), 8 (octal) and 2 (binary); the
bases most commonly used by programmers. In Scientific Mode, the on-screen numeric keypad includes the
hexadecimal digits A through F which are active when "Hex" is selected. In hex mode, however, the Windows
Calculator only supports integers.

Real numbers
As with other numeral systems, the hexadecimal system can be used to represent rational numbers, although
recurring digits are common since sixteen (10h) has only a single prime factor (two):

½ = 0.8 ⅙ = 0.2A 1⁄A = 0.19 1⁄E = 0.1249

⅓ = 0.5 1⁄7 = 0.249 1⁄B = 0.1745D 1⁄F = 0.1

¼ = 0.4 ⅛ = 0.2 1⁄C = 0.15 1⁄10 = 0.1

⅕ = 0.3 1⁄9 = 0.1C7 1⁄D = 0.13B 1⁄11 = 0.0F

where an overline indicates a recurring pattern.

For any base, 0.1 (or "1/10") is always equivalent to one divided by the representation of that base value in its own
number system: Counting in base 3 is 0, 1, 2, 10 (three). Thus, whether dividing one by two for binary or dividing
one by sixteen for hexadecimal, both of these fractions are written as 0.1. Because the radix 16 is a perfect square
(4²), fractions expressed in hexadecimal have an odd period much more often than decimal ones, and there are no
cyclic numbers (other than trivial single digits). Recurring digits are exhibited when the denominator in lowest terms
has a prime factor not found in the radix; thus, when using hexadecimal notation, all fractions with denominators that
are not a power of two result in an infinite string of recurring digits (such as thirds and fifths). This makes
hexadecimal (and binary) less convenient than decimal for representing rational numbers since a larger proportion lie
outside its range of finite representation.
All rational numbers finitely representable in hexadecimal are also finitely representable in decimal, duodecimal and
sexagesimal: that is, any hexadecimal number with a finite number of digits has a finite number of digits when
Hexadecimal 183

expressed in those other bases. Conversely, only a fraction of those finitely representable in the latter bases are
finitely representable in hexadecimal. For example, decimal 0.1 corresponds to the infinite recurring representation
0.199999999999... in hexadecimal. However, hexadecimal is more efficient than bases 12 and 60 for representing
fractions with powers of two in the denominator (e.g., decimal one sixteenth is 0.1 in hexadecimal, 0.09 in
duodecimal, 0;3,45 in sexagesimal and 0.0625 in decimal).

In decimal In hexadecimal
Prime factors of the base: 2, 5 Prime factors of the base: 2

Fraction Prime factors Positional representation Positional representation Prime factors Fraction
of the denominator of the denominator

1/2 2 0.5 0.8 2 1/2

1/3 3 0.3333... = 0.3 0.5555... = 0.5 3 1/3

1/4 2 0.25 0.4 2 1/4

1/5 5 0.2 0.3 5 1/5

1/6 2, 3 0.16 0.2A 2, 3 1/6

1/7 7 0.142857 0.249 7 1/7

1/8 2 0.125 0.2 2 1/8

1/9 3 0.1 0.1C7 3 1/9

1/10 2, 5 0.1 0.19 2, 5 1/A

1/11 11 0.09 0.1745D B 1/B

1/12 2, 3 0.083 0.15 2, 3 1/C

1/13 13 0.076923 0.13B D 1/D

1/14 2, 7 0.0714285 0.1249 2, 7 1/E

1/15 3, 5 0.06 0.1 3, 5 1/F

1/16 2 0.0625 0.1 2 1/10

1/17 17 0.0588235294117647 0.0F 11 1/11

1/18 2, 3 0.05 0.0E38 2, 3 1/12

1/19 19 0.052631578947368421 0.0D79435E50 13 1/13

1/20 2, 5 0.05 0.0C 2, 5 1/14

1/21 3, 7 0.047619 0.0C3 3, 7 1/15

1/22 2, 11 0.045 0.0BA2E8 2, B 1/16

1/23 23 0.0434782608695652173913 0.0B21642C8590 17 1/17

1/24 2, 3 0.0416 0.0A 2, 3 1/18

1/25 5 0.04 0.0A3D70 5 1/19

1/26 2, 13 0.0384615 0.09D8 2, B 1/1A

1/27 3 0.037 0.097B425ED 3 1/1B

1/28 2, 7 0.03571428 0.0924 2, 7 1/1C

1/29 29 0.0344827586206896551724137931 0.08D3DCB 1D 1/1D

1/30 2, 3, 5 0.03 0.08 2, 3, 5 1/1E

1/31 31 0.032258064516129 0.08421 1F 1/1F

1/32 2 0.03125 0.08 2 1/20

Hexadecimal 184

1/33 3, 11 0.03 0.07C1F 3, B 1/21

1/34 2, 17 0.02941176470588235 0.078 2, 11 1/22

1/35 5, 7 0.0285714 0.075 5, 7 1/23

1/36 2, 3 0.027 0.071C 2, 3 1/24

Algebraic irrational number In decimal In hexadecimal

√2 (the length of the diagonal of a unit square) 1.41421356237309... 1.6A09E667F3BCD...

√3 (the length of the diagonal of a unit cube) 1.73205080756887... 1.BB67AE8584CAA...

√5 (the length of the diagonal of a 1×2 rectangle) 2.2360679774997... 2.3C6EF372FE95...

φ (phi, the golden ratio = (1+√5)⁄2) 1.6180339887498... 1.9E3779B97F4A...

Transcendental irrational number

π (pi, the ratio of circumference to diameter) 3.1415926535897932384626433 3.243F6A8885A308D313198A2E0

8327950288419716939937510... 3707344A4093822299F31D008...

e (the base of the natural logarithm) 2.7182818284590452... 2.B7E151628AED2A6B...

τ (the Thue–Morse constant) 0.412454033640... 0.6996 9669 9669 6996 ...

Number

γ (the limiting difference between the harmonic series and the natural 0.5772156649015328606... 0.93C467E37DB0C7A4D1B...
logarithm)

Powers
Possibly the most widely used powers, powers of two, are easier to show using base 16. The first sixteen powers of
two are shown below.

value
2x

1
20

2
21

4
22

8
23

10hex
24

20hex
25

40hex
26

80hex
27

100hex
28

200hex
29

400hex
2A ( )

800hex
2B ( )

1000hex
2C ( )

2000hex
2D ( )
Hexadecimal 185

4000hex
2E ( )

8000hex
2F ( )

10000hex
210 ( )

Since four squared is sixteen, powers of four have an even easier relation:

value
4x

40 1

41 4

42 10hex

43 40hex

44 100hex

45 400hex

46 1000hex

47 4000hex

48 10000hex

This also makes tetration easier when using two and four since:
3
2 = 24 = 10hex,
4
2 = 216 = 10000hex and
5
2 = 265536 = (1 followed by 16384 zeros)hex.

Cultural

Etymology
The word hexadecimal is composed of hexa-, derived from the Greek έξ (hex) for "six", and -decimal, derived from
the Latin for "tenth". Webster's Third New International online derives "hexadecimal" as an alteration of the
all-Latin "sexadecimal" (which appears in the earlier Bendix documentation). The earliest date attested for
"hexadecimal" in Merriam-Webster Collegiate online is 1954, placing it safely in the category of international
scientific vocabulary (ISV). It is common in ISV to mix Greek and Latin combining forms freely. The word
"sexagesimal" (for base 60) retains the Latin prefix. Donald Knuth has pointed out that the etymologically correct
term is "senidenary", from the Latin term for "grouped by 16". (The terms "binary", "ternary" and "quaternary" are
from the same Latin construction, and the etymologically correct term for "decimal" arithmetic is "denary".)[7]
Schwartzman notes that the expected form from usual Latin phrasing would be "sexadecimal", but computer hackers
would be tempted to shorten that word to "sex".[8] The etymologically proper Greek term would be hexadecadic
(although in Modern Greek deca-hexadic (δεκαεξαδικός) is more commonly used).
Hexadecimal 186

Common patterns and humor

Hexadecimal is sometimes used in programmer jokes because certain words can be formed using only hexadecimal
digits. Some of these words are "dead", "beef", "babe", and with appropriate substitutions "c0ffee". Since these are
quickly recognizable by programmers, debugging setups sometimes initialize memory to them to help programmers
see when something has not been initialized. Some people add an H after a number if they want to show that it is
written in hexadecimal. In older Intel assembly syntax, this is sometimes the case.
An example is the magic number in Universal Mach-O files and java class file structure, which is "CAFEBABE".
Single-architecture 32-bit big-endian Mach-O files have the magic number "FEEDFACE" at their beginning.
"DEADBEEF" is sometimes put into uninitialized memory. Microsoft Windows XP clears its locked index.dat files
with the hex codes: "0BADF00D". The Visual C++ remote debugger uses "BADCAB1E" to denote a broken link to
the target system.
Two common bit patterns often employed to test hardware are 01010101 and 10101010 (their corresponding hex
values are 55h and AAh, respectively). The reason for their use is to alternate between off ('0') to on ('1') or vice
versa when switching between these two patterns. These two values are often used together as signatures in critical
PC system sectors (e.g., the hex word, 0xAA55 which on little-endian systems is 55h followed by AAh, must be at
the end of a valid Master Boot Record).
The following table shows a joke in hexadecimal:

3x12=36
2x12=24
1x12=12
0x12=18

The first three are interpreted as multiplication, but in the last, "0x" signals Hexadecimal interpretation of 12, which
is 18.
Another joke based on the use of a word containing only letters from the first six in the alphabet (and thus those used
in hexadecimal) is...
If only dead people understand hexadecimal, how many people understand hexadecimal?
In this case, "dead" refers to a hexadecimal number DEAD (57005 base 10), as opposed to the state of not being
alive.
A Knuth reward check is one hexadecimal dollar, or $2.56.

Primary numeral system

Similar to dozenal advocacy, there have been occasional attempts to promote hexadecimal as the preferred numeral
system. These attempts usually propose pronunciation and/or symbology.[9] Sometimes the proposal unifies standard
measures so that they are multiples of 16.[10] [11] [12]
An example of unifying standard measures is Hexadecimal time which subdivides a day by 16 so that there are 16
"hexhours" in a day.[12]
Hexadecimal 187

Key to number base notation

Simple key for notations used in article:

Full Text Notation Abbreviation Number Base

binary bin 2

octal oct 8

decimal dec 10

hexadecimal hex 16

See also
• Base32 (content encoding scheme)
• Base64 (content encoding scheme)
• Binary numeral system
• Hex editor
• Hexdump
• Hexadecimal time
• Hexspeak
• HTML
• Nibble — one hexadecimal digit can exactly represent one "nibble"
• Numeral system — a list of other base systems
• Web colours

References
[1] "Hexadecimal web colors explained" (http:/ / www. web-colors-explained. com/ hex. php). .
[2] Some of C's syntactic descendants are C++, C#, Java, JavaScript, and Windows PowerShell
[3] The string "\x1B[0m\x1B[25;1H" specifies the character sequence Esc [ 0 m Esc [ 2 5 ; 1 H Nul. These are the escape
sequences used on an ANSI terminal that reset the character set and color, and then move the cursor to line 25.
[4] BBC BASIC programs are not fully portable to Microsoft BASIC (without modification) since the latter takes & to prefix octal values.
(Microsoft BASIC primarily uses &O to prefix octal, and it uses &H to prefix hexadecimal, but the ampersand alone yields a default
interpretation as an octal prefix.
[5] Donald E. Knuth. The TeXbook (Computers and Typesetting, Volume A). Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1984. ISBN
0-201-13448-9. The source code of the book in TeX (http:/ / www. ctan. org/ tex-archive/ systems/ knuth/ tex/ texbook. tex) (and a required
set of macros CTAN.org (ftp:/ / tug. ctan. org/ pub/ tex-archive/ systems/ knuth/ lib/ manmac. tex)) is available online on CTAN.
[6] Letters to the editor: On binary notation, Bruce A. Martin, Associated Universities Inc., Communications of the ACM, Volume 11, Issue 10
(October 1968) Page: 658 doi:10.1145/364096.364107
[7] Knuth, Donald. (1969). Donald Knuth, in The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 2. ISBN 0-201-03802-1. (Chapter 17.)
[8] Schwartzman, S. (1994). The Words of Mathematics: an etymological dictionary of mathematical terms used in English. ISBN
0-88385-511-9.
[9] "Base 4^2 Hexadecimal Symbol Proposal" (http:/ / www. hauptmech. com/ base42). .
[10] "Intuitor Hex Headquarters" (http:/ / www. intuitor. com/ hex/ ). .
[11] "A proposal for addition of the six Hexadecimal digits (A-F) to Unicode" (http:/ / std. dkuug. dk/ jtc1/ sc2/ wg2/ docs/ n2677). .
[12] Nystrom, John William (1862). Project of a New System of Arithmetic, Weight, Measure and Coins: Proposed to be called the Tonal System,
with Sixteen to the Base (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=aNYGAAAAYAAJ). Philadelphia. .
Hex editor 188

Hex editor
A hex editor (or binary file editor or byte editor) is a type of computer program that allows a user to manipulate the
fundamental binary (0 / 1, zero / one) data that makes up computer files. Note that computer files can be very small
(just a name, with no content) to very large (content spanning multiple hard disks). A typical computer file occupies
multiple areas on the platter(s) of a disk drive, whose contents are put together to form the file. Hex editors that were
designed to read ("parse") and edit sector data from the physical segments of floppy or hard disks were sometimes
called sector editors or disk editors.

Details
By using a hex editor, a user can see or edit the raw
and exact contents of a file, as opposed to the
interpretation of the same content that other, higher
level application software may associate with the file
format. For example, this could be raw image data, in
contrast to the way image editing software would
interpret and show the same file.

In most hex editor applications, the data of the

computer file is represented as hexadecimal values
[1]
grouped in 4 groups of 4 bytes, followed by one group Screenshot of a common hex editor (hexedit by Pascal Rigaux
of 16 ASCII characters which are derived from each (Pixel))

pair of hex values (each byte). Non-printable ASCII

characters (e.g. Bell) and characters that would take more than one character space (e.g. tab) are typically
represented by a dot (".") in the following ASCII field.

See also
• Comparison of hex editors
• Hex dump
• Disk editor

External links
• The Linux Information Project. "Hex Editor Definition" [2]. Retrieved 2010-05-30.

References
[1] http:/ / rigaux. org/ hexedit. html
[2] http:/ / www. linfo. org/ hex_editor. html
AIFF 189

AIFF
Filename extension .aiff
.aif
.aifc

Internet media type audio/x-aiff

audio/aiff

Type code AIFF, AIFC

Uniform Type Identifier public.aiff-audio

public.aifc-audio

Developed by Apple Inc.

Initial release [1]

21 January 1988

Latest release 1.3 / 4 January 1989

[2]
AIFF-C / July 1991

Type of format audio file format, container

format

Extended from IFF (File format)

Audio Interchange File Format (AIFF) is an audio file format standard used for storing sound data for personal
computers and other electronic audio devices. The format was co-developed by Apple Computer in 1988 based on
Electronic Arts' Interchange File Format (IFF, widely used on Amiga systems) and is most commonly used on Apple
Macintosh computer systems.
The audio data in a standard AIFF file is uncompressed pulse-code modulation (PCM). There is also a compressed
variant of AIFF known as AIFF-C or AIFC, with various defined compression codecs.
Standard AIFF is a leading format (along with SDII and WAV) used by professional-level audio and video
applications, and unlike the better-known lossy MP3 format, it is non-compressed (which aids rapid streaming of
multiple audio files from disk to the application), and lossless. Like any non-compressed, lossless format, it uses
much more disk space than MP3—about 10MB for one minute of stereo audio at a sample rate of 44.1 kHz and a
sample size of 16 bits. In addition to audio data, AIFF can include loop point data and the musical note of a sample,
for use by hardware samplers and musical applications.
The file extension for the standard AIFF format is .aiff or .aif. For the compressed variants it is supposed to be .aifc,
but .aiff or .aif are accepted as well by audio applications supporting the format.

AIFF on Mac OS X
With the development of the Mac OS X operating system, Apple created a new type of AIFF which is, in effect, an
alternative little-endian byte order format.[3] [4]
Because the AIFF architecture has no provision for alternative byte order, Apple used the existing AIFF-C
compression architecture, and created a "pseudo-compressed" codec called sowt (twos spelled backwards). The only
difference between a standard AIFF file and an AIFF-C/sowt file is the byte order; there is no compression involved
at all.[5]
Apple uses this new little-endian AIFF type as its standard on Mac OS X. When a file is imported to or exported
from iTunes in "AIFF" format, it is actually AIFF-C/sowt that is being used. When audio from an audio CD disc is
imported by dragging to the Mac OS X Desktop, the resulting file is also an AIFF-C/sowt. In all cases, Apple refers
to the files simply as "AIFF", and uses the ".aiff" extension.
AIFF 190

For the vast majority of users this technical situation is completely unnoticeable and irrelevant. The sound quality of
standard AIFF and AIFF-C/sowt are identical, and the data can be converted back and forth without loss. Users of
older audio applications, however, may find that an AIFF-C/sowt file will not play, or will prompt the user to
convert the format on opening, or will play as static.
All traditional AIFF and AIFF-C files continue to work normally on Mac OS X (including on the new Intel-based
hardware), and many third-party audio applications as well as hardware continue to use the standard AIFF
big-endian byte order.
Note: As of Mac OS X version 10.4.9, the system will sometimes incorrectly display the AIFC icon for files with the
.aif extension, whether or not the actual file format is AIFF or AIFF-C. This can be verified by opening the files in a
hex editor and checking the FORM chunk's form type. This can sometimes happen when exporting files from
QuickTime, and frequently happens when sending and receiving files between Windows and Mac computers or
extracting files from an archive.

AIFF Apple Loops

Apple has also created another recent extension to the AIFF format in the form of Apple Loops[6] used by
GarageBand and Logic Audio, which allows the inclusion of data for pitch and tempo shifting by an application in
the more common variety, and MIDI-sequence data and references to GarageBand playback instruments in another
variety.
AppleLoops use the .aiff (or .aif) extension regardless of type.

Data format
An AIFF file is divided into a number of chunks. Each chunk is identified by a chunk ID more broadly referred to as
FourCC.
Types of chunks found in AIFF files:
• Common Chunk (required)
• Sound Data Chunk (required)
• Marker Chunk
• Instrument Chunk
• Comment Chunk
• Name Chunk
• Author Chunk
• Copyright Chunk
• Annotation Chunk
• Audio Recording Chunk
• MIDI Data Chunk
• Application Chunk
• ID3 Chunk
AIFF 191

AIFF-C common compression types

AIFF supports only uncompressed PCM data. AIFF-C also supports compression audio formats, that can be
specified in the "COMM" chunk. The compression type is "NONE" for PCM audio data. The compression type is
accompanied by a printable name. Common compression types and names include, but are not limited to:

AIFF-C common compression types[1] [7] [8]

Compression Compression Name Data Source
Type

NONE not compressed PCM Apple Computer, Inc.

fl32 32-bit floating point IEEE 32-bit float Apple Computer, Inc.

fl64 64-bit floating point IEEE 64-bit float Apple Computer, Inc.

alaw ALaw 2:1 8-bit ITU-T G.711 A-law Apple Computer, Inc.

ulaw µLaw 2:1 8-bit ITU-T G.711 µ-law Apple Computer, Inc.

ALAW CCITT G.711 A-law 8-bit ITU-T G.711 A-law (64 kb/s) SGI

ULAW CCITT G.711 u-law 8-bit ITU-T G.711 µ-law (64 kb/s) SGI

FL32 Float 32 IEEE 32-bit float SoundHack & Csound

ADP4 4:1 Intel/DVI ADPCM SoundHack

ima4 IMA 4:1

ACE2 ACE 2-to-1 Apple IIGS ACE (Audio Compression/Expansion)

ACE8 ACE 8-to-3

DWVW Delta With Variable Word Width TX16W Typhoon

MAC3 MACE 3-to-1 Apple Computer, Inc.

MAC6 MACE 6-to-1 Apple Computer, Inc.

Qclp Qualcomm PureVoice Qualcomm

QDMC QDesign Music QDesign

rt24 RT24 50:1 Voxware

rt29 RT29 50:1 Voxware

See also
• Apple Lossless
• FLAC
• WAV
• RIFF
• OSType
• FourCC
AIFF 192

External links
• AIFF file format details [9]
• AIFF file format - Byte order: Big-endian [10]
• Audio Interchange File Format AIFF-C - Draft 08/26/91 - Apple Computer, Inc. [11] - (archive.org backup)
• Creating AIFF Audio Formatted Files [12] - by Paul Bourke - (September 1996)
• Audio Interchange File Format: "AIFF" - A Standard for Sampled Sound Files, Version 1.2 [13]

References
[1] Apple Computer, Inc. (1989-01-04) (PDF), Audio Interchange File Format, A Standard for Sampled Sound Files, Version 1.3 (http:/ /
www-mmsp. ece. mcgill. ca/ Documents/ AudioFormats/ AIFF/ Docs/ AIFF-1. 3. pdf), , retrieved 2010-03-21
[2] P. Kabal (2005-03-15). "Audio File Format Specifications - AIFF / AIFF-C Specifications" (http:/ / www-mmsp. ece. mcgill. ca/ Documents/
AudioFormats/ AIFF/ AIFF. html). McGill University. . Retrieved 2010-03-21.
[3] Mac OSX Reference Library (http:/ / developer. apple. com/ mac/ library/ documentation/ Darwin/ Reference/ ManPages/ man1/ say. 1. html)
[4] Supported Audio File and Data Formats in Mac OS X (http:/ / developer. apple. com/ iphone/ library/ documentation/ musicaudio/
Conceptual/ CoreAudioOverview/ SupportedAudioFormatsMacOSX/ SupportedAudioFormatsMacOSX. html)
[5] "Technical Q&A QTMRF04: QuickTime Sound" (http:/ / developer. apple. com/ mac/ library/ qa/ qtmrf/ qtmrf04. html). Apple. 1995-05-01.
. Retrieved 2009-11-09.
[6] "Logic Studio - Plug-ins & Sounds" (http:/ / www. apple. com/ logicstudio/ soundlibrary/ #loops). Apple. . Retrieved 2010-04-30.
[7] Tom Erbe (1999). "AIFF-C Compression Types and Names" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060620002145/ shoko. calarts. edu/ ~tre/
AIFFC/ comptype. html). archive.org. . Retrieved 2010-03-21.
[8] "JSTOR/Harvard Object Validation Environment - AIFF-hul Module" (http:/ / hul. harvard. edu/ jhove/ aiff-hul. html). 2005-05-09. .
Retrieved 2010-03-21.
[9] http:/ / muratnkonar. com/ aiff/ index. html
[10] http:/ / www. onicos. com/ staff/ iz/ formats/ aiff. html
[11] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071219035740/ http:/ / www. cnpbagwell. com/ aiff-c. txt
[12] http:/ / local. wasp. uwa. edu. au/ ~pbourke/ dataformats/ audio/
[13] http:/ / multimedia. cx/ mirror/ AudioIFF1_2_1. htm
Calculus 193

Calculus
Calculus (Latin, calculus, a small stone used for counting) is a branch in mathematics focused on limits, functions,
derivatives, integrals, and infinite series. This subject constitutes a major part of modern mathematics education. It
has two major branches, differential calculus and integral calculus, which are related by the fundamental theorem
of calculus. Calculus is the study of change[1] , in the same way that geometry is the study of shape and algebra is the
study of operations and their application to solving equations. A course in calculus is a gateway to other, more
advanced courses in mathematics devoted to the study of functions and limits, broadly called mathematical analysis.
Calculus has widespread applications in science, economics, and engineering and can solve many problems for
which algebra alone is insufficient.
Historically, calculus was called "the calculus of infinitesimals", or "infinitesimal calculus". More generally, calculus
(plural calculi) may refer to any method or system of calculation guided by the symbolic manipulation of
expressions. Some examples of other well-known calculi are propositional calculus, variational calculus, lambda
calculus, pi calculus, and join calculus.

History

Ancient
The ancient period introduced some of the ideas of integral
calculus, but does not seem to have developed these ideas in a
rigorous or systematic way. Calculating volumes and areas, the
basic function of integral calculus, can be traced back to the
Egyptian Moscow papyrus (c. 1820 BC), in which an Egyptian
successfully calculated the volume of a pyramidal frustum.[2] [3]
From the school of Greek mathematics, Eudoxus (c. 408−355 BC)
used the method of exhaustion, which prefigures the concept of the
limit, to calculate areas and volumes while Archimedes (c.
287−212 BC) developed this idea further, inventing heuristics
which resemble integral calculus.[4] The method of exhaustion was
later reinvented in China by Liu Hui in the 3rd century AD in
order to find the area of a circle. In the 5th century AD, Zu
Chongzhi established a method which would later be called
Cavalieri's principle to find the volume of a sphere.[3]

Medieval
Isaac Newton is one of the most famous contributors to
Around AD 1000, the Islamic mathematician Ibn al-Haytham the development of calculus, with, among other things,
the use of calculus in his laws of motion and
(Alhacen) was the first to derive the formula for the sum of the
gravitation.
fourth powers of an arithmetic progression, using a method that is
readily generalizable to finding the formula for the sum of any
higher integral powers, which he used to perform an integration.[5] In the 11th century, the Chinese polymath Shen
Kuo developed 'packing' equations that dealt with integration. In the 12th century, the Indian mathematician,
Bhāskara II, developed an early derivative representing infinitesimal change, and he described an early form of
Rolle's theorem.[6] Also in the 12th century, the Persian mathematician Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī discovered the

derivative of cubic polynomials, an important result in differential calculus.[7] In the 14th century, Indian
mathematician Madhava of Sangamagrama, along with other mathematician-astronomers of the Kerala school of
Calculus 194

astronomy and mathematics, described special cases of Taylor series,[8] which are treated in the text Yuktibhasa.[9]
[10] [11]

Modern
In Europe, the foundational work was a treatise due to Bonaventura Cavalieri, who argued that volumes and areas
should be computed as the sums of the volumes and areas of infinitesimal thin cross-sections. The ideas were similar
to Archimedes' in The Method, but this treatise was lost until the early part of the twentieth century. Cavalieri's work
was not well respected since his methods can lead to erroneous results, and the infinitesimal quantities he introduced
were disreputable at first.
The formal study of calculus combined Cavalieri's infinitesimals with the calculus of finite differences developed in
Europe at around the same time. The combination was achieved by John Wallis, Isaac Barrow, and James Gregory,
the latter two proving the second fundamental theorem of calculus around 1675.
The product rule and chain rule, the notion of higher derivatives, Taylor series, and analytical functions were
introduced by Isaac Newton in an idiosyncratic notation which he used to solve problems of mathematical physics.
In his publications, Newton rephrased his ideas to suit the mathematical idiom of the time, replacing calculations
with infinitesimals by equivalent geometrical arguments which were considered beyond reproach. He used the
methods of calculus to solve the problem of planetary motion, the shape of the surface of a rotating fluid, the
oblateness of the earth, the motion of a weight sliding on a cycloid, and many other problems discussed in his
Principia Mathematica. In other work, he developed series expansions for functions, including fractional and
irrational powers, and it was clear that he understood the principles of the Taylor series. He did not publish all these
discoveries, and at this time infinitesimal methods were still considered disreputable.
These ideas were systematized into a true calculus of
infinitesimals by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who was originally
accused of plagiarism by Newton. He is now regarded as an
independent inventor of and contributor to calculus. His
contribution was to provide a clear set of rules for manipulating
infinitesimal quantities, allowing the computation of second and
higher derivatives, and providing the product rule and chain rule,
in their differential and integral forms. Unlike Newton, Leibniz
paid a lot of attention to the formalism—he often spent days
determining appropriate symbols for concepts.

Leibniz and Newton are usually both credited with the invention
of calculus. Newton was the first to apply calculus to general
physics and Leibniz developed much of the notation used in
calculus today. The basic insights that both Newton and Leibniz
provided were the laws of differentiation and integration, second
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was originally accused of and higher derivatives, and the notion of an approximating
plagiarizing Sir Isaac Newton's unpublished work (only polynomial series. By Newton's time, the fundamental theorem of
in Britain, not in continental Europe), but is now calculus was known.
regarded as an independent inventor of and contributor
to calculus. When Newton and Leibniz first published their results, there was
great controversy over which mathematician (and therefore which
country) deserved credit. Newton derived his results first, but Leibniz published first. Newton claimed Leibniz stole
ideas from his unpublished notes, which Newton had shared with a few members of the Royal Society. This
controversy divided English-speaking mathematicians from continental mathematicians for many years, to the
Calculus 195

detriment of English mathematics. A careful examination of the papers of Leibniz and Newton shows that they
arrived at their results independently, with Leibniz starting first with integration and Newton with differentiation.
Today, both Newton and Leibniz are given credit for developing calculus independently. It is Leibniz, however, who
gave the new discipline its name. Newton called his calculus "the science of fluxions".
Since the time of Leibniz and Newton, many mathematicians have contributed to the continuing development of
calculus. In the 19th century, calculus was put on a much more rigorous footing by mathematicians such as Cauchy,
Riemann, and Weierstrass (see (ε, δ)-definition of limit). It was also during this period that the ideas of calculus were
generalized to Euclidean space and the complex plane. Lebesgue generalized the notion of the integral so that
virtually any function has an integral, while Laurent Schwartz extended differentiation in much the same way.
Calculus is a ubiquitous topic in most modern high schools and universities around the world.[12]

Significance
While some of the ideas of calculus were developed earlier in Egypt, Greece, China, India, Iraq, Persia, and Japan,
the modern use of calculus began in Europe, during the 17th century, when Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz built on the work of earlier mathematicians to introduce its basic principles. The development of calculus
was built on earlier concepts of instantaneous motion and area underneath curves.
Applications of differential calculus include computations involving velocity and acceleration, the slope of a curve,
and optimization. Applications of integral calculus include computations involving area, volume, arc length, center
of mass, work, and pressure. More advanced applications include power series and Fourier series. Calculus can be
used to compute the trajectory of a shuttle docking at a space station or the amount of snow in a driveway.
Calculus is also used to gain a more precise understanding of the nature of space, time, and motion. For centuries,
mathematicians and philosophers wrestled with paradoxes involving division by zero or sums of infinitely many
numbers. These questions arise in the study of motion and area. The ancient Greek philosopher Zeno gave several
famous examples of such paradoxes. Calculus provides tools, especially the limit and the infinite series, which
resolve the paradoxes.

Foundations
In mathematics, foundations refers to the rigorous development of a subject from precise axioms and definitions.
Working out a rigorous foundation for calculus occupied mathematicians for much of the century following Newton
and Leibniz and is still to some extent an active area of research today.
There is more than one rigorous approach to the foundation of calculus. The usual one today is via the concept of
limits defined on the continuum of real numbers. An alternative is nonstandard analysis, in which the real number
system is augmented with infinitesimal and infinite numbers, as in the original Newton-Leibniz conception. The
foundations of calculus are included in the field of real analysis, which contains full definitions and proofs of the
theorems of calculus as well as generalizations such as measure theory and distribution theory.

Principles

Limits and infinitesimals

Calculus is usually developed by manipulating very small quantities. Historically, the first method of doing so was
by infinitesimals. These are objects which can be treated like numbers but which are, in some sense, "infinitely
small". An infinitesimal number dx could be greater than 0, but less than any number in the sequence 1, 1/2, 1/3, ...
and less than any positive real number. Any integer multiple of an infinitesimal is still infinitely small, i.e.,
infinitesimals do not satisfy the Archimedean property. From this point of view, calculus is a collection of techniques
for manipulating infinitesimals. This approach fell out of favor in the 19th century because it was difficult to make
Calculus 196

the notion of an infinitesimal precise. However, the concept was revived in the 20th century with the introduction of
non-standard analysis and smooth infinitesimal analysis, which provided solid foundations for the manipulation of
infinitesimals.
In the 19th century, infinitesimals were replaced by limits. Limits describe the value of a function at a certain input
in terms of its values at nearby input. They capture small-scale behavior, just like infinitesimals, but use the ordinary
real number system. In this treatment, calculus is a collection of techniques for manipulating certain limits.
Infinitesimals get replaced by very small numbers, and the infinitely small behavior of the function is found by
taking the limiting behavior for smaller and smaller numbers. Limits are the easiest way to provide rigorous
foundations for calculus, and for this reason they are the standard approach.

Differential calculus
Differential calculus is the study of the
definition, properties, and applications of
the derivative of a function. The process of
finding the derivative is called
differentiation. Given a function and a point
in the domain, the derivative at that point is
a way of encoding the small-scale behavior
of the function near that point. By finding
the derivative of a function at every point in
its domain, it is possible to produce a new
function, called the derivative function or
just the derivative of the original function.
In mathematical jargon, the derivative is a
linear operator which inputs a function and Tangent line at (x, f(x)). The derivative f′(x) of a curve at a point is the slope (rise
over run) of the line tangent to that curve at that point.
outputs a second function. This is more
abstract than many of the processes studied
in elementary algebra, where functions usually input a number and output another number. For example, if the
doubling function is given the input three, then it outputs six, and if the squaring function is given the input three,
then it outputs nine. The derivative, however, can take the squaring function as an input. This means that the
derivative takes all the information of the squaring function—such as that two is sent to four, three is sent to nine,
four is sent to sixteen, and so on—and uses this information to produce another function. (The function it produces
turns out to be the doubling function.)

The most common symbol for a derivative is an apostrophe-like mark called prime. Thus, the derivative of the
function of f is f′, pronounced "f prime." For instance, if f(x) = x2 is the squaring function, then f′(x) = 2x is its
derivative, the doubling function.
If the input of the function represents time, then the derivative represents change with respect to time. For example,
if f is a function that takes a time as input and gives the position of a ball at that time as output, then the derivative of
f is how the position is changing in time, that is, it is the velocity of the ball.
If a function is linear (that is, if the graph of the function is a straight line), then the function can be written y = mx +
b, where:

This gives an exact value for the slope of a straight line. If the graph of the function is not a straight line, however,
then the change in y divided by the change in x varies. Derivatives give an exact meaning to the notion of change in
Calculus 197

output with respect to change in input. To be concrete, let f be a function, and fix a point a in the domain of f. (a,
f(a)) is a point on the graph of the function. If h is a number close to zero, then a + h is a number close to a.
Therefore (a + h, f(a + h)) is close to (a, f(a)). The slope between these two points is

This expression is called a difference quotient. A line through two points on a curve is called a secant line, so m is
the slope of the secant line between (a, f(a)) and (a + h, f(a + h)). The secant line is only an approximation to the
behavior of the function at the point a because it does not account for what happens between a and a + h. It is not
possible to discover the behavior at a by setting h to zero because this would require dividing by zero, which is
impossible. The derivative is defined by taking the limit as h tends to zero, meaning that it considers the behavior of f
for all small values of h and extracts a consistent value for the case when h equals zero:

Geometrically, the derivative is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at a. The tangent line is a limit of secant
lines just as the derivative is a limit of difference quotients. For this reason, the derivative is sometimes called the
slope of the function f.
Here is a particular example, the derivative of the squaring function at the input 3. Let f(x) = x2 be the squaring
function.

The derivative f′(x) of a curve at a point is the slope of the line tangent to that curve
at that point. This slope is determined by considering the limiting value of the
slopes of secant lines. Here the function involved (drawn in red) is f(x) = x3 − x.
The tangent line (in green) which passes through the point (−3/2, −15/8) has a
slope of 23/4. Note that the vertical and horizontal scales in this image are
different.
Calculus 198

The slope of tangent line to the squaring function at the point (3,9) is 6, that is to say, it is going up six times as fast
as it is going to the right. The limit process just described can be performed for any point in the domain of the
squaring function. This defines the derivative function of the squaring function, or just the derivative of the squaring
function for short. A similar computation to the one above shows that the derivative of the squaring function is the
doubling function.

Leibniz notation
A common notation, introduced by Leibniz, for the derivative in the example above is

In an approach based on limits, the symbol dy/dx is to be interpreted not as the quotient of two numbers but as a
shorthand for the limit computed above. Leibniz, however, did intend it to represent the quotient of two
infinitesimally small numbers, dy being the infinitesimally small change in y caused by an infinitesimally small
change dx applied to x. We can also think of d/dx as a differentiation operator, which takes a function as an input and
gives another function, the derivative, as the output. For example:

In this usage, the dx in the denominator is read as "with respect to x". Even when calculus is developed using limits
rather than infinitesimals, it is common to manipulate symbols like dx and dy as if they were real numbers; although
it is possible to avoid such manipulations, they are sometimes notationally convenient in expressing operations such
as the total derivative.

Integral calculus
Integral calculus is the study of the definitions, properties, and applications of two related concepts, the indefinite
integral and the definite integral. The process of finding the value of an integral is called integration. In technical
language, integral calculus studies two related linear operators.
The indefinite integral is the antiderivative, the inverse operation to the derivative. F is an indefinite integral of f
when f is a derivative of F. (This use of upper- and lower-case letters for a function and its indefinite integral is
common in calculus.)
The definite integral inputs a function and outputs a number, which gives the area between the graph of the input
and the x-axis. The technical definition of the definite integral is the limit of a sum of areas of rectangles, called a
Riemann sum.
A motivating example is the distances traveled in a given time.

If the speed is constant, only multiplication is needed, but if the speed changes, then we need a more powerful
method of finding the distance. One such method is to approximate the distance traveled by breaking up the time into
Calculus 199

many short intervals of time, then multiplying the time elapsed in each interval by one of the speeds in that interval,
and then taking the sum (a Riemann sum) of the approximate distance traveled in each interval. The basic idea is that
if only a short time elapses, then the speed will stay more or less the same. However, a Riemann sum only gives an
approximation of the distance traveled. We must take the limit of all such Riemann sums to find the exact distance
traveled.
If f(x) in the diagram on the left represents speed
as it varies over time, the distance traveled
(between the times represented by a and b) is the
area of the shaded region s.
To approximate that area, an intuitive method
would be to divide up the distance between a
and b into a number of equal segments, the
length of each segment represented by the
symbol Δx. For each small segment, we can
choose one value of the function f(x). Call that
value h. Then the area of the rectangle with base
Δx and height h gives the distance (time Δx
multiplied by speed h) traveled in that segment.
Associated with each segment is the average
value of the function above it, f(x)=h. The sum
Integration can be thought of as measuring the area under a curve, defined by of all such rectangles gives an approximation of
f(x), between two points (here a and b). the area between the axis and the curve, which is
an approximation of the total distance traveled.
A smaller value for Δx will give more rectangles and in most cases a better approximation, but for an exact answer
we need to take a limit as Δx approaches zero.

The symbol of integration is , an elongated S (the S stands for "sum"). The definite integral is written as:

and is read "the integral from a to b of f-of-x with respect to x." The Leibniz notation dx is intended to suggest
dividing the area under the curve into an infinite number of rectangles, so that their width Δx becomes the
infinitesimally small dx. In a formulation of the calculus based on limits, the notation

is to be understood as an operator that takes a function as an input and gives a number, the area, as an output; dx is
not a number, and is not being multiplied by f(x).
The indefinite integral, or antiderivative, is written:

Functions differing by only a constant have the same derivative, and therefore the antiderivative of a given function
is actually a family of functions differing only by a constant. Since the derivative of the function y = x² + C, where C
is any constant, is y′ = 2x, the antiderivative of the latter is given by:

An undetermined constant like C in the antiderivative is known as a constant of integration.

Calculus 200

Fundamental theorem
The fundamental theorem of calculus states that differentiation and integration are inverse operations. More
precisely, it relates the values of antiderivatives to definite integrals. Because it is usually easier to compute an
antiderivative than to apply the definition of a definite integral, the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus provides a
practical way of computing definite integrals. It can also be interpreted as a precise statement of the fact that
differentiation is the inverse of integration.
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus states: If a function f is continuous on the interval [a, b] and if F is a function
whose derivative is f on the interval (a, b), then

Furthermore, for every x in the interval (a, b),

This realization, made by both Newton and Leibniz, who based their results on earlier work by Isaac Barrow, was
key to the massive proliferation of analytic results after their work became known. The fundamental theorem
provides an algebraic method of computing many definite integrals—without performing limit processes—by
finding formulas for antiderivatives. It is also a prototype solution of a differential equation. Differential equations
relate an unknown function to its derivatives, and are ubiquitous in the sciences.

Applications
Calculus is used in every branch of the physical sciences, actuarial
science, computer science, statistics, engineering, economics, business,
medicine, demography, and in other fields wherever a problem can be
mathematically modeled and an optimal solution is desired. It allows
one to go from (non-constant) rates of change to the total change or
vice versa, and many times in studying a problem we know one and are
trying to find the other.

Physics makes particular use of calculus; all concepts in classical

mechanics and electromagnetism are interrelated through calculus. The The logarithmic spiral of the Nautilus shell is a
mass of an object of known density, the moment of inertia of objects, classical image used to depict the growth and
as well as the total energy of an object within a conservative field can change related to calculus

be found by the use of calculus. An example of the use of calculus in

mechanics is Newton's second law of motion: historically stated it expressly uses the term "rate of change" which
refers to the derivative saying The rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the resultant force acting on
the body and is in the same direction. Commonly expressed today as Force = Mass × acceleration, it involves
differential calculus because acceleration is the time derivative of velocity or second time derivative of trajectory or
spatial position. Starting from knowing how an object is accelerating, we use calculus to derive its path.

Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism and Einstein's theory of general relativity are also expressed in the language
of differential calculus. Chemistry also uses calculus in determining reaction rates and radioactive decay. In biology,
population dynamics starts with reproduction and death rates to model population changes.
Calculus can be used in conjunction with other mathematical disciplines. For example, it can be used with linear
algebra to find the "best fit" linear approximation for a set of points in a domain. Or it can be used in probability
theory to determine the probability of a continuous random variable from an assumed density function. In analytic
geometry, the study of graphs of functions, calculus is used to find high points and low points (maxima and minima),
slope, concavity and inflection points.
Calculus 201

Green's Theorem, which gives the relationship between a line integral around a simple closed curve C and a double
integral over the plane region D bounded by C, is applied in an instrument known as a planimeter which is used to
calculate the area of a flat surface on a drawing. For example, it can be used to calculate the amount of area taken up
by an irregularly shaped flower bed or swimming pool when designing the layout of a piece of property.
In the realm of medicine, calculus can be used to find the optimal branching angle of a blood vessel so as to
maximize flow. From the decay laws for a particular drug's elimination from the body, it's used to derive dosing
laws. In nuclear medicine, it's used to build models of radiation transport in targeted tumor therapies.
In economics, calculus allows for the determination of maximal profit by providing a way to easily calculate both
marginal cost and marginal revenue.
Calculus is also used to find approximate solutions to equations; in practice it's the standard way to solve differential
equations and do root finding in most applications. Examples are methods such as Newton's method, fixed point
iteration, and linear approximation. For instance, spacecraft use a variation of the Euler method to approximate
curved courses within zero gravity environments.

See also

Lists
• List of differentiation identities
• List of calculus topics
• Publications in calculus
• Table of integrals

Related topics
• Calculus of finite differences
• Calculus with polynomials
• Complex analysis
• Differential equation
• Differential geometry
• Elementary calculus
• Fourier series
• Integral equation
• Mathematical analysis
• Mathematics
• Multivariable calculus
• Non-classical analysis
• Non-standard analysis
• Non-standard calculus
• Precalculus (mathematical education)
• Product Integrals
• Stochastic calculus
• Taylor series
• Time-scale calculus
Calculus 202

References

Books
• Larson, Ron, Bruce H. Edwards (2010). "Calculus", 9th ed., Brooks Cole Cengage Learning. ISBN
9780547167022
• McQuarrie, Donald A. (2003). Mathematical Methods for Scientists and Engineers, University Science Books.
ISBN 9781891389245
• Stewart, James (2008). Calculus: Early Transcendentals, 6th ed., Brooks Cole Cengage Learning. ISBN
9780495011668
• Thomas, George B., Maurice D. Weir, Joel Hass, Frank R. Giordano (2008), "Calculus", 11th ed.,
Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-321-48987-X

Other resources

Further reading
• Courant, Richard ISBN 978-3540650584 Introduction to calculus and analysis 1.
• Edmund Landau. ISBN 0-8218-2830-4 Differential and Integral Calculus, American Mathematical Society.
• Robert A. Adams. (1999). ISBN 978-0-201-39607-2 Calculus: A complete course.
• Albers, Donald J.; Richard D. Anderson and Don O. Loftsgaarden, ed. (1986) Undergraduate Programs in the
Mathematics and Computer Sciences: The 1985-1986 Survey, Mathematical Association of America No. 7.
• John Lane Bell: A Primer of Infinitesimal Analysis, Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 978-0-521-62401-5.
Uses synthetic differential geometry and nilpotent infinitesimals.
• Florian Cajori, "The History of Notations of the Calculus." Annals of Mathematics, 2nd Ser., Vol. 25, No. 1 (Sep.,
1923), pp. 1–46.
• Leonid P. Lebedev and Michael J. Cloud: "Approximating Perfection: a Mathematician's Journey into the World
of Mechanics, Ch. 1: The Tools of Calculus", Princeton Univ. Press, 2004.
• Cliff Pickover. (2003). ISBN 978-0-471-26987-8 Calculus and Pizza: A Math Cookbook for the Hungry Mind.
• Michael Spivak. (September 1994). ISBN 978-0-914098-89-8 Calculus. Publish or Perish publishing.
• Tom M. Apostol. (1967). ISBN 9780471000051 Calculus, Volume 1, One-Variable Calculus with an Introduction
to Linear Algebra. Wiley.
• Tom M. Apostol. (1969). ISBN 9780471000075 Calculus, Volume 2, Multi-Variable Calculus and Linear
Algebra with Applications. Wiley.
• Silvanus P. Thompson and Martin Gardner. (1998). ISBN 978-0-312-18548-0 Calculus Made Easy.
• Mathematical Association of America. (1988). Calculus for a New Century; A Pump, Not a Filter, The
Association, Stony Brook, NY. ED 300 252.
• Thomas/Finney. (1996). ISBN 978-0-201-53174-9 Calculus and Analytic geometry 9th, Addison Wesley.
• Weisstein, Eric W. "Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus." [13] From MathWorld—A Wolfram Web
Resource.
Calculus 203

Online books
• Crowell, B. (2003). "Calculus" Light and Matter, Fullerton. Retrieved 6 May 2007 from http://www.
lightandmatter.com/calc/calc.pdf [14]
• Garrett, P. (2006). "Notes on first year calculus" University of Minnesota. Retrieved 6 May 2007 from
http://www.math.umn.edu/~garrett/calculus/first_year/notes.pdf [15]
• Faraz, H. (2006). "Understanding Calculus" Retrieved 6 May 2007 from Understanding Calculus, URL http://
www.understandingcalculus.com/ [16] (HTML only)
• Keisler, H. J. (2000). "Elementary Calculus: An Approach Using Infinitesimals" Retrieved 29 August 2010 from
http://www.math.wisc.edu/~keisler/calc.html [17]
• Mauch, S. (2004). "Sean's Applied Math Book" California Institute of Technology. Retrieved 6 May 2007 from
http://www.cacr.caltech.edu/~sean/applied_math.pdf [18]
• Sloughter, Dan (2000). "Difference Equations to Differential Equations: An introduction to calculus". Retrieved
17 March 2009 from http://synechism.org/drupal/de2de/ [19]
• Stroyan, K.D. (2004). "A brief introduction to infinitesimal calculus" University of Iowa. Retrieved 6 May 2007
from http://www.math.uiowa.edu/~stroyan/InfsmlCalculus/InfsmlCalc.htm [20] (HTML only)
• Strang, G. (1991). "Calculus" Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 6 May 2007 from http://ocw.
mit.edu/ans7870/resources/Strang/strangtext.htm [21]
• Smith, William V. (2001). "The Calculus" Retrieved 4 July 2008 [22] (HTML only).

External links
• Weisstein, Eric W., "Calculus [23]" from MathWorld.
• Topics on Calculus [24] at PlanetMath.
• Calculus Made Easy (1914) by Silvanus P. Thompson [25] Full text in PDF
• Calculus.org: The Calculus page [26] at University of California, Davis – contains resources and links to other
sites
• COW: Calculus on the Web [27] at Temple University – contains resources ranging from pre-calculus and
associated algebra
• Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics: Calculus & Analysis [28]
• Online Integrator (WebMathematica) [29] from Wolfram Research
• The Role of Calculus in College Mathematics [30] from ERICDigests.org
• OpenCourseWare Calculus [31] from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
• Infinitesimal Calculus [32] – an article on its historical development, in Encyclopaedia of Mathematics, Michiel
Hazewinkel ed. .
• Elements of Calculus I [33] and Calculus II for Business [34], OpenCourseWare from the University of Notre
Dame with activities, exams and interactive applets.
• Calculus for Beginners and Artists [35] by Daniel Kleitman, MIT
• Calculus Problems and Solutions [36] by D. A. Kouba
• Solved problems in calculus [37]
Calculus 204

References
[1] Latorre, Donald R.; Kenelly, John W.; Reed, Iris B.; Biggers, Sherry (2007), Calculus Concepts: An Applied Approach to the Mathematics of
Change (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=bQhX-3k0LS8C), Cengage Learning, p. 2, ISBN 0-618-78981-2, , Chapter 1, p 2 (http:/ /
books. google. com/ books?id=bQhX-3k0LS8C& pg=PA2)
[2] There is no exact evidence on how it was done; some, including Morris Kline (Mathematical thought from ancient to modern times Vol. I)
suggest trial and error.
[3] Helmer Aslaksen. Why Calculus? (http:/ / www. math. nus. edu. sg/ aslaksen/ teaching/ calculus. html) National University of Singapore.
[4] Archimedes, Method, in The Works of Archimedes ISBN 978-0-521-66160-7
[5] Victor J. Katz (1995). "Ideas of Calculus in Islam and India", Mathematics Magazine 68 (3), pp. 163-174.
[6] Ian G. Pearce. Bhaskaracharya II. (http:/ / turnbull. mcs. st-and. ac. uk/ ~history/ Projects/ Pearce/ Chapters/ Ch8_5. html)
[7] J. L. Berggren (1990). "Innovation and Tradition in Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi's Muadalat", Journal of the American Oriental Society 110 (2), pp.
304-309.
[8] "Madhava" (http:/ / www-gap. dcs. st-and. ac. uk/ ~history/ Biographies/ Madhava. html). Biography of Madhava. School of Mathematics
and Statistics University of St Andrews, Scotland. . Retrieved 2006-09-13.
[9] "An overview of Indian mathematics" (http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-andrews. ac. uk/ HistTopics/ Indian_mathematics. html). Indian Maths.
School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St Andrews, Scotland. . Retrieved 2006-07-07.
[10] "Science and technology in free India" (http:/ / www. kerala. gov. in/ keralcallsep04/ p22-24. pdf) (PDF). Government of Kerala — Kerala
Call, September 2004. Prof.C.G.Ramachandran Nair. . Retrieved 2006-07-09.
[11] Charles Whish (1834), "On the Hindu Quadrature of the circle and the infinite series of the proportion of the circumference to the diameter
exhibited in the four Sastras, the Tantra Sahgraham, Yucti Bhasha, Carana Padhati and Sadratnamala", Transactions of the Royal Asiatic
Society of Great Britain and Ireland (Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland) 3 (3): 509–523, doi:10.1017/S0950473700001221,
JSTOR 25581775
[12] UNESCO-World Data on Education (http:/ / nt5. scbbs. com/ cgi-bin/ om_isapi. dll?clientID=137079235& infobase=iwde. nfo&
softpage=PL_frame)
[13] http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ SecondFundamentalTheoremofCalculus. html
[14] http:/ / www. lightandmatter. com/ calc/ calc. pdf
[15] http:/ / www. math. umn. edu/ ~garrett/ calculus/ first_year/ notes. pdf
[16] http:/ / www. understandingcalculus. com/
[17] http:/ / www. math. wisc. edu/ ~keisler/ calc. html
[18] http:/ / www. cacr. caltech. edu/ ~sean/ applied_math. pdf
[19] http:/ / synechism. org/ drupal/ de2de/
[20] http:/ / www. math. uiowa. edu/ ~stroyan/ InfsmlCalculus/ InfsmlCalc. htm
[21] http:/ / ocw. mit. edu/ ans7870/ resources/ Strang/ strangtext. htm
[22] http:/ / www. math. byu. edu/ ~smithw/ Calculus/
[23] http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ Calculus. html
[24] http:/ / planetmath. org/ encyclopedia/ TopicsOnCalculus. html
[25] http:/ / djm. cc/ library/ Calculus_Made_Easy_Thompson. pdf
[26] http:/ / www. calculus. org
[27] http:/ / cow. math. temple. edu/
[28] http:/ / www. economics. soton. ac. uk/ staff/ aldrich/ Calculus%20and%20Analysis%20Earliest%20Uses. htm
[29] http:/ / integrals. wolfram. com/
[30] http:/ / www. ericdigests. org/ pre-9217/ calculus. htm
[31] http:/ / ocw. mit. edu/ OcwWeb/ Mathematics/ index. htm
[32] http:/ / eom. springer. de/ I/ i050950. htm
[33] http:/ / ocw. nd. edu/ mathematics/ elements-of-calculus-i
[34] http:/ / ocw. nd. edu/ mathematics/ calculus-ii-for-business
[35] http:/ / math. mit. edu/ ~djk/ calculus_beginners/
[36] http:/ / www. math. ucdavis. edu/ ~kouba/ ProblemsList. html
[37] http:/ / calculus. solved-problems. com/
 205

Places

India

Republic of India
भारत गणराज्य*
Bhārat Gaṇarājya

Motto: "Satyameva Jayate" (Sanskrit)

सत्यमेव जयते  (Devanāgarī)
[3]
"Truth Alone Triumphs"

Anthem: Jana Gana Mana

[4]
Thou art the ruler of the minds of all people
[5]
National Song
Vande Mataram
[6]
I bow to thee, Mother

Area controlled by India in dark green;

Claimed but uncontrolled territories in light green.

Capital New Delhi

28°36.8′N 77°12.5′E

Largest Mumbai

Official language(s)
India 206

Recognised regional languages

National languages None defined by the

[7]
constitution.

Demonym Indian

Government Federal constitutional

[2]
parliamentary democracy

 -  President Pratibha Patil

 -  Prime Minister Manmohan Singh (INC)

 -  Chief Justice S. H. Kapadia

Legislature Sansad

 -  Upper House Rajya Sabha

 -  Lower House Lok Sabha

Independence from the United Kingdom

 -  Declared 15 August 1947 

 -  Republic 26 January 1950 

Area

 -  3,287,240 km   (7th)

2‡

1,269,210 sq mi

 -  Water (%) 9.56

Population

 -  2010 estimate [8]

1185610000  (2nd)

 -  2001 census [9]

1,028,610,328

 -  Density 2
360.7/km  (31st)
934.1/sq mi

GDP (PPP) 2009 estimate

 -  Total [10]

$3.526 trillion  (4th)

 -  Per capita [10]

$2,941  (128th)

GDP (nominal) 2009 estimate

 -  Total [10]

$1.235 trillion  (11th)

 -  Per capita [10]

$1,031  (139th)

Gini (2004) [11]
36.8

HDI (2007) [12]
▲0.612  (medium) (134th)

Currency Indian rupee ( ) (INR)

Time zone IST (UTC+5:30)

 -  Summer (DST) not observed (UTC+5:30)

Date formats dd-mm-yyyy (AD)

Drives on the left

Internet TLD .in

India 207

Calling code 91

India ( /ˈɪndiə/), officially the Republic of India (Hindi: भारत गणराज्य Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also Official names of
India), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous
country with over 1.18 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world.[13] [14] Mainland India is
bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east; and it is
bordered by Pakistan to the west;[note] China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north; and Bangladesh and Burma to the east.
India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka, and the Maldives in the Indian Ocean, its Andaman and Nicobar Islands are also
in the vicinity of the Indonesian island of Sumatra in the Andaman Sea, and in the Andaman Sea India also shares a
maritime border with Thailand.[15] India has a coastline of 7517 kilometres (4700 mi).[16]
Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian
subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history.[17] Four major
religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated here, while Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity
and Islam arrived in the first millennium CE and shaped the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by the
British East India Company from the early eighteenth century and colonised by the United Kingdom from the
mid-nineteenth century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was
marked by widespread non-violent resistance.[18]
India is a federal constitutional republic with a parliamentary democracy consisting of 28 states and seven union
territories. A pluralistic, multilingual and multiethnic society, India is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety
of protected habitats. The Indian economy is the world's eleventh largest economy by nominal GDP and the fourth
largest by purchasing power parity. Since the introduction of market-based economic reforms in 1991, India has
become one of the fastest growing major economies in the world;[19] however, it still suffers from poverty,[20]
illiteracy,[21] corruption,[22] disease,[23] and malnutrition.[24] India is classified as a newly industrialised country[25]
[26]
and is one of the four BRIC nations. It is a nuclear weapons state and has the third-largest standing armed force
in the world.[27] while its military expenditure ranks tenth in the world. It is a founding member of the United
Nations, the East Asia Summit, the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the Non-Aligned
Movement and a member of the Commonwealth of Nations and the G-20 major economies.

Etymology
The name India is derived from Indus, which is derived from the Old Persian word Hindu, from Sanskrit सिन्धु
Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the Indus River.[28] The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi
(Ινδοί), the people of the Indus.[29] The Constitution of India and common usage in various Indian languages also
recognise Bharat (pronounced Hindustani pronunciation: [ˈbʱɑːrʌt̪]  ( listen)) as an official name of equal status.[30] The
name Bharat is derived from the name of the legendary king Bharata in Hindu scriptures. Hindustan (Hindustani
pronunciation: [hɪnd̪ʊˈstɑːn]  ( listen)), originally a Persian word for “Land of the Hindus” referring to northern India,
is also occasionally used as a synonym for all of India.[31]

History
Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known
traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared about 8,500 years ago and gradually
developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation,[32] dating back to 3400 BCE in western India. It was followed by the
Vedic period, which laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society, and ended in
the 500s BCE. From around 550 BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the Mahajanapadas
were established across the country.[33]
India 208

In the third century BCE, most of South Asia was united into the
Maurya Empire by Chandragupta Maurya and flourished under Ashoka
the Great.[34] From the third century CE, the Gupta dynasty oversaw
the period referred to as ancient "India's Golden Age".[35] [36] Empires
in Southern India included those of the Chalukyas, the Cholas and the
Vijayanagara Empire. Science, technology, engineering, art, logic,
language, literature, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy
flourished under the patronage of these kings.

Following invasions from Central Asia between the 10th and 12th
centuries, much of North India came under the rule of the Delhi
Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire. Under the rule of Akbar the
Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Great, India enjoyed much cultural and economic progress as well as
Maharashtra, sixth century religious harmony.[37] [38] Mughal emperors gradually expanded their
empires to cover large parts of the subcontinent. However, in
North-Eastern India, the dominant power was the Ahom kingdom of Assam, among the few kingdoms to have
resisted Mughal subjugation. The first major threat to Mughal imperial power came from a Hindu Rajput king Maha
Rana Pratap of Mewar in the 16th century and later from a Hindu state known as the Maratha confederacy, that ruled
much of India in the mid-18th century.[39]

From the 16th century, European powers such as Portugal, the Netherlands, France, and Great Britain established
trading posts and later took advantage of internal conflicts to establish colonies in the country. By 1856, most of
India was under the control of the British East India Company.[40] A year later, a nationwide insurrection of rebelling
military units and kingdoms, known as India's First War of Independence or the Sepoy Mutiny, seriously challenged
the Company's control but eventually failed. As a result of the instability, India was brought under the direct rule of
the British Crown.
In the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was
launched by the Indian National Congress and other political
organisations.[41] Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi led millions of people
in several national campaigns of non-violent civil disobedience.[18]
On 15 August 1947, India gained independence from British rule, but
at the same time the Muslim-majority areas were partitioned to form a
separate state of Pakistan.[42] On 26 January 1950, India became a
republic and a new constitution came into effect.[43]
Mahatma Gandhi (right) with Jawaharlal Nehru,
Since independence, India has faced challenges from religious
1937. Nehru would go on to become India's first
prime minister in 1947.
violence, casteism, naxalism, terrorism and regional separatist
insurgencies, especially in Jammu and Kashmir and Northeast India.
Since the 1990s terrorist attacks have affected many Indian cities. India has unresolved territorial disputes with the
People's Republic of China, which, in 1962, escalated into the Sino-Indian War, and with Pakistan, which resulted in
wars in 1947, 1965, 1971 and 1999. India is a founding member of the United Nations (as British India) and the
Non-Aligned Movement.

India is a state armed with nuclear weapons; having conducted its first nuclear test in 1974,[44] followed by another
five tests in 1998.[44] Beginning 1991, significant economic reforms[45] have transformed India into one of the
fastest-growing economies in the world, increasing its global clout.[19]
India 209

Government
[46] [47]
National Symbols of India

Flag Tricolour

Emblem Sarnath Lion

Capital

Anthem Jana Gana Mana

Song Vande Mataram

Animal Royal Bengal Tiger

Bird Indian Peacock

Aquatic animal Dolphin

Flower Lotus

Tree Banyan

Fruit Mango

Sport Field hockey

Calendar Saka

River Ganges

India is federation with a parliamentary form of government, governed under the Constitution of India.[48] It is a
constitutional republic and representative democracy, "in which majority rule is tempered by minority rights
protected by law." Federalism in India defines the power distribution between the centre and the states. The
government is regulated by a checks and balances defined by Indian Constitution, which serves as the country's
supreme legal document.

Constitution
The Constitution of India, the longest and the most exhaustive among constitutions of independent nations in the
world, came into force on 26 January 1950.[49] The preamble of the constitution defines India as a sovereign,
socialist, secular, democratic republic.[50] India has a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style
parliamentary system. Its form of government was traditionally described as being 'quasi-federal' with a strong centre
and weaker states,[51] but it has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic and
social changes.[52]

President and Prime Minister

The President of India is the head of state[53] elected indirectly by an electoral college[54] for a five-year term.[55] [56]
The Prime Minister is the head of government and exercises most executive power.[53] Appointed by the
President,[57] the Prime Minister is by convention supported by the party or political alliance holding the majority of
seats in the lower house of Parliament.[53] The executive branch consists of the President, Vice-President, and the
Council of Ministers (the Cabinet being its executive committee) headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister
holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the
executive is subordinate to the legislature, with the Prime Minister and his Council being directly responsible to the
lower house of the Parliament.[58]
India 210

Legislature
The Legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament, which consists of the upper house called the Rajya Sabha
(Council of States) and the lower house called the Lok Sabha (House of People).[59] The Rajya Sabha, a permanent
body, has 245 members serving staggered six year terms.[60] Most are elected indirectly by the state and territorial
legislatures in proportion to the state's population.[60] 543 of the Lok Sabha's 545 members are directly elected by
popular vote to represent individual constituencies for five year terms.[60] The other two members are nominated by
the President from the Anglo-Indian community if the President is of the opinion that the community is not
adequately represented.[60]

Judiciary
India has a unitary three-tier judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, 21
High Courts, and a large number of trial courts.[61] The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving
fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High
Courts.[62] It is judicially independent,[61] and has the power to declare the law and to strike down Union or State
laws which contravene the Constitution.[63] The role as the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution is one of the most
important functions of the Supreme Court.[64]

Administrative divisions
India consists of 28 states and seven Union Territories.[65] All states, and the two union territories of Puducherry and
the National Capital Territory of Delhi, have elected legislatures and governments patterned on the Westminster
model. The other five union territories are directly ruled by the Centre through appointed administrators. In 1956,
under the States Reorganisation Act, states were formed on a linguistic basis.[66] Since then, this structure has
remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is further divided into administrative districts.[67] The
districts in turn are further divided into tehsils and eventually into villages.
States:

The 28 states and 7 union territories of India

India 211

• Andhra Pradesh • Haryana • Maharashtra • Rajasthan

• Arunachal • Himachal Pradesh • Manipur • Sikkim
Pradesh
• Assam • Jammu and Kashmir • Meghalaya • Tamil Nadu
• Bihar • Jharkhand • Mizoram • Tripura
• Chhattisgarh • Karnataka • Nagaland • Uttar
Pradesh
• Goa • Kerala • Orissa • Uttarakhand
• Gujarat • Madhya Pradesh • Punjab • West Bengal

Union Territories:

• Andaman and Nicobar Islands

• Chandigarh
• Dadra and Nagar Haveli
• Daman and Diu
• Lakshadweep
• National Capital Territory of
Delhi
• Puducherry

Politics
India is the most populous democracy in the world.[13] [14] It has
operated under a multi-party system for most of its history. For most of
the years since independence, the federal government has been led by
the Indian National Congress (INC).[65] Politics in the states have been
dominated by national parties like the INC, the Bharatiya Janata Party
(BJP) and various regional parties. From 1950 to 1990, barring two
brief periods, the INC enjoyed a parliamentary majority.

Within Indian political culture, the Indian National Congress is

The Secretariat Building, in New Delhi, houses
considered centre-left or "liberal" and the Bharatiya Janata Party is
key government offices.
considered centre-right or "conservative". The INC was out of power
between 1977 and 1980, when the Janata Party won the election owing
to public discontent with the state of emergency declared by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. In 1989, a Janata
Dal-led National Front coalition in alliance with the Left Front coalition won the elections but managed to stay in
power for only two years.[68] As the 1991 elections gave no political party a majority, the INC formed a minority
government under Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao and was able to complete its five-year term.[69]

The years 1996–1998 were a period of turmoil in the federal government with several short-lived alliances holding
sway. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996, followed by the United Front coalition that excluded both the
BJP and the INC. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) with several other parties and
became the first non-Congress government to complete a full five-year term.[70]
In the 2004 Indian elections, the INC won the largest number of Lok Sabha seats and formed a government with a
coalition called the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), supported by various Left-leaning parties and members
opposed to the BJP. The UPA again came into power in the 2009 general election; however, the representation of the
Left leaning parties within the coalition has significantly reduced.[71] Manmohan Singh became the first prime
minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1962 to be re-elected after completing a full five-year term.[72]
India 212

Foreign relations and military

Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial
relationships with most nations. It took a leading role in the 1950s by
advocating the independence of European colonies in Africa and
Asia.[74] India is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations and a
founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement.[75] India was
involved in two brief military interventions in neighbouring
countries – Indian Peace Keeping Force in Sri Lanka and Operation
Cactus in Maldives. After the Sino-Indian War and the Indo-Pakistani
War of 1965, India's relationship with the Soviet Union warmed and Jointly developed by Sukhoi and Hindustan
Aeronautics, the Su-30 MKI "Flanker-H" is the
continued to remain so until the end of the Cold War. India has fought
Indian Air Force's prime air superiority
two wars with Pakistan over the Kashmir dispute. A third war between [73]
fighter.
India and Pakistan in 1971 resulted in the creation of Bangladesh (then
East Pakistan).[76] Additional skirmishes have taken place between the two nations over the Siachen Glacier. In
1999, India and Pakistan fought an undeclared war over Kargil.

In recent years, India has played an influential role in the SAARC and the WTO.[77] India has provided as many as
55,000 Indian military and police personnel to serve in thirty-five UN peacekeeping operations across four
continents.[12] India is also an active participant in various mutlilateral forums, particularly the East Asia Summit[78]
and the G8+5.[79] Recent overtures by the Indian government have strengthened relations with the United States and
China. In the economic sphere, India has close relationships with other developing nations in South America, Asia
and Africa.

India maintains the third-largest military force in the world, which

India and Russia share an extensive economic, with Russia, Israel and France, who are the chief suppliers of arms.
[80]
defence and technological relationship.
Shown here is PM Manmohan Singh with
President Dmitry Medvedev at the 34th G8
Summit.
reduce India's dependence on foreign imports.
consists of the Indian Army, Navy, Air Force[43] and auxiliary forces
such as the Paramilitary Forces, the Coast Guard, and the Strategic
Forces Command. The official Indian defence budget for 2010 stood at
US$31.9 billion (or 2.12% of GDP).[81] According to a 2008 SIPRI
report, India's annual military expenditure in terms of PPP stood at
US$72.7 billion.[82] The President of India is the supreme commander
of the Indian Armed Forces. India maintains close defence cooperation
Defence contractors, such as the Defence Research and Development
Organisation (DRDO) and Hindustan Aeronautics (HAL), oversee
indigenous development of sophisticated arms and military equipment,
including ballistic missiles, fighter aircraft and main battle tanks, to

India became a nuclear power in 1974 after conducting an initial nuclear test, known as the Operation Smiling
Buddha, and carried out further underground testing in 1998. Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has
consistently refused to sign the CTBT and the NPT. India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy[83] and is
developing nuclear triad capability as a part of its "minimum credible deterrence" doctrine.[83] On 10 October 2008,
a civilian nuclear agreement between India and the United States was signed, prior to which India received waivers
from the IAEA and the NSG which ended restrictions on nuclear technology commerce and recognised India as the
world's de facto sixth nuclear weapons state.[84] On 12 March 2010, Russia signed with India a nuclear reactor deal
which will build 16 nuclear reactors in India as part of defence and energy deals .[85] On 28 June 2010, Canada signs
with India a nuclear co-operation deal to promote and develop co-operation in civilian nuclear energy .[86]
India 213

Geography
India, the major portion of the Indian subcontinent, sits atop the Indian
tectonic plate, a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate.[87]
India's defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million
years ago, when the Indian subcontinent, then part of the southern
supercontinent Gondwana, began a northeastwards drift—lasting fifty
million years—across the then unformed Indian Ocean.[87] The
subcontinent's subsequent collision with the Eurasian Plate and
subduction under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's highest
mountains, which now abut India in the north and the north-east.[87] In
the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate
movement created a vast trough, which, having gradually been filled
with river-borne sediment,[88] now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[89] Topographic map of India.

To the west of this plain, and cut off from it by the Aravalli Range, lies
the Thar Desert.[90]

The original Indian plate now survives as peninsular India, the oldest and most geologically stable part of India, and
extends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel ranges run from the Arabian
Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east.[91] To their south, the
remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the left and right by the coastal ranges, Western
Ghats and Eastern Ghats respectively;[92] the plateau contains the oldest rock formations in India, some over one
billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6°44' and 35°30' north
latitude[93] and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude.[94]
India's coast is 7517 kilometres (4700 mi) long; of this distance, 5423 kilometres (3400 mi) belong to peninsular
India, and 2094 kilometres (1300 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Islands.[16] According to the
Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coast consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky coast
including cliffs, and 46% mudflats or marshy coast.[16]
Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India
include the Ganges (Ganga) and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain
into the Bay of Bengal.[95] Important tributaries of the Ganges include
the Yamuna and the Kosi, whose extremely low gradient causes
disastrous floods every year. Major peninsular rivers whose steeper
gradients prevent their waters from flooding include the Godavari, the
Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay
of Bengal;[96] and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the
The Himalayas form the mountainous landscape
of Northern India. Seen here is Ladakh in Jammu
Arabian Sea.[97] Among notable coastal features of India are the
& Kashmir. marshy Rann of Kutch in western India, and the alluvial Sundarbans
delta, which India shares with Bangladesh.[98] India has two
archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a
volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.[99]

India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the monsoons.[100]
The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian Katabatic wind from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian
subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.[101] [102] The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in
attracting the moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the
majority of India's rainfall.[100] Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry,
subtropical humid, and montane.[103]
India 214

Flora and fauna

India, which lies within the Indomalaya ecozone, displays significant biodiversity. One of eighteen megadiverse
countries, it is home to 7.6% of all mammalian, 12.6% of all avian, 6.2% of all reptilian, 4.4% of all amphibian,
11.7% of all fish, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species.[104] Many ecoregions, such as the shola forests, exhibit
extremely high rates of endemism; overall, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic.[105] [106]
India's forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and North-East India
to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the sal-dominated moist deciduous forest of
eastern India; the teak-dominated dry deciduous forest of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn
forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain.[107] Important Indian trees include the medicinal neem,
widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies. The pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded
Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment. According to latest report, less than 12% of India's landmass is
covered by dense forests.[108]
Many Indian species are descendants of taxa originating in Gondwana, from which the Indian plate separated.
Peninsular India's subsequent movement towards, and collision with, the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange
of species. However, volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic
Indian forms.[109] Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either
side of the emerging Himalaya.[107] Consequently, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds
are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians.[104] Notable endemics are the Nilgiri leaf
monkey and the brown and carmine Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of
IUCN-designated threatened species.[110] These include the Asiatic Lion, the Bengal Tiger, and the Indian
white-rumped vulture, which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.
In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India's wildlife; in response, the system of national
parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife
Protection Act[111] and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat; in addition, the Forest Conservation Act[112] was
enacted in 1980. Along with more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries, India hosts thirteen biosphere reserves,[113]
four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-five wetlands are registered under the
Ramsar Convention.[114]
India 215

Economy
In 2009, India's nominal GDP stood at US$1.243 trillion, which makes
it the eleventh-largest economy in the world.[115] If PPP is taken into
account, India's economy is the fourth largest in the world at US$3.561
trillion,[116] corresponding to a per capita income of US$3,100.[117]
The country ranks 139th in nominal GDP per capita and 128th in GDP
per capita at PPP.[115] With an average annual GDP growth rate of
5.8% for the past two decades, India is one of the fastest growing
economies in the world.[118]

India has the world's second largest labour force, with 516.3 million
people. In terms of output, the agricultural sector accounts for 28% of
GDP; the service and industrial sectors make up 54% and 18%
respectively. Major agricultural products include rice, wheat, oilseed,
cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, potatoes; cattle, water buffalo, sheep,
goats, poultry; fish.[65] Major industries include textiles,
telecommunications, chemicals, food processing, steel, transport
The Bombay Stock Exchange, in Mumbai, is
equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery, software.[65] India's Asia's oldest and India's largest stock exchange
trade has reached a relatively moderate share of 24% of GDP in 2006, by market capitalisation.
[119]
up from 6% in 1985. In 2008, India's share of world trade was
about 1.68%.[120] Major exports include petroleum products, textile goods, gems and jewelry, software, engineering
goods, chemicals, and leather manufactures.[65] Major imports include crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser,
chemicals.[65]

From the 1950s to the 1980s, India followed socialist-inspired policies. The economy was shackled by extensive
regulation, protectionism, and public ownership, leading to pervasive corruption and slow economic growth.[121] In
1991, the nation liberalised its economy and has since moved towards a free-market economy.[119] [122] The policy
change in 1991 came after an acute balance of payments crisis, and the emphasis since then has been to use foreign
trade and foreign investment as integral parts of India's economy.[123] Currently, India's economic system is
portrayed as a capitalist model with the influx of private sector enterprise.[122]

In the late 2000s, India's economic growth averaged 7.5% a year.[119]

Over the past decade, hourly wage rates in India have more than
doubled.[126] In 2009, the Global Competitiveness Report ranked India
16th in financial market sophistication, 24th in banking sector, 27th in
business sophistication and 30th in innovation; ahead of several
advanced economies.[127] Seven of the world's top 15 technology
outsourcing companies are based in India and the country is viewed as
the second most favourable outsourcing destination after the United
States.[128]
[124]
Despite India's impressive economic growth over recent decades, it
The Tata Nano, the world's cheapest car.
still contains the largest concentration of poor people in the world.[129]
India's annual car exports have surged fivefold in
[125]
the past five years. The percentage of people living below the World Bank's international
poverty line of $1.25 a day (PPP, in nominal terms 21.6 a day in
urban areas and 14.3 in rural areas in 2005) decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005.[130] Since 1991,
inter-state economic inequality in India has consistently grown; the per capita net state domestic product of India's

richest states is about 3.2 times that of the poorest states.[131] Even though India has avoided famines in recent
decades, half of children are underweight[132] and about 46% of Indian children under the age of three suffer from
India 216

malnutrition.[129] [133]
A 2007 Goldman Sachs report projected that "from 2007 to 2020, India’s GDP per capita will quadruple," and that
the Indian GDP will surpass that of the United States before 2050, but India "will remain a low-income country for
several decades, with per capita incomes well below its other BRIC peers."[134] Although the Indian economy has
grown steadily over the last two decades; its growth has been uneven when comparing different social groups,
economic groups, geographic regions, and rural and urban areas.[129] The World Bank suggests that India must
continue to focus on public sector reform, infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, removal of labour
regulations, improvement in transport, energy security, and health and nutrition.[135]

Demographics
With an estimated population of 1.2 billion,[8] India is the world's
second most populous country. The last 50 years have seen a rapid
increase in population due to medical advances and massive increase in
agricultural productivity due to the "green revolution".[136] [137] India's
urban population increased 11-fold during the twentieth century and is
increasingly concentrated in large cities. By 2001 there were 35
million-plus cities in India, with the largest cities, with a population of
over 10 million each, being Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata. However, as
of 2001, more than 70% of India's population continues to reside in
rural areas.[138] [139]

India is the world's most culturally, linguistically and genetically

diverse geographical entity after the African continent.[65] India is
home to two major linguistic families: Indo-Aryan (spoken by about Population density map of India.
74% of the population) and Dravidian (spoken by about 24%). Other
languages spoken in India come from the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman linguistic families. Neither the
Constitution of India, nor any Indian law defines any national language.[7] Hindi, with the largest number of
speakers,[140] is the official language of the union.[141] English is used extensively in business and administration
and has the status of a 'subsidiary official language;'[142] it is also important in education, especially as a medium of
higher education. In addition, every state and union territory has its own official languages, and the constitution also
recognises in particular 21 "scheduled languages".

As per the 2001 census, over 800 million Indians (80.5%) were Hindu. Other religious groups include Muslims
(13.4%), Christians (2.3%), Sikhs (1.9%), Buddhists (0.8%), Jains (0.4%), Jews, Zoroastrians and Bahá'ís.[143]
Tribals constitute 8.1% of the population.[144] India has the third-highest Muslim population in the world and has the
highest population of Muslims for a non-Muslim majority country.
India's literacy rate is 64.8% (53.7% for females and 75.3% for males).[43] The state of Kerala has the highest
literacy rate at 91% while Bihar has the lowest at 47%.[145] [146] The national human sex ratio is 944 females per
1,000 males. India's median age is 24.9, and the population growth rate of 1.38% per annum; there are 22.01 births
per 1,000 people per year.[43] Though India has one of the world's most diverse and modern healthcare systems, the
country continues to face several public health-related challenges.[147] According to the World Health Organization,
900,000 Indians die each year from drinking contaminated water and breathing in polluted air.[148] There are about
60 physicians per 100,000 people in India.[149]
India 217

Culture
India's culture is marked by a high degree of syncretism[151] and
cultural pluralism.[152] India's cultural tradition dates back to 8,000
BCE[153] and has a continuously recorded history for over 2,500
years.[154] With its roots based in the Indus Valley Tradition, the
Indian culture took a distinctive shape during the 11th century BCE
Vedic age which laid the foundation of Hindu philosophy, mythology,
literary tradition and beliefs and practices, such as dhárma, kárma,
yóga and mokṣa.[155] It has managed to preserve established traditions
while absorbing new customs, traditions, and ideas from invaders and
immigrants and spreading its cultural influence to other parts of Asia,
The Taj Mahal in Agra was built by Shah Jahan
mainly South East and East Asia. as memorial to wife Mumtaz Mahal. It is one of
the New Seven Wonders of the World and a
Indian religions form one of the most defining aspects of Indian
UNESCO World Heritage Site considered to be
culture.[156] Major dhármic religions which were founded in India of "outstanding universal value".
[150]

include Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Considered to be a

successor to the ancient Vedic religion,[157] Hinduism has been shaped by several schools of thoughts such as the
Advaita Vedanta,[158] the Yoga Sutras and the Bhakti movement.[156] Buddhism originated in India in 5th century
BCE and prominent early Buddhist schools, such as Theravāda and Mahāyāna, gained dominance during the
Maurya Empire.[156] Though Buddhism entered a period of gradual decline in India 5th century CE onwards,[159] it
played an influential role in shaping Indian philosophy and thought.[156]

Traditional Indian society is defined by relatively strict social hierarchy. The Indian caste system describes the social
stratification and social restrictions in the Indian subcontinent, in which social classes are defined by thousands of
endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as jātis or castes.[160] Several influential social reform movements, such
as the Bramho Shômaj, the Arya Samāja and the Ramakrishna Mission, have played a pivotal role in the
emancipation of Dalits (or "untouchables") and other lower-caste communities in India.[161] However, the majority
of Dalits continue to live in segregation and are often persecuted and discriminated against.[162]

Traditional Indian family values are highly respected, and multi-generational patriarchal joint families have been the
norm, although nuclear family are becoming common in urban areas.[121] An overwhelming majority of Indians have
their marriages arranged by their parents and other respected family members, with the consent of the bride and
groom.[163] Marriage is thought to be for life,[163] and the divorce rate is extremely low.[164] Child marriage is still a
common practice, with half of women in India marrying before the legal age of 18.[165] [166]
Indian cuisine is characterised by a wide variety of regional styles and sophisticated use of herbs and spices. The
staple foods in the region are rice (especially in the south and the east) and wheat (predominantly in the north).[167]
Spices, such as black pepper which are now consumed world wide, are originally native to the Indian subcontinent.
Chili pepper, which was introduced by the Portuguese, is also widely used in Indian cuisine.[168]
Traditional Indian dress varies across the regions in its colours and styles and depends on various factors, including
climate. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as sari for women and dhoti or lungi for men; in
addition, stitched clothes such as salwar kameez for women and kurta-pyjama and European-style trousers and shirts
for men, are also popular.
Many Indian festivals are religious in origin, although several are celebrated irrespective of caste and creed. Some
popular festivals are Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Ugadi, Thai Pongal, Holi, Onam, Vijayadashami, Durga Puja, Eid
ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, Buddha Jayanti, Moharram and Vaisakhi.[169] [169] India has three national holidays
which are observed in all states and union territories — Republic Day, Independence Day and Gandhi Jayanthi.
Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states. Religious
practices are an integral part of everyday life and are a very public affair.
India 218

Indian architecture is one area that represents the diversity of Indian culture. Much of it, including notable
monuments such as the Taj Mahal and other examples of Mughal architecture and South Indian architecture,
comprises a blend of ancient and varied local traditions from several parts of the country and abroad. Vernacular
architecture also displays notable regional variation.
Indian music covers a wide range of traditions and regional styles. Classical music largely encompasses the two
genres – North Indian Hindustani, South Indian Carnatic traditions and their various offshoots in the form of
regional folk music. Regionalised forms of popular music include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the
bauls is a well-known form of the latter.
Indian dance too has diverse folk and classical forms. Among the well-known folk dances are the bhangra of the
Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of West Bengal, Jharkhand , sambalpuri of Orissa , the ghoomar of Rajasthan
and the Lavani of Maharashtra. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been
accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are:
bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi
of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of Orissa and the sattriya of Assam.[170]
Theatre in India often incorporates music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.[171] Often based on Hindu
mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances, and news of social and political events, Indian theatre
includes the bhavai of state of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of North India, the
tamasha of Maharashtra, the burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh, the terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of
Karnataka.[172]
The Indian film industry is the largest in the world.[173] Bollywood, based in Mumbai, makes commercial Hindi
films and is the most prolific film industry in the world.[174] Established traditions also exist in Assamese, Bengali,
Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Tamil, and Telugu language cinemas.[175]
The earliest works of Indian literature were transmitted orally and only later written down.[176] These included works
of Sanskrit literature – such as the early Vedas, the epics Mahābhārata and Ramayana, the drama
Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Śakuntalā), and poetry such as the Mahākāvya[177]  – and the Tamil
language Sangam literature.[178] Among Indian writers of the modern era active in Indian languages or English,
Rabindranath Tagore won the Nobel Prize in 1913.

Sport
India's official national sport is field hockey, administered by Hockey
India. The Indian field hockey team won the 1975 Hockey World Cup
and 8 gold, 1 silver and 2 bronze medals at the Olympic games,the
highest from any national team. However, cricket is the most popular
sport; the India national cricket team won the 1983 Cricket World Cup
and the 2007 ICC World Twenty20, and shared the 2002 ICC
Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka. India has also won the Asia Cup a
record five times.Cricket in India is administered by the Board of
Control for Cricket in India (BCCI); and domestic competitions A 2008 Indian Premier League Twenty20 cricket
match being played between the Chennai Super
include the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the
Kings and Kolkata Knight Riders
Irani Trophy and the NKP Salve Challenger Trophy. In addition, BCCI
conducts the Indian Premier League, a Twenty20 competition.

Tennis has become increasingly popular, owing to the victories of the India Davis Cup team. Association football is
also a popular sport in northeast India, West Bengal, Goa, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.[179] The Indian national football
team has won the South Asian Football Federation Cup several times. Chess, commonly held to have originated in
India, is also gaining popularity with the rise in the number of Indian Grandmasters.[180] Vishwanathan Anand,an
India 219

Indian Grandmaster,has won the World Chess Championship four times.

Traditional sports include kabaddi, kho kho, and gilli-danda, which are played nationwide. India is also home to the
ancient martial arts, Kalarippayattu and Varma Kalai. The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and the Arjuna Award are
India's highest awards for achievements in sports, while the Dronacharya Award is awarded for excellence in
coaching.
The Jaypee Group Circuit in Greater Noida,will be the upcoming hosts of the Indian Grand Prix in 2011.India has
hosted several high-profile international sporting events, including the 2003 Afro-Asian Games and the 2007
Military World Games. India has also hosted or co-hosted the 1951 and the 1982 Asian Games, the 1987 and 1996
Cricket World Cup. It has also successfully hosted the 2010 Hockey World Cup and is scheduled to host the 2010
Commonwealth Games and later the 2011 Cricket World Cup.

Notes
The Government of India also considers Afghanistan to be a bordering country. This is because it considers the
entire state of Jammu and Kashmir to be a part of India including the portion bordering Afghanistan. A ceasefire
sponsored by the United Nations in 1948 froze the positions of Indian and Pakistani-held territory. As a
consequence, the region bordering Afghanistan is in Pakistan-administered Kashmir.

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• Wolpert, Stanley (2003). A New History of India [187]. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 544.
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Geography
• Dikshit, K.R.; Joseph E. Schwartzberg (2007). "India: The Land" [188]. Encyclopædia Britannica. pp. 1–29.
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• Government of India (2007). India Yearbook 2007. Publications Division, Ministry of Information &
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• Posey, C.A (1994). The Living Earth Book of Wind and Weather. Reader's Digest Association.
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Flora and fauna
India 220

• Ali, Salim; Ripley, S. Dillon (1995). A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Mumbai: Bombay
Natural History Society and Oxford University Press. pp. 183, 106 colour plates by John Henry Dick.
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• Blatter, E.; Millard, Walter S. (1997). Some Beautiful Indian Trees. Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society
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• Prater, S. H. (1971). The book of Indian Animals. Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford
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New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. xi, 303. ISBN 0195645936.
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Culture
• Dissanayake, Wimal K.; Gokulsing, Moti (2004). Indian Popular Cinema: A Narrative of Cultural Change [189].
Trentham Books. p. 161. ISBN 1858563291.
• Johnson, W. J. (translator and editor) (1998). The Sauptikaparvan of the Mahabharata: The Massacre at Night
[190]
. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press (Oxford World's Classics). p. 192. ISBN 0192823618
• Kalidasa; Johnson (editor), W. J. (2001). The Recognition of Śakuntalā: A Play in Seven Acts [191]. Oxford and
New York: Oxford University Press (Oxford World's Classics). p. 192. ISBN 0192839114
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• MacDonell, Arthur Anthony (2004). A History of Sanskrit Literature. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1417906197.
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• Massey, Reginald (2006). India's Dances. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 8170174341.
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India 221

External links
• Government of India [196] – Official government portal (in English)
• India [197] entry at The World Factbook
• India [198] at UCB Libraries GovPubs
• India [199] at the Open Directory Project
• Wikimedia Atlas of India
• India travel guide from Wikitravel
Geographical coordinates: 21°N 78°E

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[152] Baidyanath, Saraswati (2006). "Cultural Pluralism, National Identity and Development" (http:/ / ignca. nic. in/ ls_03. htm). Interface of
Cultural Identity Development (1stEdition ed.). New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts. xxi+290 pp. ISBN 81-246-0054-6. .
Retrieved 8 June 2007.
[153] Arnett, Robert. India Unveiled. Atman Press, 2006.
[154] Sharma, Shaloo. History and Development of Higher Education in India. Sarup & Sons, 2002.
[155] de Bruyn, Pippa. Frommer's India. Frommer's, 2010.
India 226

[156] Heehs, Peter. Indian religions: a historical reader of spiritual expression and experience. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2002.
[157] Stietencron, Hinduism: On the Proper Use of A Deceptive Term, pp.1–22
[158] "Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction," (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=63gdKwhHeV0C) By Eliot Deutsch,
University of Hawaii Press, 1980, ISBN 0-8248-0271-3.
[159] Merriam-Webster, pg. 155–157
[160] " India – Caste (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 285248/ India/ 46404/ Caste)". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
[161] Paswan, Sanjay. Encyclopaedia of Dalits in India: Movements. Gyan Publishing House, 2002.
[162] " UN report slams India for caste discrimination (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ world/ story/ 2007/ 03/ 02/ india-dalits. html)". CBC News. 2
March 2007.
[163] Medora, Nilufer (2003). "Mate selection in contemporary India: Love marriages versus arranged marriages". in Hamon, Raeann R. and
Ingoldsby, Bron B.. Mate Selection Across Cultures. SAGE. pp. 209–230. ISBN 0761925929.
[164] "Divorce Rate In India" (http:/ / www. divorcerate. org/ divorce-rate-in-india. html). .
[165] "Child marriages targeted in India" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ south_asia/ 1617759. stm). BBC News. 24 October 2001. .
Retrieved 5 January 2010.
[166] "State of the World’s Children-2009" (http:/ / www. unicef. org/ sowc09/ docs/ SOWC09_Table_9. pdf). UNICEF. 2009. .
[167] Delphine, Roger, "The History and Culture of Food in Asia", in Kiple & Kriemhild 2000, pp. 1140–1151.
[168] Achaya 1994, Achaya 1997
[169] "List of Holidays in India" (http:/ / www. indianpublicholidays. com/ 2009/ 11/ list-of-holidays-in-india-2010/ ). . Retrieved 07 July 2010.
[170] 1. "South Asian arts: Techniques and Types of Classical Dance" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 556016/
South-Asian-arts/ 65246/ Indian-dance) From: Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12 Oct. 2007. 2. Sangeet Natak Academi (National Academy
of Music, Dance, and Drama, New Delhi, India). 2007. Dance Programmes (http:/ / www. sangeetnatak. org/ programmes_recognition&
honours_dance. html). 3. Kothari, Sunil. 2007. Sattriya dance of the celibate monks of Assam, India (http:/ / www. rhul. ac. uk/ Drama/
News-and-Events/ Events_archive/ KothariLecture. html). Royal Holloway College, University of London.
[171] Lal 1998.
[172] (Karanth 1997, p. 26). Quote: "The Yakṣagāna folk-theatre is no isolated theatrical form in India. We have a number of such theatrical
traditions all around Karnataka... In far off Assam we have similar plays going on by the name of Ankia Nat, in neighouring Bengal we have
the very popular Jatra plays. Maharashtra has Tamasa. (p. 26.)
[173] "Country profile: India" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ country_profiles/ 1154019. stm). BBC. 19 August 2009. . Retrieved
2007.
[174] Dissanayake & Gokulsing 2004.
[175] Rajadhyaksha & Willemen (editors) 1999
[176] MacDonell 2004, pp. 1–40.
[177] Johnson 1998, MacDonell 2004, pp. 1–40, and Kalidasa & Johnson (editor) 2001.
[178] 1. Encyclopaedia Britannica (2008), "Tamil Literature." (http:/ / original. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9071111/ Tamil-literature) Quote:
"Apart from literature written in classical (Indo-Aryan) Sanskrit, Tamil is the oldest literature in India. Some inscriptions on stone have been
dated to the 3rd century BC, but Tamil literature proper begins around the 1st century AD. Much early poetry was religious or epic; an
exception was the secular court poetry written by members of the sangam, or literary academy (see Sangam literature)." 2. Ramanujan 1985,
pp. ix–x. Quote (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=nIybE0HRvdQC& pg=PR9& vq=eight+ anthologies& source=gbs_search_r&
cad=0_1& sig=ACfU3U3yAk-LoJIs-AdWHCw9nU-OjLUyJA): "These poems are 'classical,' i.e. early, ancient; they are also 'classics,' i.e.
works that have stood the test of time, the founding works of a whole tradition. Not to know them is not to know a unique and major poetic
achievement of Indian civilisation. Early classical Tamil literature (c. 100 BC–AD 250) consists of the Eight Anthologies (Eţţuttokai), the Ten
Long Poems (Pattuppāţţu), and a grammar called the Tolkāppiyam or the 'Old Composition.' ... The literature of classical Tamil later came to
be known as Cankam (pronounced Sangam) literature. (pp. ix–x.)"
[179] Majumdar & Bandyopadhyay 2006, pp. 1–5.
[180] "Anand crowned World champion" (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ sports/ 2008/ oct/ 29anand. htm). Rediff. 29 October 2008. . Retrieved 29
October 2008.
[181] http:/ / www. oup. com/ uk/ catalogue/ ?ci=9780198731139
[182] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ History-India-Hermann-Kulke/ dp/ 0415329205/
[183] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Concise-History-Modern-Cambridge-Histories/ dp/ 0521682258/
[184] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ History-India-Vol-2/ dp/ 0140138366/ ref=pd_ybh_a_6/ 104-7029728-9591925
[185] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ History-India-World/ dp/ 0631205462/ ref=pd_ybh_a_7/ 104-7029728-9591925
[186] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ History-India-Penguin/ dp/ 0140138358/
[187] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ New-History-India-Stanley-Wolpert/ dp/ 0195166787/
[188] http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 285248/ India
[189] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=_plssuFIar8C& dq
[190] http:/ / www. oup. com/ uk/ catalogue/ ?ci=9780192823618
[191] http:/ / www. oup. com/ uk/ catalogue/ ?ci=9780192839114
[192] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Oxford-Companion-Indian-Theatre/ dp/ 0195644468/
[193] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=nIybE0HRvdQC& dq
India 227

[194] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070806090314/ http:/ / ucpress. edu/ books/ bfi/ pages/ PROD0008. html
[195] http:/ / www. ucpress. edu/ books/ bfi/ pages/ PROD0008. html
[196] http:/ / india. gov. in/
[197] https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ in. html
[198] http:/ / ucblibraries. colorado. edu/ govpubs/ for/ india. htm
[199] http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Regional/ Asia/ India/
Los Angeles 228

Los Angeles
Los Angeles
—  City  —

City of Los Angeles

Downtown Los Angeles, Venice, Griffith Observatory, Hollywood Sign

Flag
Seal

Nickname(s): L.A., the City of Angels, the Entertainment Capital of the World

Location within Los Angeles County in the state of California

Los Angeles 229

Los Angeles
Location in the United States

Coordinates: 34°03′N 118°15′W

Country  United States

State  California

County Los Angeles County

Settled September 4, 1781

Incorporated April 4, 1850

Government

- Type Mayor-Council

- Body Los Angeles City Council

- Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa

- City Attorney Carmen Trutanich

- City Controller Wendy Greuel

Area

- City 498.3 sq mi (1290.6 km2)

- Land 469.1 sq mi (1214.9 km2)

- Water 29.2 sq mi (75.7 km2)  5.8%

- Urban 1667.9 sq mi (4319.9 km2)

Elevation 233 (city hall) ft (71 m)

Population (July 1, 2009)

- City 3833995

- Density 8205/sq mi (3168/km2)

- Urban 14775000

- Metro 15250000

- CSA 17786419

- Demonym Angeleno

(2nd U.S., 45th World)

Time zone PST (UTC-8)

- Summer (DST) PDT (UTC-7)

ZIP code 90001–90068, 90070–90084, 90086–90089, 90091, 90093–90097, 90099, 90101–90103, 90174, 90185, 90189,
91040–91043, 91303–91308, 91342–91349, 91352–91353, 91356–91357, 91364–91367, 91401–91499, 91601–91609

Area code(s) 213, 310/424, 323, 661, 747/818

Los Angeles 230

Website [1]
lacity.org

Los Angeles (pronounced /lɑs ˈændʒələs/ los-AN-jə-ləs; Spanish: [los ˈaŋxeles], Spanish for "The Angels") is the
second most populous city in the United States,[2] the most populous city in the state of California and the western
United States, with a population of 3.83 million[3] within its administrative limits on a land area of 498.3 square
miles (1290.6 km2). The urban area of Los Angeles extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population
of over 14.8 million and it is the 14th largest urban area in the world, affording it megacity status. The Los
Angeles–Long Beach–Santa Ana metropolitan statistical area (MSA) is home to nearly 12.9 million residents[4]
while the broader Los Angeles-Long Beach-Riverside combined statistical area (CSA) contains nearly 17.8 million
people. Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated and one of the most multicultural
counties[5] in the United States. The city's inhabitants are referred to as "Angelenos" (English
[6]
pronunciation: /ændʒɨˈliːnoʊz/).

Los Angeles was founded on September 4, 1781, by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve as El Pueblo de Nuestra
Señora la Reina de los Ángeles del Río de Porciúncula (The Village of Our Lady, the Queen of the Angels of the
river of Porziuncola).[7] It became a part of Mexico in 1821, following its independence from Spain. In 1848, at the
end of the Mexican-American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of
Guadalupe Hidalgo, thereby becoming part of the United States. Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on
April 4, 1850, five months before California achieved statehood.
Often known by its initials, L.A., and nicknamed the City of Angels, Los Angeles is a world center of business,
international trade, entertainment, culture, media, fashion, science, technology, and education.[8] [9] It is home to
renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields, and is one of the most substantial
economic engines within the United States. In 2008, Los Angeles was named the world's eighth most economically
powerful city by Forbes.com, third in the U.S. behind New York City and Chicago.[10] The Los Angeles combined
statistical area (CSA) has a gross metropolitan product (GMP) of $831 billion (as of 2008), making it the third
largest economic center in the world, after the Greater Tokyo Area and the New York metropolitan area.[11] [12] [13]
As the home base of Hollywood, it is known as the "Entertainment Capital of the World", leading the world in the
creation of motion pictures, television production, video games, and recorded music. The importance of the
entertainment business to the city has led many celebrities to call Los Angeles and its surrounding suburbs home.
Los Angeles hosted the 1932 and 1984 Summer Olympics.
Los Angeles enjoys a subtropical climate, with an average of 35 days with measurable precipitation annually.[14]

History
The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the Tongva (or
Gabrieleños) and Chumash Native American tribes thousands of years
ago. The first Europeans arrived in 1542 in an expedition organized by
the viceroy of New Spain and commanded by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo,
a Portuguese-born explorer who claimed the area of southern
The old city plaza, 1869 California for the Spanish Empire. However, he continued with his
voyage up the coast and did not establish a settlement.[15] The next
contact would not come until 227 years later, when Gaspar de Portolà, along with Franciscan missionary Juan
Crespí, reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2, 1769. Crespí noted that the site had the potential to be
developed into a large settlement.[16]

In 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra built the Mission San Gabriel Arcangel near Whittier Narrows, in what is
now called San Gabriel Valley.[17] In 1777, the new governor of California, Felipe de Neve, recommended to
Antonio María de Bucareli y Ursúa, viceroy of New Spain, that the site noted by Juan Crespí be developed into a
Los Angeles 231

pueblo. The town was officially founded on September 4, 1781, by a group of forty-four settlers known as "Los
Pobladores". Tradition has it that on this day they were escorted by four Spanish colonial soldiers, two priests from
the Mission and Governor de Neve. The town was named El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Ángeles del
Río de Porciúncula (The Town of Our Lady the Queen of the Angels on the Porciúncula River).[18] These pueblo
settlers came from the common Hispanic culture that had emerged in northern Mexico among a racially mixed
society. Two-thirds of the settlers were mestizo or mulatto, and therefore, had African, Amerindian, and European
ancestry. More importantly, they were intermarrying.[19] The settlement remained a small ranch town for decades,
but by 1820 the population had increased to about 650 residents.[20] Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the
historic district of Los Angeles Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street, the oldest part of Los Angeles.[21]
New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, and the pueblo continued as a part of
Mexico. During Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico, made Los Angeles Alta California's regional capital. Mexican rule
ended during the Mexican–American War: Americans took control from the Californios after a series of battles,
culminating with the signing of the Treaty of Cahuenga on January 13, 1847.
Railroads arrived when the Southern Pacific completed its line to Los
Angeles in 1876.[22] Oil was discovered in 1892, and by 1923 Los
Angeles was producing one-quarter of the world's petroleum.[23]
By 1900, the population had grown to more than 102,000 people,[24]
putting pressure on the city's water supply.[25] 1913's completion of the
Los Angeles Aqueduct, under the supervision of William Mulholland,
assured the continued growth of the city.
In the 1920s, the motion picture and aviation industries flocked to Los
Angeles, with continuing growth ensuring that the city suffered less
Los Angeles City Hall, shown here in 1931, was
during the Great Depression. In 1932, with population surpassing one
built in 1928 and was the tallest structure in the
million,[26] the city hosted the Summer Olympics. city until 1964, when height restrictions were
The post-war years saw an even greater boom, as urban sprawl removed.

expanded the city into the San Fernando Valley.[27] In 1960,

non-Hispanic whites made up 82% of the population of Los Angeles
County.[28] In 1969, Los Angeles became one of the birthplaces of the
Internet, as the first ARPANET transmission was sent from the
University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) to SRI in Menlo
Park.[29]

In 1984, the city hosted the Summer Olympic Games for the second
time. Despite being boycotted by 14 Communist countries, the 1984
Olympics became the most financially successful in history, and only
the second Olympics to turn a profit – the other being the 1932 Downtown Los Angeles saw heavy development
Summer Olympics, also held in Los Angeles. from the 1980s to 1990s, including the
construction of some of the city's tallest
During the remaining decades of the 20th century, the city was plagued
skyscrapers.
by increasing gang warfare, drug trades, and police corruption. Racial
tensions erupted again in 1992 with the Rodney King controversy and
the large-scale riots that followed the acquittal of his police attackers. In 1994, the 6.7 Northridge earthquake shook
the city, causing $12.5 billion in damage and 72 deaths.[30]
Voters defeated efforts by the San Fernando Valley and Hollywood to secede from the city in 2002.[31]
Gentrification and urban redevelopment have occurred in many parts of the city, most notably Hollywood,
Koreatown, Silver Lake, Echo Park and Downtown.[32]
Los Angeles 232

Cityscape

Panorama of Los Angeles as viewed from Mulholland Drive. Left to right: Santa Ana Mountains, downtown,
Hollywood (foreground), Wilshire Boulevard, Port of Los Angeles, Palos Verdes Peninsula, Santa Catalina Island,
and Los Angeles International Airport.
The city is divided into many neighborhoods, many of which were
incorporated places or communities that were annexed by the city.
There are also several independent cities around Los Angeles, but they
are popularly grouped with the city of Los Angeles, either due to being
completely engulfed as enclaves by Los Angeles, or lying within its
immediate vicinity. Generally, the city is divided into the following
areas: Downtown Los Angeles, The Eastside and Northeast Los
Angeles, South Los Angeles (still often colloquially referred to as
South Central by locals), the Harbor Area, Hollywood, Wilshire, the Hollywood, a well-known district of Los
Angeles, is often mistaken as an independent city
Westside and the San Fernando and Crescenta Valleys.
(as West Hollywood is).

Some well-known communities within Los Angeles include West

Adams, Watts, Leimert Park, Baldwin Hills, Venice Beach, the Downtown Financial District, Los Feliz, Silver Lake,
Hollywood, Koreatown, Westwood and the more affluent areas of Bel Air, Benedict Canyon, Hollywood Hills,
Hancock Park, Pacific Palisades, Century City, and Brentwood.

Landmarks
Important landmarks in Los Angeles include Chinatown, Koreatown, Little Tokyo, Walt Disney Concert Hall,
Kodak Theatre, Griffith Observatory, Getty Center, Getty Villa, Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, Los Angeles
County Museum of Art, Grauman's Chinese Theatre, Hollywood Sign, Hollywood Boulevard, Capitol Records
Tower, Los Angeles City Hall, Hollywood Bowl, Theme Building, Watts Towers, Staples Center, Dodger Stadium,
and La Placita Olvera/Olvera Street.

Grauman's Griffith Observatory Capitol Los Angeles Memorial

Chinese Theatre Records Coliseum
Building
Los Angeles 233

Geography
Los Angeles is irregularly shaped and covers a total area of
498.3 square miles (1291 km2), comprising 469.1 square miles (1215
km2) of land and 29.2 square miles (76 km2) of water. The city extends
for 44 miles (71 km) longitudinally and for 29 miles (47 km)
latitudinally. The perimeter of the city is 342 miles (550 km). It is the
only major city in the United States bisected by a mountain range.

The highest point in Los Angeles is Mount Lukens, also called Sister
Elsie Peak.[33] Located at the far reaches of the northeastern San
The Los Angeles Basin
Fernando Valley, it reaches a height of 5080 ft (1550 m). Los Angeles
is both flat and hilly. The hilliest parts of Los Angeles are the entire
Santa Monica hills north of Downtown, areas immediately north of Downtown around Silver Lake, the entire eastern
parts of L.A., the Crenshaw area, the San Pedro area, and areas around the San Fernando Valley. The major river is
the Los Angeles River, which begins in the Canoga Park district of the city and is largely seasonal. The river is lined
in concrete for almost its entire length as it flows through the city into nearby Vernon on its way to the Pacific
Ocean.

Geology
Los Angeles is subject to earthquakes due to its location on the Pacific
Ring of Fire. The geologic instability has produced numerous faults,
which altogether cause approximately 10,000 earthquakes every
year.[34] One of the major faults is the San Andreas Fault. Located at
the boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate,
it is predicted to be the source of Southern California's next big
earthquake.[35] Major earthquakes to have hit the Los Angeles area
include the 1994 Northridge earthquake, the 1987 Whittier Narrows
earthquake, the 1971 San Fernando earthquake near Sylmar, and the
Mallards on the Los Angeles River
1933 Long Beach earthquake. Nevertheless, all but a few quakes are of
low intensity and are not felt.[34] The most recent earthquake felt was
the 4.4 2010 Pico Rivera earthquake on March 16, 2010. Parts of the city are also vulnerable to Pacific Ocean
tsunamis; harbor areas were damaged by waves from the Valdivia earthquake in 1960.[36] The Los Angeles basin
and metropolitan area are also at risk from blind thrust earthquakes.[37]

Climate
Los Angeles has a Subtropical-Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate
classification Csb on the coast, Csa inland), and receives just enough
annual precipitation to avoid Köppen's BSh (semi-arid climate)
classification. Los Angeles enjoys plenty of sunshine throughout the
year, with an average of only 35 days with measurable precipitation
annually.[14]

The average annual temperature in downtown is 66.2 °F (19.0 °C):

75.6 °F (24.2 °C) during the day and 56.6 °F (13.7 °C) at night. In the
Echo Park as seen with palm trees
Los Angeles 234

coldest month - January - the temperature typically ranges from 59 to 73 °F (15 to 23 °C) (sometimes above and
below these temperatures) during the day and 45 to 55 °F (7 to 13 °C) at night. In the warmest month - August - the
temperature typically ranges from 79 to 90 °F (26 to 32 °C) (sometimes above and below these temperatures) during
the day and around 64 °F (18 °C) at night. Temperatures exceed 90 °F (32 °C) on a dozen or so days in the year,
from 1 day a month in April, May, June and November to 3 days a month in July, August, October and to 5 days in
September.[14] Generally - the summer lasts nearly year round. Temperatures are subject to substantial daily swings;
in inland areas the difference between the average daily low and the average daily high is over 30°F (17°C).[38]
Average annual temperature of sea is 63 °F (17 °C), from 58 °F (14 °C) in January to 68 °F (20 °C) in August.[39]
Sunshine hours is above 3,000 per year, from average 7 hours of sunshine / day in December to average 12 hours of
sunshine / day in July.[40]
The Los Angeles area is also subject to phenomena typical of a microclimate. As such, the temperatures can vary as
much as 18°F (10°C) between inland areas and the coast, with a temperature gradient of over one degree per mile
(1.6 km) from the coast inland. California also has a weather phenomenon called "June Gloom or May Grey", which
sometimes gives overcast or foggy skies in the morning at the coast, but usually gives sunny skies by noon, during
late spring and early summer.
Los Angeles averages 15.14 inches (384.56 mm) of precipitation annually, which mainly occurs during the winter
and spring (November through April) with generally moderate rain showers, but usually as heavy rainfall and
thunderstorms during Winter storms. The coast gets slightly less rainfall, while the mountains get slightly more.
However the San Fernando Valley Region of Los Angeles can get between 16 and 20 inches of rain per year. Years
of average rainfall are rare; the usual pattern is bimodal, with a short string of dry years (perhaps 7–8
inches/180–200 millimetres) followed by one or two wet years that make up the average. Snowfall is extremely rare
in the city basin, but the mountains within city limits typically receive snowfall every winter. The greatest snowfall
recorded in downtown Los Angeles was 2 inches (5.08 cm) in 1932.[41] [42]

Climate data for Los Angeles (Downtown - USC campus)

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year

Average high 68.1 69.6 69.8 73.1 74.5 79.5 83.8 84.8 83.3 79.0 73.2 68.7 75.6
°F (°C) (20.06) (20.89) (21) (22.83) (23.61) (26.39) (28.78) (29.33) (28.5) (26.11) (22.89) (20.39) (24.22)

Daily mean °F 58.3 60.0 60.7 63.8 66.2 70.5 74.2 75.2 74.0 69.5 62.9 58.5 66.2
(°C) (14.61) (15.56) (15.94) (17.67) (19) (21.39) (23.44) (24) (23.33) (20.83) (17.17) (14.72) (19)

Average low 48.5 50.3 51.6 54.4 57.9 61.4 64.6 65.6 64.6 59.9 52.6 48.3 56.6
°F (°C) (9.17) (10.17) (10.89) (12.44) (14.39) (16.33) (18.11) (18.67) (18.11) (15.5) (11.44) (9.06) (13.67)

Rainfall 3.33 3.68 3.14 0.83 0.31 0.06 0.01 0.13 0.32 0.37 1.05 1.91 15.14
inches (mm) (84.6) (93.5) (79.8) (21.1) (7.9) (1.5) (0.3) (3.3) (8.1) (9.4) (26.7) (48.5) (384.6)

Avg. rainy 6.5 6.0 6.4 3.0 1.3 0.6 0.3 0.5 1.2 2.0 3.1 4.3 35.2
days (≥ 0.01
inch)

Sunshine 217 232 279 300 279 300 372 341 270 248 210 217 3265
hours
[38] [43]
Source: NOAA , weather2travel.com for data of sunshine hours
Los Angeles 235

Climate data for Los Angeles (LAX, at the coast)

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year

Average high °F 65.6 65.8 65.3 68.0 69.3 72.6 75.3 76.8 76.5 74.3 70.4 66.7 70.6
(°C) (18.67) (18.78) (18.5) (20) (20.72) (22.56) (24.06) (24.89) (24.72) (23.5) (21.33) (19.28) (21.44)

Daily mean °F 57.1 58.0 58.3 60.8 63.1 66.4 69.3 70.7 70.1 66.9 61.6 57.6 63.3
(°C) (13.94) (14.44) (14.61) (16) (17.28) (19.11) (20.72) (21.5) (21.17) (19.39) (16.44) (14.22) (17.39)

Average low °F 48.6 50.1 51.3 53.6 56.9 60.1 63.3 64.5 63.6 59.4 52.7 48.5 56.1
(°C) (9.22) (10.06) (10.72) (12) (13.83) (15.61) (17.39) (18.06) (17.56) (15.22) (11.5) (9.17) (13.39)

Rainfall inches 2.98 3.11 2.40 0.63 0.24 0.08 0.03 0.14 0.26 0.36 1.13 1.79 13.15
(mm) (75.7) (79) (61) (16) (6.1) (2) (0.8) (3.6) (6.6) (9.1) (28.7) (45.5) (334)

Avg. rainy days 6.4 6.3 6.5 2.6 1.3 0.5 0.4 0.5 1.2 2.0 3.1 4.7 35.5
(≥ 0.01 in)

[38]
Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Climate data for Los Angeles (Canoga Park, in the San Fernando Valley)

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year

Average high 67.9 69.9 72.0 77.7 81.3 88.8 95.0 96.0 91.7 84.4 74.7 68.8 80.7
°F (°C) (19.94) (21.06) (22.22) (25.39) (27.39) (31.56) (35) (35.56) (33.17) (29.11) (23.72) (20.44) (27.06)

Daily mean °F 53.7 55.4 57.2 61.3 65.2 71.0 76.0 76.8 73.5 66.8 58.2 53.6 64.1
(°C) (12.06) (13) (14) (16.28) (18.44) (21.67) (24.44) (24.89) (23.06) (19.33) (14.56) (12) (17.83)

Average low 39.5 40.9 42.3 44.8 49.1 53.2 56.9 57.6 55.2 49.2 41.7 38.3 47.4
°F (°C) (4.17) (4.94) (5.72) (7.11) (9.5) (11.78) (13.83) (14.22) (12.89) (9.56) (5.39) (3.5) (8.56)

Rainfall 3.83 4.40 3.60 0.88 0.32 0.07 0.01 0.15 0.24 0.62 1.29 2.38 17.79
inches (mm) (97.3) (111.8) (91.4) (22.4) (8.1) (1.8) (0.3) (3.8) (6.1) (15.7) (32.8) (60.5) (451.9)

Avg. rainy 6.2 5.9 6.1 3.0 1.3 0.4 0.1 0.7 1.3 2.0 3.2 4.4 34.6
days (≥ 0.01 in)
[]
Source: NOAA

Flora
The Los Angeles area is rich in native plant species due
in part to a diversity in habitats, including beaches,
wetlands, and mountains. The most prevalent botanical
environment is coastal sage scrub, which covers the
hillsides in combustible chaparral. Native plants
include: California poppy, matilija poppy, toyon, Coast
Live Oak, and Giant Wildrye. Many of these native
species, such as the Los Angeles sunflower, have
become so rare as to be considered endangered. Though
they are not native to the area, the official tree of Los
Angeles is the Coral Tree (Erythrina caffra)[44] and the
MacArthur Park
official flower of Los Angeles is the Bird of Paradise
Los Angeles 236

(Strelitzia reginae).[45] Mexican Fan Palms, California Fan Palms, and Canary Island Palms can be seen throughout
the Los Angeles area, despite the latter being non-indeginous to Southern California.

Environmental issues
The name given by the Chumash tribe of Native Americans for the
area now known as Los Angeles translates to "the valley of smoke"[46]
because of the smog from native campfires. Owing to geography,
heavy reliance on automobiles, and the Los Angeles/Long Beach port
A view of Los Angeles covered in smog
complex, Los Angeles suffers from air pollution in the form of smog.
The Los Angeles Basin and the San Fernando Valley are susceptible to
atmospheric inversion, which holds in the exhausts from road vehicles, airplanes, locomotives, shipping,
manufacturing, and other sources.[47] Unlike other large cities that rely on rain to clear smog, Los Angeles gets only
15 inches (381.00 mm) of rain each year: pollution accumulates over many consecutive days. Issues of air quality in
Los Angeles and other major cities led to the passage of early national environmental legislation, including the Clean
Air Act. More recently, the state of California has led the nation in working to limit pollution by mandating low
emission vehicles. Smog levels are only high during summers because it is dry and warm. In the winter, storms help
to clear the smog and it is not as much of a problem. Smog should continue to drop in the coming years due to
aggressive steps to reduce it, electric and hybrid cars, improvements in mass transit, and other pollution reducing
measures.[48]

As a result, pollution levels have dropped in recent decades. The number of Stage 1 smog alerts has declined from
over 100 per year in the 1970s to almost zero in the new millennium. Despite improvement, the 2006 and 2007
annual reports of the American Lung Association ranked the city as the most polluted in the country with short-term
particle pollution and year-round particle pollution.[49] [50] In 2008, the city was ranked the second most polluted and
again had the highest year-round particulate pollution.[51] In addition, the groundwater is increasingly threatened by
MTBE from gas stations and perchlorate from rocket fuel. With pollution still a significant problem, the city
continues to take aggressive steps to improve air and water conditions.[52] [53]
Los Angeles 237

Economy
Companies such as US Bancorp,
Ernst & Young, Aon, Manulife
Financial, City National Bank, Wells
Fargo, Bank of America, Deloitte,
KPMG and the Union Bank of
California have offices in the
Downtown Financial District
The economy of Los Angeles is driven by international trade,
entertainment (television, motion pictures, video games, recorded
music), aerospace, technology, petroleum, fashion, apparel, and
tourism. Los Angeles is also the largest manufacturing center in the
western United States.[54] The contiguous ports of Los Angeles and
Long Beach together comprise the fifth busiest port in the world and
the most significant port in the Western Hemisphere and is vital to
trade within the Pacific Rim.[54] Other significant industries include
media production, finance, telecommunications, law, healthcare, and
transportation. The Los Angeles-Long Beach-Riverside combined
statistical area (CSA) has a gross metropolitan product (GMP) of $831
billion (as of 2008), making it the third largest economic center in the
world, after the Greater Tokyo Area and the New
York-Newark-Bridgeport CSA.[11] [12] [13] If counted as a country, the
surrounding CSA has the 15th largest economy in the world in terms of
nominal GDP, placing it just below Australia and above the
Netherlands, Turkey, Sweden, Belgium, and Indonesia.[55]

Until the mid-1990s, Los Angeles was home to many major financial
institutions in the western United States. Mergers meant reporting to
headquarters in other cities. For instance, First Interstate Bancorp
merged with Wells Fargo in 1996, Great Western Bank merged with
Washington Mutual in 1998, and Security Pacific Bank merged with
Bank of America in 1992. Los Angeles was also home to the Pacific
Exchange, until it closed in 2001.

The city is home to six Fortune 500 companies. They are aerospace
contractor Northrop Grumman, energy company Occidental Petroleum,
The Financial District of Downtown Los Angeles healthcare provider Health Net, metals distributor Reliance Steel &
Aluminum, engineering firm AECOM, and real estate group CB
Richard Ellis.
Other companies headquartered in Los Angeles include City National
Bank, 20th Century Fox, Latham & Watkins, Univision, Metro
Interactive, LLC, Premier America, Gibson, Dunn & Crutcher,
DeviantArt,[56] Guess?, O’Melveny & Myers; Paul, Hastings, Janofsky
Cruise ship at the Port of Los Angeles
& Walker, Tokyopop, The Jim Henson Company, Paramount Pictures,
Sunkist Growers, Incorporated, Tutor Perini, Fox Sports Net, Capital
Group, 21st Century Insurance, and The Coffee Bean & Tea Leaf. Korean Air's US passenger and cargo operations
headquarters are located in two separate offices in Los Angeles.[57]

The metropolitan area contains the headquarters of companies who moved outside of the city to escape its taxes but
keep the benefits of proximity.[58] For example, Los Angeles charges a gross receipts tax based on a percentage of
business revenue, while many neighboring cities charge only small flat fees.[59] The companies below benefit from
their proximity to Los Angeles, while at the same time avoiding the city's taxes (and other problems).
Los Angeles 238

Some of the major companies headquartered in the cities of Los

Angeles county are Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences
(Beverly Hills), National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences
(Santa Monica), Hilton Hotels (Beverly Hills), DIC Entertainment
(Burbank), The Walt Disney Company (Fortune 500 – Burbank),
Warner Bros. (Burbank), Countrywide Financial (Fortune 500 –
Calabasas), THQ (Calabasas), Belkin (Compton), Sony Pictures
Entertainment (parent of Columbia Pictures, located in Culver City),
DirecTV (El Segundo), Mattel (Fortune 500 – El Segundo), Unocal
Corporation (Fortune 500 – El Segundo), DreamWorks (Glendale), Walt Disney Concert Hall
Sea Launch (Long Beach), ICANN (Marina del Rey), Cunard Line
(Santa Clarita), Princess Cruises (Santa Clarita), Activision (Santa Monica), and RAND (Santa Monica).

The University of Southern California (USC) is the city's largest private sector employer and contributes $4 billion
annually to the local economy.[60] Los Angeles is classified as an "Alpha(-) world city" in a 2008 study by a research
group at Loughborough University in England.[61]
In January 2010 many of the aerospace firms with operations in Los Angeles County are relatively small compared
to the larger corporations.[62]

Culture
Los Angeles is often billed as the "Creative Capital of the World", due
to the fact that one in every six of its residents works in a creative
industry.[63] According to the USC Stevens Institute for Innovation,
"there are more artists, writers, filmmakers, actors, dancers and
musicians living and working in Los Angeles than any other city at any
time in the history of civilization."[64]

Los Angeles is home to Hollywood, globally recognized as the

epicenter of the motion picture industry. A testament to its
preeminence in film, the city plays host to the annual Academy
Awards, the oldest and one of the most prominent award ceremonies in
the world. Furthermore, there are 54 film festivals every year, which Kodak Theatre

translates into more than one every week.[65] Finally, Los Angeles is
home to the USC School of Cinematic Arts, the oldest and largest
school of its kind in the United States.

The performing arts play a major role in Los Angeles' cultural identity.
There are over 1,000 musical, theater, dance, and performing
groups.[65] According to the USC Stevens Institute for Innovation,
"there are more than 1,100 annual theatrical productions and 21
openings every week."[64] The Los Angeles Music Center is one of the
three largest performing arts complexes in the nation.[66] The Walt
Disney Concert Hall, the centerpiece of the Music Center, is home to
Hollywood Sign
the prestigious Los Angeles Philharmonic. Notable organizations such
as Center Theatre Group and the Los Angeles Master Chorale along
with the rising Los Angeles Opera are also resident companies of the Music Center. Talent is locally cultivated at
premier institutions such as the Colburn School and the USC Thornton School of Music.
Los Angeles 239

There are 841 museums and art galleries in Los Angeles County;[67] Los Angeles has more museums per capita than
any other city in the world.[68] The most notable museums are the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (the largest
encyclopedic museum west of Chicago), the Getty Center (part of the larger J. Paul Getty Trust, the world's
wealthiest art institution), and the Museum of Contemporary Art. A significant amount of art galleries are
concentrated on Gallery Row and thousands are in attendance of the monthly Downtown Art Walk that takes place
there.

Media
The major daily newspaper in the area is the Los Angeles Times; La
Opinión is the city's major Spanish-language paper. Investor's Business
Daily is distributed from its L.A. corporate offices, which are
headquartered in Playa Del Rey. There are also a number of smaller
regional newspapers, alternative weeklies and magazines, including the
Daily News (which focuses coverage on the San Fernando Valley), LA
Weekly, Los Angeles CityBeat, L.A. Record (which focuses coverage
on the music scene in the Greater Los Angeles Area), Los Angeles
magazine, Los Angeles Business Journal, Los Angeles Daily Journal
(legal industry paper), The Hollywood Reporter and Variety
(entertainment industry papers), and Los Angeles Downtown News. In
addition to the English- and Spanish-language papers, numerous local
The Fox Plaza in Century City, headquarters for
periodicals serve immigrant communities in their native languages, 20th Century Fox, is a major financial district for
including Armenian, Korean, Persian, Russian, Chinese and Japanese. West Los Angeles
Many cities adjacent to Los Angeles also have their own daily
newspapers whose coverage and availability overlaps into certain Los Angeles neighborhoods. Examples include
The Daily Breeze (serving the South Bay), and The Long Beach Press-Telegram.

Los Angeles and New York City are the only two media markets to have all seven VHF allocations possible assigned
to them.[69]
The city's first television station (and the first in California) was
KTLA, which began broadcasting on January 22, 1947. The major
network-affiliated television stations in this city are KABC-TV 7
(ABC), KCBS 2 (CBS), KNBC 4 (NBC), KTTV 11 (Fox), KTLA 5
(The CW), and KCOP-TV 13 (MyNetworkTV), and KPXN 30 (Ion).
There are also three PBS stations in the area: KCET 28, KOCE-TV 50,
and KLCS 58. World TV operates on two channels, KNET-LP 25 and
KSFV-LP 6. There are also several Spanish-language television
Los Angeles Times Headquarters
networks, including KMEX-TV 34 (Univision), KFTR 46
(TeleFutura), KVEA 52 (Telemundo), and KAZA 54 (Azteca
América). KTBN 40 is the flagship station of the religious Trinity Broadcasting Network, based out of Santa Ana.

Several independent television stations also operate in the area, including KCAL-TV 9 (owned by CBS
Corporation), KSCI 18 (focuses primarily on Asian language programming), KWHY-TV 22 (Spanish-language),
KNLA-LP 27 (Spanish-language), KSMV-LP 33 (variety)—a low power relay of Ventura-based KJLA
57—KPAL-LP 38, KXLA 44, KDOC-TV 56 (classic programming and local sports), KJLA 57 (variety), and KRCA
62 (Spanish-language).
Los Angeles 240

Sports
Los Angeles is the home of the Los Angeles Dodgers of Major League
Baseball, the Los Angeles Kings of the National Hockey League, the
Los Angeles Clippers and Los Angeles Lakers of the National
Basketball Association, the Los Angeles D-Fenders, an NBA
Development team owned by the Los Angeles Lakers, and the Los
Angeles Sparks of the Women's National Basketball Association. Los
Angeles is also home to the USC Trojans and the UCLA Bruins in the
NCAA, both of which are Division I teams in the Pacific-10
Conference. The Los Angeles Galaxy and Club Deportivo Chivas USA
Dodger Stadium is the home of the Los Angeles
of Major League Soccer are based in Carson. The city is the largest in
Dodgers
the U.S. without an NFL team.

There was a time when Los Angeles boasted two NFL teams, the Rams and the Raiders. Both left the city in 1995,
with the Rams moving to St. Louis and the Raiders heading back to Oakland. Los Angeles is the second-largest city
and television market in the United States, but has no NFL team (see List of television stations in North America by
media market). Prior to 1995, the Rams called Memorial Coliseum (1946–1979) and the Raiders played their home
games at Memorial Coliseum from 1982 to 1994.[70]
Since the franchise's departures the NFL as an organization, and
individual NFL owners, have attempted to relocate a team to the city.
Immediately following the 1995 NFL season, Seattle Seahawks owner
Ken Behring went as far as packing up moving vans to start play in the
Rose Bowl under a new team name and logo for the 1996 season. The
State of Washington filed a law suit to successfully prevent the
move.[71] In 2003, then NFL Commissioner Paul Tagliabue indicated
L.A. would get a new expansion team, a thirty-third franchise, after the
choice of Houston over L.A. in the 2002 league expansion round.[72] Staples Center, a premier venue for sports and
entertainment, is home to five professional sports
When the New Orleans Saints were displaced from the Superdome by
teams, most notably the Los Angeles Lakers
Hurricane Katrina media outlets reported the NFL was planning to
move the team to Los Angeles permanently.[73] Despite these efforts,
and the failure to build a new stadium for an NFL team, L.A. is still expected to return to the league through
expansion or relocation.

Los Angeles has twice played host to the summer Olympic Games, in 1932 and in 1984. When the tenth Olympic
Games were hosted in 1932, the former 10th Street was renamed Olympic Blvd. Super Bowls I and VII were also
held in the city as well as soccer's international World Cup in 1994.
Los Angeles also boasts a number of sports venues, including Dodger Stadium, Los Angeles Coliseum, The Forum,
Staples Center, a sports and entertainment complex that also hosts concerts and awards shows such as the Grammys.
Staples Center also serves as the home arena for the Los Angeles Clippers and Los Angeles Lakers of the NBA, the
Los Angeles Sparks of the WNBA, the Los Angeles Kings of the NHL and the Avengers of the AFL.
The Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim of Major League Baseball and the Anaheim Ducks of the National Hockey
League are in the Los Angeles media market and are based in Anaheim in Orange County. The Angels began as an
expansion franchise team in Los Angeles in 1961 and played at Los Angeles' Wrigley Field and then Dodger
Stadium before moving to Anaheim in 1966.[74]
Los Angeles 241

Religion
The Roman Catholic Archbishop of Los Angeles leads the largest
archdiocese in the country.[75] Cardinal Roger Mahony oversaw
construction of the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels, completed in
2002 at the north end of downtown. Construction of the cathedral
marked a coming of age of the Catholic, heavily Latino community.
There are numerous Catholic churches and parishes throughout the
city.

The Los Angeles California Temple, the second largest temple

Built in 1956, the Los Angeles California Temple
operated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, is on of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Santa Monica Boulevard in the Westwood district of Los Angeles. Saints is the second largest Mormon temple in the
Dedicated in 1956, it was the first Mormon temple built in California world

and it was the largest in the world when completed.[76] The grounds
includes a visitors' center open to the public, the Los Angeles Regional
Family History Center, also open to the public, and the headquarters
for the Los Angeles mission.

With 621,000 Jews in the metropolitan area (490,000 in city proper),

the region has the second largest population of Jews in the United
States.[77] [78] Many synagogues of the Reform, Conservative,
Orthodox, and Reconstructionist movements can be found throughout
the city. Most are located in the San Fernando Valley and West Los
Angeles. The area in West Los Angeles around Fairfax and Pico Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels

Boulevards contains a large number of Orthodox Jews. The Breed

Street Shul in East Los Angeles, built in 1923, was the largest synagogue west of Chicago in its early decades.[79] (It
is no longer a sacred space and is being converted to a museum and community center.)[80] The Kabbalah Centre,
devoted to one line of Jewish mysticism, is also in the city.

The Hollywood region of Los Angeles also has several significant headquarters, churches, and the Celebrity Center
of Scientology.
Because of Los Angeles' large multi-ethnic population, a wide variety of faiths are practiced, including Islam,
Buddhism, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Sikhism, Bahá'í, various Eastern Orthodox Churches, Sufism and others.
Immigrants from Asia for example, have formed a number of significant Buddhist congregations making the city
home to the greatest variety of Buddhists in the world.
Los Angeles 242

Education

Colleges and universities

There are three public universities located within the city limits:
California State University, Los Angeles (CSULA), California State
University, Northridge (CSUN) and University of California, Los
Angeles (UCLA). Private colleges in the city include the American
Film Institute Conservatory, Alliant International University, American
InterContinental University, American Jewish University, The
American Musical and Dramatic Academy – Los Angeles campus,
Antioch University's Los Angeles campus, Charles R. Drew University
of Medicine and Science, Fashion Institute of Design &
Second branch of the California State Normal
Merchandising's Los Angeles campus (FIDM), Los Angeles Film
School in downtown Los Angeles opened its
doors in 1882. School, Loyola Marymount University (LMU is also the parent
university of Loyola Law School located in Los Angeles), Marymount
College, Mount St. Mary's College, National University of California, Occidental College ("Oxy"), Otis College of
Art and Design (Otis), Southern California Institute of Architecture (SCI-Arc), Southwestern Law School, and
University of Southern California (USC).

The community college system consists of nine campuses governed by the trustees of the Los Angeles Community
College District: East Los Angeles College (ELAC), Los Angeles City College (LACC), Los Angeles Harbor
College, Los Angeles Mission College, Los Angeles Pierce College, Los Angeles Valley College (LAVC), Los
Angeles Southwest College, Los Angeles Trade-Technical College and West Los Angeles College.

Schools and libraries

Los Angeles Unified School District serves almost all of the city of
Los Angeles, as well as several surrounding communities, with a
student population over 800,000.[81] After Proposition 13 was
approved in 1978, urban school districts had considerable trouble with
funding. LAUSD has become known for its underfunded, overcrowded
and poorly maintained campuses, although its 162 Magnet schools help
compete with local private schools.[82] Several small sections of Los
Angeles are in the Las Virgenes Unified School District. Los Angeles
County Office of Education operates the Los Angeles County High
School for the Arts. The Los Angeles Public Library system operates The Los Angeles Central Library in Downtown
72 public libraries in the city.[83] Los Angeles

Transportation

Freeways and highways

The city and the rest of the Los Angeles metropolitan area is served by an extensive network of freeways and
highways. The Texas Transportation Institute, which publishes an annual Urban Mobility Report, ranked Los
Angeles road traffic as the most congested in the United States in 2005 as measured by annual delay per traveler.
The average traveler in Los Angeles experienced 72 hours of traffic delay per year according to the study. Los
Angeles was followed by San Francisco/Oakland, Washington, D.C. and Atlanta, (each with 60 hours of delay).[84]
Los Angeles 243

Despite the congestion in the city, the mean travel time for commuters in Los Angeles is shorter than other major
cities, including New York City, Philadelphia and Chicago. Los Angeles' mean travel time for work commutes in
2006 was 29.2 minutes, similar to those of San Francisco and Washington, D.C..[85]
Among the major highways that connect LA to the rest of the nation include Interstate 5, which runs south through
San Diego to Tijuana in Mexico and then north to the Canadian border through Sacramento, Portland, and Seattle;
Interstate 10, the southernmost east–west, coast-to-coast Interstate Highway in the United States, going to
Jacksonville, Florida; and U.S. Route 101, which heads to the California Central Coast, San Francisco, the Redwood
Empire, and the Oregon and Washington coasts.

Public transportation
The Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority and
other agencies operate an extensive system of bus lines, as well as
subway and light rail lines across Los Angeles County, with a
combined daily ridership of 1.7 million.[86] The majority of this (1.4
million) is taken up by the city's bus system, the second busiest in the
country. The subway and light rail combined average the remaining
roughly 319,000 boardings per weekday.[87] In 2005, 10.2% of Los
Angeles commuters rode some form of public transportation.[88]

The city's subway system is the ninth busiest in the United States and
its light rail system is the country's third busiest.[89] The rail system Current Los Angeles Metro Rail map showing
includes the Red and Purple subway lines, as well as the Gold, Blue, existing and under-construction lines.

and Green light rail lines. The Metro Rapid buses are a bus rapid
transit program with stops and frequency similar those of a light rail. The city is also central to the commuter rail
system Metrolink, which links Los Angeles to all neighboring counties as well as many suburbs.

Air transportation
The main Los Angeles airport is Los Angeles International Airport
(IATA: LAX, ICAO: KLAX). The sixth busiest commercial airport in
the world and the third busiest in the United States, LAX handled over
61 million passengers and 2 million tons of cargo in 2006. The
[[Theme Building is pictured here.[90] LAX is a hub for United
Airlines[91]

Other major nearby commercial airports include:

• (IATA: ONT, ICAO: KONT) LA/Ontario International Airport, LAX, the fifth busiest airport in the world
owned by the city of Los Angeles; serves the Inland Empire.
• (IATA: BUR, ICAO: KBUR) Bob Hope Airport, formerly known as Burbank Airport; serves the San Fernando
and San Gabriel Valleys
• (IATA: LGB, ICAO: KLGB) Long Beach Airport, serves the Long Beach/Harbor area
• (IATA: SNA, ICAO: KSNA) John Wayne Airport of Orange County.
• (IATA: PMD, ICAO: KPMD) LA/Palmdale Regional Airport is owned by the city of Los Angeles and serves the
northern outlying communities of the Santa Clarita and Antelope Valleys.
The world's third busiest general-aviation airport is also located in Los Angeles, Van Nuys Airport (IATA:
VNY, ICAO: KVNY).[92]
Los Angeles 244

Ports
The Port of Los Angeles is located in San Pedro Bay in the San Pedro
neighborhood, approximately 20 miles (32 km) south of Downtown.
Also called Los Angeles Harbor and WORLDPORT LA, the port
complex occupies 7500 acres (30 km2) of land and water along
43 miles (69 km) of waterfront. It adjoins the separate Port of Long
Beach.

The sea ports of the Port of Los Angeles and Port of Long Beach
together make up the Los Angeles/Long Beach Harbor.[93] [94] [95] Both
ports is the 5th busiest container port in the World, with a trade volume A view of the Vincent Thomas Bridge reaching
of over 14.2 million TEU's in 2008.[96] Singly, the Port of Los Angeles Terminal Island
is the busiest container port in the United States and the largest cruise
ship center on the West Coast of the United States - Port's World Cruise Center serves about 800,000 passengers in
2009.[97]

There are also smaller, non-industrial harbors along L.A.'s coastline. Safety is provided at the only beach controlled
by Los Angeles City by the highly trained Los Angeles City Lifeguards.[98]
The port includes four bridges: the Vincent Thomas Bridge, Henry Ford Bridge, Gerald Desmond Bridge, and
Commodore Schuyler F. Heim Bridge.

Demographics

A view of downtown Los Angeles from the air.

Historical populations
Year Pop. %±

1850 1610 —

1860 4385 172.4%

1870 5728 30.6%

1880 11183 95.2%

1890 50395 350.6%

1900 102479 103.4%

1910 319198 211.5%

1920 576673 80.7%

1930 1238048 114.7%

1940 1504277 21.5%

1950 1970358 31.0%

Los Angeles 245

1960 2479015 25.8%

1970 2816061 13.6%

1980 2966850 5.4%

1990 3485398 17.5%

2000 3694820 6.0%

2009 (Est.) 3831868 3.7%

[99] [100]
source:

According to the 2006–2008 American Community Survey, the racial composition of Los Angeles was as follows:
• White: 49.5% (Non-Hispanic Whites: 29.4%)
• Black or African American: 9.9%
• Native American: 0.6%
• Asian: 10.4%
• Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander: 0.2%
• Some other race: 26.5%
• Two or more races: 2.9%
• Hispanic or Latino (of any race): 48.4%
African Americans make up 9.9% of Los Angeles' population. According to the survey, there were 370,718 African
Americans residing in Los Angeles.
Native Americans make up 0.6% of Los Angeles' population. According to the survey, there were 21,696 Native
Americans residing in Los Angeles. Of 21,696 Native Americans, 1,686 were of the Cherokee tribal grouping. In
addition, 913 individuals identified themselves as Navajo. Approximately 110 people identified themselves as
Chippewa, and 97 people identified themselves as Sioux.
Asian Americans make up 10.4% of Los Angeles' population. According to the survey, there were 391,377 Asian
Americans residing in Los Angeles. The seven largest Asian American groups were the following:
• Filipino: 3.1% (115,729)
• Korean: 2.5% (93,856)
• Chinese: 1.7% (62,881)
• Other Asian (Cambodian, Laotian, Thai, Hmong, etc.): 1.0% (36,580)
• Japanese: 0.9% (32,555)
• Indian: 0.8% (29,131)
• Vietnamese: 0.6% (20,645)
Pacific Islander Americans make up 0.2% of Los Angeles' population. According to the survey, there were 7,475
Pacific Islander Americans residing in Los Angeles. The four Pacific Islander American groups were the following:
• Native Hawaiian: 1,575 (<0.1%)
• Guamanian or Chamorro: 1,231 (<0.1%)
• Samoan: 2,263 (0.1%)
• Other Pacific Islander (Fijian, Tongan, etc.): 2,406 (0.1%)
Multiracial Americans make up 2.9% of Los Angeles' population. According to the survey, there were 108,940
multiracial Americans residing in Los Angeles. The four main multiracial groups were the following:
• White & Black: 0.4% (13,307)
• White & Native American: 0.3% (11,327)
• White & Asian: 0.6% (20,640)
• Black & Native American: 0.1% (2,813)
Los Angeles 246

Hispanics and Latinos make up 48.4% of Los Angeles' population. According to the survey, there were 1,815,005
Hispanics and Latinos residing in Los Angeles. The four main Hispanic/Latino groups were the following:
• Mexican: 33.4% (1,253,410)
• Puerto Rican: 0.4% (14,646)
• Cuban: 0.4% (13,390)
• Other Hispanic or Latino (Colombian, Panamanian, Uruguayan, etc.): 14.2% (533,539)
White Americans make up 49.5% of Los Angeles's population. According to the survey, there were 1,857,130 White
Americans residing in Los Angeles. Much of the European American population is of German, Irish, English, Italian,
Russian, Polish, and French descent.
Source:[101]
According to the 2006–2008 American Community Survey, the top ten European ancestries were the following:
• German: 4.5% (170,483)
• Irish: 3.9% (146,658)
• English: 3.5% (129,684)
• Italian: 2.7% (100,124)
• Russian: 2.6% (98,737)
• Polish: 1.6% (59,774)
• French: 1.2% (45,127)
• Scottish: 0.8% (28,931)
• Swedish: 0.6% (23,227)
• Scotch-Irish: 0.6% (22,651)
Source:[102]
Current estimates from the U.S. Census Bureau put the city's population at 3,833,995. The California Department of
Finance estimates the population at 4,094,764 as of January 1, 2009.[103] The 2000 census[104] recorded 3,694,820
people, 1,275,412 households, and 798,719 families residing in the city, with a population density of 7,876.8 people
per square mile (3,041.3/km2). There were 1,337,706 housing units at an average density of 2,851.8 per square mile
(1,101.1/km2). Los Angeles has become a multiethnic andmulticultural city, with major new groups of Latino and
Asian immigrants in recent decades. From a metropolitan area that in 1960 was over 80% non-Hispanic white, Los
Angeles has been transformed into a city that now has a "majority-minority" population.[105] As of the 2000 US
Census, the racial distribution in Los Angeles was 46.9% White American, 11.2% African American, 10.5% Asian
American, 0.8% Native American, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 25.7% from other races, and 5.2% from two or more races.
46.5% of the population was Hispanic or Latino (of any race).[106]
The census indicated that 42.2% spoke English, 41.7% Spanish, 2.4% Korean, 2.3% Tagalog, 1.7% Armenian, 1.5%
Chinese (including Cantonese and Mandarin) and 1.3% Persian as their first language.[107]
According to the census, 33.5% of households had children under 18, 41.9% were married couples, 14.5% had a
female householder with no husband present, and 37.4% were non-families. 28.5% of households were made up of
individuals and 7.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was
2.83 and the average family size 3.56.[104]
The age distribution was: 26.6% under 18, 11.1% from 18 to 24, 34.1% from 25 to 44, 18.6% from 45 to 64, and
9.7% who were 65 or older. The median age was 32. For every 100 females there were 99.4 males. For every 100
females aged 18 and over, there were 97.5 males.[104]
The median income for a household was $36,687, and for a family was $39,942. Males had a median income of
$31,880, females $30,197. The per capita income was $20,671. 22.1% of the population and 18.3% of families were
below the poverty line. 30.3% of those under the age of 18 and 12.6% of those aged 65 or older were below the
poverty line.[104] Los Angeles has had a high degree of income disparity as compared to the rest of the country.
Los Angeles 247

Recently, however, income disparity has declined.[108] The median household income of the wealthiest
neighborhood was $207,938, while in the poorest it was $15,003.[109]
Los Angeles is home to people from more than 140 countries speaking 224 different identified languages.[110] Ethnic
enclaves like Chinatown, Historic Filipinotown, Koreatown, Little Armenia, Little Ethiopia, Tehrangeles, Little
Tokyo, and Thai Town provide examples of the polyglot character of Los Angeles.

Government
The city is governed by a mayor-council system. The current mayor is Antonio Villaraigosa. There are 15 city
council districts. Other elected city officials include the City Attorney Carmen Trutanich and the City Controller
Wendy Greuel. The city attorney prosecutes misdemeanors within the city limits. The district attorney, elected by
county voters, prosecutes misdemeanors in unincorporated areas and in 78 of the 88 cities in the county, as well as
felonies throughout the county.
The Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) polices the city of Los Angeles, but the city also maintains four
specialized police agencies; The Office of Public Safety, within the General Services Department (which is
responsible for security and law enforcement services at city facilities, including City Hall, city parks and libraries,
the Los Angeles Zoo, and the Convention Center), the Port Police, within the Harbor Department (which is
responsible for land, air and sea law enforcement services at the Port of Los Angeles), the Los Angeles City Schools
Police department which handles law enforcement for all city schools, and the Airport Police, within the Los
Angeles World Airports Department (which is responsible for law enforcement services at all four city-owned
airports, including Los Angeles International Airport (LAX), LA/Ontario International Airport (ONT), LA/Palmdale
Regional Airport (PMD), and Van Nuys Airport (VNY).

Neighborhood councils
Voters created Neighborhood Councils in the Charter Reform of 1999.
First proposed by City Council member Joel Wachs in 1996, they were
designed to promote public participation in government and make it
more responsive to local needs.
The councils cover districts that are not necessarily identical to the
traditional neighborhoods of Los Angeles.
Almost ninety neighborhood councils (NCs) are certified and all
"stakeholders"—meaning anyone who lives, works or owns property in
a neighborhood—may vote for members of the councils' governing Bunker Hill in L.A.
bodies. Some council bylaws allow other people with a stake in the
community to cast ballots as well.
The councils are official government bodies and so their governing bodies and committees must abide by
California's Brown Act, which governs the meetings of deliberative assemblies.
The first notable concern of the neighborhood councils collectively was the opposition by some of them in March
2004 to an 18% increase in water rates by the city's Department of Water and Power. This led the City Council to
approve only a limited increase pending independent review. More recently, some of the councils petitioned the City
Council in summer 2006 to allow them to introduce ideas for legislative action, but the City Council put off a
decision.
The neighborhood councils have been allocated $45,000 each per year for administration, outreach and approved
neighborhood projects.
Los Angeles 248

Crime and safety

Los Angeles has been experiencing significant decline in crime since
the mid-1990s, and reached a 50-year low in 2009 with 314
homicides.[111] [112] Antonio Villaraigosa is a member of the Mayors
Against Illegal Guns Coalition.[113]
In 2009, Los Angeles reported 314 homicides, which corresponds to a
rate of 7.85 (per 100,000 population)—a major decrease from 1993,
when the all time homicide rate of over 21.1 (per 100,000 population)
was reported for the year.[114] This included 15 officer-involved
shootings. One shooting led to the death of a SWAT team member,
The LAPD during May Day 2006 in front of the
Randal Simmons, the first in LAPD's history.[115] new Caltrans District 7 Headquarters

Organized crime
The Los Angeles crime family dominated organized crime in the city during the Prohibition era [116] and reached its
peak during the 1940s and 1950s as part of the American Mafia but has gradually declined since then with the rise of
various black and Hispanic gangs.
According to the Los Angeles Police Department, the city is home to 26,000 gang members, organized into 250
gangs.[117] Among them are the Crips, Bloods, Hoovers, Sureños, Maravilla, 18th Street, Mara Salvatrucha, and
Asian street gangs. This has led to the city being referred to as the "Gang Capital of America".[118]

Federal representation
The United States Postal Service operates post offices in Los Angeles. The main Los Angeles Post Office is located
at 7001 South Central Avenue.[119] [120]

Sister cities
Los Angeles has 25 sister cities,[121] listed chronologically by year joined:
• Eilat, Israel (1959)
• Nagoya, Japan (1959)
• Salvador, Brazil (1962)
• Bordeaux, France (1964)
• Berlin, Germany (1967)
• Lusaka, Zambia (1968)
• Mexico City, Mexico (1969)
• Auckland City, New Zealand (1971)
• Busan, South Korea (1971)
• Mumbai, India (1972)
• Tehran, Iran (1972) A sign near City Hall points to the
sister cities of Los Angeles
• Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China (1979)
• Guangzhou, People's Republic of China (1981)
• Athens, Greece (1984)
• Saint Petersburg, Russia (1984)
• Vancouver, Canada (1986)
• Giza, Egypt (1989)
• Jakarta, Indonesia (1990)
Los Angeles 249

• Kaunas, Lithuania (1991)

• Makati, Philippines (1992)
• Split, Croatia (1993)
• San Salvador, El Salvador (2005)
• Beirut, Lebanon (2006)
• Ischia, Italy (2006)
• Yerevan, Armenia (2007)
• London and Manchester, United Kingdom, and Łódź, Poland are "friendship cities".[122] [123]
• Los Angeles also has a cultural exchange partnership with Tel Aviv, Israel.[124]

See also
• 1992 Los Angeles riots
• East Los Angeles (region)
• Largest cities in the Americas
• Largest cities in Southern California
• List of people from Los Angeles
• List of tallest buildings in Los Angeles
• Los Angeles in popular culture

Further reading
• Allen J. Scott and Edward W Soja (1996) "The City: Los Angeles and Urban Tjheory at the End of the Twentieth
Century," Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press
• Reyner Banham, Los Angeles: The Architecture of the Four Ecologies, University of California Press, 1971.
• Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles, Vintage Books, 1992
• Robert M. Fogelson, The Fragmented Metropolis: Los Angeles 1850–1930, University of California Press, 1967
• Lynell George, No Crystal Stair: African Americans in the City of Angels, Verso, 1992
• Paul Glover, "Los Angeles: A History of the Future" [125], Eco-Home Press, 1989
• Norman M. Klein, The History of Forgetting: Los Angeles and the Erasure of Memory, Verso, 1997
• Torin Monahan, Los Angeles Studies: The Emergence of a Specialty Field [126]PDF (221 KB), City & Society
XIV (2): 155–184, 2002
• Leonard Pitt & Dale Pitt, Los Angeles A to Z: An Encyclopedia of the City and County, University of California
Press, 2000
• Marc Reisner, Cadillac Desert: The American West and its Disappearing Water, Penguin Books, 1986.
• Peter Theroux, Translating LA: A Tour of the Rainbow City, Norton, 1994
• David L. Ulin (ed), Writing Los Angeles: A Literary Anthology, Library of America, 2002
• Richard White, It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own: A New History of the American West, University of
Oklahoma Press, 1991
Los Angeles 250

External links
• City of Los Angeles Official Website [1]
• ExperienceLA.com [127]
• Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce [128]
• Los Angeles Convention & Visitors Bureau [129]
• Los Angeles magazine [130]
• Los Angeles Neighborhood Councils [131]
• Los Angeles Online Magazine LA2day [132]
• Historic Bridges of Los Angeles County [133]
• Los Angeles travel guide from Wikitravel

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Seattle, Washington 255

Seattle, Washington
Seattle
—  City  —

Downtown Seattle from the north, with the Space Needle and Mount Rainier

Flag

Seal

Nickname(s): The Emerald City, Seatown, Rain City, Jet City, Gateway to Alaska, Gateway to The Pacific, Queen City

Location of Seattle in
King County and Washington

Seattle
Location in the United States

Coordinates: 47°36′35″N 122°19′59″W

Country United States

State Washington

County King
Seattle, Washington 256

Incorporated December 2, 1869

Government

- Type Mayor–council

- Mayor Michael McGinn

Area

- City 142.5 sq mi (369.2 km2)

- Land 83.87 sq mi (217.2 km2)

- Water 58.67 sq mi (152 km2)

- Metro 8,186 sq mi (21,202 km2)

Elevation 0–520 ft (0–158 m)

[1] [2] [3] [4]

Population (July 1, 2009)

- City 617,334 (US: 23rd)

- Density 7361/sq mi (2842.1/km2)

- Urban 2,712,205

- Metro 3,407,848 (US: 15th)

- Demonym Seattleite

Time zone PST (UTC-8)

- Summer (DST) PDT (UTC-7)

ZIP codes

Area code(s) 206

FIPS code [5]

53-63000

GNIS feature ID [6]

1512650

Website [7]
www.seattle.gov

Seattle (pronounced /siːˈætəl/ ( listen) see-AT-əl) is the northernmost major city in the contiguous United States,
and the largest city in the Pacific Northwest and in the state of Washington. A seaport situated on an isthmus
between Puget Sound (an arm of the Pacific Ocean) and Lake Washington, about 100 miles (160 km) south of the
Canada – United States border, it is named after Chief Sealth "Seattle", of the Duwamish and Suquamish native
tribes. Seattle is the center of the Seattle–Tacoma–Bellevue metropolitan statistical area, the 15th largest in the
United States, and the largest in the northwestern United States.[8] Seattle is the county seat of King County and is
the major economic, cultural and educational center in the region. As of April 2009, the city's population was
approximately 617,000 within a metropolitan area of 4,158,000. The Port of Seattle and Seattle–Tacoma
International Airport are major gateways to Asia, Alaska, and the rest of the world.
Seattle is the western terminus of I-90 and resides on the I-5 corridor, about 170 miles (270 km) north of Portland,
Oregon/Vancouver, Washington and 140 miles (230 km) south of Vancouver in British Columbia, Canada. The city
of Victoria, British Columbia's capital, is about 110 miles (180 km) to the northwest (about 90 miles (140 km) by
passenger ferry) while the eastern Washington hub city of Spokane lies 280 miles (450 km) to the east.
The Seattle area has been inhabited for at least 4,000 years,[9] but white settlement began only in the mid-19th
century. The first permanent European-descended settlers, Arthur A. Denny and those subsequently known as the
Denny Party, arrived November 13, 1851. Early settlements in the area were called "New York-Alki" ("Alki"
Seattle, Washington 257

meaning "by and by" in Chinook Jargon) and "Duwamps". In 1853, Doc Maynard suggested that the main settlement
be renamed "Seattle", an anglicized rendition of the name of Sealth, the chief of the two local tribes. From 1869 until
1982, Seattle was known as the "Queen City".[10] Seattle's current official nickname is the "Emerald City", the result
of a contest held in 1981;[11] [12] the reference is to the lush evergreen forests of the area. Seattle is also referred to
informally as the "Gateway to Alaska", "Rain City",[13] and "Jet City", the last from the local influence of Boeing.
Seattle residents are known as Seattleites.
Seattle is the birthplace of rock legend Jimi Hendrix and the rock music style known as "grunge,"[14] which was
made famous by local groups Nirvana, Soundgarden, Alice in Chains, and Pearl Jam.
Seattle has a reputation for heavy coffee consumption;[15] coffee companies founded or based in Seattle include
Starbucks,[16] Seattle's Best Coffee,[17] and Tully's.[18] There are also many successful independent artisanal espresso
roasters and cafes.[15]
Researchers at Central Connecticut State University consistently rank Seattle and Minneapolis as the two most
literate cities among America's largest cities[19] [20] Additionally, survey data from the United States Census Bureau
indicate that Seattle has a higher percentage of college graduates than any other major American city, with
approximately 53.8% of residents aged 25 and older holding a bachelor degree or higher.[21]
In terms of per capita income, a study by the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis ranked the Seattle metropolitan area
17th out of 363 metropolitan areas in 2006.[22] Seattle has particularly strong information technology, aviation,
architecture and recreational industries. It is particularly known as a hotbed of "green" technologies[23] , stemming in
part from the strong and relatively non-controversial stances its public leaders have taken on policies regarding urban
design, building standards, clean energy and climate change (Seattle in February 2010 committed itself to becoming
North America's first "climate neutral" city, with a goal of reaching zero net per capita greenhouse gas emissions by
2030).[24]
Seattle is ranked as one of the most car-congested cities in the United States, and efforts to promote compact
development and transportation choices are perennial policy issues.[25] The railways and streetcars that once
dominated its transportation system were largely replaced with an extensive network of bus routes for those living
near the city center, and the city's outward growth caused automobiles to become the main mode of transportation for
much of the population in the middle to late twentieth century. However, efforts to reverse this trend at the municipal
and state levels have resulted in new commuter rail service that connects Seattle to Everett and Tacoma, a regional
Link Light Rail system that extends south from the city core,[26] and an inner-city South Lake Union Streetcar
network in the South Lake Union area.[27]
Seattle, Washington 258

History

Founding
Archaeological excavations confirm that the Seattle area has been inhabited by
humans for at least 4,000 years.[9] By the time the first European settlers arrived
in the area, the people (now called the Duwamish Tribe) occupied at least
seventeen villages in the areas around Elliott Bay.[28]
In 1851, a large party led by Luther Collins made a location on land at the mouth
of the Duwamish River; they formally claimed it on September 14, 1851.[29]
Thirteen days later, members of the Collins Party on the way to their claim
passed three scouts of the Denny Party, the group who would eventually found
Seattle.[30] Members of the Denny Party claimed land on Alki Point on
September 28, 1851.[31] The rest of the Denny Party set sail from Portland,
Oregon and landed on Alki point during a rainstorm on November 13, 1851.[31] Pioneer Square in 1917 featuring the
Smith Tower, the Seattle Hotel and
After a difficult winter, most of the Denny Party relocated across Elliott Bay and to the left the Pioneer Building
founded the village of "Dewamps" or "Duwamps" on the site of present day
Pioneer Square.[31] Charles Terry and John Low remained at the original landing location and established a village
they initially called "New York", but renamed "New York Alki" in April 1853, from a Chinook word meaning,
roughly, by and by or someday.[32] New York Alki and Duwamps competed for dominance for the next few years,
but in time Alki was abandoned and its residents moved across the bay to join the rest of the settlers.[33]

David Swinson ("Doc") Maynard, one of Duwamps's founders, was the primary advocate to rename the village
"Seattle" after Chief Sealth of the Duwamish and Suquamish tribes.[34] The term, "Seattle", appears on official
Washington Territory papers dated May 23, 1853, when the first plats for the village were filed. In 1855, nominal
land settlements were established. On January 14, 1865, the Legislature of Territorial Washington incorporated the
Town of Seattle with a board of trustees managing the city. Two years later, after a petition was filed by most of the
leading citizens, the Legislature disincorporated the town. The town remained a precinct of King County until late
1869 when a new petition was filed and the city was re-incorporated with a Mayor-council government.[31] [35]

Timber town
Seattle has a history of boom and bust cycles, as is common to cities
near areas of extensive natural and mineral resources. Seattle has risen
several times economically, then gone into precipitous decline, but it
has typically used those periods to rebuild solid infrastructure.[37]
The first such boom, covering the early years of the city, was fueled by
the lumber industry. (During this period the road now known as Yesler
Way was nicknamed "Skid Road",[38] after the timber skidding down
the hill to Henry Yesler's sawmill. This is considered a possible origin
for the term which later entered the wider American vocabulary as Skid
Row.)[37] Like much of the American West, Seattle saw numerous The Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition had just
over 3.7 million visitors during its 138-day
conflicts between labor and management, as well as ethnic tensions [36]
[39] run
that culminated in the anti-Chinese riots of 1885–1886. This
violence was caused by unemployed whites who determined to drive
the Chinese from Seattle (anti-Chinese riots also occurred in Tacoma). Martial law was declared, and federal troops
Seattle, Washington 259

were brought in to put down the disorder. Nevertheless, the economic success in the Seattle area was so great that
when the Great Seattle fire of 1889 destroyed the central business district, a far grander city center rapidly emerged
in its place.[40] Finance company Washington Mutual, for example, was founded in the immediate wake of the
fire.[41] This boom was followed by the construction of a park system, designed by the Olmsted brothers' landscape
architecture firm.[37] However, the Panic of 1893 hit Seattle hard.[42]

Gold Rush, World War I, and the Great Depression

The second and most dramatic boom and bust resulted from the Klondike Gold
Rush, which ended the depression that had begun with the Panic of 1893; in a
short time, Seattle became a major transportation center. On July 14, 1897, the
S.S. Portland docked with its famed "ton of gold", and Seattle became the main
transport and supply point for the miners in Alaska and the Yukon. Those
working men only found lasting wealth in a few cases, however; it was Seattle's
business of clothing the miners and feeding them salmon that panned out in the
long run. Along with Seattle, other cities like Everett, Tacoma, Port Townsend,
Bremerton, and Olympia, all in the Puget Sound region, became competitors for
exchange, rather than mother-lodes for extraction, of precious metals.[43] The
boom lasted well into the early part of the 20th century and funded many new
Seattle companies and products. In 1907, 19-year-old James E. Casey borrowed Image showing 5th Avenue entrance
$100 from a friend and founded the American Messenger Company (later UPS). of the Central Branch of the Seattle
Other Seattle companies founded during this period include Nordstrom and Public Library, designed by OMA;

Eddie Bauer.[41] The Gold Rush era culminated in the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific located on 4th and Madison street in
Downtown Seattle. Columbia Center
Exposition of 1909, which is largely responsible for the layout of today's can also be seen in the background.
University of Washington campus.[44]

A shipbuilding boom in the early part of the 20th century became massive during World War I, making Seattle
somewhat of a company town; the subsequent retrenchment led to the Seattle General Strike of 1919, the first
general strike in the country[45] A 1912 city development plan by Virgil Bogue went largely unused. Seattle was
mildly prosperous in the 1920s but was particularly hard hit in the Great Depression, experiencing some of the
country's harshest labor strife in that era. Violence during the Maritime Strike of 1934 cost Seattle much of its
maritime traffic, which was rerouted to the Port of Los Angeles.[46]

Seattle was also the home base of impresario Alexander Pantages who, starting in 1902, opened a number of theaters
in the city exhibiting vaudeville acts and silent movies. His activities soon expanded, and the thrifty Greek went on
and became one of America's greatest theater and movie tycoons. Between Pantages and his rival John Considine,
Seattle was for a while the western United States' vaudeville mecca. The several theaters Scottish-born, Seattle-based
architect B. Marcus Priteca built for Pantages in Seattle have all been either demolished or converted to other uses,
but many of their theaters survive in other cities of the USA, often retaining the Pantages name.
Seattle, Washington 260

Post-war years: aircraft and software

The local economy dipped after World War II, which had seen the
dispersion of the numerous Japanese-American businessmen. The local
economy rose again with manufacturing company Boeing's growing
dominance in the airliner market.[47] Seattle celebrated its restored
prosperity and made a bid for world recognition with the Century 21
Exposition, the 1962 World's Fair.[48] The local economy went into
another major downturn in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Many left
the area to look for work elsewhere, and two local real estate agents
put up a billboard reading "Will the last person leaving Seattle – Turn Downtown Seattle and a ferry at the Central
Waterfront.
out the lights."[49]

Still, Seattle remained the corporate headquarters of Boeing until 2001, when the company separated its headquarters
from its major production facilities. Boeing finally chose to move its corporate headquarters to Chicago.[50] The
Seattle area is still home to Boeing's Renton narrow-body plant (where the 707, 720, 727, and 757 were assembled,
and the 737 is assembled today) and Everett wide-body plant (assembly plant for the 747, 767, 777, and 787); the
company's credit union for employees, BECU, remains based in the Seattle area, though it is now open to all
residents of Washington.
As prosperity began to return in the 1980s, the city was stunned by the
Wah Mee massacre in 1983, when thirteen people were killed in an
illegal gambling club in the International District, Seattle's
Chinatown.[51] Beginning with Microsoft's 1979 move from
Albuquerque, New Mexico to nearby Bellevue, Washington,[52] Seattle
and its suburbs became home to a number of technology companies
including Amazon.com, RealNetworks, McCaw Cellular (now part of
AT&T Mobility), VoiceStream (now T-Mobile USA), and biomedical
corporations such as HeartStream (later purchased by Philips), Heart Westlake Center, a Downtown mall and southern
terminus of the Seattle Center Monorail. This is
Technologies (later purchased by Boston Scientific), Physio-Control
the northwest corner of 5th and Pine.
(later purchased by Medtronic), ZymoGenetics, ICOS (later purchased
by Eli Lilly and Company) and Immunex (later purchased by Amgen).
This success brought an influx of new citizens with a population increase within city limits of almost 50,000 between
1990 and 2000,[53] and saw Seattle's real estate become some of the most expensive in the country.[54] Many of the
Seattle area's tech companies remain relatively strong, but the frenzied dot-com boom years ended in early 2001.[55]
[56]

Seattle in this period attracted widespread attention as home to these many companies, but also by hosting the 1990
Goodwill Games[57] and the APEC leaders conference in 1993, as well as through the worldwide popularity of
grunge, a sound that had developed in Seattle's independent music scene.[58] Another bid for worldwide
attention—hosting the World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 1999—garnered visibility, but not in the
manner its sponsors desired, as related protest activity and police reactions to those protests overshadowed the
conference itself.[59] The city was further shaken by the Mardi Gras Riots in 2001, and was literally shaken the
following day by the Nisqually Earthquake.[60]
The UK consulting firm Mercer, in a 2009 assessment "conducted to help governments and major companies place
employees on international assignments", ranked Seattle 50th worldwide in quality of living; the survey factored in
political stability, personal freedom, sanitation, crime, housing, the natural environment, recreation, banking
facilities, availability of consumer goods, education, and public services including transportation.[61]
Seattle, Washington 261

Geography

Panoramic view of Seattle, as seen from the Space Needle.

Topography
Seattle is located between Puget Sound (an inlet of the Pacific Ocean)
to the west, and Lake Washington to the east. The city's chief harbor,
Elliott Bay, is an inlet of Puget Sound. To the west, beyond Puget
Sound, are the Kitsap Peninsula and Olympic Mountains on the
Olympic Peninsula; to the east, beyond Lake Washington and the
eastside suburbs, are Lake Sammamish and the Cascade Range. Lake
Washington's waters flow to Puget Sound through the Lake
Washington Ship canal (a series of two man-made canals), Lake
Union, and the Hiram C. Chittenden Locks at Salmon Bay, ending in
Downtown Seattle is bounded by Elliott Bay
Shilshole Bay.
(lower left), lower Broadway (from upper left to
The sea, rivers, forests, lakes, and fields surrounding Seattle were once lower right), Yesler Way (lower right), and
Denny Way (obscured by clouds).
rich enough to support one of the world's few sedentary
hunter-gatherer societies. The surrounding area lends itself well to
sailing, skiing, bicycling, camping, and hiking year-round.[62] [63]
The city itself is hilly, though not uniformly so.[64] Like Rome, the city is said to lie on seven hills[65] ; the lists vary,
but typically include Capitol Hill, First Hill, West Seattle, Beacon Hill, Queen Anne, Magnolia, and the former
Denny Hill. The Wallingford and Mount Baker neighborhoods are technically located on hills as well. Many of the
hilliest areas are near the city center, with Capitol Hill, First Hill, and Beacon Hill collectively constituting
something of a ridge along an isthmus between Elliott Bay and Lake Washington.[66] The break in the ridge between
First Hill and Beacon Hill is man-made, the result of two of the many regrading projects that reshaped the
topography of the city center.[67] The topography of the city center was also changed by the construction of a seawall
and the artificial Harbor Island (completed 1909) at the mouth of the city's industrial Duwamish Waterway. The
highest point within city limits is at High Point [68] in West Seattle, roughly located near 35th Ave SW and SW
Myrtle St. Other notable hills include Crown Hill, View Ridge/Wedgwood/Bryant, Maple Leaf, Phinney Ridge, Mt.
Baker Ridge, Highlands/Carkeek/Bitterlake.

North of the city center, Lake Washington Ship Canal connects Puget Sound to Lake Washington. It incorporates
four natural bodies of water: Lake Union, Salmon Bay, Portage Bay, and Union Bay.
Due to its location in the Pacific Ring of Fire, Seattle is in a major earthquake zone. On February 28, 2001, the
magnitude 6.8 Nisqually earthquake did significant architectural damage, especially in the Pioneer Square area (built
on reclaimed land, as are the Industrial District and part of the city center), but caused no fatalities.[69] Other strong
quakes occurred on January 26, 1700 (estimated at 9 magnitude), December 14, 1872 (7.3 or 7.4),[69] April 13, 1949
(7.1),[70] and April 29, 1965 (6.5).[71] The 1949 quake caused eight known deaths, all in Seattle;[70] the 1965 quake
caused three deaths in Seattle directly, and one more by heart failure.[71] Although the Seattle Fault passes just south
of the city center, neither it[72] nor the Cascadia subduction zone has caused an earthquake since the city's founding.
The Cascadia subduction zone poses the threat of an earthquake of magnitude 9.0 or greater, capable of seriously
damaging the city and collapsing many buildings, especially in zones built on fill.[73]
Seattle, Washington 262

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 142.5 square miles (369 km2),[74]
83.9 square miles (217 km2) of which is land and 58.7 square miles (152 km2) water (41.16 percent of the total area).

Climate
Seattle's temperate, rainy climate is usually described as temperate
Oceanic or Marine west coast, with mild, damp winters and relatively
dry and mild summers. Like much of the Pacific Northwest, according
to the Köppen climate classification it falls within a cool, dry-summer
subtropical zone (Csb), with cool-summer Mediterranean
characteristics such as its usually dry summers.[76] Other climate
classification systems, such as Trewartha, place it firmly in the
Oceanic zone (Do).[77]

Temperature extremes are moderated by adjacent Puget Sound, the Downtown Seattle averages 58 clear (sunny) days
greater Pacific Ocean, and Lake Washington. The region is partially a year, with most of those days occurring
[75]
protected from Pacific storms by the Olympic Mountains and from between May and September

Arctic air by the Cascade Range. Despite being on the margin of the
rain shadow of the Olympic Mountains, the city has a reputation for frequent rain.[78] This reputation derives from
this frequency of precipitation (150 days of precipitation > 0.01 in/0.3 mm) as well as the fact that it is cloudy an
average of 201 days and 93 partly cloudy days per year.[75] At 37.1 inches (942 mm)[79] , the city receives less
precipitation than New York, Atlanta, Houston, and most cities of the Eastern Seaboard of the United States. Seattle
was also not listed in a study that revealed the 10 rainiest cities in the continental United States.[80] Most of the
precipitation falls as drizzle or light rain. Thunderstorms occur only occasionally. Seattle reports thunder on just
seven days per year (according to 'Cities Ranked and Rated' - Bert Sperling and Peter Sander.2007). For comparison
Fort Myers, Florida reports thunder on 93 days per year. Kansas City reports 52 'thunder days' and New York City
reports 25. There are occasional downpours. One of these downpours occurred in December 2007 when widespread
rainfall hit the greater Puget Sound area. It became the second wettest event in Seattle history when a little over
5 inches of rain fell on Seattle in a 24 hour period. The rain also caused five deaths and widespread flooding and
damage.[81] Spring, late fall, and winter are filled with days when it does not rain but looks as if it might because of
cloudy, overcast skies. Winters are cool and wet with average lows around 35–40 °F (1.7–4.4 °C) on winter nights.
Colder weather can occur, but seldom lasts more than a few days. Summers are dry and warm, with average daytime
highs around 73–80 °F (22.8–26.7 °C). Hotter weather usually occurs only during a few summer days. Seattle's
hottest official recorded temperature was 103 °F (39.4 °C) on July 29, 2009;[82] the coldest recorded temperature was
0 °F (–18 °C) on January 31, 1950.[79]

Between October and May, Seattle is mostly or
[75]
partly cloudy six out of every seven days
Eighty miles (130 km) to the west, the Hoh Rain Forest in Olympic
National Park on the western flank of the Olympic Mountains receives
an annual average rainfall of 142 inches (3610 mm), and the state
capital, Olympia—south of the rain shadow—receives an annual
average rainfall of 52 inches (1320 mm). Snowfall is very infrequent,
especially at lower elevations and near the coast, and is usually light
and fleeting, lasting only a few days. Heavier snowfall happens
infrequently; a recent example happened from December 12–25, 2008,
when over one foot of snow fell and stuck on much of the city's roads,
causing widespread difficulties in a city so unaccustomed to heavy
snow. Average annual snowfall, as measured at Sea-Tac Airport, is
Seattle, Washington 263

13 inches (33 cm).[83] Seattle's daily record snowfall was 20 inches (51 cm) on January 13, 1950.[84] A sunnier and
drier climate typically dominates from mid-July to mid-September. An average of 0.8 inches (20 mm) of rain falls in
July and 1.0 inch (25 mm) in August. Although the summer climate is considerably drier and less humid than in
areas with humid continental climates, a slight dampness can be occasionally felt, usually when temperatures reach
above 80 °F (26.7 °C). This dampness is typically more noticeable during the evening when the temperatures have
dropped. Because of this, Seattle experiences occasional summer thunderstorms.[85]
The Puget Sound Convergence Zone is an important feature of Seattle's weather. In the convergence zone, air
arriving from the north meets air flowing in from the south. Both streams of air originate over the Pacific Ocean;
airflow is split by the Olympic Mountains to Seattle's west, then reunited by the Cascade Mountains to the east.
When the air currents meet, they are forced upward, resulting in convection.[86] Thunderstorms caused by this
activity can occur north and south of town, but Seattle itself rarely receives worse weather than occasional thunder
and ice-pellet showers. The Hanukkah Eve Wind Storm in December 2006 is an exception that brought heavy rain
and winds gusting up to 69 mph (111 km/h).
Another exception to Seattle's dampness may occur in El Niño years, when the marine weather systems track as far
south as California and little precipitation falls in the Puget Sound area.[87] Since the region's water comes from
mountain snowpacks during the drier summer months, El Niño winters can not only produce substandard skiing but
can result in water rationing and a shortage of hydroelectric power the following summer.[88]

Climate data for Seattle (SeaTac Airport)

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year

Average high 45.8 49.5 53.2 58.2 64.4 69.6 75.3 75.6 70.2 59.7 50.5 45.5 59.8
°F (°C) (7.67) (9.72) (11.78) (14.56) (18) (20.89) (24.06) (24.22) (21.22) (15.39) (10.28) (7.5) (15.44)

Average low °F 35.9 37.2 39.1 42.1 47.2 51.7 55.3 55.7 51.9 45.7 39.9 35.9 44.8
(°C) (2.17) (2.89) (3.94) (5.61) (8.44) (10.94) (12.94) (13.17) (11.06) (7.61) (4.39) (2.17) (7.11)

Precipitation 5.13 4.18 3.75 2.59 1.78 1.49 0.79 1.02 1.63 3.19 5.90 5.62 37.07
inches (mm) (130.3) (106.2) (95.3) (65.8) (45.2) (37.8) (20.1) (25.9) (41.4) (81) (149.9) (142.7) (941.6)

Snowfall inches 2.1 1.3 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.1 1.9 7.1

(cm) (5.3) (3.3) (1.5) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) (2.8) (4.8) (18)

Avg. 17.8 15.7 16.4 13.6 11.6 8.5 5.3 5.5 8.3 11.7 17.9 17.8 150.1
precipitation
days (≥ 0.01 in)

Avg. snowy 1.8 0.9 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6 1.6 5.3

days (≥ 0.1 in)

Sunshine hours 71.3 110.2 179.8 207.0 254.2 267.0 313.1 282.1 222.0 142.6 72.0 52.7 2174

[89]
Source #1: NOAA

[90]
Source #2: HKO
Seattle, Washington 264

Neighborhoods
Seattle has grown through a series of annexations
of smaller neighboring communities. On May 3,
1891, Magnolia, Wallingford, Green Lake, and
the University District (then known as Brooklyn)
were annexed.[91] The town of South Seattle was
annexed on October 20, 1905.[92] Between
January 7 and September 12, 1907, Seattle nearly
doubled its land area by annexing six
incorporated towns and areas of unincorporated
King County, including Southeast Seattle,
Ravenna, South Park, Columbia City, Ballard,
and West Seattle.[93] Three years later, after
having difficulties paying a $10,000 bill from the
county, the city of Georgetown merged with Downtown Seattle includes a tightly packed financial district along with
[94] residential areas and a panoramic waterfront.
Seattle. Finally, on January 4, 1954, the area
between N. 85th Street and N. 145th Street was
annexed, including the neighborhoods of Pinehurst, Maple Leaf, Lake City, View Ridge and Northgate.[95]

Former Seattle mayor Greg Nickels is among those who have called Seattle "a city of neighborhoods",[96] [97]
although the boundaries (and even names) of those neighborhoods are often open to dispute. For example, a
Department of Neighborhoods spokeswoman reported that her own neighborhood has gone from "the 'CD' (Central
District) to 'Madrona' to 'Greater Madison Valley' and now 'Madrona Park'.[97]
Over a dozen Seattle neighborhoods have Neighborhood Service Centers, originally known in 1972 as "Little City
Halls"[98] and even more have their own street fair and/or parade during the summer months.[99] The largest of the
city's street fairs feature hundreds of craft and food booths and multiple stages with live entertainment, and draw
more than 100,000 people over the course of a weekend.[100] In addition, at least half a dozen neighborhoods have
weekly farmers' markets, some with as many as fifty vendors.[101]
Additionally, Puget Sound Regional Council designates several areas of Seattle as urban centers, defined as
"designated planning districts intended to provide a mix of housing, employment and commercial and cultural
amenities in a compact form that supports transit, walking and cycling."[102] These urban centers may have the same
name as a neighborhood but slightly different borders; for example, the Capitol Hill Urban Center is much smaller
that the entire neighborhood.

Cityscape
Seattle, Washington 265

Landmarks
The Space Needle, dating from the Century 21 Exposition (1962), is Seattle's
most recognizable landmark, having been featured in the logo of the television
show Frasier and the backgrounds of the television series Dark Angel, Grey's
Anatomy and iCarly, and films such as It Happened at the World's Fair,
Sleepless in Seattle, and The Twilight Saga: Eclipse. The fairgrounds
surrounding the Needle have been converted into Seattle Center, which remains
the site of many local civic and cultural events, such as Bumbershoot, Folklife,
and the Bite of Seattle. Seattle Center plays multiple roles in the city, ranging
from a public fair ground to a civic center, though recent economic losses have
called its viability and future into question.[103] The Seattle Center Monorail was
also constructed for Century 21 and still runs from Seattle Center to Westlake
Center, a downtown shopping mall, a little over a mile to the southeast. The Space Needle

The Smith Tower was the tallest building on the West Coast from its completion
in 1914 until the Space Needle overtook it in 1962.[104] The late 1980s saw the
construction of Seattle's two tallest skyscrapers: the 76 story Columbia Center
(completed 1985) is the tallest building in the Pacific Northwest[105] and the
fourth tallest building west of the Mississippi River;[106] the Washington Mutual
Tower (completed 1988) is Seattle's second tallest building.[107] [108] Other
notable Seattle landmarks include Pike Place Market, the Fremont Troll, the Pike Place Market
Experience Music Project and Science Fiction Museum and Hall of Fame (at
Seattle Center), and the Seattle Central Library.

Starbucks has been at Pike Place Market since the coffee company was founded there in 1971. The first store is still
operating a block south of its original location.[109]
The National Register of Historic Places has over 150 Seattle listings.[110] The city also designates its own
landmarks.[111]
Seattle, Washington 266

Culture

Performing arts
Seattle has been a regional center for the performing arts for many years. The century-old Seattle Symphony
Orchestra is among the world's most recorded[112] and performs primarily at Benaroya Hall.[113] The Seattle Opera
and Pacific Northwest Ballet, which perform at McCaw Hall (opened 2003 on the site of the former Seattle Opera
House at Seattle Center), are comparably distinguished,[114] [115] with the Opera being particularly known for its
performances of the works of Richard Wagner[116] [117] and the PNB School (founded in 1974) ranking as one of the
top three ballet training institutions in the United States.[114] The Seattle Youth Symphony Orchestras (SYSO) is the
largest symphonic youth organization in the United States.[118] The city also boasts lauded summer and winter
chamber music festivals organized by the Seattle Chamber Music Society.[119]
The 5th Avenue Theatre, built in 1926, stages Broadway-style musical shows[120] featuring both local talent and
international stars.[121] Seattle has "around 100" theatrical production companies[122] [123] and over two dozen live
theatre venues, many of them associated with fringe theatre;[124] Seattle is probably second only to New York for
number of equity theaters[125] (28 Seattle theater companies have some sort of Actors' Equity contract).[122] In
addition, the 900-seat Romanesque Revival Town Hall on First Hill hosts numerous cultural events, especially
lectures and recitals.[126]
Seattle is considered the home of grunge music[14] because it was home to artists
such as Soundgarden, Nirvana, Alice in Chains, Pearl Jam, and Mudhoney, all of
whom reached vast audiences in the early 1990s.[127] The city is also home to
such varied musicians as avant-garde jazz musicians Bill Frisell and Wayne
Horvitz, rapper Sir Mix-a-Lot, smooth jazz saxophonist Kenny G, Heart, heavy
metal bands Queensrÿche, Nevermore and Sunn O))), as well as such poppier
rock bands as Harvey Danger, Goodness, and The Presidents of the United States
of America. Such musicians as Jimi Hendrix, Duff McKagan, Nikki Sixx, and
Quincy Jones spent their formative years in Seattle.

Since the grunge era, the area has hosted a diverse and influential alternative
music scene. The Seattle record label Sub Pop—the first to sign Nirvana and
Soundgarden—has signed such non-grunge bands as Band of Horses, Modest The Moore Theatre has been a
performing arts venue in Downtown
Mouse, Murder City Devils, Sunny Day Real Estate, Death Cab for Cutie, The
Seattle since its construction in 1907.
Postal Service, Flight of the Conchords, and Fleet Foxes.[127]
Earlier Seattle-based popular music acts include the collegiate folk group The Brothers Four; The Wailers, a 1960s
garage band; The Ventures, an instrumental rock band; pop Young Fresh Fellows and The Posies; pop-punk The
Fastbacks; the well-traveled avant-rock of Sun City Girls; and the outright punk of The Fartz (later 10 Minute
Warning), The Gits, and 7 Year Bitch.[128]
Seattle annually sends a team of spoken word slammers to the National Poetry Slam and considers itself home to
such performance poets as Buddy Wakefield, two-time Individual World Poetry Slam Champ;[129] Anis Mojgani,
two-time National Poetry Slam Champ;[130] and Danny Sherrard, 2007 National Poetry Slam Champ and 2008
Individual World Poetry Slam Champ.[131] Seattle also hosted the 2001 national Poetry Slam Tournament. The
Seattle Poetry Festival is a biennial poetry festival that (launched first as the Poetry Circus in 1997) has featured
local, regional, national, and international names in poetry.[132]
The city also has movie houses showing both Hollywood productions and works by independent filmmakers.[133]
Among these, the Seattle Cinerama stands out as one of only three movie theaters in the world still capable of
showing three-panel Cinerama films.[134] [135]
Seattle, Washington 267

Additionally, the city is also home to the Seattle Polish Film Festival, ("SPFF") an annual film festival showcasing
current and past films of Polish cinema.[136] [137] The festival is produced by the Seattle-Gdynia Sister City
Association and awards the Seattle Spirit of Polish Cinema awards as well as the Viewers Choice of Best Film.
The city is the fictional home to the Nickelodeon cable television show, iCarly.

Media
As of 2010, Seattle has one major daily newspaper, The Seattle Times. The Seattle Post-Intelligencer, known as the
P-I, published a daily newspaper from 1863 to March 17, 2009. There is also the Seattle Daily Journal of
Commerce,[138] and the University of Washington publishes The Daily, a student-run publication, when school is in
session. The most prominent weeklies are the Seattle Weekly and The Stranger; both consider themselves
"alternative" papers.[139] Real Change is a weekly street newspaper that is sold mainly by homeless persons as an
alternative to panhandling. There are also several ethnic newspapers, including the Northwest Asian Weekly, and
numerous neighborhood newspapers, including the North Seattle Journal.
Seattle is also well served by television and radio, with all major U.S. networks represented, along with at least five
other English-language stations and two Spanish-language stations.[140] Seattle cable viewers also receive CBUT 2
(CBC) from Vancouver, British Columbia.
Non-commercial radio stations include NPR affiliates KUOW-FM 94.9 and KPLU-FM 88.5 (Tacoma). Other
stations include KEXP-FM 90.3 (affiliated with EMP), KBCS-FM 91.3 (affiliated with Bellevue College), and
KNHC-FM 89.5, which broadcasts an electronic music format and is owned by the public school system and
operated by students of Nathan Hale High School. Many Seattle radio stations are also available through Internet
radio, with KEXP in particular being a pioneer of Internet radio.[141] Seattle also has numerous commercial radio
stations, including KING-FM, one of the last commercial classical music stations in the United States.[140]
Seattle-based online magazines Worldchanging and Grist.org were two of the "Top Green Websites" in 2007
according to Time.[142]
Seattle also has many online newspapers. The two largest are The Seattle Times and Seattle Post-Intelligencer (the
latter online only).

Tourism
Among Seattle's prominent annual fairs and festivals are the 24-day
Seattle International Film Festival,[144] Northwest Folklife over the
Memorial Day weekend, numerous Seafair events throughout July and
August (ranging from a Bon Odori celebration to the Seafair Cup
hydroplane races), the Bite of Seattle, one of the largest Gay Pride
festivals in the United States, and the art and music festival
Bumbershoot, which programs music as well as other art and
entertainment over the Labor Day weekend. All are typically attended
210 cruise ship visits brought 886,039 passengers
by 100,000 people annually, as are the Seattle Hempfest and two [143]
to Seattle in 2008.
separate Independence Day celebrations.[145] [146] [147] In the past, the
Gay Pride parade and festival have been centered on Capitol Hill, but
since 2006, festivities have been held city-wide, and the parade has followed a route in Downtown from the retail
core to Seattle Center.[148]

Other significant events include numerous Native American pow-wows, a Greek Festival hosted by St. Demetrios
Greek Orthodox Church in Montlake, and numerous ethnic festivals (many associated with Festál at Seattle
Center).[149]
Seattle, Washington 268

There are other annual events, ranging from the Seattle Antiquarian
Book Fair & Book Arts Show;[150] an anime convention,
Sakura-Con;[151] Penny Arcade Expo, a gaming convention;[152]
specialized film festivals, such as the Maelstrom International Fantastic
Film Festival, the Seattle Gay and Lesbian Film Festival;[153] and a
two-day, 9,000-rider Seattle to Portland Bicycle Classic.[154]

The Henry Art Gallery opened in 1927, the first public art museum in
Washington.[155] The Seattle Art Museum (SAM) opened in 1933;
The Seattle skyline viewed from Gas Works Park.
SAM opened a museum downtown in 1991 (expanded and reopened
2007); since 1991, the 1933 building has been SAM's Seattle Asian Art
[156]
Museum (SAAM). SAM also operates the Olympic Sculpture Park (opened 2007) on the waterfront north of the
downtown piers. The Frye Art Museum is a free museum on First Hill.

Regional history collections are at the Loghouse Museum in Alki, Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park, the
Museum of History and Industry and the Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture. Industry collections are at
the Center for Wooden Boats and the adjacent Northwest Seaport, the Seattle Metropolitan Police Museum, and the
Museum of Flight. Regional ethnic collections include the Nordic Heritage Museum, the Wing Luke Asian Museum
and the Northwest African American Museum. Seattle has artist-run galleries,[157] including 10-year veteran Soil Art
Gallery,[158] and the newer Crawl Space Gallery.[159]
Woodland Park Zoo opened as a private menagerie in 1889, but was sold to the city in 1899.[160] The Seattle
Aquarium has been open on the downtown waterfront since 1977 (undergoing a renovation 2006).[161] The Seattle
Underground Tour is an exhibit of places that existed before the Great Fire.[162] There are also many community
centers for recreation, including Rainier Beach, Van Asselt, Rainier, and Jefferson south of the Ship Canal and Green
Lake, Laurelhurst, Loyal Heights north of the Canal, and Meadowbrook.[163]
Since the middle 1990s, Seattle has experienced significant growth in the cruise industry, especially as a departure
point for Alaska cruises. In 2008, a record total of 886,039 cruise passengers passed through the city, surpassing the
number for Vancouver, BC, the other major departure point for Alaska cruises.[164]

Sports

Qwest Field, home of the Seattle Seahawks and

Safeco Field, home of the Seattle Mariners Seattle Sounders FC

Club Sport League Venue Established Championships

Seattle Sounders FC Soccer MLS Qwest Field 2007 0

Seattle Seahawks Football NFL Qwest Field 1976 0

Seattle Mariners Baseball MLB Safeco Field 1977 0

Seattle, Washington 269

Seattle Thunderbirds Ice hockey WHL ShoWare Center 1977 0

Seattle Storm Basketball WNBA KeyArena 2000 1

Seattle Mist Football LFL ShoWare Center N/A N/AQ

Seattle's professional sports history began at the start of the 20th century with the PCHA's Seattle Metropolitans,
which in 1917 became the first American hockey team to win the Stanley Cup.[165] Today Seattle has four major
professional sports teams: The National Football League's Seattle Seahawks, Major League Baseball's Seattle
Mariners, Major League Soccer's Seattle Sounders FC, and the 2004 Women's National Basketball Association
champions, Seattle Storm.[166] From 1967 to 2008 Seattle was also home to an NBA franchise, the Seattle
SuperSonics, who were the 1978–79 NBA champions. The team relocated to Oklahoma City after the 2007–08
season.[167] The Seattle Thunderbirds are a major-junior hockey team that plays in one of the Canadian major-junior
hockey leagues, the WHL (Western Hockey League). The Thunderbirds moved to nearby Kent, Washington during
the 2008–2009 season.[168] The Seattle Sounders FC began play in Major League Soccer in 2009.[169]
Seattle also boasts a strong history in collegiate sports, the University of Washington and Seattle University are
NCAA Division I schools. The Major League Baseball All-Star game was held in Seattle twice, first at the
Kingdome in 1979 and again at Safeco Field in 2001. That same year, the Seattle Mariners tied the all-time single
regular season wins record with 116 wins. The NBA All-Star game was also held in Seattle twice, the first in 1974 at
the Seattle Center Coliseum and the second in 1987 at the Kingdome.[170]
In 2006, Qwest Field hosted the 2005–06 NFL playoffs. In 2008, Qwest Field hosted the first game of the 2007–08
NFL playoffs, in which the Seahawks defeated the Washington Redskins, 35–14. Qwest also serves as the home
field for the Seattle Sounders FC of Major League Soccer. Forbes magazine rated Seattle as the "Most Miserable
Sports City" in 2010.

Outdoor activities
Seattle's mild, temperate marine climate allows year-round outdoor
recreation, including walking, cycling, hiking, skiing, snowboarding,
kayaking, rock climbing, motor boating, sailing, team sports, and
swimming.[171] In town, many people walk around Green Lake,
through the forests and along the bluffs and beaches of 535-acre (2.2
km2) Discovery Park (the largest park in the city) in Magnolia, along
the shores of Myrtle Edwards Park on the Downtown waterfront, along
the shoreline of Lake Washington at Seward Park, or along Alki Beach
in West Seattle. Also popular are hikes and skiing in the nearby
Green Lake Park, popular among runners,
Cascade or Olympic Mountains and kayaking and sailing in the waters
contains a 2.7-mile (4.3 km) trail circling the
of Puget Sound, the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and the Strait of Georgia. In lake.
2005, Men's Fitness magazine named Seattle the fittest city in the
United States.[172]
Seattle, Washington 270

Economy
Seattle's economy is driven by a mix of older industrial companies, and
"new economy" Internet and technology companies, service, design
and clean technology companies. The Port of Seattle is a major
economic engine. Though it has been affected by the recent recession,
Seattle has retained a comparatively strong economy, and remains a
hotbed for start-up businesses, especially in green building and clean
technologies: it was ranked as America's #1 "smarter city" based on its Washington Mutual's last headquarters, the
government policies and green economy.[173] The Seattle housing WaMu Center, (now the Chase Center and soon
to be Russell Investments Center) (center left)
market, especially in center-city neighborhoods, has not seen the sort
and its headquarters prior, Washington Mutual
of drop in value most housing markets around the nation have seen in Tower (center right).
recent years.[174] The Seattle region's economy is increasingly diverse
and multi-sectoral.

Still, very large companies dominate the business landscape. Six companies on the 2008 Fortune 500 list of the
United States' largest companies, based on total revenue are headquartered in Seattle: former financial services
company Washington Mutual (the banking business of which is now part of JPMorgan Chase) (#97), Internet retailer
Amazon.com (#171), coffee chain Starbucks (#277), department store Nordstrom (#299), insurance company Safeco
(#388), and global logistics firm Expeditors International (#458).[175] However, in April 2008, the sale of Safeco to
Liberty Mutual Group was announced and in September 2008, Washington Mutual was seized by the FDIC and was
sold to JPMorgan Chase.[176] [177] Other Fortune 500 companies popularly associated with Seattle are based in
nearby Puget Sound cities. Warehouse club chain Costco (#29), the largest company in Washington, is based in
Issaquah. Microsoft (#44) and Nintendo of America are located in Redmond. Weyerhaeuser, the forest products
company (#147), is based in Federal Way. Finally, Bellevue is home to truck manufacturer PACCAR (#169), and to
international mobile telephony giant T-Mobile's U.S. subsidiary, T-Mobile USA.[175]

Prior to moving its headquarters to Chicago, aerospace manufacturer Boeing (#27) was the largest company based in
Seattle. Its largest division is still headquartered in nearby Renton, and the company has large aircraft manufacturing
plants in Everett and Renton, so it remains the largest private employer in the Seattle metropolitan area.[178] Seattle
Mayor Greg Nickels announced a desire to spark a new economic boom driven by the biotechnology industry in
2006. Major redevelopment of the South Lake Union neighborhood is underway, in an effort to attract new and
established biotech companies to the city, joining biotech companies Corixa (acquired by GlaxoSmithKline),
Immunex (now part of Amgen), Trubion, and ZymoGenetics. Vulcan Inc., the holding company of billionaire Paul
Allen, is behind most of the development projects in the region. While some see the new development as an
economic boon, others have criticized Nickels and the Seattle City Council for pandering to Allen's interests at
taxpayers' expense.[179] Also in 2006, Expansion Magazine ranked Seattle among the top 10 metropolitan areas in
the nation for climates favorable to business expansion.[180] In 2005, Forbes ranked Seattle as the most expensive
American city for buying a house based on the local income levels.[181]
Alaska Airlines, operating a hub at Seattle–Tacoma International Airport, maintains its headquarters in the city of
SeaTac, next to the airport.[182]
Seattle, Washington 271

Demographics

Historical populations
Census Pop. %±

1860 188 —

1870 1151 512.2%

1880 3533 207.0%

1890 42837 1112.5%

1900 80671 88.3%

1910 237194 194.0%

1920 315312 32.9%

1930 365583 15.9%

1940 368302 0.7%

1950 467591 27.0%

1960 557087 19.1%

1970 530831 −4.7%

1980 493846 −7.0%

1990 516259 4.5%

2000 563374 9.1%

Est. 2009 617334 [1] 9.6%

[183] [184]
source:

According to the Washington State Office of Financial Management, Seattle had a population of 602,000 as of April
1, 2009.[1] In the 2000 census interim measurements of 2006, there were 258,499 households and 113,400 families
residing in the city.[5]
According to the 2006-2008 American Community Survey, the racial composition of Seattle was as follows:
• White: 71.3% (Non-Hispanic Whites: 68.4%)
• Black or African American: 8.0%
• Native American: 0.9%
• Asian: 13.2%
• Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander: 0.4%
• Some other race: 2.2%
• Two or more races: 4.0%
• Hispanic or Latino (of any race): 5.6%
Source:[185]
According to the 2006-2008 American Community Survey, English was by far the most commonly spoken language
at home; approximately 78.9% of residents over the age of five spoke only English at home. Spanish was spoken by
4.5% of the population; people who spoke other Indo-European languages made up 3.9% of the population. People
who spoke Asian languages at home made up 10.2% of the population. People who spoke other languages made up
2.5% of Seattle's population.[186]
Seattle has seen a major increase in immigration in recent decades; the foreign-born population increased 40%
between the 1990 and 2000 censuses.[187] At nearly four percent, Greater Seattle has the highest concentration of
Seattle, Washington 272

Multiracial Americans of any major metropolitan area in the United States. The Chinese population in the Seattle
Area has origins in China, Hong Kong, Southeast Asia, and Taiwan. The earliest Chinese Americans that came in the
late 19th and early 20th century were almost entirely from Guangdong province. The Seattle area is also home to a
high Laotian and Cambodian population.[188] In addition, the city is home to over 30,000 Somali immigrants.[189]
As of 1999, the median income of a city household was $45,736, and the median income for a family was $62,195.
Males had a median income of $40,929 versus $35,134 for females. The per capita income for the city was
$30,306[190] 11.8 percent of the population and 6.9 percent of families are below the poverty line. Of people living in
poverty, 13.8 percent are under the age of 18 and 10.2 percent are 65 or older.[190]
It is estimated that King County has 8,000 homeless people on any given night, and many of those live in
Seattle.[191] In September 2005, King County adopted a "Ten-Year Plan to End Homelessness", one of the near-term
results of which is a shift of funding from homeless shelter beds to permanent housing.[192]
In 2006, after growing by 4,000 citizens per annum for the previous 16 years, regional planners expected the
population of Seattle to grow by 200,000 people by 2040.[193] However, Mayor Nickels supported plans that would
increase the population by 60 percent, or 350,000 people, by 2040 and is working on ways to accommodate this
growth while keeping Seattle's single-family housing zoning laws.[193] The Seattle City Council later voted to relax
height limits on buildings in the greater part of Downtown, partly with the aim of increasing residential density in the
city center.[194]
A 2006 study by UCLA indicates that Seattle has one of the highest LGBT populations per capita. With 12.9 percent
of citizens polled identifying as gay, lesbian, or bisexual, the city ranks second of all major US cities, behind San
Francisco and slightly ahead of Atlanta and Minneapolis.[195] Greater Seattle also ranks second among major US
metropolitan areas, with 6.5 percent being LGBT.[196]
According to the 2000 U.S. census interim measurements of 2004, Seattle has the fifth highest proportion of
single-person households nationwide among cities of 100,000 or more residents, at 40.8 percent.[197]

Government and politics

Seattle is a charter city, with a Mayor–Council form of government.
Since 1911, Seattle's nine city councillors have been elected at large,
rather than by geographic subdivisions.[198] The only other elected
offices are the city attorney and Municipal Court judges. All city,
county, and state offices are technically non-partisan.[199] Like most
parts of the United States, government and laws are also run by a series
of ballot initiatives (where people can pass or reject laws), referendums
(where people can approve or reject already passed legislation), and
Propositions (where specific government agencies can propose new
Seattle City Hall, 2007
laws/tax increases directly to the people)

Seattle's politics are strongly liberal/progressive, although there is a small libertarian movement within the metro
area.[200] It is one of the most liberal cities in the United States, with approximately 80% voting for the Democratic
Party; only two precincts in Seattle—one in the Broadmoor community, and one encompassing neighboring Madison
Park—had a majority of votes for Republican George W. Bush in the 2004 presidential election. In addition, all
precincts in Seattle voted for Democratic Party candidate Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election, including
the two precincts who had previously voted Republican in 2004.[200] In partisan elections for the Washington State
Legislature and United States Congress, nearly all elections are won by Democrats.

Seattle is one of the most politically progressive cities in North America, with an overwhelming majority of voters
supporting Democratic politicians; support for liberal issues such as same-sex marriage, reproductive rights and gun
control is largely taken for granted in local politics. Like much of the Pacific Northwest (which has the lowest rate of
Seattle, Washington 273

church attendance in the United States and consistently reports the highest percentage of atheism[201] [202] ), church
attendance, religious belief and political influence of religious leaders is much lower than in other parts of
America[203] . Seattle also has a thriving alternative press, with two well-established weekly newspapers, several
online dailies (including the Seattle P.I., Publicola and Crosscut), and a number of issue-focused publications,
including the nation's two largest online environmental magazines, Worldchanging and Grist.org.
Federally, Seattle is part of Washington's 7th congressional district, representated by Democrat Jim McDermott,
elected in 1988 and one of Congress' most liberal members.[204]

Education
Of the city's population over the age of 25, 53.8 percent (vs. a national average of 27.4 percent) hold a bachelor's
degree or higher, and 91.9 percent (vs. 84.5 percent nationally) have a high school diploma or equivalent.[21] A
United States Census Bureau survey showed that Seattle had the highest percentage of college and university
graduates of any major U.S. city.[205] The city was listed as the most literate of the country's sixty-nine largest cities
in 2005 and 2006, the second most literate in 2007, after Minneapolis, and tied with Minneapolis for most literate in
2008 in studies conducted by Central Connecticut State University.[19]
Seattle Public Schools desegregated without a court order[206] but
continue to struggle to achieve racial balance in a somewhat ethnically
divided city (the south part of town having more ethnic minorities than
the north).[207] In 2007, Seattle's racial tie-breaking system was struck
down by the United States Supreme Court, but the ruling left the door
open for desegregation formulae based on other indicators (e.g.,
income or socioeconomic class).[208]

The public school system is supplemented by a moderate number of

private schools: five of the private high schools are Catholic, one is Inside Suzzallo Library, University of
Lutheran, and six are secular.[209] Washington campus

Seattle is home to one of the United States' most respected public

research universities, the University of Washington, as well as its professional and continuing Education unit,
University of Washington Educational Outreach. A study by Newsweek International in 2006 cited UW as the
twenty-second best university in the world.[210] Seattle also has a number of smaller private universities including
Seattle University and Seattle Pacific University, both founded by religious groups; universities aimed at the
working adult, like City University and Antioch University; colleges, such as North Seattle Community College,
Seattle Central Community College, and South Seattle Community College; and a number of arts colleges, such as
Cornish College of the Arts and The Art Institute of Seattle. In 2001, Time magazine selected Seattle Central
Community College as community college of the year, stating the school "pushes diverse students to work together
in small teams".[211]
Seattle, Washington 274

Infrastructure

Health systems
The University of Washington is consistently ranked among the country's top leading institutions in medical
research, earning special merits for programs in neurology and neurosurgery. Seattle has seen local developments of
modern paramedic services with the establishment of Medic One in 1970.[212] In 1974, a 60 Minutes story on the
success of the then four-year-old Medic One paramedic system called Seattle "the best place in the world to have a
heart attack".[213]
Three of Seattle's largest medical centers are located on First Hill. Harborview Medical Center, the public county
hospital, is the only Level I trauma hospital serving Washington, Alaska, Montana, and Idaho.[214] Virginia Mason
Medical Center and Swedish Medical Center's two largest campuses are also located in this part of Seattle. This
concentration of hospitals resulted in the neighborhood's nickname "Pill Hill".[215]
Located in the Laurelhurst neighborhood, Seattle Children's, formerly Children's Hospital and Regional Medical
Center, is the pediatric referral center for Washington, Alaska, Montana, and Idaho. The Fred Hutchinson Cancer
Research Center has a campus in the Eastlake neighborhood and also shares facilities with the Seattle Cancer Care
Alliance and University of Washington Medical Center. The University District is home to the University of
Washington Medical Center which, along with Harborview, is operated by the University of Washington. Seattle is
also served by a Veterans Affairs hospital on Beacon Hill, a third campus of Swedish in Ballard, and Northwest
Hospital and Medical Center near Northgate Mall.

Transportation
The first streetcars appeared in 1889 and were instrumental in the
creation of a relatively well-defined downtown and strong
neighborhoods at the end of their lines. The advent of the automobile
sounded the death knell for rail in Seattle. Tacoma–Seattle railway
service ended in 1929 and the Everett–Seattle service came to an end
in 1939, replaced by inexpensive automobiles running on the recently
developed highway system. Rails on city streets were paved over or
removed, and the arrival of trolleybuses brought the end of streetcars in Interstate 5 in Washington as it passes through
Seattle in 1941. This left an extensive network of privately owned downtown Seattle

buses (later public) as the only mass transit within the city and
throughout the region.[216]

Central Link light rail trains in the Downtown
Seattle Transit Tunnel under the International
District/Chinatown.
Vashon Islands in Puget Sound and to Bremerton and Southworth on the Kitsap Peninsula.[218]
King County Metro provides frequent stop bus service within the city
and surrounding county,as well as a streetcar line between the South
Lake Union neighborhood and Westlake Center in downtown.[217]
Seattle is one of the few cities in North America whose bus fleet
includes electric trolleybuses. Sound Transit currently provides an
express bus service within the metropolitan area; two Sounder
commuter rail lines between the suburbs and downtown; and its
Central Link light rail line, which opened in 2009, between downtown
and Sea-Tac Airport gives the city its first rapid transit line that has
intermediate stops within the city limits. Washington State Ferries,
which manages the largest network of ferries in the United States and
third largest in the world,[218] connects Seattle to Bainbridge and
Seattle, Washington 275

According to the 2007 American Community Survey, 18.6 percent of Seattle residents used one of the three public
transit systems that serve the city, giving it the highest transit ridership of all major cities without heavy or light rail
prior to the completion of Sound Transit's Central Link line.[219] [220]
Seattle–Tacoma International Airport, locally known as Sea-Tac Airport and located just south in the neighboring
city of SeaTac, is operated by the Port of Seattle and provides commercial air service to destinations throughout the
world. Closer to downtown, Boeing Field is used for general aviation, cargo flights, and testing/delivery of Boeing
airliners.
The main mode of transportation, however, relies on Seattle's streets, which are laid out in a cardinal directions grid
pattern, except in the central business district where early city leaders Arthur Denny and Carson Boren insisted on
orienting their plats relative to the shoreline rather than to true North.[221] Only two roads, Interstate 5 and State
Route 99 (both limited-access highways), run uninterrupted through the city from north to south. State Route 99 runs
through downtown Seattle on the Alaskan Way Viaduct, which was built in 1953. However, due to damage sustained
during the 2001 Nisqually earthquake the viaduct will be replaced by a tunnel in 2015 at a cost of US$4.25 billion.
From 2006 to 2008, transit ridership in Seattle went up by 23%,[222] and many bus routes in the central part of the
city are routinely forced to leave passengers because they are full. Seattle now has the worst traffic congestion of all
American cities.[223]
The city has started moving away from the automobile and towards mass transit. In 2006, voters in King County
passed proposition 2(Transit Now) which increased bus service hours on high ridership routes and paid for five Bus
Rapid Transit lines called RapidRide.[224] After rejecting a roads and transit measure in 2007, Seattle-area voters
passed a transit only measure in 2008 that increases ST Express bus service and extends the Link Light Rail system
(currently 15.7 miles with 3 miles under construction) by over thirty miles and adds 4 more round trips daily.[225] An
extension of the light rail south to the Seattle–Tacoma International Airport began service on December 19, 2009; an
extension north to the University of Washington is under construction as of 2010; and further extensions are planned
to reach Lynnwood to the north, Des Moines to the south, and Bellevue and Redmond to the east by 2023.[226] [227]
[228]
New Mayor Mike Mcginn hopes to put another transit measure on the 2011 ballot to build light rail from
Downtown Seattle to Ballard, Fremont, and West Seattle [229] After seeing a surprisingly large amount of support for
it from its campaign (and now city's) policy forum.[230]

Utilities
Water and electric power are municipal services, provided by Seattle
Public Utilities and Seattle City Light respectively. Other utility
companies serving Seattle include Puget Sound Energy (natural gas);
Seattle Steam Company (steam); Waste Management, Inc and Allied
Waste (curbside recycling and solid waste removal); and Verizon
Communications, Qwest and Comcast (telephone, Internet, and cable
television).

See also Seattle Steam Company, one of Seattle's privately

owned utility companies
• List of people from Seattle

• List of Seattle sister cities

• National Register of Historic Places listings in King County, Washington#Seattle
• Tillicum Village
• SafeCatch - Seattle Division of the FBI concept
Seattle, Washington 276

Bibliography
• Jones, Nard (1972). Seattle. New York City: Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-01875-4.
• Morgan, Murray (1982 (originally published 1951, 1982 revised and updated, first illustrated edition)). Skid
Road: an Informal Portrait of Seattle. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-95846-4.
• Ochsner, Jeffrey Karl, ed. (1998 (originally published 1994)). Shaping Seattle Architecture: A Historical Guide to
the Architects. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0295973668.
• Sale, Roger (1976). Seattle: Past To Present. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press.
ISBN 0-295-95615-1.
• Speidel, William C. (1978). Doc Maynard: the man who invented Seattle. Seattle: Nettle Creek Publishing
Company. pp. 196–197, 200. ISBN 0-914890-02-6.
• Speidel, William C. (1967). Sons of the profits; or, There's no business like grow business: the Seattle story,
1851–1901. Seattle: Nettle Creek Publishing Company. pp. 196–197, 200. ISBN 0-914890-00-X, ISBN
0-914890-06-9.

Further reading
• Klingle, Matthew (2007). Emerald City: An Environmental History of Seattle. New Haven: Yale University Press.
ISBN 0300116411.
• MacGibbon, Elma (1904). "Seattle, the city of destiny" [231] (DJVU). Leaves of knowledge. Washington State
Library's Classics in Washington History collection. Shaw & Borden. OCLC 61326250.
• Pierce, J. Kingston (2003). Eccentric Seattle: Pillars and Pariahs Who Made the City Not Such a Boring Place
After All. Pullman, Washington: Washington State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87422-269-2.

External links
• Official website [7]
• Historylink.org [232], history of Seattle and Washington.
• Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project [233]
• Pacific Northwest Labor History Projects [234]
• Seattle, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary [235]
• Seattle travel guide from Wikitravel

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[121] Examples of local talent are Billy Joe Huels (lead singer of the Dusty 45s starring in Buddy – The Buddy Holly Story and Sarah Rudinoff in
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Virginia 285

Virginia
Commonwealth of Virginia

Flag Seal

Nickname(s): Old Dominion; Mother of Presidents

[1]
Motto(s): Sic Semper Tyrannis (Latin)

Official language(s) English

Spoken language(s) English 94.6%, Spanish 5.9%

Demonym Virginian

Capital Richmond

Largest city Virginia Beach

Largest metro area Northern Virginia

Area Ranked 35th in the US

- Total 42,774.2 sq mi
(110,785.67 km2)

- Width 200 miles (320 km)

- Length 430 miles (690 km)

- % water 7.4

- Latitude 36° 32′ N to 39° 28′ N

- Longitude 75° 15′ W to 83° 41′ W

Population Ranked 12th in the US

- Total [2]
7,882,590 (2009 est.)
Virginia 286

- Density 193/sq mi  (75/km2)

Ranked 14th in the US

- Median income [3]

$61,044 (8th)

Elevation

- Highest point [4]

Mount Rogers
5,729 ft  (1,747 m)

- Mean 950 ft  (290 m)

- Lowest point [4]

Atlantic Ocean
0 ft  (0 m)

Admission to Union June 25, 1788 (10th)

Governor Bob McDonnell (R)

Lieutenant Governor Bill Bolling (R)

Legislature General Assembly

- Upper house Senate

- Lower house House of Delegates

U.S. Senators Jim Webb (D)

Mark Warner (D)

U.S. House delegation 6 Democrats,

5 Republicans (list)

Time zone Eastern: UTC−5/−4

Abbreviations VA US-VA

Website http:/ / www. virginia. gov

The Commonwealth of Virginia (/en-us-Virginia.oggvərˈdʒɪnjə/) is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the
Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents"
because it is the birthplace of eight U.S. presidents. The geography and climate of the state are shaped by the Blue
Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, which provide habitat for much of its flora and fauna. The capital of the
Commonwealth is Richmond; Virginia Beach is the most populous city and Fairfax County the most populous
political subdivision. The state population is nearly eight million.[5]
The area's history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company
established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony. Land from displaced Native
American tribes and slave labor each played a significant role in the colony's early politics and plantation economy.
Virginia was one of the Thirteen Colonies in the American Revolution and joined the Confederacy in the American
Civil War, during which Richmond was the Confederate capital and the state of West Virginia separated. Although
traditionally conservative and historically part of the South, both major national parties are competitive in modern
Virginia.[6]
The Virginia General Assembly is the oldest legislature in the Americas. The state government has been repeatedly
ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States.[7] It is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally,
manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginia's economy has many
sectors: agriculture in places like the Shenandoah Valley; federal agencies in Northern Virginia, including the
headquarters of the Department of Defense and CIA; and military facilities in Hampton Roads, the site of the
region's main seaport. The growth of the media and technology sectors has made computer chips the state's leading
export, with the industry based on the strength of Virginia's public schools and universities.[8] Virginia does not have
a major professional sports franchise.
Virginia 287

Geography
Virginia has a total area of 42774.2 square miles (110784.67 km2), including 3180.13 square miles (8236.5 km2) of
water, making it the 35th-largest state by area.[9] Virginia is bordered by Maryland and Washington, D.C. to the
north and east; by the Atlantic Ocean to the east; by North Carolina and Tennessee to the south; by Kentucky to the
west; and by West Virginia to the north and west. Due to a peculiarity of Virginia's original charter, its boundary
with Maryland and Washington, D.C. does not extend past the low-water mark of the south shore of the Potomac
River (unlike many boundaries that split a river down the middle).[10] The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′
parallel north, though surveyor error led to deviations of as much as three arcminutes.[11]

Geology and terrain

The Chesapeake Bay separates the contiguous portion of the
Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginia's Eastern
Shore. The bay was formed following a meteoroid impact crater during
the Eocene.[12] Many of Virginia's rivers flow into the Chesapeake
Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, James, and York, which
create three peninsulas in the bay.[13] [14] Geographically and
geologically, Virginia is divided into five regions from east to west: Virginia is divided into five geographic regions.
Tidewater, Piedmont, Blue Ridge Mountains, Ridge and Valley, and
Cumberland Plateau, also called the Appalachian Plateau.[15]

The Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major
estuaries which enter the Chesapeake Bay. The Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills
east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic.[16] The region, known for its heavy clay soil, includes the
Southwest Mountains.[17] The Blue Ridge Mountains are a physiographic province of the chain of Appalachian
Mountains with the highest points in the state, the tallest being Mount Rogers at 5729 feet (1746 m).[18] The Ridge
and Valley region is west of the mountains, and includes the Great Appalachian Valley. The region is carbonate rock
based, and includes Massanutten Mountain.[19] The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the
south-west corner of Virginia, below the Allegheny Plateau. In this region rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic
drainage system, into the Ohio River basin.[20]
Because of the areas of carbonate rock, more than 4,000 caves exist in Virginia,
with ten open for tourism.[22] The Virginia seismic zone has not had a history of
regular activity. Earthquakes are rarely above 4.5 on the Richter magnitude scale
because Virginia is located centrally on the North American Plate. The largest
earthquake, at an estimated 5.9 magnitude, was in 1897 near Blacksburg.[23] Coal
mining takes place in the three mountainous regions at 40 distinct coal beds near
Mesozoic basins.[24] Besides coal, resources such as slate, kyanite, sand, and
gravel are mined, with an annual value over $2 billion as of 2006.[25]

Deciduous and evergreen trees emit
hydrocarbons which give the Blue
Ridge Mountains their distinct
[21]
color.
Climate
The climate of Virginia varies according to location, and becomes increasingly
warmer and humid farther south and east.[26] Virginia experiences seasonal
extremes, from average lows of 26 °F (−3 °C) in January to average highs of
86 °F (30 °C) in July. The moderating influence of the ocean from the east,
powered by the Gulf Stream has a strong effect on the southeastern coastal areas
Virginia 288

of the state. It also creates the potential for hurricanes near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay.[27] Although Hurricane
Camille devastated Nelson County in 1969, and Fran and Isabel caused flash flooding in the mountains in 1996 and
2003, hurricanes rarely threaten communities far inland.[26] [28]
Thunderstorms are a regular occurrence, particularly in the western part of the state. Virginia has an annual average
of 35−45 days of thunderstorm activity, and an average annual precipitation of 42.7 inches (1085 mm).[27] [29] Cold
air masses arriving over the mountains in winter, can lead to significant snowfalls, such as the Blizzard of 1996 and
winter storms of 2009–2010. The interaction of these elements with the state's topography creates distinct
microclimates in the Shenandoah Valley, the mountainous southwest, and the coastal plains.[30] Virginia averages
seven tornadoes annually, though most are F2 or lower on the Fujita scale.[31]
In recent years, the expansion of the southern suburbs of Washington, D.C. into Northern Virginia has introduced an
urban heat island primarily caused by increased absorption of solar radiation in more densely populated areas.[32] In
the American Lung Association's 2009 report, 15 counties received failing grades for air quality, with Fairfax
County having the worst in the state, due to automobile pollution.[33] [34] Haze in the mountains is caused in part by
coal power plants.[35]

Flora and fauna

Forests cover 65% of the state, primarily with deciduous, broad leaf trees.[36] Lower altitudes are more likely to have
small but dense stands of moisture-loving hemlocks and mosses in abundance, with hickory and oak in the Blue
Ridge.[26] However since the early 1990s, Gypsy moth infestations have eroded the dominance of oak forests.[37]
Other common trees and plants include chestnut, maple, tulip poplar, mountain laurel, milkweed, daisies, and many
species of ferns. The largest areas of wilderness are along the Atlantic coast and in the western mountains, where the
largest populations of trillium wildflowers in North America are found.[26] [38]
Mammals include White-tailed deer, black bear, beaver, bobcat,
coyote, raccoon, skunk, groundhog, Virginia Opossum, gray fox, and
eastern cottontail rabbit.[39] Birds include cardinals, barred owls,
Carolina chickadees, Red-tailed Hawks, and Wild Turkeys. The
Peregrine Falcon was reintroduced into Shenandoah National Park in
the mid-1990s.[40] Walleye, brook trout, Roanoke bass, and blue
catfish are among the 210 known species of freshwater fish.[41]
Running brooks with rocky bottoms are often inhabited by a plentiful
White-tailed deer, also known as Virginia deer,
amounts of crayfish and salamanders.[26] The Chesapeake Bay is host
graze at Tanner Ridge in Shenandoah National
Park
to many species, including blue crabs, clams, oysters, and rockfish
(also known as striped bass).[42]

Virginia has 30 National Park Service units, such as Great Falls Park and the Appalachian Trail, and one national
park, the Shenandoah National Park.[43] Shenandoah was established in 1935 and encompasses the scenic Skyline
Drive. Almost 40% of the park's area (79,579 acres/322 km2) has been designated as wilderness under the National
Wilderness Preservation System.[44] Additionally, there are 34 Virginia state parks and 17 state forests, run by the
Department of Conservation and Recreation and the Department of Forestry.[36] [45] The Chesapeake Bay, while not
a national park, is protected by both state and federal legislation, and the jointly run Chesapeake Bay Program which
conducts restoration on the bay and its watershed. The Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge extends into
North Carolina.[46]
Virginia 289

History
Jamestown 2007 marked Virginia's quadricentennial year, celebrating 400 years
since the establishment of the Jamestown Colony. The far-reaching social
changes of the mid- to late-20th century were expressed by broad-based
celebrations marking contributions of three cultures to the state: Native
American, European, and African.[47] [48] These three groups have each had a
significant part in shaping Virginia's history. Warfare has also had an important
role, and Virginia has been a focus several conflicts from the American
Revolution and the Civil War to the Cold War and the War on Terrorism.[49]
Stories about historic figures, such as those surrounding Pocahontas and John
Smith, George Washington's childhood, or the antebellum period, have also
created potent myths of state history, and have served as rationales for Virginia's
ideology.[50]
A 19th-century depiction of
Pocahontas, of the Powhatan tribe,
Colony an ancestor of many of the First
Families of Virginia
The first peoples are estimated to have arrived in Virginia over 12,000 years
ago.[51] By 5,000 years ago more permanent settlements emerged, and farming began by 900 CE. By 1500, the
Algonquian peoples had founded towns such as Werowocomoco in the Tidewater region, which they referred to as
Tsenacommacah. The other major language groups in the area were the Siouan to the west, and the Iroquoians, who
included the Nottoway and Meherrin, to the north and south. After 1570, the Algonquians consolidated under Chief
Powhatan in response to threats from these other groups on their trade network.[52] Powhatan controlled more than
30 smaller tribes and over 150 settlements, who shared a common Virginia Algonquian language. In 1607, the native
Tidewater population was between 13,000 to 14,000.[53]

In 1583, Queen Elizabeth I of England granted Walter Raleigh a charter to explore and plant a colony north of
Spanish Florida.[54] In 1584, Raleigh sent an expedition to the Atlantic coast of North America.[55] The name
"Virginia" may have been suggested by Raleigh or Elizabeth, perhaps noting her status as the "Virgin Queen", and
may also be related to a native phrase, "Wingandacoa", or name, "Wingina".[56] Initially the name applied to the
entire coastal region from South Carolina to Maine, plus the island of Bermuda.[57] The London Company was
incorporated as a joint stock company by the proprietary Charter of 1606, which granted land rights to this area. The
Company financed the first permanent English settlement in the "New World", Jamestown. Named for King James I,
it was founded in May 1607 by Christopher Newport.[58] In 1619, colonists took greater control with an elected
legislature called the House of Burgesses. With the bankruptcy of the London Company in 1624, the settlement was
taken into royal authority as a British crown colony.[59]
Life in the colony was perilous, and many died during the "starving
time" in 1609 and the Indian massacre of 1622, led by
Opchanacanough.[60] By 1624, only 3,400 of the 6,000 early settlers
had survived.[61] However, European demand for tobacco fueled the
arrival of more settlers and servants.[62] African workers were first
imported in 1619, and their slavery was codified after 1660. The
Williamsburg was the capital from 1699 to 1780. headright system tried to solve the labor shortage by providing
colonists with land for each indentured servant they transported to
[63]
Virginia. Tensions between the working and ruling classes led to Bacon's Rebellion in 1676, by when current and
former indentured servants made up as much as 80% of the population.[64] Colonists appropriated land from Virginia

Indians by force and treaty, including the Treaty of 1677, which made the signatory tribes tributary states.
Williamsburg became the colonial capital in 1699, following the founding of The College of William & Mary in
Virginia 290

1693.[65]

Statehood
The British Parliament's efforts to levy new taxes following the French and
Indian War (1754–1763) were deeply unpopular in the colonies. In the House of
Burgesses, opposition to taxation without representation was led by Patrick
Henry and Richard Henry Lee, among others.[66] Virginians began to coordinate
their actions with other colonies in 1773, and sent delegates to the Continental
Congress the following year.[67] After the House of Burgesses was dissolved by
the royal governor in 1774, Virginia's revolutionary leaders continued to govern
via the Virginia Conventions. On May 15, 1776, the Convention declared
Virginia's independence from the British Empire and adopted George Mason's
Virginia Declaration of Rights, which was then included in a new
constitution.[68] Another Virginian, Thomas Jefferson, drew upon Mason's work
in drafting the national Declaration of Independence.[69] 1851 painting of Patrick Henry's
speech before the House of
When the American Revolutionary War began, George Washington, who had Burgesses on the Virginia Resolves
commanded Virginia's forces in the French and Indian War, was selected to head against the Stamp Act of 1765

the colonial army. During the war, the capital was moved to Richmond at the
urging of Governor Thomas Jefferson, who feared that Williamsburg's location would make it vulnerable to British
attack.[70] In 1781, the combined action of Continental and French land and naval forces trapped the British army on
the Virginia Peninsula, where troops under George Washington and Comte de Rochambeau defeated British General
Cornwallis in the Siege of Yorktown. His surrender on October 19, 1781, led to peace negotiations in Paris and
secured the independence of the colonies.[71]

Virginians were instrumental in writing the United States Constitution. James Madison drafted the Virginia Plan in
1787 and the Bill of Rights in 1789.[69] Virginia ratified the Constitution on June 25, 1788. The three-fifths
compromise ensured that Virginia, with its large number of slaves, initially had the largest bloc in the House of
Representatives. Together with the Virginia dynasty of presidents, this gave the Commonwealth national importance.
In 1790, both Virginia and Maryland ceded territory to form the new District of Columbia, though in 1846 the
Virginian area was retroceded.[72] Virginia is sometimes called "Mother of States" because of its role in being carved
into several mid-western states.[73]

Civil War and aftermath

Richmond, the capital of the Confederate States
of America, was burned prior to its capture by the
Union.
In addition to agriculture, slave labor was increasingly used in mining,
shipbuilding and other industries.[74] After the Revolutionary War, the
free black population rose, creating thriving communities in Petersburg
and Richmond. Numerous individual manumissions were inspired by
Quaker abolitionists and the revolution's principles.[75] Nat Turner's
slave rebellion in 1831 and John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry in
1859 showed deep social discontent about slavery and its role in the
plantation economy. By 1860, almost half a million people, roughly
31% of the total population of Virginia, were enslaved.[76] This
division contributed to the start of the American Civil War.

Virginia voted to secede from the United States on April 17, 1861, after the Battle of Fort Sumter and Abraham
Lincoln's call for volunteers. On April 24, Virginia joined the Confederate States of America, which chose
Virginia 291

Richmond as its capital.[73] After the 1863 Wheeling Convention, 48 counties in the northwest separated to form a
new state of West Virginia, which chose to remain loyal to the Union. During the war, more battles were fought in
Virginia than anywhere else, including Bull Run, the Seven Days Battles, Chancellorsville, and the concluding Battle
of Appomattox Court House.[77] After the capture of Richmond in 1865, the capital was briefly moved to
Danville.[78] Virginia was formally restored to the United States in 1870, due to the work of the Committee of
Nine.[79]
During the post-war Reconstruction era, Virginia adopted a constitution which provided for free public schools, and
guaranteed political, civil, and voting rights.[80] The populist Readjuster Party ran an inclusive coalition until the
conservative white Democratic Party gained power after 1883.[81] It passed segregationist Jim Crow laws and in
1902 rewrote the Constitution of Virginia to include a poll tax and other voter registration measures that effectively
disfranchised most African Americans and many poor whites.[82] Despite underfunding for segregated schools and
services and a lack of political representation, African Americans still created vibrant communities and made
progress.[83]

Modern times
Protests started by Barbara Rose Johns in 1951 in Farmville against
segregated schools led to the lawsuit Davis v. County School Board of
Prince Edward County. This case, filed by Richmond natives
Spottswood Robinson and Oliver Hill, was decided in 1954 with
Brown v. Board of Education, which rejected the segregationist
doctrine of "separate but equal". However in 1958, under the policy of
"massive resistance" spearheaded by the influential segregationist
Senator Harry F. Byrd and his Byrd Organization, the state prohibited
desegregated local schools from receiving funding.[84]
The Virginia Civil Rights Memorial was erected
The Civil Rights Movement gained many participants in the 1960s and in 2008 to commemorate the protests which led to
achieved the moral force to gain national legislation for protection of school desegregation.

suffrage and civil rights for African Americans. In 1964 the United
States Supreme Court ordered Prince Edward County and others to integrate schools.[85] In 1967, the Court also
struck down the state's ban on interracial marriage. From 1969 to 1971, state legislators under Governor Mills
Godwin rewrote the constitution, after goals such as the repeal of Jim Crow laws had been achieved. In 1989,
Douglas Wilder became the first African American elected as governor in the United States.[86]

New economic forces also changed the Commonwealth. In 1926, Dr. W.A.R. Goodwin, rector of Williamsburg's
Bruton Parish Church, began restoration of colonial-era buildings in the historic district with financial backing of
John D. Rockefeller, Jr.; their work led to the development of Colonial Williamsburg, the state's most popular
tourism site.[87] World War II and the Cold War led to massive expansion of national government programs housed
in offices in Northern Virginia near Washington, D.C., and correlative population growth.[88] Among the federal
developments was the Pentagon, which was later targeted in the September 11 attacks, during which 189 people
died.[89]
Virginia 292

Cities and towns

Virginia is divided into 95 counties and 39 independent cities, which
both operate the same way since independent cities are considered to
be county-equivalent.[90] This method of treating cities and counties
equally is unique to Virginia, with only three other independent cities
in the United States outside Virginia.[91] While incorporation as a city
constitutes independence (since 1871), there are also incorporated
towns which operate under their own governments but are part of a
county, too. Finally there are hundreds of unincorporated communities
within the counties. Virginia does not have any further political
The population of the Hampton Roads area is
subdivisions, such as villages or townships.
over 1.6 million.
Virginia has 11 Metropolitan Statistical Areas; Northern Virginia,
Hampton Roads, and Richmond-Petersburg are the three most populous. Richmond is the capital of Virginia, and its
metropolitan area has a population of over 1.2 million.[92] As of 2008, Virginia Beach is the most populous city in
the Commonwealth, with Norfolk and Chesapeake second and third, respectively.[93] Norfolk forms the urban core
of the Hampton Roads metropolitan area, which has a population over 1.6 million people and is the site of the
world's largest naval base, Naval Station Norfolk.[92] [94] Suffolk, which includes a portion of the Great Dismal
Swamp, is the largest city by area at 429.1 square miles (1111 km2).[95]

Fairfax County is the most populous division in Virginia, with over one million residents, although that does not
include its county seat Fairfax, which is one of the independent cities.[96] Fairfax County has a major urban business
and shopping center in Tysons Corner, Virginia's largest office market.[97] Neighboring Loudoun County, with the
county seat at Leesburg, is both the fastest-growing county in the United States and has the highest median
household income ($107,207) as of 2007.[98] [99] Arlington County, the smallest self-governing county in the United
States by land area, is an urban community organized as a county.[100] The Roanoke area, with a population of
292,983, is the largest Metropolitan Statistical Area in western Virginia.[101]

Demographics

Historical
populations
Census Pop. %±

1790 691737 —

1800 807557 16.7%

1810 877683 8.7%

1820 938261 6.9%

1830 1044054 11.3%

1840 1025227 −1.8%

1850 1119348 9.2%

1860 1219630 9.0%

1870 1225163 0.5%

1880 1512565 23.5%

1890 1655980 9.5%

1900 1854184 12.0%

Virginia 293

1910 2061612 11.2%

1920 2309187 12.0%

1930 2421851 4.9%

1940 2677773 10.6%

1950 3318680 23.9%

1960 3966949 19.5%

1970 4648494 17.2%

1980 5346818 15.0%

1990 6187358 15.7%

2000 7078515 14.4%

Est. 2009 7882590 11.4%

As of 2008, Virginia had an estimated population of 7,769,089 which

is an increase of 56,998, or about 1%, from the prior year and an
increase of 690,574, or 9.8%, since the year 2000.[5] This includes an
increase from net migration of 314,832 people into the
Commonwealth. Immigration from outside the United States resulted
in a net increase of 159,627 people, and migration within the country
Virginia has metropolitan areas located
produced a net increase of 155,205 people.[102] The center of
throughout the state.
population is located in Goochland County outside of Richmond.[103]

English was passed as the Commonwealth's official language by statutes in 1981 and again in 1996, though the status
is not mandated by the Constitution of Virginia.[104] English is the only language spoken by 6,245,517 (86.7%)
Virginians, though it is spoken "very well" by an additional 570,638 (7.9%) for a total of 94.6% of the
Commonwealth. Among speakers of other languages Spanish is the most common with 424,381 (5.9%). 226,911
(3.2%) speak Asian and Pacific Islander languages, including Korean, Vietnamese, and Filipino.[105]

Ethnicity
As of 2000, the five largest reported ancestry groups in Virginia are: African (19.6%), German (11.7%), unspecified
American (11.4%), English (11.1%), and Irish (9.8%).[106] Most Virginians who self-identify as having "American"
ancestry are actually of predominantly English descent, but have ancestry that has been in North America for so
long, in many cases since the early seventeenth century, that they choose to identify simply as "American".[107] [108]
[109] [110] [111]

Because of more recent immigration in the late 20th century and early 21st century, there are growing populations of
Hispanics, particularly Central Americans, and Asians. As of 2007, 6.6% of Virginians are Hispanic, 5.4% are
Asian, and 0.9% are American Indian/Alaska Native/Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander.[5] The Hispanic population of
the state tripled from 1990 to 2006, with two-thirds of Hispanics living in Northern Virginia. Hispanics in Virginia
have higher median household incomes and educational attainment than the general United States or Virginia
population.[112]
Most African American Virginians are descendants of enslaved Africans who worked on tobacco, cotton, and hemp
plantations. These men, women and children were brought from west-central Africa, primarily from Angola and the
Bight of Biafra. The Igbo ethnic group of what is now southern Nigeria were the single largest African group among
slaves in Virginia.[113] [114] Though the black population was reduced by the Great Migration, since 1965 there has
been a reverse migration of blacks returning south.[115] The western mountains have many settlements founded by
English and Scotch-Irish immigrants before the Revolution.[116] There are also sizable numbers of people of German
Virginia 294

descent in the northwestern mountains and Shenandoah Valley.[117] People of English heritage settled throughout the
state during the colonial period, and others of British and Irish heritage have since immigrated to the state for
work.[118]
Northern Virginia has some of the largest populations nationwide of Vietnamese Americans, whose major wave of
immigration followed the Vietnam War, and Korean Americans, whose migration has been more recent and was
induced in part by the quality school system.[119] [120] The Filipino American community has about 45,000 in the
Hampton Roads area, many of whom have ties to the U.S. Navy and armed forces.[121] Virginia has extended state
recognition to eight Native American tribes resident in the state, though all lack federal recognition status. Most
Native American groups are located in the Tidewater region.[122]

Ethnicity (2008) Largest Ancestries by County Ancestry (2000)

White 72.4% African 19.9%

American

Black or African American 20.5% German 11.7%

Hispanic or Latino 6.6% American 11.4%

Asian 5.4% English 11.1%

American Indian and 0.8% [123] Irish 9.8%

U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000 special tabulation. American Factfinder
Alaska Native
provides census data and maps.

Religion

Religion (2008)

[124] 76%
Christian

Baptist 27%

Roman 11%
Catholic

Methodist 8%

Lutheran 2%

Other Christian 28%

Buddhism 1%

Hinduism 1%

Judaism 1%

Islam 0.5%

Unaffiliated 18%

Virginia is predominantly Christian and Protestant; Baptists are the largest single group with 27% of the population
as of 2008.[124] Baptist denominational groups in Virginia include the Baptist General Association of Virginia, with
about 1,400 member churches, which supports both the Southern Baptist Convention and the moderate Cooperative
Baptist Fellowship; and the Southern Baptist Conservatives of Virginia with more than 500 affiliated churches,
which supports the Southern Baptist Convention.[125] [126] Roman Catholics are the second-largest religious group,
and the group which grew the most in the 1990s.[127] [128] The Roman Catholic Diocese of Arlington includes most
of Northern Virginia's Catholic churches, while the Diocese of Richmond covers the rest.
Virginia 295

The Virginia Conference is the regional body of the United Methodist

Church and the Virginia Synod is responsible for the congregations of
the Lutheran Church. Presbyterians, Pentecostals, Congregationalists,
and Episcopalians each composed 1–3% of the population as of
2001.[129] The Episcopal Diocese of Virginia, Southern Virginia, and
Southwestern Virginia support the various Episcopal churches.

In November 2006, 15 conservative Episcopal churches voted to split

from the Diocese of Virginia over the ordination of openly gay bishops
Christ Church in Alexandria was frequented by
and clergy in other dioceses of the Episcopal Church; these churches
George Washington and Robert E. Lee. continue to claim affiliation with the larger Anglican Communion
through other bodies outside the United States. Though Virginia law
allows parishioners to determine their church's affiliation, the diocese claims the secessionist churches' properties.
The resulting property law case is a test for Episcopal churches nationwide.[130]

Among other religions, adherents of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints constitute 1.1% of the
population, with 188 congregations in Virginia as of 2008.[131] Fairfax Station is the site of the Ekoji Buddhist
Temple, of the Jodo Shinshu school, and the Hindu Durga Temple. While the state's Jewish population is small,
organized Jewish sites date to 1789 with Congregation Beth Ahabah.[132] Muslims are a growing religious group
throughout the state through immigration.[133] Megachurches in the state include Thomas Road Baptist Church,
Immanuel Bible Church, and McLean Bible Church.[134] Several Christian universities are also based in the state,
including Regent University, Liberty University, and Lynchburg College.

Economy
Virginia's economy is balanced, with diverse sources of income,
including government and military, farming, and business. Virginia has
4.1 million civilian workers, and one-third of the jobs are in the service
sector.[135] [136] The unemployment rate is 7.2% as of February
2010.[137] In 2009, Forbes Magazine named Virginia the best state in
the nation for business for the fourth year in a row.[138] The Gross
Domestic Product of Virginia was $397 billion in 2008.[139] As of
2000, Virginia had the highest number of counties in the top 100
Ocean tourism is an important sector of Virginia
wealthiest jurisdictions in the United States based upon median
Beach's economy.
income.[140] Virginia has 18 Fortune 500 companies, ranking the state
tenth nationwide.[141]

Virginia has the highest concentration of technology workers of any state.[142] Computer chips became the state's
highest-grossing export in 2006, surpassing its traditional top exports of coal and tobacco combined.[8] Northern
Virginia, once considered the state's dairy capital, now hosts software, communication technology, and consulting
companies, particularly in the Dulles Technology Corridor. Northern Virginia's data centers currently carry more
than 50% of the nation's internet traffic, and by 2012 Dominion Power expects that 10% of all its electricity in
Northern Virginia will be used by data centers.[143] Loudoun and Fairfax counties in Northern Virginia have the
highest and second highest median household income, respectively, of all counties in the United States as of
2006.[144]

Agriculture occupies 24% of the land in Virginia. As of 2007, about 357,000 Virginian jobs were in agriculture, with
over 47,000 farms, averaging 171 acres (0.27 sq mi; 0.69 km2), in a total farmland area of 8.1 million acres
(12,656 sq mi; 32,780 km2). Though agriculture has declined significantly since 1960 when there were twice as
many farms, it remains the largest single industry in Virginia.[145] Tomatoes surpassed soy as the most profitable
Virginia 296

crop in Virginia in 2006, with peanuts and hay as other agricultural products.[146] Though its no longer the primary
crop, Virginia is still the fifth-largest producer of tobacco nationwide.[147] Eastern oyster harvests are an important
part of the Chesapeake Bay economy, but declining oyster populations from disease, pollution, and overfishing have
diminished catches.[148] Wineries and vineyards in the Northern Neck and along the Blue Ridge Mountains also have
begun to generate income and attract tourists.[149]
10% of all U.S. federal procurement money is spent in Virginia.[151]
Virginia has the highest defense spending of any state per capita,
providing the state with around 900,000 jobs.[151] [152] Virginia has
over 800,000 veterans, more than any other state, and is second to
California in total Department of Defense employees.[153] [152] Many
Virginians work for federal agencies in Northern Virginia, which
include the Central Intelligence Agency and the Department of
The Department of Defense is headquartered at
Defense, as well as the National Science Foundation, the United States
The Pentagon in Arlington, the world's largest
office building.
[150] Geological Survey and the United States Patent and Trademark Office.
Many others work for government contractors, including defense and
security firms, which hold more than 15,000 federal contracts.[154] The Hampton Roads area has the largest
concentration of military bases and facilities of any metropolitan area in the world. The largest of the bases is Naval
Station Norfolk.[94]

Virginia collects personal income tax in five income brackets, ranging from 3.0% to 5.75%. The state sales and use
tax rate is 4%, while the tax rate on food is 1.5%. There is an additional 1% local tax, for a total of a 5% combined
sales tax on most Virginia purchases and 2.5% on most food.[155] Virginia's property tax is set and collected at the
local government level and varies throughout the Commonwealth. Real estate is also taxed at the local level based on
100% of fair market value. Tangible personal property also is taxed at the local level and is based on a percentage or
percentages of original cost.[156]

Culture
Virginia's historic culture was popularized and spread across America
and the South by figures such as George Washington, Thomas
Jefferson, and Robert E. Lee. Their homes in Virginia represent the
birthplace of America and the South. Modern Virginia culture has
many sources, and is part of the culture of the Southern United
States.[157] [158] The Smithsonian Institution divides Virginia into nine
cultural regions.[159] The Piedmont region is one of the most famous
for its dialect's strong influence on Southern American English. While
a more homogenized American English is found in urban areas, Colonial Virginian culture, language, and style is
reenacted in Williamsburg.
various accents are also used, including the Tidewater accent, the Old
Virginia accent, and the anachronistic Elizabethan of Tangier
Island.[160] [161]

Literature in Virginia often deals with the state's extensive, and sometimes troubled, past. The works of Pulitzer
Prize winner Ellen Glasgow often dealt with social inequalities and the role of women in her culture.[162] Glasgow's
peer and close friend James Branch Cabell wrote extensively about the changing position of gentry in the
Reconstruction era, and challenged its moral code with Jurgen, A Comedy of Justice.[163] William Styron approached
history in works such as The Confessions of Nat Turner and Sophie's Choice.[164] Tom Wolfe has occasionally dealt
with his southern heritage in bestsellers like I Am Charlotte Simmons.[165] Virginia also names a state Poet Laureate,
currently Claudia Emerson of Fredericksburg who will serve until 2010.[166]
Virginia 297

Besides the general cuisine of the Southern United States, Virginia maintains its own particular traditions. Virginia
wine is made in many parts of the state.[149] Smithfield ham, sometimes called "Virginia ham", is a type of country
ham which is protected by state law, and can only be produced in the town of Smithfield.[167] Virginia furniture and
architecture are typical of American colonial architecture. Thomas Jefferson and many of the state's early leaders
favored the Neoclassical architecture style, leading to its use for important state buildings. The Pennsylvania Dutch
and their style can also be found in parts of the state.[117]

Fine and performing arts

Though rich in cultural heritage, Virginia ranks near the bottom of U.S.
states in terms of public spending on the arts, at nearly half of the
national average.[168] The state does fund institutions including the
Virginia Museum of Fine Arts and the Science Museum of Virginia.
Other museums include the popular Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center of
the National Air and Space Museum and the Chrysler Museum of
Art.[169] Besides these sites, many open-air museums are located in the
state, such as Colonial Williamsburg, the Frontier Culture Museum,
and various historic battlefields.[170] The Virginia Foundation for the The Meadow Pavilion is one of the theaters at
Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts.
Humanities works to improve the Commonwealth's civic, cultural, and
intellectual life.[171]

Theaters and venues in the state are found both in the cities and suburbs. Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing
Arts is located in Vienna and is the only national park intended for use as a performing arts center.[172] The Harrison
Opera House, in Norfolk, is the official Virginia Opera. The Virginia Symphony Orchestra operates around Hampton
Roads.[173] Resident and touring theater troupes operate from the American Shakespeare Center in Staunton.[174]
The Barter Theatre in Abingdon won the first ever Regional Theatre Tony Award in 1948, while the Signature
Theatre in Arlington won it in 2009. There's also a Children's Theater of Virginia, Theatre IV, which is the second
largest touring troupe nationwide.[175] Virginia has launched many award-winning traditional musical artists and
internationally successful popular music acts, as well as Hollywood actors.[1] Notable performance venues include
The Birchmere, the Landmark Theater, and Jiffy Lube Live.[176]

Festivals
Many counties and localities host county fairs and festivals. The
Virginia State Fair is held at the Meadow Event Park every September.
Also in September is the Neptune Festival in Virginia Beach, which
celebrates the city, the waterfront, and regional artists. Norfolk's
Harborfest, in June, features boat racing and air shows.[177] Fairfax
County also sponsors Celebrate Fairfax! with popular and traditional
music performances.[178] The Virginia Lake Festival is held during the
third weekend in July in Clarksville.[179] Wolf Trap hosts the Wolf The annual Chincoteague Pony Swim features
over 200 wild ponies swimming across the
Trap Opera Company, which produces an opera festival every
Assateague Channel into Chincoteague.
summer.[172]

On the Eastern Shore island of Chincoteague the annual Pony Swim & Auction of feral Chincoteague ponies at the
end of July is a unique local tradition expanded into a week-long carnival. The Shenandoah Apple Blossom Festival
is a six-day festival held annually in Winchester that includes parades and bluegrass concerts. The Old Time
Fiddlers' Convention in Galax, begun in 1935, is one of the oldest and largest such events worldwide. Two important
film festivals, the Virginia Film Festival and the VCU French Film Festival, are held annually in Charlottesville and
Virginia 298

Richmond, respectively.[177]

Media
The Hampton Roads area is the 42nd-largest media market in the
United States as ranked by Nielsen Media Research, while the
Richmond-Petersburg area is 60th and Roanoke-Lynchburg is
68th.[180] There are 21 television stations in Virginia, representing each
major U.S. network, part of 42 stations which serve Virginia
viewers.[181] More than 800 FCC-licensed FM radio stations broadcast
in Virginia, with over 300 such AM stations.[182] [183] The nationally
available Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) is headquartered in USA Today, the nation's most circulated
newspaper, has its headquarters in McLean.
Arlington. The locally focused Commonwealth Public Broadcasting
Corporation, which produces MHz Networks, is a non-profit
corporation which owns public TV and radio stations and has offices around the state.[184]

The most circulated native newspapers in the Commonwealth are the Richmond Times-Dispatch, Norfolk's The
Virginian-Pilot, The Roanoke Times, and Newport News' Daily Press. As of 2008, the Pilot has a daily subscription
of 174,573, slightly more than the Times-Dispatch at 160,886, 54th and 59th in the nation respectively, while the
Roanoke Times has about 90,557 daily subscribers.[185] [186] Several Washington, D.C. papers are based in Northern
Virginia, such as The Washington Examiner and The Politico. The paper with the nation's widest circulation, USA
Today, is headquartered in McLean.[187] Besides traditional forms of media, Virginia is the home base for
telecommunication companies such as Sprint Nextel and XO Communications.

Education
Virginia's educational system consistently ranks in the top ten states on
the U.S. Department of Education's National Assessment of
Educational Progress, with Virginia students outperforming the
average in all subject areas and grade levels tested.[189] The 2010
Quality Counts report ranked Virginia's K–12 education fourth best in
the country.[190] All school divisions must adhere to educational
standards set forth by the Virginia Department of Education, which
maintains an assessment and accreditation regime known as the
Standards of Learning to ensure accountability.[191] In 2008, 81% of The University of Virginia, a World Heritage
Site, was founded by President Thomas
high school students graduated on-time after four years.[192] Between Jefferson.
[188]
2000 and 2008, school enrollment increased 5%, the number of
teachers 21%.[193]

Public K–12 schools in Virginia are generally operated by the counties and cities, and not by the state. As of April
2010, a total of 1,259,623 students were enrolled in 1,881 local and regional schools in the Commonwealth,
including three charter schools, and an additional 109 alternative and special education centers across 132 school
divisions.[194] [195] Besides the general public schools in Virginia, there are Governor's Schools and selective magnet
schools. The Governor's Schools are a collection of more than 40 regional high schools and summer programs
intended for gifted students.[196] The Virginia Council for Private Education oversees the regulation of 294 state
accredited and 141 non-accredited private schools.[197] An additional 7,020 students receive homeschooling.[198]

As of 2010, there are 167 colleges and universities in Virginia.[199] In the U.S. News and World Report ranking of
public colleges, the University of Virginia is second and The College of William & Mary is sixth.[200] [201] Virginia
Virginia 299

Commonwealth University is ranked the top public graduate school in fine arts, while James Madison University has
been recognized as the top public master's program in The South since 1993.[202] [203] The Virginia Military Institute
is the oldest state military college and a top ranked public liberal arts college.[204] [205] George Mason University is
the largest university in Virginia with over 32,000 students.[206] Virginia Tech and Virginia State University are the
state's land-grant universities. Virginia also operates 23 community colleges on 40 campuses serving over
260,000 students.[207] There are 120 private institutions, including Washington and Lee University,
Hampden–Sydney College, Roanoke College, and the University of Richmond.[199]

Health
Virginia has a mixed health record, and is ranked as the 21st overall
healthiest state according to the 2009 United Health Foundation's
Health Rankings.[208] Virginia also ranks 21st among the states in the
rate of premature deaths, 7,104 per 100,000. In 2008, Virginia reached
its lowest ever rate of infant mortality, at 6.7 deaths per 1,000.[209]
There are however racial and social health disparities, with African
Americans experiencing 27.9% more premature deaths than whites,
while 13.6% of Virginians lack any health insurance.[208] According to
The A.D. Williams Clinic and West Hospital at
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's 2007 survey, 25.3%
VCU Medical Center in Richmond
of Virginians are obese and another 36.6% are overweight, and only
78.4% of residents exercise regularly.[210] [211] About 30% of
Virginia's 10- to 17-year-olds are overweight or obese.[212]

There are 85 hospitals in Virginia listed with the United States Department of Health and Human Services.[213]
Notable examples include Inova Fairfax Hospital, the largest hospital in the Washington Metropolitan Area, and the
VCU Medical Center, located on the medical campus of Virginia Commonwealth University. The University of
Virginia Medical Center, part of the University of Virginia Health System, is highly ranked in endocrinology
according to U.S.News & World Report.[214] Sentara Norfolk General Hospital, part of the Hampton Roads based
Sentara Health System and a teaching institution of Eastern Virginia Medical School, was the site of the first
successful in-vitro fertilization birth.[215] [216] Virginia has a ratio of 124 primary care physicians per 10,000
residents, which is the 13th highest nationally.[208] Virginia was one of five states to receive a perfect score in
disaster preparedness according to a 2008 report by the Trust for America's Health, based on criteria such as
detecting pathogens and distributing vaccines and medical supplies.[217]
In 2010, Virginia enacted stringent limitations on the use of state funds to provide abortions or to support abortion
clinics, except in cases of rape, incest, or in situations where the mother's health is in danger.[218] Although the
General Assembly has failed to adopt bills that would require hospital-like regulation of clinics that perform first
trimester abortions, Attorney General Ken Cuccinelli has issued an opinion letter empowering the Virginia Board of
Health to conduct such regulation.[219]
Virginia 300

Transportation
Because of the 1932 Byrd Road Act, the state government controls
most of Virginia's roads, instead of a local city or county authority as is
usual in other states.[220] As of 2007, the Virginia Department of
Transportation owns and operates 57867 miles (93128 km) of the total
68428 miles (110124 km) of roads in the state, making it the third
largest state highway system in the United States.[221] Virginia's road
system is ranked as the 16th best in the nation.[222] While the
Washington Metropolitan Area has the second worst traffic in the
The Virginia Railway Express runs commuter
nation, Virginia as a whole has the 21st-lowest congestion and the
lines in Northern Virginia.
average commute time is 26.9 minutes.[223] [224] Virginia has both low
disbursements for roads and bridges, and a low road fatality rate.[222]

Virginia has Amtrak passenger rail service along several corridors, and Virginia Railway Express maintains two
commuter lines into Washington, D.C. from Fredericksburg and Manassas. The Washington Metro rapid transit
system serves Northern Virginia as far west as Fairfax County, although expansion plans call for Metro to reach
Loudoun County by 2016.[225] Commuter buses include the Fairfax Connector and the Shenandoah Valley
Commuter Bus. The Virginia Department of Transportation operates several free ferries throughout Virginia, the
most notable being the Jamestown-Scotland ferry which crosses the James River in Surry County.[226]

Virginia has five major airports: Washington Dulles International, Reagan Washington National, Norfolk
International, Richmond International, and Newport News/Williamsburg International Airport. Sixty-six public
airports serve the state's aviation needs.[227] The Virginia Port Authority's main seaports are those in Hampton
Roads, which carried 17726251 short tons (16080984 t) of bulk cargo in 2007, the sixth most of United States
ports.[228] The Eastern Shore of Virginia is the site of Wallops Flight Facility, a rocket testing center owned by
NASA, and the Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport, a commercial spaceport.[229] [230] Space tourism is also offered
through Vienna-based Space Adventures.[231]

Law and government

In colonial Virginia, free men elected the lower house of the
legislature, called the House of Burgesses, which together with the
Governor's Council, made the "General Assembly". Founded in 1619,
the Virginia General Assembly is still in existence as the oldest
legislature in the Western Hemisphere.[232] The modern government is
ranked by the Pew Center on the States with an A− in terms of its
efficiency, effectiveness, and infrastructure. This is the second time
Virginia received the highest grade in the nation, which it shares with
two others.[7]
The Virginia State Capitol, designed by Thomas
Since 1971, the government has functioned under the seventh Jefferson and begun by Governor Patrick Henry
Constitution of Virginia, which provides for a strong legislature and a in 1785, is home to the Virginia General
Assembly.
unified judicial system. Similar to the federal structure, the government
is divided in three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. The
legislature is the General Assembly, a bicameral body whose 100-member House of Delegates and 40-member
Senate write the laws for the Commonwealth. The Assembly is stronger than the executive, as it selects judges and
justices. The Governor and Lieutenant Governor are elected every four years in separate elections. Incumbent
Virginia 301

governors cannot run for re-election, however the Lieutenant Governor and Attorney General can, and governors
may serve non-consecutive terms.[233] The judicial system, the oldest in America, consists of a hierarchy from the
Supreme Court of Virginia and the Court of Appeals of Virginia to the lower general district and circuit courts.[234]
The Code of Virginia is the statutory law, and consists of the codified legislation of the General Assembly. The
Virginia State Police is the largest law enforcement agency in Virginia. The Virginia Capitol Police are the oldest
police department in the United States.[235] The Virginia National Guard consists of 7,500 soldiers in the Virginia
Army National Guard and 1,200 airmen in the Virginia Air National Guard.[236] Since the 1982 resumption of capital
punishment in Virginia, 106 people have been executed, the second highest number in the nation.[237] The "total
crime risk" is 28% lower than the national average.[238]

Politics
In the last century Virginia has shifted from a largely rural, politically Southern and conservative state to a more
urbanized, pluralistic, and politically moderate environment. Up until the 1970s, Virginia was a racially divided
single-party state dominated by the Byrd Organization.[239] African Americans were effectively disfranchised until
after passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-1960s.[240] Enfranchisement and immigration of other groups,
especially Hispanics, have placed growing importance on minority voting.[241] Regional differences play a large part
in Virginia politics.[242] Rural southern and western areas moved to support the Republican Party in response to its
"southern strategy", while urban and growing suburban areas, including much of Northern Virginia, form the
Democratic Party base.[243] [244] Democratic support also persists in union-influenced parts of Southwest Virginia,
college towns such as Charlottesville and Blacksburg, and the southeastern Black Belt Region.[245]
Political party strength in Virginia has likewise been in flux. In the
2007 state elections, Democrats regained control of the State Senate,
and narrowed the Republican majority in the House of Delegates to
eight seats.[246] Yet elections in 2009 resulted in the election of
Republican Robert McDonnell as governor by a 17 point margin, the
Jim Webb speaks at a Richmond rally with election of a Republican Lieutenant Governor and Attorney General, as
former Governors Mark Warner, Tim Kaine, and well as Republican gains of six seats in the House of Delegates.[247]
Douglas Wilder, future President Barack Obama,
State election seasons traditionally start with the annual Shad Planking
and others.
event in Wakefield.[248]

In federal elections since 2006, Democrats have seen more success. In the 2006 Senate election, Democrat Jim Webb
won on a populist platform over the Republican incumbent following a very close race.[249] The party took both U.S.
Senate seats after 2008, when former Governor Mark Warner replaced retiring Republican John Warner.[250] Of the
state's 11 seats in the U.S. House of Representatives, Democrats hold six and Republicans hold five. Virginia, which
has 13 electoral votes, was won by Democrat Barack Obama in 2008, after being won by Republican candidates in
the previous ten presidential elections.[251] Virginia may be considered a "swing state" in future presidential
elections.[6]
Virginia 302

Sports
Virginia is the most populous U.S. state without a major professional
sports league franchise.[253] The reasons for this include the lack of any
dominant city or market within the state and the proximity of teams in
Washington, D.C.[254] Virginia has several minor league clubs,
especially in baseball and soccer. Additionally, the Washington
Redskins have Redskins Park, their headquarters and training facility,
in Ashburn and the Washington Capitals train at Kettler Capitals
Iceplex in Ballston.[255] Virginia has many professional caliber golf
courses including the Greg Norman course at Lansdowne Resort and
Kingsmill Resort, home of the Michelob ULTRA Open. NASCAR
currently schedules Sprint Cup races on two tracks in Virginia:
The Virginia Tech Hokies football team has the
Martinsville Speedway and Richmond International Raceway. Current [252]
third longest bowl game streak in the nation.
Virginia drivers in the series include Jeff Burton, Denny Hamlin, and
Elliot Sadler.[256]

The Washington Nationals and Baltimore Orioles also have followings due to their proximity, and both are broadcast
in the state on MASN.[257] When the New York Mets ended their long affiliation with the Norfolk Tides in 2007, the
Orioles adopted the minor league club as their top level (AAA) minor league affiliate.[258] The San Francisco Giants'
AA team, the Richmond Flying Squirrels, began play at The Diamond in 2010, replacing the AAA Richmond
Braves, who relocated after 2008.[259] Additionally, the Nationals, Orioles, Pittsburgh Pirates, Boston Red Sox,
Seattle Mariners, Chicago White Sox, and Atlanta Braves also have Single-A and Rookie-level farm teams in
Virginia.[260]

Virginia does not allow state appropriated funds to be used for either operational or capital expenses for
intercollegiate athletics.[261] Despite this, both the Virginia Cavaliers and Virginia Tech Hokies have been able to
field competitive teams in the Atlantic Coast Conference and maintain modern facilities. Their rivalry is followed
statewide. Several other universities compete in NCAA Division I, particularly in the Colonial Athletic Association.
Three historically black schools compete in the Division II Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association, and two
others compete in the Division I Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference. Several smaller schools compete in the Old
Dominion Athletic Conference and the USA South Athletic Conference of NCAA Division III. The NCAA currently
holds its Division III championships in football, men's basketball, volleyball and softball in Salem.[262]

State symbols
The state nickname is its oldest symbol, though it has never been made
official by law. Virginia was given the title "Dominion" by King
Charles II of England at the time of The Restoration, because it had
remained loyal to the crown during the English Civil War, and the
present moniker, "Old Dominion" is a reference to that title. The other
nickname, "Mother of Presidents", is also historic, as eight Virginians
have served as President of the United States, including four of the first
five.[1]
The Virginia welcome sign at the Virginia
The state's motto, Sic Semper Tyrannis, translates from Latin as "Thus
welcome center on I-95 employs the state bird,
Always To Tyrants", and is used on the state seal, which is then used the cardinal, and the state tree and flower, the
on the flag. While the seal was designed in 1776, and the flag was first dogwood.
Virginia 303

used in the 1830s, both were made official in 1930.[1] The majority of the other symbols were made official in the
late 20th century.[263] The Virginia reel is among the square dances classified as the state dance.[15] Virginia
currently has no state song. In 1940, Virginia made "Carry Me Back to Old Virginny" the state song, but it was
retired in 1997 and reclassified as the state song emeritus.[264] Various alternatives, including a version of "Oh
Shenandoah", have met with resistance in the Virginia House of Delegates.[265]

• Mammal: Virginia Big-Eared
Bat
• Beverage: Milk
• Boat: Chesapeake Bay deadrise
• Bird: Cardinal
• Dance: Square dancing
• Dog: American Foxhound
• Fish: Brook trout
• Flower/Tree: Dogwood
• Fossil: Chesapecten jeffersonius
• Insect: Tiger swallowtail
• Motto: Sic Semper Tyrannis
• Nickname: The Old Dominion
• Shell: Eastern oyster
• Slogan: Virginia is for Lovers
• Tartan: Virginia Quadricentennial
Tartan

See also
• Outline of Virginia
• Index of Virginia-related articles

Bibliography
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Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot. ISBN 0-7627-2747-0.
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Commonwealth. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. ISBN 0-8139-2609-2.
• Hoffer, Peter Charles (2006). The Brave New World: A History of Early America. Baltimore: JHU Press.
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• Morgan, Lynda (1992). Emancipation in Virginia's Tobacco Belt, 1850–1870. Athens, GA: University of Georgia
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• Morgan, Philip D. (1998). Slave Counterpoint. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
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• Smith, Julian (2008). Moon Virginia: Including Washington, D.C. [285] (4 ed.). Berkeley, CA: Avalon Travel.
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• Robertson, James I. (1993). Civil War Virginia: Battleground for a Nation [286]. Charlottesville: University of
Virginia Press. ISBN 0-8139-1457-4.
• Stewart, George (2008). Names on the Land: A Historical Account of Place-Naming in the United States. New
York: Random House. ISBN 1-5901-7273-6.
• Vollmann, William T. (2002). Argall: The True Story of Pocahontas and Captain John Smith [287]. New York:
Penguin Group. ISBN 0-1420-0150-3.
• Wallenstein, Peter (2007). Cradle of America: Four Centuries of Virginia History [288]. Lawrence, KS: University
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• Williamson, CiCi (2008). The Best of Virginia Farms Cookbook and Tour Book [289]. Birmingham, AL: Menasha
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Virginia 305

External links
General
• Virginia [290] at the Open Directory Project
• Encyclopedia Virginia [291]
Government
• State Government website [292]
• Virginia General Assembly [293]
• Virginia's Judicial system [294]
• Constitution of Virginia [295]
Tourism and recreation
• Virginia Tourism Website [296]
• Virginia State Parks [297]
• Virginia Main Street Communities Travel [298]
• WikiTravel guide [299]
Culture and history
• Virginia Historical Society [300]
• Virginia's First People [301]
• WPA Guide to the Old Dominion [302]
Maps and Demographics
• USGS geographic resources of Virginia [303]
• Virginia State Climatology Office [304]
• Virginia State Fact Sheet [305]

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[227] "Airports" (http:/ / www. doav. virginia. gov/ airports. htm). Virginia Department of Aviation. 2006. . Retrieved April 12, 2008.
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[236] Listman, Jr., John W.; Carter, III, Lt. Col. Chester C. (August 20, 2007). "Serving Commonwealth and Country" (http:/ / vko. va. ngb.
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[239] Sweeney, James R. (1999). ""Sheep without a Shepherd": The New Deal Faction in the Virginia Democratic Party" (http:/ / www. questia.
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2008.
[240] Burchett, Michael H. (Summer 1997). "Promise and prejudice: Wise County, Virginia and the Great Migration, 1910–1920" (http:/ / links.
jstor. org/ sici?sici=0022-2992(199722)82:3<312:PAPWCV>2. 0. CO;2-0). The Journal of Negro History 82 (3): 312. doi:10.2307/2717675. .
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[241] Eisman, Dale (October 25, 2006). "Webb, Allen court Hispanic, white-collar voters in N. Va." (http:/ / hamptonroads. com/ node/ 172411).
The Virginian-Pilot. . Retrieved March 29, 2008.
[242] Turque, Bill; Wiggins, Ovetta; Stewart, Nikita (February 13, 2008). "In Virginia, Results Signal A State in Play for November" (http:/ /
www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2008/ 02/ 12/ AR2008021203200_pf. html). The Washington Post. . Retrieved
September 29, 2008.
[243] Miller, Gary; Schofield, Norman (May 2003). "Activists and Partisan Realignment in the United States" (http:/ / links. jstor. org/
sici?sici=0003-0554(200305)97:2<245:AAPRIT>2. 0. CO;2-Y). The American Political Science Review 97 (2): 245–260. . Retrieved
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[244] Craig, Tim (December 11, 2007). "Tensions Could Hurt Majority in Va. Senate" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/
story/ 2007/ 12/ 10/ ST2007121001571. html). The Washington Post. . Retrieved December 23, 2007.
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[245] Clemons, Michael L.; Jones, Charles E. (July 2000). "African American Legislative Politics in Virginia" (http:/ / links. jstor. org/
sici?sici=0021-9347(200007)30:6<744:AALPIV>2. 0. CO;2-0). Journal of Black Studies 30 (6, Special Issue: African American State
Legislative Politics): 744–767. doi:10.1177/002193470003000603. . Retrieved February 2, 2008.
[246] Craig, Tim; Kumar, Anita (November 8, 2007). "Kaine Hails 'Balance' in New Political Landscape" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/
wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2007/ 11/ 07/ AR2007110700553_2. html). The Washington Post. . Retrieved November 7, 2007.
[247] Helderman, Rosalind S.; Kumar, Anita (November 4, 2009). "GOP reclaims Virginia" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/
content/ article/ 2009/ 11/ 03/ AR2009110300371. html). The Washington Post. . Retrieved November 4, 2009.
[248] Murray, Mark (April 16, 2009). "Shad Planking kicks Virginia race into gear" (http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 30248457/ ). MSNBC. .
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[249] Page, Susan (November 26, 2006). "Election '06: Lessons learned by dissecting votes" (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ news/ washington/
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[250] Kumar, Anita (November 5, 2008). "Warner Rolls Past His Fellow Former Governor" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/
content/ article/ 2008/ 11/ 04/ AR2008110404091. html). The Washington Post. . Retrieved November 5, 2008.
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0,4670,ElectionVirginia,00. html). Associated Press. Fox News. . Retrieved January 9, 2009.
[252] Wood, Norm (December 28, 2008). "Bowl streak began humbly" (http:/ / www. dailypress. com/ sports/
dp-spt_techbowlstreak_1228dec28,0,2384850. story). Daily Press. . Retrieved September 11, 2009.
[253] Minium, Harry (July 19, 2001). "Region Works to Attract Franchise Area Makes "Short List" for Existing Team’s Move" (http:/ / web.
archive. org/ web/ 20080226215152/ http:/ / www. facilityplanners. com/ news/ pdf/ Professional+ Sports+ in+ Hampton+ Roads. pdf) (PDF).
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[254] Utt, Ronald D. (October 2, 1998). "Cities in Denial: The False Promise of Subsidized Tourist and Entertainment Complexes" (http:/ / www.
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2008/ 01/ beach-officials-hope-lure-redskins’-training-camp-sportsplex). The Virginian-Pilot. . Retrieved April 12, 2008.
[256] "NASCAR in Virginia" (http:/ / www. virginia. org/ site/ features. asp?featureid=201). Virginia is for Lovers. September 6, 2007. .
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[258] Borawski, Brian (September 27, 2006). "Business of Baseball Report" (http:/ / www. hardballtimes. com/ main/ article/
business-of-baseball-report120/ ). The Orioles Warehouse. . Retrieved April 12, 2008.
[259] O'Connor, John (April 2, 2010). "Squirrels will nest at Diamond for several years" (http:/ / www2. timesdispatch. com/ rtd/ sports/ minors/
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September 5, 2009.
[261] Sylwester, MaryJo; Witosky, Tom (February 18, 2004). "Athletic spending grows as academic funds dry up" (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/
sports/ college/ 2004-02-18-athletic-spending-cover_x. htm). USA Today. . Retrieved August 16, 2010.
[262] Brady, Erik (December 14, 2006). "Virginia town is big game central" (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ sports/ college/ football/
2006-12-13-focus-salem_x. htm). USA Today. . Retrieved February 6, 2008.
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[265] Sluss, Michael (March 2, 2006). "Proposed state song doesn't bring down the House" (http:/ / www. roanoke. com/ news/ roanoke/ wb/ wb/
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[266] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=y4-ljMLfwp4C& pg=PR15
[267] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=S6TuEMY2clQC
[268] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=VkKEooYDuToC
[269] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ymATg0mq8jkC
[270] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=vqpoxEl_0_4C& pg=PA10
[271] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=tT2AEMiUXvwC& pg=PT57
[272] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=nCn4XrP_u0MC
[273] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=yFvjsEYP7hAC& pg=PA90
[274] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=fnT2tRbE1vMC
[275] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=rmsUs_KDgHAC& pg=PA17
[276] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=v10uoRwUsuEC
[277] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=bX0t5dMokXYC
[278] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=LMacwod5KLwC& pg=PA140
[279] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=pJu5veUAo7kC& pg=PA63
Virginia 314

[280] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=EzR13rJBwc4C& pg=PA14

[281] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=bq79_YZ8ViIC
[282] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ctA1eNFvI-oC& pg=PA49
[283] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=vQdHRNitfOoC& pg=PA135
[284] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Z8DCRmgPOewC& pg=PA307
[285] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=WNEYCRIIQy4C& pg=PA152
[286] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=RKDkDZ6GLPcC
[287] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=hh0WYbclptAC& pg=PA695
[288] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=qiwSAAAAYAAJ
[289] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=pnuFW6zT0T8C& pg=PA41
[290] http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Regional/ North_America/ United_States/ Virginia/
[291] http:/ / encyclopediavirginia. org/ about
[292] http:/ / www. virginia. gov/
[293] http:/ / legis. state. va. us/
[294] http:/ / www. courts. state. va. us/
[295] http:/ / legis. state. va. us/ Laws/ search/ Constitution. htm
[296] http:/ / www. virginia. org/
[297] http:/ / www. dcr. virginia. gov/ state_parks/ state_park. shtml
[298] http:/ / www. nps. gov/ history/ nr/ travel/ VAmainstreet/
[299] http:/ / wikitravel. org/ en/ Virginia
[300] http:/ / www. vahistorical. org/
[301] http:/ / virginiaindians. pwnet. org/ index. php
[302] http:/ / xroads. virginia. edu/ ~HYPER/ VAGuide/ frame. html
[303] http:/ / www. usgs. gov/ state/ state. asp?State=VA
[304] http:/ / climate. virginia. edu/
[305] http:/ / www. ers. usda. gov/ statefacts/ va. htm
 315

Literary Topics

Academic writing
In academia, writing and publishing is conducted in several sets of forms and genres. This is a list of genres of
academic writing. It is a short summary of the full spectrum of critical & academic writing. It does not cover the
variety of critical approaches that can be applied when writing about a subject.
Writing in these forms or styles is usually serious, intended for a critical and informed audience, based on
closely-investigated knowledge, and posits ideas or arguments. It usually circulates within the academic world ('the
academy'), but the academic writer may also find an audience outside via journalism, speeches, pamphlets, etc.
Typically scholarly writing has an objective stance, clearly states the significance of the topic, and is organized with
adequate detail so that other scholars could try to reproduce the results. Strong papers are not overly general and
correctly utilize formal academic rhetoric.

Standard forms
• Abstract.
• Book, in many types and varieties.
• Book chapter.
• Book report.
• Conference paper.
• Dissertation; usually between 6,000 and 20,000 words in length.
• Essay; usually short, between 1,500 and 6,000 words in length.
• Explication; usually a short factual note explaining some obscure part of a particular work; e.g. its terminology,
dialect, allusions or coded references.
• Research Article.
• Research Paper; longer essay involving library research, 3000 to 6000 words in length.
• Thesis; completed over a number of years, often in excess of 20,000 words in length.
• Translation.

For students
• Exam questions & Essay titles; the formulating of these.
• Instructional pamphlet, or hand-out, or reading list; usually meant for students.
• Presentations; usually short, often illustrated.

Summaries of knowledge
• Annotated bibliography.
• Annotated catalogue, often of an individual or group's papers and/or library.
• Creating a simplified graphical representation of knowledge; e.g. a map, or refining a display generated from a
database. There will often be a 'key' or written work incorporated with the final work.
• Creating a timeline or chronological plan. There will often be a 'key' or written work incorporated with the final
work.
• Devising a classification scheme; e.g. for animals, or newly arisen sub-cultures, or a radically new style of design.
Academic writing 316

• Encyclopedia entry.
• Journal article (e.g. History Today); usually presenting a digest of recent research.
• Literature review; a summary and careful comparison of previous academic work published on a specific topic.
• Site description and plan (e.g. in archeology).

Collating the work of others

• Anthology; collection, collation, ordering and editing of the work of others.
• Catalogue raisonné; the definitive collection of the work of a single artist, in book form.
• Collected works; often referred to as the 'critical edition'. The definitive collection of the work of a single writer
or poet, in book form, carefully purged of publishers errors and later forgeries, etc.
• Monograph or exhibition catalog; usually containing exemplary works, and a scholarly essay. Sometime contains
new work by a creative writer, responding to the work.
• Transcribing, selecting and ordering oral testimony (e.g. oral history recordings).

Research & planning

• Experiment plan.
• Raw data collection plan.
• Research plan (sometimes called desk-based research).
• Structured notes.
• Wikipedia.org should never be cited as support or authority in any academic or scholarly writing. There is always
a more appropriate source that can be found and utilized.

Disseminating knowledge outside the academy

• call for papers.
• Documentary film script or TV script or radio script.
• Obituary.
• Opinion; an academic may sometimes be asked to give an expert written opinion, for use in a legal case before a
court of law.
• Polemical newspaper opinion article.
• Public speech or lecture.
• Review of a book, film, exhibition, event, etc.
• Think-tank pamphlet, position paper, or briefing paper.

Technical or administrative forms

• Brief; short summary, often instructions for a commissioned work.
• Peer review report.
• Proofreading and correction.
• Proposal.
• White paper; detailed technical specifications and/or performance report.
Academic writing 317

Personal forms
These are acceptable to some academic disciplines, e.g. Cultural studies, Fine art, Feminist studies, Queer theory,
Literary studies.
• Artist's book or Chapbook.
• Autobiography.
• Belles-lettres; stylish or aesthetic writing on serious subjects, often with reference to one's personal experience.
• Commonplace book.
• Diary or Weblog.
• Memoire; usually a short work, giving one's own memories of a famous person or event.
• Notebooks.

Newer forms
• Collaborative writing, especially using the internet.
• Hypertext, often incorporating new media and multimedia forms within the text.
• Performative writing (see also: belles-lettres).

See also
• Academia
• Academic journal
• Creative class
• Criticism
• Expository writing
• Intellectual
• Journalism
• Knowledge
• Knowledge worker
• Narrative
• Persuasive writing or rhetoric
• Public intellectual
• Publishing
• Scholar
• Scholarship
• Writing

External links
• Academic Writing Module [1]
• 8 Tips For Better Academic Writing [2]

References
[1] http:/ / www. victoria. ac. nz/ llc/ academic-writing
[2] http:/ / www. academicproductivity. com/ 2007/ eight-tips-for-better-academic-writing
Cult following 318

Cult following
A cult following is a term used to refer to a group of fans who are highly dedicated to a specific area of pop culture.
A film, book, band, or video game, among other things, will be said to have a cult following when it has a small but
very passionate fan base. A common component of cult followings is the emotional attachment fans have with the
object of the cult following, often identifying themselves and other fans as members of a community. Cult
followings are often associated with niche markets or subcultures. Cult media are often associated with underground
culture, and are considered too eccentric, bizarre, controversial or anti-establishment to be appreciated by the general
public.
Many cult fans express a certain irony about their devotion. Sometimes these cult followings cross the border to
camp followings. Cult fans of director Ed Wood admire his films not because they consider them to be excellent, but
because they are so bad that they become funny. The same phenomenon can be observed with things that are
appreciated by a certain generation out of nostalgia or childhood memories.
Fans may become involved in a subculture of fandom, either via conventions, online communities, or through
activities such as writing series-related fiction, costume creation, replica prop and model building, or creating their
own audio or video productions based around the formats and characters.[1]

Examples
There isn't always a clear difference between cult and mainstream
media. The film Pink Flamingos is known for its disgusting
scenes, and only a small number of people are drawn to this
movie. Therefore it can be classified as a cult movie. Star Trek is
internationally a very famous and popular franchise, but its fans
are still seen as cult followers, since they are so obsessively loyal
to the franchise. Star Wars, Batman and Harry Potter have core
groups of fanatical followers, but still attract mass audiences, so
they can't be considered true cult films.

Quentin Tarantino's films borrow stylistically from classic cult

movies, but are appreciated by a large audience, and therefore lie
somewhere between cult and mainstream. Certain cult phenomena
can grow to such proportions that they become mainstream. Fans
who used to appreciate the cult item when it was still obscure
sometimes lose interest when it becomes very popular.

Some cults are only popular within a certain subculture. The film
Woodstock is especially loved within the hippie subculture. A
Clockwork Orange a cult film for punks, skinheads and other Film director David Lynch has a large cult following
groups. Certain mainstream icons can become cult icons in a
different context for certain people. The mainstream film The Wizard of Oz is a cult film in gay culture. Reefer
Madness was originally intended to warn the youth against drugs, but due to its ridiculous plot and cheap look, it is
now often watched by stoned audiences, and has gained a cult following.

Anime, manga, kung fu films and kaiju are mainstream entertainment in Japan, but elsewhere are generally
appreciated by a cult audience. Doctor Who is a prime time family show in Great Britain, but a cult series in the US.
It often takes a few years before a cult starts to form around a particular film or band. Captain Beefheart's album
Trout Mask Replica, Jim Carrey's film The Cable Guy and the TV series The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show were
Cult following 319

originally not that successful, but as time went by they were able to collect a cult following. In some cases this cult
status is unexpected, like the Disney film Fantasia (1940), which was a flop at its release, but was reappreciated by
fans of psychedelica in the 1960s. Other phenomena are specifically created and aimed at a cult audience, like the
TV series The Young Ones or the drug oriented movie Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas.

See also
• Sleeper hit
• Underground music
• Otaku
• The Rocky Horror Picture Show

Further reading
• Lathrop, Tad and Wayne Jancik, Cult Rockers: 150 of the most controversial, distinctive and intriguing,
outrageous and championed rock musicians of all time (Pocket Books, 1996)

References
[1] www.Cult.TV - The Official Cult TV Magazine (http:/ / www. cult. tv)

Documentary film
Documentary film is a broad category of moving pictures intended to document some aspect of reality. A
"documentary film" was originally a movie shot on film stock—the only medium available—but now includes video
and digital productions that can be either direct-to-video or made for a television programme. "Documentary" has
been described as a "filmmaking practice, a cinematic tradition, and mode of audience reception" that is continually
evolving and is without clear boundaries.[1]

Defining documentary
The word documentary was first applied to films of this nature in a review of Robert Flaherty's film Moana (1926),
published in the New York Sun on 8 February 1926 and written by "The Moviegoer", a pen name for Scottish
documentarian John Grierson.
Grierson's principles of documentary were that cinema's potential for observing life could be exploited in a new art
form; that the "original" actor and "original" scene are better guides than their fiction counterparts to interpreting the
modern world; and that materials "thus taken from the raw" can be more real than the acted article. In this regard,
Grierson's views align with Vertov's contempt for dramatic fiction as "bourgeois excess", though with considerably
more subtlety. Grierson's definition of documentary as "creative treatment of actuality" has gained some acceptance,
though it presents philosophical questions about documentaries containing stagings and reenactments.
In his essays, Dziga Vertov argued for presenting "life as it is" (that is, life filmed surreptitiously) and "life caught
unawares" (life provoked or surprised by the camera).
Pare Lorentz defines a documentary film as "a factual film which is dramatic."[2] Others further state that a
documentary stands out from the other types of non-fiction films for providing an opinion, and a specific message,
along with the facts it presents.[3]
Documentary Practice is the complex process of creating documentary projects. It refers to what people do with
media devices, content, form, and production strategies in order to address the creative, ethical, and conceptual
problems and choices that arise as they make documentaries.
Documentary film 320

There are clear connections in terms of practice with magazine and newspaper feature-writing and indeed to
non-fiction literature. Many of the generic forms of documentary, for example the biopic or profile; or the
observational piece. These generic forms are explored on the University of Winchester Journalism Department
'features web' where 'long form journalism' is classified by genre or content, rather than in terms of production as
film, radio or 'print'.[4]

History

Pre-1900
Early film (pre-1900) was dominated by the novelty of showing an event. They were single-shot moments captured
on film: a train entering a station, a boat docking, or factory workers leaving work. These short films were called
"actuality" films; the term "documentary" was not coined until 1926. Very little storytelling took place before the
twentieth century. Many of the first films, such as those made by Auguste and Louis Lumière, were a minute or less
in length, due to technological limitations.
Films showing many people (e.g., leaving a factory) were often made for commercial reasons: the people being
filmed were eager to see, for payment, the film showing them. One notable film clocked in at over an hour and a
half, The Corbett-Fitzsimmons Fight. Using pioneering film-looping technology, Enoch J. Rector presented the
entirety of a famous 1897 prize-fight on cinema screens across the country.
The French surgeon Eugène-Louis Doyen started a series of surgical films sometime before July 1898. Until 1906,
the year of his last film, Doyen recorded more than 60 operations. As Doyen said that his first films taught him how
to correct professional errors he had been unaware of. For scientific purposes, after 1906 Doyen combined 15 of his
films into three compilations, two of which survive, the six-film series Extirpation des tumeurs encapsulées (1906),
and the four-film Les Opérations sur la cavité crânienne (1911). These and five other of Doyen's films survive.[5]
Between July 1898 and 1901 the Romanian professor Gheorghe
Marinescu made several science films in his neurology clinic in
Bucharest:[6] The walking troubles of organic hemiplegy (1898), The
walking troubles of organic paraplegies (1899), A case of hysteric
hemiplegy healed through hypnosis (1899), The walking troubles of
progressive locomotion ataxy (1900) and Illnesses of the muscles
(1901). All these short films have been preserved. The professor called
his works "studies with the help of the cinematograph", and published
the results, along with several consecutive frames, in issues of "La
Frame from one of Marinescu's science films
Semaine Médicale" magazine from Paris, between 1899 and 1902.[7] In
(1899).
1924, Auguste Lumiere recognized the merits of Marinescu's science
films: "I've seen your scientific reports about the usage of the
cinematograph in studies of nervous illnesses, when I was still receiving "La Semaine Médicale", but back then I had
other concerns, which left me no spare time to begin biological studies. I must say I forgot those works and I am
thankful to you that you reminded them to me. Unfortunately, not many scientists have followed your way."[8] [9] [10]
{
Documentary film 321

1900-1920
Travelogue films were very popular in the early part of the 20th century. Some were known as "scenics". Scenics
were among the most popular sort of films at the time.[11] An important early film to move beyond the concept of the
scenic was In the Land of the Head Hunters (1914), which embraced primitivism and exoticism in a staged story
presented as truthful re-enactments of the life of Native Americans.
Early color motion picture processes such as Kinemacolor and Prizmacolor used travelogues to promote the new
color process. (In contrast, Technicolor concentrated primarily on getting their process adopted by Hollywood
studios for fictional feature films.)
Also during this period Frank Hurley's documentary film, South (1919), about the Imperial Trans-Antarctic
Expedition, was released. It documented the failed Antarctic expedition led by Ernest Shackleton in 1914.

1920s

Romanticism

With Robert J. Flaherty's Nanook of the North in 1922, documentary

film embraced romanticism; Flaherty went on to film a number of
heavily staged romantic films, usually showing how his subjects would
have lived 100 years earlier and not how they lived right then. For
instance, in Nanook of the North Flaherty did not allow his subjects to
shoot a walrus with a nearby shotgun, but had them use a harpoon
instead. Some of Flaherty's staging, such as building a roofless igloo
for interior shots, was done to accommodate the filming technology of
the time.

Paramount Pictures tried to repeat the success of Flaherty's Nanook and

Moana with two romanticized documentaries, Grass (1925) and Chang
(1927), both directed by Merian Cooper and Ernest Schoedsack.

The city symphony

The continental, or realist, tradition focused on humans within

human-made environments, and included the so-called "city
symphony" films such as Walter Ruttmann's Berlin, Symphony of a Nanook of the North poster.
[12]
City (of which Grierson noted in an article that Berlin represented
what a documentary should not be), Alberto Cavalcanti's Rien que les heures, and Dziga Vertov's Man with the
Movie Camera. These films tend to feature people as products of their environment, and lean towards the
avant-garde.
Documentary film 322

Kino-Pravda
Dziga Vertov was central to the Soviet Kino-Pravda (literally, "cinematic truth") newsreel series of the 1920s.
Vertov believed the camera — with its varied lenses, shot-counter shot editing, time-lapse, ability to slow motion,
stop motion and fast-motion — could render reality more accurately than the human eye, and made a film
philosophy out of it.

Newsreel tradition
The newsreel tradition is important in documentary film; newsreels were also sometimes staged but were usually
re-enactments of events that had already happened, not attempts to steer events as they were in the process of
happening. For instance, much of the battle footage from the early 20th century was staged; the cameramen would
usually arrive on site after a major battle and re-enact scenes to film them.

1920s-1940s
The propagandist tradition consists of films made with the explicit purpose of persuading an audience of a point. One
of the most notorious propaganda films is Leni Riefenstahl's film Triumph of the Will (1935). Leftist filmmakers
Joris Ivens and Henri Storck directed Borinage (1931) about the Belgian coal mining region. Luis Buñuel directed a
"surrealist" documentary Las Hurdes (1933).
Pare Lorentz's The Plow That Broke the Plains (1936) and The River (1938) and Willard Van Dyke's The City (1939)
are notable New Deal productions, each presenting complex combinations of social and ecological awareness,
government propaganda, and leftist viewpoints. Frank Capra's Why We Fight (1942–1944) series was a newsreel
series in the United States, commissioned by the government to convince the U.S. public that it was time to go to
war. Constance Bennett and her husband Henri de la Falaise produced two feature length documentaries, Legong:
Dance of the Virgins (1935) filmed in Bali, and Kilou the Killer Tiger (1936) filmed in Indochina.
In Canada the Film Board, set up by John Grierson, was created for the same propaganda reasons. It also created
newsreels that were seen by their national governments as legitimate counter-propaganda to the psychological
warfare of Nazi Germany (orchestrated by Joseph Goebbels).
In Britain, a number of different filmmakers came together under John Grierson. They became known as the
Documentary Film Movement. Grierson, Alberto Cavalcanti, Harry Watt, Basil Wright, and Humphrey Jennings
amongst others succeeded in blending propaganda, information, and education with a more poetic aesthetic approach
to documentary. Examples of their work include Drifters (John Grierson), Song of Ceylon (Basil Wright), Fires Were
Started and A Diary for Timothy (Humphrey Jennings). Their work involved poets such as W. H. Auden, composers
such as Benjamin Britten, and writers such as J. B. Priestley. Among the best known films of the movement are
Night Mail and Coal Face.

1950s-1970s

Cinéma-vérité
Cinéma vérité (or the closely related direct cinema) was dependent on some technical advances in order to exist:
light, quiet and reliable cameras, and portable sync sound.
Cinéma vérité and similar documentary traditions can thus be seen, in a broader perspective, as a reaction against
studio-based film production constraints. Shooting on location, with smaller crews, would also happen in the French
New Wave, the filmmakers taking advantage of advances in technology allowing smaller, handheld cameras and
synchronized sound to film events on location as they unfolded.
Although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there are important differences between cinéma vérité (Jean
Rouch) and the North American "Direct Cinema" (or more accurately "Cinéma direct"), pioneered by, among others,
Canadians Allan King, Michel Brault and Pierre Perrault, and Americans Robert Drew, Richard Leacock, Frederick
Documentary film 323

Wiseman and Albert and David Maysles.

The directors of the movement take different viewpoints on their degree of involvement with their subjects. Kopple
and Pennebaker, for instance, choose non-involvement (or at least no overt involvement), and Perrault, Rouch,
Koenig, and Kroitor favor direct involvement or even provocation when they deem it necessary.
The films Primary and Crisis: Behind a Presidential Commitment (both produced by Robert Drew), Harlan County,
USA (directed by Barbara Kopple), Dont Look Back (D. A. Pennebaker), Lonely Boy (Wolf Koenig and Roman
Kroitor), Chronicle of a Summer (Jean Rouch) and Golden Gloves (Gilles Groulx)[13] [14] are all frequently deemed
cinéma vérité films.
The fundamentals of the style include following a person during a crisis with a moving, often handheld, camera to
capture more personal reactions. There are no sit-down interviews, and the shooting ratio (the amount of film shot to
the finished product) is very high, often reaching 80 to one. From there, editors find and sculpt the work into a film.
The editors of the movement — such as Werner Nold [15], Charlotte Zwerin, Muffie Myers, Susan Froemke, and
Ellen Hovde — are often overlooked, but their input to the films was so vital that they were often given co-director
credits.
Famous cinéma vérité/direct cinema films include Les Raquetteurs,[16] Showman, Salesman, Near Death, The
Children Were Watching, and Grey Gardens.

Political weapons
In the 1960s and 1970s, documentary film was often conceived as a political weapon against neocolonialism and
capitalism in general, especially in Latin America, but also in a changing Quebec society. La Hora de los hornos
(The Hour of the Furnaces, from 1968), directed by Octavio Getino and Fernando E. Solanas, influenced a whole
generation of filmmakers.

Modern documentaries
Box office analysts have noted that this film genre has become
increasingly successful in theatrical release with films such as
Fahrenheit 9/11, Super Size Me, Earth, March of the Penguins,
and An Inconvenient Truth among the most prominent
examples. Compared to dramatic narrative films,
documentaries typically have far lower budgets which makes
them attractive to film companies because even a limited
theatrical release can be highly profitable.

The nature of documentary films has expanded in the past 20

years from the cinema verité style introduced in the 1960s in
One of 150 DV cameras used by Iraqis to film themselves
which the use of portable camera and sound equipment allowed
and create the 2004 film Voices of Iraq.
an intimate relationship between filmmaker and subject. The
line blurs between documentary and narrative and some works
are very personal, such as the late Marlon Riggs's Tongues Untied (1989) and Black Is...Black Ain't (1995), which
mix expressive, poetic, and rhetorical elements and stresses subjectivities rather than historical materials.[17]
Historical documentaries, such as the landmark 14-hour Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years (1986 - Part
1 and 1989 - Part 2) by Henry Hampton, Four Little Girls (1997) by Spike Lee, and The Civil War by Ken Burns,
UNESCO awarded independent film on slavery 500 Years Later, expressed not only a distinctive voice but also a
perspective and point of views. Some films such as The Thin Blue Line by Errol Morris incorporated stylized
re-enactments, and Michael Moore's Roger & Me placed far more interpretive control with the director. The
Documentary film 324

commercial success of these documentaries may derive from this narrative shift in the documentary form, leading
some critics to question whether such films can truly be called documentaries; critics sometimes refer to these works
as "mondo films" or "docu-ganda."[18] However, directorial manipulation of documentary subjects has been noted
since the work of Flaherty, and may be endemic to the form.
Although the increasing popularity of the documentary genre, and the advent of DVDs, has made documentaries
financially more viable, funding for documentary film production remains elusive. Within the past decade the largest
exhibition opportunities have emerged from within the broadcast market, making filmmakers beholden to the tastes
and influences of the broadcasters who have become their largest funding source.[19]
Modern documentaries have some overlap with television forms, with the development of "reality television" that
occasionally verges on the documentary but more often veers to the fictional or staged. The making-of documentary
shows how a movie or a computer game was produced. Usually made for promotional purposes, it is closer to an
advertisement than a classic documentary.
Modern lightweight digital video cameras and computer-based editing have greatly aided documentary makers, as
has the dramatic drop in equipment prices. The first film to take full advantage of this change was Martin Kunert and
Eric Manes' Voices of Iraq, where 150 DV cameras were sent to Iraq during the war and passed out to Iraqis to
record themselves.

Documentaries without words

Films in the documentary form without words have been made. From 1982, the Qatsi trilogy and the similar Baraka
could be described as visual tone poems, with music related to the images, but no spoken content. Koyaanisqatsi
(part of the Qatsi trilogy) consists primarily of slow motion and time-lapse photography of cities and many natural
landscapes across the United States. Baraka tries to capture the great pulse of humanity as it flocks and swarms in
daily activity and religious ceremonies.
Bodysong was made in 2003 and won a British Independent Film Award for "Best British Documentary".
The 2004 film Genesis shows animal and plant life in states of expansion, decay, lovemaking, and death, with some,
but little, narration.

Other documentary forms

Compilation films
Compilation films were pioneered in 1927 by Esfir Schub with The Fall of the Romanov Dynasty. More recent
examples include Point of Order (1964), directed by Emile de Antonio about the McCarthy hearings and The Atomic
Cafe which is made entirely out of found footage that various agencies of the U.S. government made about the safety
of nuclear radiation (e.g., telling troops at one point that it's safe to be irradiated as long as they keep their eyes and
mouths shut). Similarly, The Last Cigarette combines the testimony of various tobacco company executives before
the U.S. Congress with archival propaganda extolling the virtues of smoking.
Documentary film 325

See also
• Animated documentary
• Concert film
• Docudrama
• Docufiction
• Documentary mode
• Documentary Practice
• Ethnofiction
• Ethnographic film
• Lists of directors and producers of documentaries
• List of documentaries
• List of motion picture-related topics
• Mockumentary
• Mondo film
• Nature documentary
• Political Cinema
• Reality film
• Rockumentary
• Travel documentary
• Visual anthropology
• Women's Cinema

Documentary film festivals

• EIDF (EBS International Documentary Festival) - Since 2004, Hosted by Korea(Republic of,) - http://www.
eidf.org/

Documentary Film Awards

• Academy Award for Documentary Feature
• Joris Ivens Award, International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam (IDFA), (named after Joris Ivens)
• Doc Mogul award, Hot Docs
• Grand Prize Visions du Réel
• Golden Dove award, International Leipzig Festival for Documentary and Animated Film *Channel 4 Sheffield
Pitch
• Spanish Prix Jean Vigo awarded to the best director at the Punto de Vista Documentary International Film
Festival of Navarra
• The International Health and Medical Media Awards - The Freddie[20]
• David L. Wopler Student Documentary Award by the International Documentary Association
• Angelus Student Film Awards [21]
Documentary film 326

Sources and bibliography

• Aitken, Ian (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Documentary Film. New York: Routledge, 2005. ISBN 1-57958-445-4.
• Barnouw, Erik. Documentary: A History of the Non-Fiction Film, 2nd rev. ed. New York: Oxford University
Press, 1993. ISBN 0-19-507898-5. Still a useful introduction.
• Bernard, Sheila Curran. Documentary Storytelling, 2nd ed.: Making Stronger and More Dramatic Nonfiction
Films. Burlington, MA: Focal Press, 2007. [22]
• Bernard, Sheila Curran and Kenn Rabin. Archival Storytelling: A Filmmakers Guide to Finding, Using, and
Licensing Third-Party Visuals and Music. Burlington, MA: Focal Press, 2008. [23]
• Burton, Julianne (ed.). The Social Documentary in Latin America. Pittsburgh, Penn.: University of Pittsburgh
Press, 1990. ISBN 0-8229-3621-6.
• Dawson, Jonathan. "Dziga Vertov" [24].
• Ellis, Jack C., and Betsy A. McLane. "A New History of Documentary Film". New York: Continuum
International, 2005. ISBN 0-8264-1750-7, ISBN 0-8264-1751-5.
• Goldsmith, David A. The Documentary Makers: Interviews with 15 of the Best in the Business. Hove, East
Sussex: RotoVision, 2003. ISBN 2-88046-730-6.
• Klotman, Phyllis R. and Culter, Janet K.(eds.). Struggles for Representation - African American Documentary
Film and Video Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-253-21347-9.
• Leach, Jim, and Jeannette Sloniowski (eds.). Candid Eyes: Essays on Canadian Documentaries. Toronto;
Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8020-4732-7, ISBN 0-8020-8299-8.
• Nichols, Bill. Introduction to Documentary, Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 2001. ISBN
0-253-33954-5, ISBN 0-253-21469-6.
• Nichols, Bill. Representing Reality: Issues and Concepts in Documentary. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University
Press, 1991. ISBN 0-253-34060-8, ISBN 0-253-20681-2.
• Nornes, Markus. Forest of Pressure: Ogawa Shinsuke and Postwar Japanese Documentary. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press, 2007. ISBN 0-8166-4907-3, ISBN 0-8166-4908-1.
• Nornes, Markus. Japanese Documentary Film: The Meiji Era through Hiroshima. Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8166-4045-9, ISBN 0-8166-4046-7.
• Rotha, Paul, Documentary diary; An Informal History of the British Documentary Film, 1928-1939. New York:
Hill and Wang, 1973. ISBN 0-8090-3933-8.
• Saunders, Dave. Direct Cinema: Observational Documentary and the Politics of the Sixties. London: Wallflower
Press, 2007. ISBN 1-905674-16-3, ISBN 1-905674-15-5.
• Saunders, Dave. Documentary: The Routledge Film Guidebook. London: Routledge, 2010.
• Tobias, Michael. The Search for Reality - the Art of Documentary Filmmaking. Studio City, CA: Michael Wiese
Productions 1997. ISBN0-941188-62-0
• Walker, Janet, and Diane Waldeman (eds.). Feminism and Documentary. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota
Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8166-3006-2, ISBN 0-8166-3007-0.
• Wyver, John. The Moving Image: An International History of Film, Television & Radio. Oxford: Basil Blackwell
Ltd. in association with the British Film Institute, 1989. ISBN 0-631-15529-5.
• Murdoch.edu [25], Documentary – reading list
Documentary film 327

Ethnographic film
• Emilie de Brigard, "The History of Ethnographic Film", in Principles of Visual Anthropology, ed. Paul Hockings.
Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1995, pp. 13–43.
• Leslie Devereaux, "Cultures, Disciplines, Cinemas", in Fields of Vision. Essays in Film Studies, Visual
Anthropology and Photography, ed. Leslie Devereaux & Roger Hillman. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1995, pp. 329–339.
• Faye Ginsburg, Lila Abu-Lughod and Brian Larkin (eds.), Media Worlds: Anthropology on New Terrain.
Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-520-23231-0.
• Anna Grimshaw, The Ethnographer’s Eye: Ways of Seeing in Modern Anthropology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0-521-77310-2.
• Karl G. Heider, Ethnographic Film. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994.
• Luc de Heusch, Cinéma et Sciences Sociales, Paris: UNESCO, 1962. Published in English as The Cinema and
Social Science. A Survey of Ethnographic and Sociological Films. UNESCO, 1962.
• Frederic Jameson, Signatures of the Visible. New York & London: Routledge, 1990.
• Pierre-L. Jordan, Premier Contact-Premier Regard, Marseille: Musées de Marseille. Images en Manoeuvres
Editions, 1992.
• André Leroi-Gourhan, "Cinéma et Sciences Humaines. Le Film Ethnologique Existe-t-il?", Revue de Géographie
Humaine et d'Ethnologie 3 (1948), pp. 42–50.
• David MacDougall, Transcultural Cinema. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998. ISBN
978-0-691-01234-6.
• David MacDougall, "Whose Story Is It?", in Ethnographic Film Aesthetics and Narrative Traditions, ed. Peter I.
Crawford and Jan K. Simonsen. Aarhus, Intervention Press, 1992, pp. 25–42.
• Fatimah Tobing Rony, The Third Eye: Race, Cinema and Ethnographic Spectacle. Durham, NC: Duke University
Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0-8223-1840-8.
• Georges Sadoul, Histoire Générale du Cinéma. Vol. 1, L'Invention du Cinéma 1832-1897. Paris: Denöel, 1977,
pp. 73–110.
• Pierre Sorlin, Sociologie du Cinéma, Paris: Aubier Montaigne, 1977, pp. 7–74.
• Charles Warren, "Introduction, with a Brief History of Nonfiction Film", in Beyond Document. Essays on
Nonfiction Film, ed. Charles Warren. Hanover and London: Wesleyan University Press, 1996, pp. 1–22.
• Ismail Xavier, "Cinema: Revelação e Engano", in O Olhar, ed. Adauto Novaes. São Paulo: Companhia das
Letras, 1993, pp. 367–384.

External links
• Berkeley.edu [26], Documentary Classics - Videography of essential documentary films via UC Berkeley Media
Resources Center
• DFGdocs.com [27], The Documentary Filmmakers Group, UK's largest documentary organisation
• Documentary Films.net [28], news, reviews, and filmmaker resources
• Documentary.org [29], International Documentary Association
Documentary film 328

References
[1] Nichols, Bill. 'Foreword', in Barry Keith Grant and Jeannette Sloniowski (eds.) Documenting The Documentary: Close Readings of
Documentary Film and Video. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1997
[2] Pare Lorentz Film Library - FDR and Film (http:/ / parelorentzcenter. net/ fdr_film. php)
[3] Larry Ward (Fall 2008). Introduction (http:/ / www. commfaculty. fullerton. edu/ lward/ 375/ PDF375/ 375INTRO. pdf). Lecture Notes for
the BA in Radio-TV-Film (RTVF). 375: Documentary Film & Television. California State University, Fullerton (College of
communications). p. 4, slide 12.
[4] University of Winchester Journalism Department - Feature Writing and Documentary Making (http:/ / journalism. winchester. ac. uk/
?page=299)
[5] Journal of Film Preservation, nr. 70, november 2005.
[6] Dumitrescu, Mircea, O privire critică asupra filmului românesc, Bucharest, 2005, ISBN 973-9153-93-3
[7] Rîpeanu, Bujor T. Filmul documentar 1897-1948, Bucharest, 2008, ISBN 978-973-7839-40-4
[8] Ţuţui, Marian, A short history of the Romanian films (http:/ / www. cncinema. abt. ro/ Files/ Documents/ fls-258. doc) at the Romanian
National Cinematographic Center.
[9] The Works of Gheorghe Marinescu (http:/ / www. britishpathe. com/ record. php?id=71342), 1967 report.
[10] Excerpts of prof. dr. Marinescu's science films (http:/ / www. cncinema. abt. ro/ Files/ Movies/ fls-271. avi).
[11] Miriam Hansen, Babel and Babylon: Spectatorship in American Silent Film, 2005.
[12] Grierson, John. 'First Principles of Documentary', in Kevin Macdonald & Mark Cousins (eds.) Imagining Reality: The Faber Book of
Documentary. London: Faber and Faber, 1996
[13] NFB.ca (http:/ / www. nfb. ca/ trouverunfilm/ fichefilm. php?id=541& v=h& lg=fr& exp=6740), Golden Gloves - ONF - Collection
[14] NFB.ca (http:/ / www. nfb. ca/ trouverunfilm/ player. php?v=h& lg=fr& vitesse=200& url=http:/ / cmm. onf. ca/ extraits/ e541_ec. ram)
[15] http:/ / www. nfb. ca/ portraits/ fiche. php?id=287& v=h& lg=en
[16] Les raquetteurs - NFB - Collection (http:/ / www. nfb. ca/ trouverunfilm/ fichefilm. php?id=54008& v=h& lg=en)
[17] Struggles for Representation African American Documentary Film and Video, edited by Phyllis R. Klotman and Janet K. Cutler,
[18] Wood, Daniel B. (2 June 2006). "In 'docu-ganda' films, balance is not the objective" (http:/ / www. csmonitor. com/ 2006/ 0602/
p01s02-ussc. html). Christian Science Monitor. . Retrieved 2006-06-06.
[19] IndieWire.com (http:/ / 72. 14. 209. 104/ search?q=cache:Uzn48Iw0L2sJ:www. indiewire. com/ ots/ fes_01Sund_010208_Docs. html+
theatrical+ distribution+ documentary& hl=en& ct=clnk& cd=1& gl=us), "Festivals: Post-Sundance 2001; Docs Still Face Financing and
Distribution Challenges". February 8, 2001.
[20] (http:/ / www. thefreddies. com/ )
[21] (http:/ / www. angelus. org/ about-introduction. html)
[22] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ dp/ 0240808754
[23] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ dp/ 0240809734
[24] http:/ / www. sensesofcinema. com/ contents/ directors/ 03/ vertov. html
[25] http:/ / wwwmcc. murdoch. edu. au/ ReadingRoom/ doco/ biblio. htm
[26] http:/ / www. lib. berkeley. edu/ MRC/ documentaryclassics. html
[27] http:/ / www. dfgdocs. com/
[28] http:/ / www. documentaryfilms. net/
[29] http:/ / www. documentary. org/
Ergodic literature 329

Ergodic literature
Ergodic literature is a term coined by Espen J. Aarseth in his book Cybertext—Perspectives on Ergodic Literature,
and is derived from the Greek words ergon, meaning "work", and hodos, meaning "path". The most commonly cited
definition of ergodic is from pages 1–2 of Aarseth's book:
In ergodic literature, nontrivial effort is required to allow the reader to traverse the text. If ergodic
literature is to make sense as a concept, there must also be nonergodic literature, where the effort to
traverse the text is trivial, with no extranoematic responsibilities placed on the reader except (for
example) eye movement and the periodic or arbitrary turning of pages.
Cybertext is a subcategory of ergodic literature that Aarseth defines as "texts that involve calculation in their
production of scriptons"(Cybertext, page 75). The process of reading printed matter, in contrast, involves "trivial"
extranoematic effort, that is, merely moving one's eyes along lines of text and turning pages. Thus, hypertext fiction
of the simple node and link variety is ergodic literature but not cybertext. A non-trivial effort is required for the
reader to traverse the text, as the reader must constantly select which link to follow, but a link, when clicked, will
always lead to the same node. A chat bot such as ELIZA is a cybertext because when the reader types in a sentence,
the text-machine actually performs calculations on the fly that generate a textual response (ELIZA is categorised as a
cybertext on page 75 and in figure 3.2). The I Ching is likewise a cybertext because it contains the rules for its own
reading. The reader actually carries out the calculation, but the rules are clearly embedded in the text itself. It has
been argued that these distinctions are not entirely clear, and scholars still debate the fine points of the definitions of
ergodic literature and cybertext. [1]
One of the major innovations of the concept of ergodic literature is that it is not medium-specific. New media
researchers have tended to focus on the medium of the text, stressing that it is for instance paper-based or electronic.
Aarseth broke with this basic assumption that the medium was the most important distinction, and argued that the
mechanics of texts need not be medium-specific. Ergodic literature is not defined by medium, but by the way in
which the text functions. Thus, both paper-based and electronic texts can be ergodic: "The ergodic work of art is one
that in a material sense includes the rules for its own use, a work that has certain requirements built in that
automatically distinguishes between successful and unsuccessful users." (Cybertext, p 179)
The examples Aarseth gives include a diverse group of texts: wall inscriptions of the temples in ancient Egypt that
are connected two-dimensionally (on one wall) or three dimensionally (from wall to wall or room to room); the I
Ching; Apollinaire’s “calligrammes” in which the words of the poem “are spread out in several directions to form a
picture on the page, with no clear sequence in which to be read”; Ayn Rand’s play "Night of January 16th", in which
members of the audience form a jury that chooses one of two endings; Marc Saporta’s Composition No. 1, Roman,
which is a novel with shuffleable pages; Raymond Queneau’s One Hundred Thousand Billion Poems; B. S.
Johnson’s The Unfortunates; Milorad Pavic’s Landscape Painted with Tea; Joseph Weizenbaum’s ELIZA; Will
Crowther and Don Woods’s Adventure; James Meehan’s Tale-spin; William Chamberlain and Thomas Etter’s Racter;
Michael Joyce’s afternoon: a story; Roy Trubshaw and Richard Bartle’s Multi-User Dungeon (aka MUD1); and
James Aspnes’s TinyMUD. With the exception of Tale-spin, where a program generates a linear text, all these
examples can be said to require non-trivial effort from the reader, who must participate actively in the construction
of the text. It has been argued that the effort required to read Apollinaire's calligrammes is not [1].
The concepts of cybertext and ergodic literature were of seminal importance to new media studies, in particular
literary approaches to digital texts and to game studies.
Ergodic literature 330

See also
• Electronic literature
• Digital poetry
• Fighting Fantasy
• Interactive fiction
• Cybertext

References
[1] http:/ / grandtextauto. gatech. edu/ 2005/ 08/ 12/ clarifying-ergodic-and-cybertext

Editing
Editing is the process of selecting and preparing language, images, sound, video, or film through processes of
correction, condensation, organization, and other modifications in various media. A person who edits is called an
editor. In a sense, the editing process originates with the idea for the work itself and continues in the relationship
between the author and the editor. Editing is, therefore, also a practice that includes creative skills, human relations,
and a precise set of methods.[1] [2]

Print media
There are various editorial positions in publishing. Typically, one finds junior editorial assistants reporting to the
senior-level editorial staff and directors who report to senior executive editors. Senior executive editors are
responsible for developing a product to its final release. The smaller the publication, the more these roles run
together.
Copy editors correct spelling, grammar, and matters of house style. At newspapers and wire services, they also write
headlines and work on more-substantive issues, such as accuracy, fairness and taste. In some positions, they design
pages and select of news stories for inclusion. At UK and Australian newspapers, the term is "sub-editor." They may
choose the layout of the publication and communicate with the printer—a production editor. This and similar jobs
are also called "layout editor," "design editor," "news designer," or—more so in the past—"makeup editor."
Midlevel newspaper editors often manage or help manage sections, such as business, sports and features. In U.S.
newspapers, the level below the top editor usually is the managing editor.
The title of the top editor at many publications may be called an "editor-in-chief," "executive editor" or just "editor."
Frequent and esteemed contributors to a magazine may acquire a title of editor at-large or contributing editor (See
below.)
In the book publishing industry, editors organize anthologies and other compilations, produce definitive editions of a
classic author's works ("scholarly editor"); and organize and manage contributions to a multi-author book
(symposium editor or volume editor). Finding marketable ideas and presenting them to appropriate authors are the
responsibility of a sponsoring editor. Obtaining copy or recruiting authors such as: an acquisitions editor or a
commissioning editor for a publishing house.
Improving an author's writing so that they indeed say what they mean to say in an effective manner is substantive
editing. Depending on the writer's competence, this editing can sometimes turn into ghost writing. Substantive
editing is seldom a title. Many types of editors do this type of work, either in-house at a publisher or on an
independent basis.
Changes to the publishing industry since the 1980s have resulted in nearly all copy editing of book manuscripts
being outsourced to freelance copy editors.
Editing 331

Light edits, heavy edits, and derivative works

A "light edit" otherwise known as a '"minor change" may be regarded as changes that do not substantively change
the theme, typefacing, tone, structure, characters, or other elements of intellectual property that are held by the
author. Such changes would include spelling, or grammar in a way that does not deviate from the author's use of,
say, non-standard grammar or speech patterns.
A "heavy edit" may change substantively the tone, structure, characters, or other elements of intellectual property
contained in the work.

Executive editor
The top editor sometimes has the title executive editor or editor-in-chief. This person is generally responsible for the
content of the publication. An exception is that large newspapers usually have a separate editor for the editorials and
opinion pages to separate news reporting and editorial content.
The executive editor sets the publication standards for performance, as well as for motivating and developing the
staff. The executive editor is also responsible for developing and maintaining the publication budget. In concert with
the publisher and the operating committee, the executive editor is responsible for strategic and operational planning.
The executive editor is effectively the head of the newspaper and has considerable influence on its content.

Periodicals
Editors at newspapers supervise journalists and improve their work. Newspaper editing encompasses a variety of
titles and functions. These include:
• Copy editors
• Department editors
• Managing editors and assistant or deputy managing editors (the managing editor is often second in line after the
top editor)
• News editors, who oversee the news desks
• Photo or picture editors
• Section editors and their assistants, such as for business, features, and sports
• Editorial Page Editor who oversees the coverage on the editorial page. This includes chairing the Editorial Board
and assigning editorial writing responsibilities. The editorial page editor may also oversee the op-ed page or those
duties are assigned to a separate op-ed editor.
• Top editors, who may be called editor in chief, executive editor or sometimes just editor
• Readers' editors, sometimes known as the ombudsman, who arbitrate complaints
• Wire editors, who choose and edit articles from various international wire services, and are usually part of the
copy desk
• Administrative editors (who actually don't edit but perform duties such as recruiting and directing training)
The term city editor is used differently in North America and South America, where it refers to the editor responsible
for the news coverage of a newspaper's local circulation area (also sometimes called metro editor), than in the United
Kingdom, where it refers to the editor responsible for coverage of business in the City of London and, by extension,
coverage of business and finance in general.
Editing 332

Scholarly books and journals

Editors of scholarly books and journals are of three types, each with particular responsibilities: the acquisitions
editor (or commissioning editor in Britain), who contracts with the author to produce the copy, the project editor or
production editor, who sees the copy through its stages from manuscript through bound book and usually assumes
most of the budget and schedule responsibilities, and the copy editor or manuscript editor, who performs the tasks of
readying the copy for conversion into printed form.
The primary difference between copy editing scholarly books and journals and other sorts of copy editing lies in
applying the standards of the publisher to the copy. Most scholarly publishers have a preferred style guide, usually a
combination of Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary and: (a) either the Chicago Manual of Style, the MLA Style
Manual, or the APA Publication Manual in the US; or (b) the New Hart's Rules in the UK. The New Hart's Rules are
based on "Hart's Rules for Compositors and Readers", published by the University Press, Oxford (1893). Since
scholars often have strong preferences, very often a publisher will adopt different styles for different fields. For
instance, psychologists prefer the APA style, while linguists might prefer the MLA style. These guidelines offer
sound advice on making cited sources complete and correct and making the presentation scholarly.

Technical editing
Technical editing involves reviewing text written on a technical topic, and identifying errors related to the use of
language in general or adherence to a specific style guide.
Technical editing may include any of the following: correction of grammatical mistakes, misspellings, mistyping,
incorrect punctuation, inconsistencies in usages, poorly structured sentences, wrong scientific terms, wrong units and
dimensions, inconsistency in significant figures, technical ambivalence, technical disambiguation, correction of
statements conflicting with general scientific knowledge, correction of synopsis, content, index, headings and
subheadings, correcting data and chart presentation in a research paper or report, correcting errors in citations.
This activity ensures that documentation is of good quality. In large companies, experienced writers are dedicated to
the technical editing function. In organizations that cannot afford dedicated editors, experienced writers typically
peer-edit text produced by their relatively less experienced colleagues.
It helps if the technical editor is familiar with the subject being edited, but that is not always essential. The
"technical" knowledge that an editor gains over time while working on a particular product or technology does give
the editor an edge over another who has just started editing content related to that product or technology. In the long
run, however, the skills that really matter are attention to detail, the ability to sustain focus while working through
lengthy pieces of text on complex topics, tact in dealing with writers, and excellent communication skills.
Revising is also another form of editing. It is looking for awkward sentences, run-on sentences, and in general parts
of the paper that don't make sense to the editor. Usually the writer revises his/her copy before turning it in.
A number of standards and tools (such as XML editors) have been elaborated for the editing of technical documents
such as
• Darwin Information Typing Architecture (DITA).
• DocBook
Editing 333

Business editing
Businesses and nonprofit organizations often use editors, who may be employees of a company, individual
contractors working on site at a client's office or independently off-site, or employees or partners in a specialized
copywriting agency. Working with writers inside or outside the business, such editors provide services such as
proofreading, copy editing, line editing, developmental editing, editing for search engine optimization (SEO), etc.

See also
• Editor (disambiguation)
• Audio editing
• Film editing
• Society for Editors and Proofreaders (in the UK)
• Video editing

External links
• American Copy Editors Society [3]
• "Black day for the blue pencil" [4]- The Guardian, August 6, 2005 by Blake Morrison
• Editorial Freelancers Association [5] (USA)
• Society for Editors and Proofreaders [6] (UK)
• Technical Editing special interest group (SIG) [7] of the Society for Technical Communication (STC)
• Writer Beware of Independent Editors and Manuscript Assessment Services [8]

References
[1] "Encarta Dictionary definition of "editing"." (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5kwbaCYwg). Archived from the original (http:/ / encarta. msn.
com/ dictionary_/ editing. html) on 2009-10-31. .
[2] "Encarta Dictionary definition of "editor"." (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5kwbaiWpi). Archived from the original (http:/ / encarta. msn.
com/ dictionary_/ editor. html) on 2009-10-31. .
[3] http:/ / www. copydesk. org
[4] http:/ / books. guardian. co. uk/ review/ story/ 0,12084,1542959,00. html
[5] http:/ / www. the-efa. org
[6] http:/ / www. sfep. org. uk
[7] http:/ / www. stc-techedit. org
[8] http:/ / www. sfwa. org/ for-authors/ writer-beware/ editors/
Leaf 334

Leaf
In botany, a leaf is an above-ground plant organ specialized for
photosynthesis. For this purpose, a leaf is typically flat (laminar)
and thin. As an evolutionary trait, the flatness of leaves works to
expose the chloroplasts to more light and to increase the
absorption of carbon dioxide at the expense of water loss. In the
Devonian period, when carbon dioxide concentration was at
several times its present value, plants did not have leaves or flat
stems. Many bryophytes have flat, photosynthetic organs, but
these are not true leaves. Neither are the microphylls of
lycophytes. The leaves of ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms
are variously referred to as macrophyll, megaphylls, or euphylls.

Leaves are also the sites in most plants where transpiration and
guttation take place. Leaves can store food and water, and are
modified in some plants for other purposes. The comparable
structures of ferns are correctly referred to as fronds. Furthermore,
leaves are prominent in the human diet as leaf vegetables.

The leaves of a Beech tree

Anatomy
A structurally complete leaf of an angiosperm consists of a petiole (leaf
stalk), a lamina (leaf blade), and stipules (small processes located to
either side of the base of the petiole). The petiole attaches to the stem
at a point called the "leaf axil." Not every species produces leaves with
all of the aforementioned structural components. In certain species,
paired stipules are not obvious or are absent altogether. A petiole may
be absent, or the blade may not be laminar (flattened). The tremendous
variety shown in leaf structure (anatomy) from species to species is
presented in detail below under Leaf morphology. Periodically (i.e.
seasonally, during the autumn), deciduous trees shed their leaves.
These leaves then decompose into the soil.

A leaf is considered a plant organ and typically consists of the Leaf in autumn.

following tissues:
1. An epidermis that covers the upper and lower surfaces
2. An interior chlorenchyma called the mesophyll
3. An arrangement of veins (the vascular tissue)
Leaf 335

Cross section of a leaf

Leaf 336

Epidermis
The epidermis is the outer layer of cells covering the leaf. It forms the
boundary separating the plant's inner cells from the external world. The
epidermis serves several functions: protection against water loss by
way of transpiration, regulation of gas exchange, secretion of
metabolic compounds, and (in some species) absorption of water. Most
leaves show dorsoventral anatomy: the upper (adaxial) and lower
(abaxial) surfaces have somewhat different construction and may serve
different functions.

The epidermis is usually transparent (epidermal cells lack chloroplasts)

and coated on the outer side with a waxy cuticle that prevents water
loss. The cuticle is in some cases thinner on the lower epidermis than
on the upper epidermis, and is thicker on leaves from dry climates as
compared with those from wet climates.

Epidermal cells

The epidermis tissue includes several differentiated cell types:

epidermal cells, guard cells, subsidiary cells, and epidermal hairs
(trichomes). The epidermal cells are the most numerous, largest, and
least specialized. These are typically more elongated in the leaves of
monocots than in those of dicots.
The epidermis is covered with pores called stomata, part of a stoma
complex consisting of a pore surrounded on each side by
chloroplast-containing guard cells, and two to four subsidiary cells that
lack chloroplasts. The stoma complex regulates the exchange of gases
and water vapor between the outside air and the interior of the leaf.
Typically, the stomata are more numerous over the abaxial (lower)
SEM image of Nicotiana alata leaf's epidermis, epidermis than the adaxial (upper) epidermis.
showing trichomes (hair-like appendages) and
stomata (eye-shaped slits, visible at full
resolution). Mesophyll
Most of the interior of the leaf between the upper and lower layers of
epidermis is a parenchyma (ground tissue) or chlorenchyma tissue called the mesophyll (Greek for "middle leaf").
This assimilation tissue is the primary location of photosynthesis in the plant. The products of photosynthesis are
called "assimilates".
Leaf 337

In ferns and most flowering plants the mesophyll is divided into two
layers:
• An upper palisade layer of tightly packed, vertically elongated
cells, one to two cells thick, directly beneath the adaxial epidermis.
Its cells contain many more chloroplasts than the spongy layer.
These long cylindrical cells are regularly arranged in one to five
rows. Cylindrical cells, with the chloroplasts close to the walls of
the cell, can take optimal advantage of light. The slight separation
of the cells provides maximum absorption of carbon dioxide. This
separation must be minimal to afford capillary action for water
distribution. In order to adapt to their different environment (such as
sun or shade), plants had to adapt this structure to obtain optimal
result. Sun leaves have a multi-layered palisade layer, while shade
leaves or older leaves closer to the soil, are single-layered.

Palisade cells

• Beneath the palisade layer is the spongy layer. The cells of the
spongy layer are more rounded and not so tightly packed. There are
large intercellular air spaces. These cells contain fewer chloroplasts
than those of the palisade layer.
The pores or stomata of the epidermis open into substomatal chambers,
connecting to air spaces between the spongy layer cells.
These two different layers of the mesophyll are absent in many aquatic
and marsh plants. Even an epidermis and a mesophyll may be lacking.
Instead for their gaseous exchanges they use a homogeneous
aerenchyma (thin-walled cells separated by large gas-filled spaces).
Their stomata are situated at the upper surface.
Leaves are normally green in color, which comes from chlorophyll
found in plastids in the chlorenchyma cells. Plants that lack chlorophyll
cannot photosynthesize.
Spongy cells
Leaves in temperate, boreal, and seasonally dry zones may be
seasonally deciduous (falling off or dying for the inclement season).
This mechanism to shed leaves is called abscission. After the leaf is shed, a leaf scar develops on the twig. In cold
autumns they sometimes change color, and turn yellow, bright orange or red as various accessory pigments
(carotenoids and xanthophylls) are revealed when the tree responds to cold and reduced sunlight by curtailing
chlorophyll production. Red anthocyanin pigments are now thought to be produced in the leaf as it dies, possibly to
mask the yellow hue left when the chlorophyll is lost - yellow leaves appear to attract herbivores such as aphids.[1]
Leaf 338

Veins
The veins are the vascular tissue of the leaf and are located in the
spongy layer of the mesophyll. They are typical examples of
pattern formation through ramification. The pattern of the veins is
called venation.
The veins are made up of:
• Xylem: tubes that brings water and minerals from the roots into
the leaf.
• Phloem: tubes that usually move sap, with dissolved sucrose,
produced by photosynthesis in the leaf, out of the leaf.
The xylem typically lies over the phloem. Both are embedded in a
dense parenchyma tissue, called "pith", with usually some Vein skeleton of a Hydrangea leaf
structural collenchyma tissue present.

Morphology
External leaf characteristics (such as shape, margin, hairs, etc.) are
important for identifying plant species, and botanists have
developed a rich terminology for describing leaf characteristics.
These structures are a part of what makes leaves determinant; they
grow and achieve a specific pattern and shape, then stop. Other
plant parts like stems or roots are non-determinant, and will
usually continue to grow as long as they have the resources to do
so.

Classification of leaves can occur through many different

designative schema, and the type of leaf is usually characteristic of
a species, although some species produce more than one type of
leaf. The longest type of leaf is a leaf from palm trees, measuring
at nine feet long. The terminology associated with the description
of leaf morphology is presented, in illustrated form, at Wikibooks
[2]
. The Citrus leaf is identified by the pores and pigments,
as well as the margins.
Leaf 339

Basic types
• Ferns have fronds
• Conifer leaves are typically needle-, awl-, or scale-shaped
• Angiosperm (flowering plant) leaves: the standard form
includes stipules, a petiole, and a lamina
• Lycophytes have microphyll leaves.
• Sheath leaves (type found in most grasses)
• Other specialized leaves (such as those of Nepenthes)

Arrangement on the stem

Different terms are usually used to describe leaf placement
(phyllotaxis):

Leaves of the White Spruce (Picea glauca) are

needle-shaped and their arrangement is spiral

• Alternate — leaf attachments are singular at nodes, and leaves

alternate direction, to a greater or lesser degree, along the stem.
• Opposite — Two structures, one on each opposite side of the
stem, typically leaves, branches, or flower parts. Leaf
attachments are paired at each node; decussate if, as typical,
each successive pair is rotated 90° progressing along the stem;
or distichous if not rotated, but two-ranked (in the same
geometric flat-plane).
• Whorled — three or more leaves attach at each point or node
on the stem. As with opposite leaves, successive whorls may or The leaves on this plant are arranged in pairs opposite
may not be decussate, rotated by half the angle between the one another, with successive pairs at right angles to
each other ("decussate") along the red stem. Note
leaves in the whorl (i.e., successive whorls of three rotated 60°,
developing buds in the axils of these leaves.
whorls of four rotated 45°, etc.). Opposite leaves may appear
whorled near the tip of the stem.
• Rosulate — leaves form a rosette
As a stem grows, leaves tend to appear arranged around the stem in a way that optimizes yield of light. In essence,
leaves form a helix pattern centred around the stem, either clockwise or counterclockwise, with (depending upon the
species) the same angle of divergence. There is a regularity in these angles and they follow the numbers in a
Fibonacci sequence: 1/2, 2/3, 3/5, 5/8, 8/13, 13/21, 21/34, 34/55, 55/89. This series tends to a limit close to 360° x
34/89 = 137.52 or 137° 30', an angle known mathematically as the golden angle. In the series, the numerator
indicates the number of complete turns or "gyres" until a leaf arrives at the initial position. The denominator
indicates the number of leaves in the arrangement. This can be demonstrated by the following:

• alternate leaves have an angle of 180° (or 1/2)

• 120° (or 1/3) : three leaves in one circle
• 144° (or 2/5) : five leaves in two gyres
• 135° (or 3/8) : eight leaves in three gyres.
Leaf 340

Divisions of the blade

Two basic forms of leaves can be described considering the way
the blade (lamina) is divided. A simple leaf has an undivided
blade. However, the leaf shape may be formed of lobes, but the
gaps between lobes do not reach to the main vein. A compound
leaf has a fully subdivided blade, each leaflet of the blade
separated along a main or secondary vein. Because each leaflet can
appear to be a simple leaf, it is important to recognize where the
petiole occurs to identify a compound leaf. Compound leaves are a
characteristic of some families of higher plants, such as the
Fabaceae. The middle vein of a compound leaf or a frond, when it
A leaf with laminar structure and pinnate venation
is present, is called a rachis.

• Palmately compound leaves have the leaflets radiating from the end of the petiole, like fingers off the palm of a
hand, e.g. Cannabis (hemp) and Aesculus (buckeyes).
• Pinnately compound leaves have the leaflets arranged along the main or mid-vein.
• odd pinnate: with a terminal leaflet, e.g. Fraxinus (ash).
• even pinnate: lacking a terminal leaflet, e.g. Swietenia (mahogany).
• Bipinnately compound leaves are twice divided: the leaflets are arranged along a secondary vein that is one of
several branching off the rachis. Each leaflet is called a "pinnule". The pinnules on one secondary vein are called
"pinna"; e.g. Albizia (silk tree).
• trifoliate (or trifoliolate): a pinnate leaf with just three leaflets, e.g. Trifolium (clover), Laburnum (laburnum).
• pinnatifid: pinnately dissected to the central vein, but with the leaflets not entirely separate, e.g. Polypodium,
some Sorbus (whitebeams). In pinnately veined leaves the central vein in known as the midrib.

Characteristics of the petiole

Petiolated leaves have a petiole (leaf stem). Sessile leaves do not:
the blade attaches directly to the stem. In clasping or decurrent
leaves, the blade partially or wholly surrounds the stem, often
giving the impression that the shoot grows through the leaf. When
this is actually the case, the leaves are called "perfoliate", such as
in Claytonia perfoliata. In peltate leaves, the petiole attaches to the
blade inside from the blade margin.

In some Acacia species, such as the Koa Tree (Acacia koa), the
petioles are expanded or broadened and function like leaf blades;
these are called phyllodes. There may or may not be normal
pinnate leaves at the tip of the phyllode.
The overgrown petioles of Rhubarb (Rheum
A stipule, present on the leaves of many dicotyledons, is an rhabarbarum) are edible.

appendage on each side at the base of the petiole resembling a

small leaf. Stipules may be lasting and not be shed (a stipulate leaf, such as in roses and beans), or be shed as the leaf
expands, leaving a stipule scar on the twig (an exstipulate leaf).
• The situation, arrangement, and structure of the stipules is called the "stipulation".
• free
• adnate : fused to the petiole base
• ochreate : provided with ochrea, or sheath-formed stipules, e.g. rhubarb,
Leaf 341

• encircling the petiole base

• interpetiolar : between the petioles of two opposite leaves.
• intrapetiolar : between the petiole and the subtending stem

Venation
There are two subtypes of venation, namely, craspedodromous,
where the major veins stretch up to the margin of the leaf, and
camptodromous, when major veins extend close to the margin, but
bend before they intersect with the margin.
• Feather-veined, reticulate — the veins arise pinnately from a
single mid-vein and subdivide into veinlets. These, in turn,
form a complicated network. This type of venation is typical for
(but by no means limited to) dicotyledons.
• Pinnate-netted, penniribbed, penninerved, penniveined; the
Branching veins on underside of taro leaf
leaf has usually one main vein (called the mid-vein), with
veinlets, smaller veins branching off laterally, usually
somewhat parallel to each other; e.g. Malus (apples).
• Three main veins branch at the base of the lamina and run
essentially parallel subsequently, as in Ceanothus. A similar
pattern (with 3-7 veins) is especially conspicuous in
Melastomataceae.
• Palmate-netted, palmate-veined, fan-veined; several main
veins diverge from near the leaf base where the petiole
attaches, and radiate toward the edge of the leaf; e.g. most
Acer (maples).
• Parallel-veined, parallel-ribbed, parallel-nerved, penniparallel
The venation within the bract of a Lime tree.
— veins run parallel for the length of the leaf, from the base to
the apex. Commissural veins (small veins) connect the major
parallel veins. Typical for most monocotyledons, such as
grasses.
• Dichotomous — There are no dominant bundles, with the veins
forking regularly by pairs; found in Ginkgo and some
pteridophytes.
Note that although it is the more complex pattern, branching veins
appear to be plesiomorphic and in some form were present in
ancient seed plants as long as 250 million years ago. A
pseudo-reticulate venation that is actually a highly modified
penniparallel one is an autapomorphy of some Melanthiaceae The lower epidermis of Tilia x europea
which are monocots, e.g. Paris quadrifolia (True-lover's Knot).
Leaf 342

Morphology changes within a single plant

• Homoblasty - Characteristic in which a plant has small changes
in leaf size, shape, and growth habit between juvenile and adult
stages.
• Heteroblasty - Characteristic in which a plant has marked
changes in leaf size, shape, and growth habit between juvenile
and adult stages.

Palmate-veined leaf

Terminology

Edge
• ciliate: fringed with hairs
• crenate: wavy-toothed; dentate with
rounded teeth, such as Fagus (beech)
• crenulate finely or shallowly crenate
• dentate: toothed, such as Castanea
(chestnut)
• coarse-toothed: with large teeth
• glandular toothed: with teeth that
bear glands.
• denticulate: finely toothed
• doubly toothed: each tooth bearing
smaller teeth, such as Ulmus (elm)
• entire: even; with a smooth margin;
without toothing
• lobate: indented, with the indentations
not reaching to the center, such as many Chart illustrating some leaf morphology terms

Quercus (oaks)
• palmately lobed: indented with the indentations reaching to the center, such as Humulus (hop).
• serrate: saw-toothed with asymmetrical teeth pointing forward, such as Urtica (nettle)
• serrulate: finely serrate
• sinuate: with deep, wave-like indentations; coarsely crenate, such as many Rumex (docks)
• spiny: with stiff, sharp points, such as some Ilex (hollies) and Cirsium (thistles).
Leaf 343

A portion of a celery leaf

Tip
• acuminate: long-pointed, prolonged into a narrow, tapering
point in a concave manner.
• acute: ending in a sharp, but not prolonged point
• cuspidate: with a sharp, elongated, rigid tip; tipped with a cusp.
• emarginate: indented, with a shallow notch at the tip.
• mucronate: abruptly tipped with a small short point, as a
continuation of the midrib; tipped with a mucro.
• mucronulate: mucronate, but with a smaller spine.
• obcordate: inversely heart-shaped, deeply notched at the top.
• obtuse: rounded or blunt
• truncate: ending abruptly with a flat end, that looks cut off.

Base
• acuminate: coming to a sharp, narrow, prolonged point.
• acute: coming to a sharp, but not prolonged point.
• auriculate: ear-shaped.
• cordate: heart-shaped with the notch towards the stalk. Leaves showing various morphologies. Clockwise
• cuneate: wedge-shaped. from upper left: tripartite lobation, elliptic with
serrulate margin, peltate with palmate venation,
• hastate: shaped like an halberd and with the basal lobes
acuminate odd-pinnate (center), pinnatisect, lobed,
pointing outward. elliptic with entire margin
• oblique: slanting.

• reniform: kidney-shaped but rounder and broader than long.

• rounded: curving shape.
• sagittate: shaped like an arrowhead and with the acute basal lobes pointing downward.
• truncate: ending abruptly with a flat end, that looks cut off.
Leaf 344

Surface
• farinose: bearing farina; mealy, covered with a waxy, whitish
powder.
• glabrous: smooth, not hairy.
• glaucous: with a whitish bloom; covered with a very fine,
bluish-white powder.
• glutinous: sticky, viscid.
• papillate, or papillose: bearing papillae (minute, nipple-shaped
protuberances).
• pubescent: covered with erect hairs (especially soft and short
ones).
• punctate: marked with dots; dotted with depressions or with
translucent glands or colored dots.
• rugose: deeply wrinkled; with veins clearly visible.
• scurfy: covered with tiny, broad scalelike particles.
• tuberculate: covered with tubercles; covered with warty
prominences.
• verrucose: warted, with warty outgrowths.
Scale-shaped leaves of a Norfolk Island Pine,
• viscid, or viscous: covered with thick, sticky secretions.
Araucaria heterophylla.
The leaf surface is also host to a large variety of microorganisms;
in this context it is referred to as the phyllosphere.

The parallel veins within an iris leaf.

Leaf 345

Hairiness
"Hairs" on plants are properly called trichomes. Leaves can show
several degrees of hairiness. The meaning of several of the
following terms can overlap.
• arachnoid, or arachnose: with many fine, entangled hairs
giving a cobwebby appearance.
• barbellate: with finely barbed hairs (barbellae).
• bearded: with long, stiff hairs.
• bristly: with stiff hair-like prickles.
• canescent: hoary with dense grayish-white pubescence.
• ciliate: marginally fringed with short hairs (cilia).
• ciliolate: minutely ciliate.
• floccose: with flocks of soft, woolly hairs, which tend to rub
off.
• glabrous: no hairs of any kind present.
• glandular: with a gland at the tip of the hair.
• hirsute: with rather rough or stiff hairs.
• hispid: with rigid, bristly hairs. Common Mullein (Verbascum thapsus) leaves are
covered in dense, stellate trichomes.
• hispidulous: minutely hispid.
• hoary: with a fine, close grayish-white pubescence.
• lanate, or lanose: with woolly hairs.
• pilose: with soft, clearly separated hairs.
• puberulent, or puberulous: with fine, minute hairs.
• pubescent: with soft, short and erect hairs.
• scabrous, or scabrid: rough to the touch.
• sericeous: silky appearance through fine, straight and appressed
(lying close and flat) hairs.
• silky: with adpressed, soft and straight pubescence.
• stellate, or stelliform: with star-shaped hairs.
• strigose: with appressed, sharp, straight and stiff hairs.
• tomentose: densely pubescent with matted, soft white woolly
hairs.
• cano-tomentose: between canescent and tomentose.
Scanning electron microscope image of trichomes on
• felted-tomentose: woolly and matted with curly hairs. the lower surface of a Coleus blumei (coleus) leaf.
• villous: with long and soft hairs, usually curved.
• woolly:' with long, soft and tortuous or matted hairs.
Leaf 346

Adaptations
In the course of evolution, leaves have adapted to
different environments in the following ways:
• A certain surface structure avoids moistening by rain
and contamination (See Lotus effect).
• Sliced leaves reduce wind resistance.
• Hairs on the leaf surface trap humidity in dry
climates and create a large boundary layer thereby
reducing water loss.
• Waxy leaf surfaces reduce water loss.
• Large surface area of leaf provides large area for
sunlight and provides shade for plant to minimize
heating and reduce water loss.
Poinsettia bracts are leaves which have evolved red pigmentation in
• In more or less opaque or buried in the soil leaves, order to attract insects and birds to the central flowers, an adaptive
translucent windows filter the light before the function normally served by petals (which are themselves leaves
photosynthesis takes place at the inner leaf surfaces highly modified by evolution).

(e.g. Fenestraria).
• Succulent leaves store water and organic acids for use in CAM photosynthesis.
• Aromatic oils, poisons or pheromones produced by leaf borne glands deter herbivores (e.g. eucalypts).
• Inclusions of crystalline minerals deter herbivores (e.g. silica in grasses.
• A transformation into petals attracts pollinators.
• A transformation into spines protects the plants (e.g. cacti).
• A transformation into insect traps helps feeding the plants (carnivorous plants).
• A transformation into bulbs helps storing food and water (e.g. onions).
• A transformation into tendrils allows the plant to climb (e.g. peas).
• A transformation into bracts and pseudanthia (false flowers) replaces normal flower structures if the true flowers
are extremely reduced (e.g. Spurges).

Interactions with other organisms

Although not as nutritious as other organs such as fruit, leaves provide a food
source for many organisms. Animals which eat leaves are known as folivores.
The leaf is one of the most vital parts of the plant, and plants have evolved
protection against folivores such as tannins, chemicals which hinder the
digestion of proteins and have an unpleasant taste.
Some animals have cryptic adaptations to avoid their own predators. For
example, some caterpillars will create a small home in the leaf by folding it
over themselves, while other herbivores and their prey mimic the appearance
of the leaf. Some insects, such as the katydid, take this even further, moving
Some insects mimic leaves (Kallima
from side to side much like a leaf does in the wind.
inachus shown)
Leaf 347

Bibliography
• Leaves: The formation, charactistics and uses of hundred of leaves in all
parts of the world by Ghillean Tolmie Prance. 324 photographic plates in
black and white, and colour by Kjell B Sandved 256 pages[3]

See also
• Abscission (losing of leaves)
• Cladophyll
• Guttation (beads of fluid forming at leaf margins)
• Leaf area index
• Phylloclade A girl playing with leaves

• Vernation (sprouting of leaves)

• Evolution of leaves
• Leaf protein concentrate

External links
• VASCULAR PLANT SYSTEMATICS Section B. General Characters and Character States: Position and
Arrangement [4]
• Science aid: Leaf [5] Leaf structure and transpiration resource for teens.

References
[1] Thomas F. Döring; Marco Archetti; Jim Hardie (2009), "Autumn leaves seen through herbivore eyes" (http:/ / users. ox. ac. uk/ ~zool0643/
papers/ PRSB_2008_silwood. pdf) ( – Scholar search (http:/ / scholar. google. co. uk/ scholar?hl=en& lr=& q=intitle:Autumn+ leaves+ seen+
through+ herbivore+ eyes + & as_publication=Proceedings+ of+ The+ Royal+ Society+ B+ Biological+ Sciences& as_ylo=2009&
as_yhi=2009& btnG=Search)), Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 276 (1654): 121, doi:10.1098/rspb.2008.0858,
PMID 18782744, PMC 2614250,
[2] http:/ / wikibooks. org/ wiki/ Botany/ Leaves_(forms)
[3] Published by Thames and Hudson (London) with an ISBN 0 500 54104 3
[4] http:/ / www. ibiblio. org/ botnet/ glossary/ b_i. html
[5] http:/ / www. scienceaid. co. uk/ biology/ plants/ transpiration. html
List of fictional books 348

List of fictional books

A fictional book is a non-existent book created specifically for (i.e. within) a work of fiction. This is not a list of
works of fiction (i.e., actual novels, mysteries, etc), but rather imaginary books that do not actually exist.

Uses
Such a book may (1) provide the basis of the novel's plot, (2) add verisimilitude by supplying plausible background,
or (3) act as a common thread in a series of books or the works of a particular writer or canon of work. A fictional
book may also (4) be used as a conceit to illustrate a story within a story, or (5) be essentially a joke title, thus
helping to establish the humorous or satirical tone of the work. (Fictional books used as hoaxes or as purported
support for actual research are usually referred to as false documents.)

Examples
Several stories in Argentine author Jorge Luis Borges' short story collection entitled Ficciones are reviews of
fictional books; in this case, the fictional book is the basis of the story. As an example of the second use of fictional
books, Susanna Clarke's Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell includes scholarly footnotes to invented biographies,
magical texts and journals to add to the texture and depth of the story. H. P. Lovecraft's Necronomicon might be
considered an example of the third usage, since it appears as a recurring motif in several of the Cthulhu Mythos
stories. Many (but not all) of the fictional books mentioned in the work of Douglas Adams are of the joke title
variety. H.G. Wells' "The Shape of Things to Come", which purports to be a history textbook published in 2106,
includes - just like actual history books - numerous footnotes, some of them referring to actual historical sources but
most to fictional ones.

Inclusion criteria
This is a list of fictional books that appear in literature. Fictional books appearing in other print media, such as
comics, are listed in List of fictional books from periodicals. Fictional books that appear in other types of media,
such as television shows, are listed in List of fictional books from non-print media.
This is not a list of works of fiction (i.e., actual novels, mysteries, etc), but rather imaginary books that do not
actually exist. The fictional books on this list are ordered alphabetically under the name of the actual author who
invented them.

Works invented by Gilbert Adair

In The Act of Roger Murgatroyd:
• The Case of the Family Jewels by Evadne Mount
• Death Be My Deadline by Evadne Mount
• The Mystery of the Green Penguin by Evadne Mount
• No Murder in the Title by Evadne Mount
• Oedipus vs. Rex by Evadne Mount
• The Proof of the Pudding by Evadne Mount
• The Stroke of 12 by Evadne Mount
• The Timing of the Stew by Evadne Mount
• The Urinal of Futility by Evadne Mount
• The Wrong Voice by Evadne Mount (play)
List of fictional books 349

In A Mysterious Affair of Style:

• Death: A User's Manual by Evadne Mount
• Eeny-Meeny-Murder-Mo by Evadne Mount (play)
• Murder Without Ease by Evadne Mount
• The Tourist Trap by Evadne Mount (play)

Works invented by Douglas Adams

In The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy series:
• The Big Bang Theory: A Personal View by Eccentrica Gallumbits
• Celestial Homecare Omnibus
• Encyclopedia Galactica
• Everything You Never Wanted To Know About Sex But Have Been
Forced To Find Out by Oolon Colluphid
• Fifty-Three More Things to do in Zero Gravity
• The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
• The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Mark II
• How I Scaled the North Face of the Megapurna with a Perfectly
Healthy Finger But Everything Else Sprained, Broken or Bitten Off
By a Pack of Mad Yaks
• How I Survived an Hour with a Sprained Finger
• Life Begins at Five Hundred and Fifty
• Practical Parenting in a Fractally Demented Universe
• Sidereal Daily Mentioner's Book of Popular Galactic History
• Songs of the Long Land by Lallafa
• Squornshellous Swamptalk
• Time Traveller's Handbook of 1001 Tense Formations by Dr. Dan The fictional electronic book The Hitchhiker's
Guide to the Galaxy, depicted on the cover of a
Streetmentioner
1991 electronic edition of the actual trilogy.
• The Ultra-Complete Maximegalon Dictionary of Every Language
Ever
• Where God Went Wrong by Oolon Colluphid
• Some More of God's Greatest Mistakes by Oolon Colluphid
• Who Is This God Person Anyway? by Oolon Colluphid
• Well That About Wraps It Up for God by Oolon Colluphid
• Everything You Ever Wanted To Know About Guilt But Were Too Ashamed To Find Out by Oolon Colluphid
• You and Your Planets by Gail Andrews
List of fictional books 350

Works invented by Lloyd Alexander

• In The Book of Three, there is a distinct and fictional tome named The Book of Three

Works invented by Martin Amis

In The Information:
• Aforethought by Richard Tull
• Amelior by Gwyn Barry
• Dreams Don't Mean Anything by Richard Tull
• Invisible Worms (unpublished) by Richard Tull
• Summertown by Gwyn Barry
• Untitled by Richard Tull

Works invented by Poul Anderson

In The Earth Book of Stormgate:
• Far Adventure, an autobiography by Maeve Downey
• The Sky Book of Stormgate by Rennhi
• Tales of the Great Frontier by A. A. Craig. (Poul Anderson had used the pseudonym ""A. A. Craig"" for two
earlier stories.)
• A "running set of reminiscences" by James Ching
• Private journals of Hirharouk

Works invented by Piers Anthony

In The Source of Magic:
• The Anatomy of Purple Dragons, author unknown
• Hailstones: Magic vs. Mundane, author unknown
• The Status of Spirits in Royal Abodes, author unknown
• Tales for Ghosts, author unknown

Works invented by Kate Atkinson

In Emotionally Weird:
• by Effie Andrews, the 'Madame Astarti' novels:
• Hand of Fate
• The Wheel of Fortune
• Mermaids Ahoy!
• The Finger of Fate
• Pick a Card, Any Card
• by Martha Sewell (poetry)
• Chicken Spirits
• Cherry Picking in Vermont
• by Andrea Garnet
• The Adventures of Anthea
• Anthea's Anguish (Booker prizewinner 2001)
• Wards of Love by Philippa McCue
• The Expanding Prism of J by Archie McCue
List of fictional books 351

• The Balniddrian Conspiracy (in the Chronicles of Edrakonia series) by Kevin Riley
• The Invasion of the Tara-Zanthians by Colin Hardy

Works invented by Margaret Atwood

In The Blind Assassin:
• The Blind Assassin by Laura Chase
• The Chase Industries: A History
In The Robber Bride:
• Five Ambushes by Antonia Fremont
• Four Lost Causes by Antonia Fremont
• Deadly Vestments: A History of Inept Military Couture by Antonia Fremont (in progress)

Works invented by John Barnes

In One For the Morning Glory:
• Highly Unpleasant Things It Is Sometimes Good To Know, compilation
• Things That Are Not Good To Know At All, compilation
• Chronicles, by Cedric
• The Codwalloper's Daughter, traditional story ballad
• Penna Pike, traditional story ballad, extended by Prince Amatus
• The Masque of Murder, by Roderick
• The Tragical Death of Boniface the Good, by Roderick
• The Third Part of Prince Amatus, by Roderick
• King Boniface, by Roderick
• Robber Baron: The Rise of the Thunder Family from Terror of the North to the Kingdom's Most Respected
Barony, by Deacon (Prime Minister) Dick Thunder (authorship disputed)
• Memoirs, by King Amatus

Works invented by L. Frank Baum

In The Road to Oz:
• Encyclopedia Donkaniara, by an unknown author
In the Oz books, by Baum and his successors:
• Glinda's Great Book of Records

Works invented by John Bellairs

In The Face in the Frost:
• An Answer for Night-Hags
• Krankenhammer by Stefan (the mad cobbler of Mainz) Schimpf
• Nameless Horrors and What to Do About Them
• Six Centuries of English Spells
• Table of Rust Rates by Captain Monkhouse
In Spell of the Sorcerer's Skull:
• Clavicule de Saloman, La by Warren Windrow
List of fictional books 352

• Weird Tales of the Maine Seacoast

In The Dark Secret of Weatherend:
• A History of Hoosac County
• Eminent Minnesotans
• Peculiarities of American Cities
• The Book of the Dead by Simon of Salisbury
• The Testament of J. K. Borkman by Jorgen Knut Borkman
In The Figure in the Shadows:
• Free Inquiry into the Properties of Magic Amulets by Florence Helene Zimmermann
In The House with a Clock in Its Walls:
• Cloud Formations and Other Phenomena by Isaac Izard
• Hardesty's Universal Omnium Gatherum
In The Letter, The Witch, and the Ring:
• A Cyclopedia of Jewish Antiquities by Reverend Merriwether Burchard
In The Mummy, The Will, and the Crypt:
• Stately Homes of New England
In The Doom of the Haunted Opera (with Brad Strickland):
• Transactions of the Capharnaum County Magicians Society (6 volumes)
In Vengeance of the Witch-Finder (with Brad Strickland):
• History of the Barnavelt Family and the Rebellion Against King Charles I by James Barnavelt
• Persecution, for Witch-Craft, of Martin Christian Barnavelt by Martin Christian Barnavelt

Works invented by Robert Bloch

In The Man Who Collected Poe:
• The Crypt by Edgar Allan Poe
• The Further Adventures of Arthur Gordon Pym by Edgar Allan Poe
• The Worm of Midnight by Edgar Allan Poe
In The Suicide in the Study:
• Cultes des Goules by Comte d'Erlette
• Black Rites by Luveh-Keraphf
Miscellaneous
• In The Mannikin: Cabala of Saboth
• In The Shambler from the Stars: De Vermis Mysteriis
List of fictional books 353

Works invented by Roberto Bolaño

In 2666: (all by Benno von Archimboldi)
• Lüdicke
• The Endless Rose
• The Leather Mask
• Rivers of Europe
• Bifurcaria Bifurcata
• Inheritance
• Saint Thomas
• The Blind Woman
• The Black Sea
• Lethaea
• The Lottery Man
• The Father
• The Return
• D'Arsonval
• The Garden
• Mitzi's Treasure
• Railroad Perfection
• The Berlin Underworld
• Bitzius
• The King of the Forest
• The Head

Works invented by Jorge Luis Borges

• Anglo-American Cyclopedia 1917 edition
• April March by Herbert Quaint
• The Approach to Al-Mu'tasim by Mir Bahadur Ali (1932)
• Axaxaxas Mlo
• Biography of the Baal Shem by Dr. Marcel Yarmolinsky (1940)
• The Book of Sand
• Combed Clap of Thunder
• The Conversation with the Man Called Al-Mu'tasim: A Game of Shifting Mirrors by Mir Bahadur Ali (1934) --
Illustrated version
• Don Quixote and other works by Pierre Menard
• An Examination of the Philosophy of Robert Fludd by Dr. Marcel Yarmolinsky (1921)
• A First Encyclopaedia of Tlön
• The Garden of Forking Paths by Ts'ui Pen
• A General History of Labyrinths by Silas Haslam (1888)
• The God of the Labyrinth by Herbert Quain
• Dem hemlige Fralsaren by Nils Runeberg (1909)
• History of the Sect of the Hasidim by Dr. Marcel Yarmolinsky (1931)
• History of a Land called Uqbar by Silas Haslam (1874)
• Kristus och Judas by Nils Runeberg (1904)
• Lesbare und lesenswerthe Bemerkungen über das Land Ukkbar in Klein-Asien by Johann Valentin Andreä
• Orbis Tertius
List of fictional books 354

• Plaster Cramp
• Les Problemes d'un probleme by Pierre Menard (1917)
• The Secret Mirror by Herbert Quain
• Statements by Herbert Quain
• Tetragrammaton by Dr. Marcel Yarmolinsky
• Urkunden zur Geschichte der Zahirsage (Documents and Tales: the History of the Zahir) by Julius Barlach (1899)
• A Vindication of the Cabala by Dr. Marcel Yarmolinsky (1938)
• Vindication of Eternity by Jaromir Hladík (1927)
• See also cover art for the books [1]

Works invented by William Boyd

In Any Human Heart:
by Logan Montstuart
• The Mind's Imaginings
• The Girl Factory
• The Cosmopolitans
• The Villa by the Lake
by Peter Scabius
• Beware of the Dog
• Night Train to Paris
• Three Days in Marrakesh
• Guilt
• Iniquity
• The Slaughter of the Innocents
• The Red and the Blue and the Red
• Already Too Late
by Butler Hughes
• North by Night
In Restless (novel):
by Eva Delectorskaya
• The Story of Eva Delectorskaya
by Sam M Goodforth
• The Hollow Mountain
by Robert York
• Germany: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow
List of fictional books 355

Works invented by Richard Brautigan

In The Abortion: An Historical Romance 1966:
• Bacon Death, by Marsha Patterson
• Breakfast First, by Samuel Humber
• The Culinary Dostoevski, by James Fallon
• The Egg Laid Twice, by Beatrice Quinn
• Growing Flowers by Candlelight in Hotel Rooms, by Ms. Charles Fine Adams
• He Kissed All Night, by Susan Magar
• A History of Nebraska, by Clinton York*
• Hombre, by Canton Lee
• It's the Queen of Darkness, Pal, by Rod Keen
• Jack, The Story of a Cat, by Hilda Simpson
• Leather Clothes and the History of Man, by S. M. Justice
• Love Always Beautiful, by Charles Green
• Moose, by Richard Brautigan
• My Dog, by Bill Lewis
• My Trike, by Chuck
• The Need for Legalized Abortion, by Doctor O.
• The Other Side of My Hand, by Harlow Blade
• Pancake Pretty, by Barbara Jones
• Printer's Ink, by Fred Sinkus
• The Quick Forest, by Thomas Funnel
• Sam Sam Sam, by Patricia Evens Summers
• The Stereo and God, by Reverend Lincoln Lincoln
• UFO vs. CBS, by Susan De Witt
• Vietnam Victory, by Edward Fox
• Your Clothes are Dead, by Les Steinman

Works invented by Elinor Brent-Dyer

In the Chalet School series:
• In A Future Chalet School Girl: Mystery at Heron Lake by Josephine M. Bettany
• In Althea Joins the Chalet School: The Secret of Castle Dancing by Josephine M. Bettany
• In Carola Storms the Chalet School: The Rose Patrol in the Alps by Josephine M. Bettany
• In The Chalet School Goes To It: Gipsy Jocelyn by Josephine M. Bettany
• In Gay from China at the Chalet School: Indian Holiday and Nancy Meets a Nazi by Josephine M. Bettany
• In Jo Returns to the Chalet School: Cecily Holds the Fort and Malvina Wins Through by Josephine M. Bettany
• In Joey Goes to Oberland: Audrey Wins the Trick and Dora of the Lower Fifth by Josephine M. Bettany
• In Lavender Laughs at the Chalet School: Lavender Laughs in Brazil: Lavender Laughs in Cyprus: Lavender
Laughs in Libya: Lavender Laughs in Scotland: Lavender Laughs in the West Indies: Lavender Laughs in Turkey
and Lavender laughs in New Guinea by Sylvia Leigh; and The Lost Staircase, Luella was a Land Girl, and The
Robin Makes Good by Josephine M. Bettany
• In The Chalet School and the Island: The Sea Parrot by Kester Bellever
• In The Chalet School in Exile: Tessa in Tyrol by Josephine M. Bettany
• In The Mystery at the Chalet School: The Leader of the Lost Cause by Josephine M. Bettany
• In The New Mistress at the Chalet School: King's Soldier Maid and Swords Crossed by Josephine M. Bettany
• In A Problem for the Chalet School: A Royalist Soldier-Maid and Werner of the Alps by Josephine M. Bettany
List of fictional books 356

• In Three Go to the Chalet School: Lavender Laughs in Kashmir by Sylvia Leigh

• In Tom Tackles the Chalet School: The Fugitive of the Salt Cave and The Secret House by Josephine M. Bettany
• In Two Sams at the Chalet School: Swords for the King! by Josephine M. Bettany
• In Maids of La Rochelle: Guernsey Folk Tales by Elizabeth Temple

Works invented by John Brunner

In Stand on Zanzibar:
• The Hipcrime Vocab by Chad C. Mulligan
• You're an Ignorant Idiot a series by Chad C. Mulligan
• Better ? than ? by Chad C. Mulligan
• You : Beast by Chad C. Mulligan

Works invented by Steven Brust

In Athyra:
• The Book of the Seven Wizards
• Knitting of Bones
• On the Number of the Parts of the Body
• The Remembered Tales of Calduh
• The Sorcerer's Art and the Healing of the Self
In Five Hundred Years After:
• Bedra of Ynn and Lotro: An Historical and Poetical Comparison, author unknown
• A Brief Consideration of Adverb Placement in Colloquial Tongue by Vaari
• The Clothes Unmake the Emperor by Baron Vile
• Court Dress Before the Interregnum by Traanier
• History of Doors and Windows by Kairu
• Imperial Wing of the Old Palace by Dentrub
• Mountain Ballads, author unknown
• Overview of the Architecture of the Old Imperial Palace by Burrin
• Redwreath and Goldstar Have Traveled to Deathgate (play), author unknown
• Short Life of Lotro, author unknown
• Tales of Beed'n, author unknown
• Three Broken Strings by Paarfi of Roundwood
• Wise Sayings of Five Bards, author unknown
In Jhegaala:
• Fauna of the Middle South: A Brief Survey by Oscaania
• Six Parts Water (play) by Miersen
List of fictional books 357

Works invented by Lois McMaster Bujold

In The Curse of Chalion:
• The Fivefold Pathway of the Soul: On the True Methods of Quintarian Theology by Ordol
• The Legend of the Green Tree by Behar

Works invented by A. S. Byatt

In The Biographer's Tale:
• Bajazeth by Sir Elmer Bole
• The Golden Cage of Princes by Sir Elmer Bole
• How Beautiful Are Thy Feet by Sir Elmer Bole
• A Humble Maid of Acre by Sir Elmer Bole
• A Journey Through Seven Climates, alleged translation of Evliya Chelebi by Sir Elmer Boles, likely to have been
written by Boles himself
• Life of Sir Elmer Bole, Volume 1: A Singular Youth by Scholes Destry-Scholes
• Life of Sir Elmer Bole, Volume 2: The Voyager by Scholes Destry-Scholes
• Life of Sir Elmer Bole, Volume 3: Vicarage and Harem by Scholes Destry-Scholes
• The Orchard Walls by Sir Elmer Bole
• A Princess Among Slaves by Sir Elmer Bole
• Rose of Sharon by Sir Elmer Bole
• The Scimitar by Sir Elmer Bole
• Shulamith by Sir Elmer Bole
• A Spring Shut Up by Sir Elmer Bole
In The Children's Book:
• Bel and the Dragon by Herbert Metheley
• Daughters of Men by Herbert Metheley
• The Giant on the Hill by Herbert Metheley
• Marsh Lights by Herbert Metheley
• Mr. Wodehouse and the Wild Girl by Herbert Metheley
• The Fairy Castle by Olive Wellwood
• The Girl Who Walked a Long Way by Olive Wellwood
• The Runaway by Olive Wellwood
• The Shrubbery by Olive Wellwood
• Tom Underground a play by Olive Wellwood
Miscellaneous
• Astraea play by Alexander Wedderburn, in The Virgin in the Garden
• The Yellow Chair play by Alexander Wedderburn, in Still Life
• Babbletower: A Tale for the Children of Our Time by Jude Mason, in Babel Tower
• A Sense of Glory by Julia Corbett, in The Game
• The Silver Swan by Julia Corbett, in The Game
• The Trivial Round by Julia Corbett, in The Game
In Possession: A Romance:
• Anemones of the British Coast by Francis Tugwell
• Ask to Embla poem-cycle by Randolph Henry Ash
• Cassandra verse drama by Randolph Henry Ash
• Chidiock Tichbourne by Randolph Henry Ash
List of fictional books 358

• Christabel LaMotte: A Selection of Narrative and Lyric Poems, Leonora Stern, editor
• The City of Is by Christabel LaMotte
• Complete Poems and Plays of by Randolph Henry Ash, compiled by James Blackadder
• Complete Correspondence of by Randolph Henry Ash, compiled by Mortimer Cropper
• Cromwell verse drama by Randolph Henry Ash
• Debatable Land Between This World and the Next by Robert Dale Owen
• The Fairy Melusina epic poem by Christabel LaMotte
• The Garden of Proserpina by Randolph Henry Ash
• Ghosts and Other Weird Creatures by Unknown
• Gods, Men, and Heroes by Randolph Henry Ash
• The Great Collector by Randolph Henry Ash
• The Great Ventriloquist, a biography of by Randolph Henry Ash by Mortimer Cropper
• The Grecian Way of Love by Randolph Henry Ash
• The Incarcerated Sorceress by Randolph Henry Ash
• La Mer by Michelet {these 4 books by Michelet are all genuine. To look no further see wiki: Michelet]
• La Montagne by Michelet
• L'Insecte by Michelet (edited by Hachette, Paris, 1858 !)
• L'Oiseau by Michelet
• LaMotte's Strategies of Evasion: A collection of essays Leonora Stern, compiler
• Last Tales by Christabel LaMotte
• Last Things by Christabel LaMotte
• Mummy Possest poem by Randolph Henry Ash
• No Place Like home by Leonora Stern
• Pranks of Priapus by Randolph Henry Ash
• Ragnarok by Randolph Henry Ash
• The Shadowy Portal by Mrs. Lees
• Swammerdam poem by Randolph Henry Ash
• St. Bartholomew's Eve verse drama by Randolph Henry Ash
• Tales for innocents by Christabel LaMotte
• Tales Told in November by Christabel LaMotte
• Tallahassee Women Poets, Leonora Stern, editor
• Unknown Sex Life of Eminent Victorians by Unknown
• White Linen by Unknown

Works invented by James Branch Cabell

In the Biography of the Life of Manuel:
Anonymous Works
• Les Gestes de Manuel
• The Terrible and Marvellous History of Manuel Pig-Tender That Afterwards Was Named Manuel the Redeemer
(an anonymous sixteenth-century English chapbook redaction of Les Gestes de Manuel)
• La Haulte Histoire de Jurgen (The High History of Jurgen)
• The Chart of Postures
• The Dionysiac Formulæ
• Dirghâghama
List of fictional books 359

• Litany of the Centre of Delight

• The Spintrian Treatises
• System of Worshipping a Girl
• Thirty-two Gratifications
Works by Horace Calverly, Lord Ufford
• Journal
• Sixpenny Satires
• The Vassal of Spalatro
Works by John Charteris
• Ashtaroth's Lackey
• In Old Lichfield
• Letters
Works by Nicolas de Caen
• Le Cocu Rouge (The Red Cuckold; disputed attributed)
• Le Dizain des Reines (Chivalry)
• Madoc et Ettarre (The Music from Beyond the Moon)
• Les Aventures d'Adhelmar de Nointel
• Le Roman de Lusignan (Domnei)
• Le Roy Amaury
• The Silver Stallion (disputed attribution)
Works by Felix Bulmer Kennaston
• Chimes at Midnight
• Defence of Ignorance
• Epistles of Ananias, by Marian Winwood (consisting of Felix Kennaston's loveletters to her)
• How Many Angels
• The King's Quest
• Men Who Loved Alison (The Audit at Storisende)
• The Tinctured Veil
Works by Gerald Musgrave
• The Evolution of Marriage
• Fertility Rites of the Sabbat
• Lingham Worship
• Myth of Anistar and Calmoora
• Seed of Minos
• Study of Priapos
• Tentative Restoration of the Lost Books of Elephantis
Works by Colonel Rudolph Vartrey Musgrave
• Chart of the Descendants of Zenophon Perkins
• Colonial Lichfield
• Lichfield Legislative Papers prior to 1800
• The Musgraves of Matocton
• Notes on the Vartreys of Westphalia
• Recollections of a Gracious Era
• Right on the Scaffold
• Secession and the South
List of fictional books 360

Works by Robert Etheridge Townshend

• Afield
• The Apostates
• The Cords of Vanity
• From the Hidden Way
Works by Other Authors
• Volksagen, by Ackermann
• Roman de Lusignan, unfinished English translation by Wir William Allonby
• Ancetres de la Révolution, by d'Avranches
• Pathologica Dæmonica, by Borsdale
• Poictesme en Chanson et Légende, by Gottfried Johannes Bülg
• Peerage and Baronetage, by Burke
• Storia del Granducato di Toscana sotto il governo d'Allesandro de Medici, by Checino
• Handbook of Literary Pioneers, by E. Noel Codman
• Synopsis of Aryan Mythology, by Angelo de Ruiz
• Urgeschichte der Philistäter, by Douwer
• Hommes Illustres, by Du Maillot
• Histoire de la littérature provençal (History of Provençal Poetry), by Charles Claude Fauriel
• For Love of a Lady, by Marmaduke Fennel
• Biography of Felix Kennaston, by J.V.A. Froser
• Recherches sur le Culte de Sesphra, by Garnier
• The Cream of the Jest, by Richard Fentnor Harrowby
• In Scarlet Sidon, by Elspeth Lancaster
• Key to the Popular Tales of Poictesme, by John Frederick Lewistam
• Life (of John Bulmer, Duke of Ormskirk), by Löwe
• Life of Mrs. Norton, by Perkins
• Origins of Fable, by Prote
• Choix des Poésies originales des Troubadours, by Raimbaut
• Landed Gentry, by Sparks
• Roscius Anglicanus, by Thorsby
• Life of John Charteris, by Robert Etheridge Townsend
• Tudor Tales, by Dr. Paul Vanderhoffen
• Notice sur la vie de Nicolas de Caen, by Paul Verville
• Visitations of Norfolk, by Villiers
Works in the library of John Charteris
Works by the "gifted writers of Bookland. You will observe it is extensive; for the wonderful literary genius is
by long odds the most common character in fiction."
• Novels and Tales of Mark Ambient
• Billiad, by Lord Bendish
• The Wanderer, by Lord Bendish
• Ashtaroth's Lackey, by John Charteris
• In Old Lichfield, by John Charteris
• Complete Writings of Eustace Cleever
• The Complete Works of David Copperfield
• The Works of Colney Durance
• Works of Bartholomew Josselin
List of fictional books 361

• Poems of Gervase Poore

• The Works of Arthur Pendennis
• Collected Essays, by Ernest Pontifex
• Oeuvres de Lucien de Rubempré
• Novels of Titus Scrope
• The Amber Statuette, by Lucien Taylor
• The Nungapunga Book, by G.B. Torpenhow
• A Man of Words, by Felix Wildmay
• An Essay upon Castrametation, with some particular Remarks upon the Vestiges of Ancient Fortifications lately
discovered by the Author at the Kaim of Kinprunes
Works "planned but never carried through by real authors.
• The Canterbury Tales, by Geoffrey Chaucer
• The complete Christabel, by S.T. Coleridge
• The Children of the Fathers, by Charles Dickens
• The Young Person, by Charles Dickens
• An epic by John Keats
• The Unwritten Plays of Christopher Marlowe
• King Arthur, by John Milton
• Affectation, by John Sheridan
• The Faery Queen [sic], by Edmund Spenser
• Cannonmills, by Robert Louis Stevenson
• The Rising Sun, by Robert Louis Stevenson
• The Shovels of Newton French, by Robert Louis Stevenson
• Sophia Scarlet, by Robert Louis Stevenson
• A mediæval romance of Agincourt by Thackeray
Familiar works "as the authors meant them to be".
• The Intended Edition of the works of James Branch Cabell, issued through Knappe & Dreme
• The 1599 version of Troilus and Cressida, by William Shakespeare
In The Nightmare Has Triplets:
• Smire Mythos, by Professor Afanyakof
• Mythische Geographie, by Volcher

Works invented by Italo Calvino

In If on a Winter's Night a Traveler:
• If on a Winter's Night a Traveler, by Italo Calvino
• Outside the Town of Malbork, by Tazio Bazakbal
• Leaning from the Steep Slope, by Ukko Ahti
• Without Fear of Wind or Vertigo, by Vorts Viljandi
• Looks Down in the Gathering Shadow, by Bertrand Vandervelde
• In a Network of Lines that Enlace, by Silas Flannery
• In a Network of Lines that Intersect, by Ermes Marana
• On the Carpet of Leaves Illuminated by the Moon, by Takakumi Ikoka
• Around an Empty Grave, by Calixto Bandera
• What Story Down There Awaits its End?, by Anatoly Anatolin
List of fictional books 362

Works invented by Cao Xueqin

In Hong Lou Meng:
• Ji Zhi (姬子)]

Works invented by Peter Carey

In Oscar and Lucinda:
• Corallines of the Devon Coast and Hennacombe Rambles by Theophilus Hopkins

Works invented by Jonathan Carroll

In A Child Across the Sky:
• Bones of the Moon by Cullen James (not the same book as Bones of the Moon by Jonathan Carroll)
In The Land of Laughs:
• The Green Dogs of Sorrow by Marshall France
• The Land of Laughs by Marshall France
• Night Races Into Anna by Marshall France
• Peach Shadows by Marshall France
• An untitled biography of Edward Abbey by Stephen Abbey
• An untitled biography of Marshall France by Stephen and Gardner Abbey
In Sleeping in Flame:
• Flash and Blood by Stephen King

Works invented by Michael Chabon

In Summerland:
• How to Catch Lightning and Smoke
• The Wa-He-Ta Brave's Official Tribe Handbook
In "The God of Dark Laughter":
• Encyclopedia of Archaeo-Anthropological Research
• Uber das Finstere Lachen, by Friedrich Von Junzt
• Khndzut Dzul (The Unfathomable Ruse)
In Wonder Boys:
• The Abominations of Plunkettsburg and Other Tales by Albert Vetch (writing as August Van Zorn)
• The Arsonist's Girl by Grady Tripp
• The Bottomlands by Grady Tripp
• Fans and Fadeaways by John Jose Fahey
• Eight Solid Light-years of Lead by John Jose Fahey
• Kind of Blue by John Jose Fahey
• The Land Downstairs by Grady Tripp
• The Love Parade by James Leer
• Sad Tidings by John Jose Fahey
• Wonder Boys by Grady Tripp
List of fictional books 363

Works invented by Robert W. Chambers

• The King in Yellow by Castaigne in The King in Yellow by Robert W. Chambers (Castaigne is either the author or
the translator)
• The King in Yellow has been adopted by authors into the Lovecraftian tradition.
• The Imperial Dynasty of America by an unknown author. (From The Repairer of Reputations, a short story in The
King in Yellow.

Works invented by Agatha Christie

Attributed to Ariadne Oliver:
• The Affair of the Second Goldfish
• The Body in the Library
• The Cat it Was Who Died
• Death of a Debutante
• Murder on the Orient Express
• The Mysterious Mr. Quinn

Works invented by Clamp

In the manga Chobits
• A City With No People (children's book series)
• Vol. 1: A City With No People
• Vol. 2: Someone Just For Me
• Vol. 3: They Can Do Anything
• Vol. 4: A Wish That Can't Be Granted
• Vol. 5: Little By Little
• Vol. 6: Please Find Me
• Vol. 7: A Warm Heart

Works invented by Jonathan Coe

In What a Carve Up!:
• Accidents Will Happen by Michael Owen
• Great Plumbers of Albania (unknown author)
• 300 Years of Halitosis (unknown author)
• The Winshaw Legacy: A Family Chronicle by Alan Beamish
• So You Think You Know about Plinths? by Revd. J. W. Pottage
• A Life in Packaging - Fragments of an Autobiography:Volume IX - The Styrofoam Years (unknown author)
• A Pox on the Box: Memoirs of a Disillusioned Broadcaster by Alan Beamish
• Dropping in on Jerry: A Light-Hearted Account of the Dresden Bombings by Wing Commander "Bullseye"
Fortescue
• A Lutheran Approach to the Films of Martin and Lewis (unknown author)
• The A-Z of Plinths by Revd. J. W. Pottage
• The Loving Touch by Michael Owen
• Plinths! Plinths! Plinths!" by Revd. J. W. Pottage
• I was Celery (unknown author)
List of fictional books 364

Works invented by Joseph Conrad

• An Inquiry into some Points of Seamanship by a man Tower, Towson—some such name (In Heart of Darkness)
[Conrad is probably either conflating or making Marlow conflate two books: J.T.Towson's navigation tables,
1848 and 1849, and Nicholas Tinmouth's An Inquiry relative to various points of seamanship, 1845: so not really
an invented book. See J.A.Arnold, Conradiana 7.2 (1976) 121-6.]

Works invented by Richard Cowper

In A Dream of Kinship:
• Codex Iniquitatis, author unknown
• Letters to Brother Matthew by Brother Francis of York (later called Saint Francis)
• A Perspective of the Christian Dilemma by Brother Matthew (writing as V. O. V.)
In The Road to Corlay:
• Morfedd's Testament by Morfedd
• The Avian Apocrypha, anonymous
• The Book of Gyre, anonymous
• The Book of Morfedd, anonymous
• Carlisle ms, anonymous
• Old Peter's Tale, anonymous
• Orgen's Dream, anonymous
In A Tapestry of Time:
• Being and Non-Being by Hagendorf
• Catalogue by Dean Pardoe
• Consolations of Philosophy by Pargeter
• History of Kinship in the United Kingdoms, Vol. 1 by Franscombe
• Kentmere Psalter, author unknown
• Leaves from an Antiquarian's Notebook by Dean Pardoe
• Lexicon by Langley
• Revelations by St. Francis
• The True History of the Boy by St. Francis
• An unknown title by Master Surgeon Brynlas
• An unknown title (contains the word "Life") by Dom Sarega
In The Twilight of Briareus:
• L'Histoire Particulière de la Renaissance by Pierre Candel
• Reminiscences by Margaret Hardy
• W. H. O. Regeneration Statistics. Vol. 3. 2004, author unknown
List of fictional books 365

Works invented by Edmund Crispin

• Metromania by Robert Warner (play) (in The Case of the Gilded Fly)

Works invented by Andrew Crumey

• Il Furto by Alfredo Galli (in Music, in a Foreign Language)
• The Optical Illusion Last Friday by Alfredo Galli (in Music, in a Foreign Language)
• Minds and Memories by Lowell (in Music, in a Foreign Language)
• Aphorisms by Vincenzo Spontini (in Pfitz)
• Tales from Rreinnstadt by Muller (in D'Alembert's Principle)
• Epistemology and Unreason by Ian Muir (in Mr Mee)
• Rosier's Encyclopedia by Jean-Bernard Rosier (in Mr Mee)
• The Angel Returns by Heinrich Behring, translated by Celia Carter (in Mobius Dick)
• Professor Faust by Heinrich Behring, translated by Celia Carter (in Mobius Dick)
• Evolution Towards Perfection by Otto Hinze (in Mobius Dick)
• The Teleology of Mental Degeneration by Otto Hinze (in Mobius Dick)
• Synchronicism and Coincidence by Otto Hinze (in Mobius Dick)

Works invented by Mark Z. Danielewski

In House of Leaves:
• Absent Identification by Melissa Schemell
• All in All by Bernard Porch
• All Accurate by Nam Eurtton
• All In the Name of Feminism: A Collection of Essays by Nadine (ed.) Muestopher
• American Psychology: The Ownership of Self by Helen Hodge
• Ancient Devotions by Tab Fulrest
• The Anti-Present Trunk by Philippa (ed.) Frake
• The Architecture of Art by Cassandra Rissman LaRue
• Artistic Peril by Deacon Lookner
• The Bad Bodhi Wall by Bazine Naodook
• Beyond the Grasp of Commercial Media by Gabriel Reller
• Black Heart, Blue Heart by Rita Mistopolis
• Cinematic Projections by Naguib Paredes
• Collected Essays on Self-Portraiture by Haldor (ed.) Nervene
• Collected Essays on "Exploration #5 by Hans Staker
• The Complete Feng Shui Guide for the Navidson Record by Luther Shepard
• Concatenating Corbusier by Aristides Quine
• The Constancy of Carl Jung by Oona Fanihdjarte
• The Courage to Withstand by Daphne Kaplan
• Creationist Myths by Hanson Edwin Rose
• Delial by Dennis Stake
• Delial, Beatrice, and Dulcinea by Jennifer Caps
• Dialects of Divorce In American Film In the Twentieth Century by Anita Massine
• Esau by Freed Kashon
• The Faraday Conclusion by Devon Lettau
List of fictional books 366

• Fear Mantras by Alicia Hoyle

• Flawed performances: A Consideration of the Actors in the Navidson Opus by Isaiah Rosen
• The Fraying of the American Family by Florencia Calzatti
• Gathered God by Darren Meen
• Glorious Garrulous Graphomania by T. N. Joseph (ed.) Truslow
• Gotta Go by Mary Widmunt
• Greek Mythology AgaIn by Ivan Largo Stilets
• Grief's Explorations by Hank Leblarnard
• Heaven's Door by Alan P. Winnett
• The Holloway Question by Newt Kuellster
• The House by Daniel Bowler
• House Cleaning by David N. Braer
• House of Leaves by Zampano
• How Have You Who Have Loved Ever Love A Next Time? by Rosemary Enderheart
• In These Things I Find by Mace Roger-Court
• Incarnation of Spirit Things by Lantern C. Pitch
• The Incident by Iben Van Pollit
• Inside Out by Rosemary Park
• Killing Badly, Dying Wise by Nupart Jhunisdakazcriddle
• The Language of Torture by Rafael Geethtar Servagio
• A Lexicon of Improbable Theories by Blair Keepling
• The Many Wall Fugue by Eugenio and Scholfield Rosch
• Maternal Intrusions by Eric Keplard
• Mortality and Morality in Photographs by M. G. Cafiso
• The Navidson Record by Johanne Scefing
• The Navidson Record: Action and Chronologies by Thorton J. Cannon
• The Navidson Record: The Novelization
• Not True, Man: Mi Ata Beni? by Eta Ruccalla
• Notes From Tomorrow by Lisbeth (ed.) Bailey
• Objects of a Thousand Facets by Edwin Minamide
• Operation #4: The Art of Internal Medicine by Leon Robbins
• Origins of Faith by Candida Hayashi
• Our Father by Tad Exler
• Pale Micturitions by Justin Krape
• Palladian Grammar and Metaphysical Appropriations: Navidson's Villa Malcontenta by Sebastiano Perouse de
Montclos
• Passion For Pity and Other Recipes For Disaster by Helmut Muir
• Perversity In Dullness... and Vice-Versa by Celine Arlesey
• The Phenomenology of Coincidence in the Navidson Recort by Marla Hulbert
• Pieces by Will Navidson
• The Places I've Seen by Teppet C. Brookes
• Privacy and Intrusion in the Twenty-First Century by Clarence Sweeney
• Recovery: Methods and Manner by Cora Minehart
• Red Cross Faith by Janice Whitman
• Riddles WithIn by Amon Whitten
• Semiotic Rivalry by Yuriy Pleak
• Shots in the Dark by Gavin Young
List of fictional books 367

• Simple Themes by Brendon Beinhorn

• Sketches: The Process of Entry by Denise Lowery
• Smile by Lester T. Ochs
• The Study: Tom's Place by Neekisha Dedic
• Tamper With This by Patricia B. Nesselroade
• Terrible Thoughts: The Psychology and Biology of Navidson's Nightmares by Ernest Y. Hartmann
• Theater In Film by Cassady Roulet
• The Third Beside you: An Analysis of the Epistemological Echo by David Eric Katz
• Thru Lines by Esther Hartline
• Tick-Tock-Fade: The Representation of Time in Film Narrative by Frizell Clary
• Twentieth Century Dub, Dub by Tony (ed.) Ross
• Twenty Years in the Program by Cynthia Huxley
• Ultrapure Water, the Super-Kamiokande Detector and Cherenkov Light by Gordon Kearns, L. Kajita and M. K.
Totsuka
• Understanding the Self: The Maze of You by Daniel Hortz
• Violent Seeds: The Holloway Roberts Myst by Jeremy Flint
• Violent Verses: Cinema's Treatment of Death by Danton Blake
• War's Children by Melanie Proft Knightley
• "What Are You Gonna Do Now, Little Man?" and Other Tales of Grass Roots Distribution by Kevin Stanley
• When a Woman's Fear Makes Her Run from Commitment and What a Smart Man Can Do About It by Steve and
Carter Sokal
• Wilder Ways by Ryan Murray
• Wishing Well by Virginia Posah

Works invented by Robertson Davies

In Fifth Business:
• Celtic Saints of Britain and Europe by Dunstable Ramsay
• Forgotten Saints of the Tyrol by Dunstable Ramsay
• A Hundred Saints for Travellers by Dunstable Ramsay

Works invented by John DeChancie

In Castle Murders:
• Eidolons of the King by Librarian Osmirik, the Castle books as they exist in the fictional world
• The Moswell Plan by Dorcas Bagby, a book believed to be fictional even in its own world
In Castle Perilous:
• Ervoldt: His Book by Lord Ervoldt
List of fictional books 368

Works invented by Philip K. Dick

In *The Man in the High Castle*(1962): The Grasshopper Lies Heavy by Hawthorne Abendsen
In "A Maze Of Death": "How I Rose From the Dead in My Spare Time and So Can You" by A. J. Spectowsky

Works invented by Paul Di Filippo

In Plumage From Pegasus:
• Mega-Awesome SF: The True Story Behind Forever Plus! by Amber Max
• Forever Plus! by Amber Max
• A History of Supermarket Fiction: How SF Swept the World by Roger Barnard
• Imaginary Realist: The Life of Timothy Eugene by Milton Sharp
• The Magazine Chums Meet the Distributor of Doom by C.J. Cutlyffe Heintz-Ketzep
• The Magazine Chums and the Case of the Disappearing Readers by C.J. Cutlyffe Heintz-Ketzep
• The Magazine Chums and the Great Paper Shortage by C.J. Cutlyffe Heintz-Ketzep
• The Magazine Chums Apply for an Arts Council Grant by C.J. Cutlyffe Heintz-Ketzep
• Plainsong by Kent Haruf
• The Unsurrendered Fembot by Richard Calder
• The Big Book of High-Tech Texas Bar-B-Q by Bruce Sterling
• A History of Science Fiction and Fantasy in the New Yorker by Ursula K. Le Guin
• Faith-Based Fictions: A Conversation by Orson Scott Card, Andrew Greeley and Barry Malzberg
• Women Write Fantasy, Men Write Science fiction by Nancy Kress and Charles Sheffield
• I was a Teenaged Pornographer! by Robert Silverberg
• Boy Magnate by Gordon Van Gelder
• Great Mafia Science by Ben Bova
• How to Pick Up Guys by Samuel Delany
• Corn Likker, Drag Racin' and Coon Huntin' by Andy Duncan and Michael Bishop
• Andre Norton's Smackdown by Andre Norton

Works invented by Arthur Conan Doyle

In the Sherlock Holmes series:
• Chaldean Roots in the Ancient Cornish Language by Sherlock Holmes
• The Dynamics of an Asteroid by Professor James Moriarty
• Early English Charters by Sherlock Holmes
• Giant Rat of Sumatra by Dr. John Watson
• Heavy Game in the Western Himalayas (1881) by Colonel Sebastian Moran
• Malingering by Sherlock Holmes
• Of Tattoo Marks by Sherlock Holmes
• On Secret Writings by Sherlock Holmes
• On the Polyphonic Motets of Lassus by Sherlock Holmes
• On the Study of Tobaccos and their Ashes by Sherlock Holmes
• On the Surface Anatomy of the Human Ear by Sherlock Holmes
• On the Typewriter and Its Relation to Crime by Sherlock Holmes
• Practical Handbook of Bee Culture, with Some Observations upon the Segregation of the Queen by Sherlock
Holmes
• Three Months in the Jungle (1884) by Colonel Sebastian Moran
• A Treatise on the Binomial Theorem by Professor James Moriarty
• Upon the Dating of Old Documents by Sherlock Holmes
List of fictional books 369

• Upon the Influence of a Trade upon the Form of the Hand by Sherlock Holmes
• Upon the Tracing of Footsteps by Sherlock Holmes
• Upon the Uses of Dogs in the Work of the Detective by Sherlock Holmes
• Whole Art of Detection by Sherlock Holmes
In the Professor Challenger series:
• Outlines of Vertebrate Evolution by Professor George Edward Challenger
• Some Observations Upon a Series of Kalmuk Skulls by Professor George Edward Challenger

Works invented by Umberto Eco

In Foucault's Pendulum:
• The Carmassi Brothers by Adeodato Lampustri
• Chaste Throbs by Odolinda Mezzofanti Sassabetti
• Chronicles of the Zodiac by Dr. De Amicis
• The Dismissed by Adeodato Lampustri
• Diary of a Village Doctor
• Diary of a Young Girl's Illness
• Panther Without Eyelashes by Adeodato Lampustri
• The Wonderful Adventure of Metals
In The Name of the Rose:
• Manuscript de Dom Adson de Melk, Le by Abbe Vallet
• On the Use of Mirrors in the Game of Chess by Milo Temesvar

Works invented by Joshua Ferris

In Then We Came to the End:
• Hiding Places Both Underwater and Underground a McLenox Publication
• The Anarchist's Philosophy a McLenox Publication
• How to Make a Fake Birth Certificate on Your Home Computer a McLenox Publication

Works invented by Ronald Firbank

In Caprice:
• Ozias Midwinter by unknown
In Inclinations:
• Book of Cats by Miss Neffal
• Notes on the Tedium of Places by William Wordsworth
• Six Strange Sisters by Geraldine O'Brookomore
• Those Gonzagas by Geraldine O'Brookomore
• Three Lilies and a Moustache by unknown
• Travels by Lady Cray
• Violet's Virture (or The Virtue of the Violet) by A Literary Lady (The Scottish Sappho)
In Vainglory:
List of fictional books 370

• Autobiography by Mrs. Cresswell

• Beams by Bishop Pantry
• Even-Tide by Bishop Pantry
• The Home Life of Lucretia Borgia by Mrs. Asp
• Inner Garden by Bishop Pantry
• The Leg of Chicken by Mr. Garsaint
• Love's Arrears by Claud Harvester
• New Poems by Claud Harvester
• Night Thoughts by Bishop Pantry
• The Red Rose of Martyrdom by Mrs. Cresswell
• Sacerdotalism and Satanism by Miss Missingham
• Scroll from the Fingers of Ta-Hor by Miss Hospice
• Vaindreams by Claud Harvester
• Verlaine at Bournemouth by Lady Anne Pantry
• The Women Queens of England by Mrs. Asp

Works invented by Jasper Fforde

In the Thursday Next novels:
• Adventures in the Book Trade by O. Nakajima
• At Long Last Lust by Daphne Farquitt
• Bad Sofa by Landen Parke-Laine
• The Books of H. Paige by Millon de Floss
• Bradshaw's Guide to the Bookworld by Commander Trafford Bradshaw, CBE
• The Brontës by W.H.H.F. Renouf
• Bunyan's Bootscraper by John McSquurd (unpublished)
• Cardenio - Easy Come, Easy Go by Millon de Floss
• Caversham Heights (later retitled Nursery Crime, see also The Big Over Easy)
• The Commander Bradshaw novels
• Crimean Reminisces by Thursday Next
• Death at Double-X Ranch
• Degeneracy for Pleasure and Profit by Acheron Hades
• Don't Desert Your Desserts by Cilla Bubb
• The Earthcrossers by Mr S.A. Orbiter
• Enid Blyton by Millon de Floss
• The Extraordinary Career of George Formby by John Williams
• The Emperor Zhark novels by Handley Paige
• The Gravitube - Tenth Wonder of the World by Vincentt Dott
• The Global Standard Deity by Professor M. Blessington, PR (ret.)
• Great Expectations, A Study by Millon de Floss
• The Great Samuel Pepys Fiasco
• Hades: Family From Hell by Thursday Next
• The Hardest Job in Fiction by the Bellman
• A History of Gibbons by Ronan Empyre
• How I Think Life Began on Earth by Dr Luciano Spagog
• Journal of a LitreTec by Bowden Cable
• The Jurisfiction Chronicles by Thursday Next
• The Jurisfiction Guide to Book-Jumping by the Unitary Authority of Warrington Cat
List of fictional books 371

• The Jurisfiction Guide to the Great Library by the Unitary Authority of Warrington Cat
• Jurisfiction Journals by the Unitary Authority of Warrington Cat
• The Land Speed Record by the Very Reverend Toredlyne
• Library Sub-Basement Gazeteer
• Life After Death for Felix Tabularasa by Millon de Floss
• A Life in SpecOps by Thursday Next
• Also called Thursday Next: A Life in SpecOps and My Life in SpecOps
• Memoirs of A Crimean Veteran by Landen Parke-Laine
• The Middle of Next Week
• Neanderthals: Back After A Short Absence by Gerhard von Squid
• The New Whigs: From Humble Beginnings to Fourth Reich by A.J.P. Milliner
• Once Were Scoundrels by Landen Parke-Laine
• The Perkins and Snell novels
• Remember Them? A Study of Mnemomorphs by Blake Lamme (Ex-SO-5)
• Revealments of St Zvlkx
• Revenge of the Thraals by Handley Paige
• A Short History of the Special Operations Network by Millon de Floss
• Spacestation Z-5 by Handley Paige
• The Squire of High Potternews by Daphne Farquitt
• Story Operating Systems - The Early Years by WordMaster Xavier Libris
• Sword of the Zenobians
• Timestream Navigation for ChronoGuard cadets module 6A by Bendix Scintilla
• Thursday Next: A Biography by Millon de Floss
• Thursday Next Casebook by Millon de Floss
• UltraWord - The Aftermath by Millon de Floss
• UltraWord - The Ultimate Reading Experience by WordMaster Xavier Libris
• The Ups and Downs of Act Breaks by Jeremy Fnorp
• Upstream/Downstream by Colonel Next, QT, CG (non-exst.)
• Wales - Birth of a Republic by Zephania Jones
• Who Put the Poe in Poem? by Millon de Floss
• Wuthering Heights: Masterpiece or Turgid Rubbish? by Millon de Floss
In the Nursery Crimes novels:
• The Berkshire Book of Records
• Chymes - Friend or Foe?
• The Foot Lectures by Professor Tarsus
• A History of Reading
• Inside the Guild of Detectives
• Motoring Into Oblivion by A. Morris
• A Short History of the NCD
• Valleyhills Movie Guide
• Watching the Detectives by Masie Gray
• Who's What?
List of fictional books 372

Works invented by Gardner F. Fox

In Kothar--Barbarian Swordsman:
• The Lord Histories of Satoram Mandamor
In Kothar and the Demon Queen:
Attributed to Gronlex Storbon
• Dialogue of Demons
• Nights of Necromancy

Works invented by Michael Frayn

In A Landing on the Sun:
• Natural Man by Dr Elizabeth Serafin
• Fair Do's:Studies in the Perception of Social Justice by E J Maitland

Works invented by Cornelia Funke

In Inkheart:
• Inkheart by Fenoglio

Works invented by Neil Gaiman

Works invented in Good Omens, co-authored by Terry Pratchett, are listed in the "Terry Pratchett" section of this
article.
Works invented in The Sandman comics are listed in the "DC Comics" section of List of fictional books from
periodicals.

Works invented by Stella Gibbons

In Cold Comfort Farm:
• The Higher Common Sense and The Pensées by the Abbé Fause-Maigre, translated by H. B. Mainwaring
• Pard-spirit; A Study of Bramwell Brontë by Mr. Meyerburg (Mybug)

Works invented by Robert Goddard

In Play to the End:
• Lodger in the Throat by Joe Orton
• The Plastic Men by Derek Oswin

Works invented by Radclyffe Hall

In The Well of Loneliness:
• The Furrow by Stephen Johnson
List of fictional books 373

Works invented by Carolyn Hart

In The Christie Caper: In Death on Demand:

• The Ashen Prince by John Border Stone
• Chimera by Bryan Shaw
• The Clue at the Hacienda Dolores by Bryan Shaw
• The Clue of the Chattering Parrot by Bryan Shaw
• Death My Sister by Fleur Calloway
• Death of a Nabob by Lady Gwenolyn Tompkins
• Down These Steps by Natelie Marlow
• Farewell, My Love, Forever by Pamela (as Pamela Gerrard) Bledsoe
• The Grinning Skull by Emma Clyde
• I Won't Let You Die by Fleur Calloway
• Sing a Song of Sorrow by Emma Clyde
• The Agony Chain by Fritz Hemhill
• Blood Tales by Elliot Morgan
• Danny's Delight by Janis and Farley Farley
• Deadly Diamonds by Harriet Edelman
• Death in an Alley by Fritz Hemhill
• Gentleman's Smile by Harriet Edelman
• Kerrigan's Heart by Fritz Hemhill
• Kiss a Stranger by Elliot Morgan
• Murder in Casablanca by Emma Clyde
• Ride a Wave by Harriet Edelman
• Sad Song by Kelly Rizzoli
• San Bernadino Heist by Hal Douglas
• The Secret of the Red Dragon by Janis and Farley
Farley
• The Shuttered Mind by Kelly Rizzoli

Works invented by Mark Helprin

In Winter's Tale:
• The Afro-California Jumping Style by Sierra Leon
• Care and Feeding of the Horse by Robert S. Kahn
• Catalog of Alabama Curry Combs 1760–1823 by Georgia Fatwood
• Dressage by Turner
• Equine Anatomy by Burchfield
• Memoirs of a Military Groom by Moffet Southgate
• Pictures of Big White Horses by unknown
• Ride Like Hell, You Son of a Bitch! by Fulgura Frango

Works invented by Frank Herbert

In the Dune series:

• Arrakis, The Transformation by Harq al-Ada
• Lectures of Prescience by Harq al-Ada
• Leto Atreides II, a Biography by Harq al-Ada
• Riddles of Arrakis by Harq al-Ada
• Testament of Arrakis by Harq al-Ada
• The Book of Leto by Harq al-Ada
• The Butlerian Jihad by Harq al-Ada
• The Dune Catastrophe by Harq al-Ada
• The Holy Metamorphosis by Harq al-Ada
• The Mahdinate, an Analysis by Harq al-Ada
• The Preacher of Arrakeen by Harq al-Ada
• The Prescient Vision by Harq al-Ada
• The Story of Liet-Kynes by Harq al-Ada
• The Arrakis Workbook by Liet-Kynes
• Bene Gesserit Training Manual
• Dictionary Royal
• Handbook of the Hajj
• Muad' Dib: The Ninety Nine Wonders of the Universe by Princess Irulan
• Muad' Dib: The Religious Issues by Princess Irulan
• Private Reflections on Muad' Dib by Princess Irulan
• Songs of Muad' Dib by Princess Irulan
• The Humanity of Muad' Dib by Princess Irulan
• The Wisdom of Muad' Dib by Princess Irulan
• Words of Muad'dib by Princess Irulan
• The Last Jihad by Sumer and Kautman
• Orange Catholic Liturgical Manual by the Commission of Ecumenical Translators
• The Liturgical Manual and the Commentaries by the Commission of Ecumenical
Translators
• The Orange Catholic Bible by the Commission of Ecumenical Translators
• Pirate History of Corrino by unknown
• Assassin's Handbook
• History of Muad'dib
• Imperial Dictionary
• Kitab Al-Ibar
• Muad'dib Concordance
List of fictional books 374

• Kalima: The Words of Muad' Dib, the Shuloch • The Almanak en-Ashnof
Commentary
• Orange Catholic Bible, Revised • The Azhar Book
• Palimbasha: Lectures at Sietch Tabr • Analysis of History by Bronso of Ix
• Stilgar, The Commentaries • Proverbs of Muad' Dib
• Tagir Mohandis: Conversations with a Friend • The Dune Gospels
• The Apocrypha of Muad' Dib • The Dunebook
• The Book of Ghamina • The Dunebuk of Irulan
• The Book of Kreos • The Ghola Speaks
• The Instruction Manual: Missionaria Protectiva • The Hayt Chronicle
• The Mentat Handbook • The Irulan Report
• The Panoplia Prophetica • The Qizarate Creed
• The Pedant Heresy • The Steersman Guide
• The Spacing Guild Handbook • The Stilgar Chronicle
• The Spacing Guild Manual • The Tleilaxu Godbuk
• Words of My Father: An Account of Muad' Dib • The Yiam-el-Din (Book of Judgement)
• Works of the Mentat • The Journal of Leto II
• Strangler Vines of Ecaz by Holijance Vohnbrook • The Oral History
• The Pillars of the Universe by Muad' Dib (Paul • The Stolen Journal
Atriedes)
• St. Alia, Huntress of a Billion Worlds by Pander • Conversations with Leto II
Oulson
• A Child's History of Muad' Dib by Princess Irulan • Lessons of Arrakis
• Analysis: The Arrakeen Crisis by Princess Irulan • Leto II: Dar-es-Balat Records
• Arrakis Awakening by Princess Irulan • Muad' Dib Speaks
• Collected Legends of Arrakis by Princess Irulan • Songs of the Scattering
• Collected Sayings of Muad' Dib by Princess Irulan • Teachings of the Golden Path
• Conversations with Muad' Dib by Princess Irulan • The Apocrypha of Arrakis
• Count Fenring: A Profile by Princess Irulan • The Bene Gesserit Coda
• Dictionary of Muad' Dib by Princess Irulan • The Oral History of Rakis
• In My Father's House by Princess Irulan
• Manual of Muad' Dib by Princess Irulan
• Muad' Dib, Family Commentaries by Princess Irulan
• Muad' Dib, the Man by Princess Irulan

Works invented by William Hope Hodgson

In Carnacki the Ghost Finder stories:
• Experiments with a Medium by Professor Garder
• the Sigsand MS
• Astral and Astarral Co-ordination and Interference by Harzam with addenda by Carnacki
• Astarral Vibrations Compared with Matero-involuted Vibrations Below the Six-Billion Limit by Professor Garder
• Induced Hauntings by Harzam
• Acrostics by John Dumpley
List of fictional books 375

Works invented by Aldous Huxley

In Brave New World:
• Chemical and Bacteriological Conditioning of the Embryo; author unknown
• Practical Instructions for Beta-Store Workers; author unknown
In Crome Yellow:
• Biography of Men Who Achieved Greatness, author unknown
• Biography of Men Who had Greatness Thrust Upon Them, author unknown
• Biography of Men Who were Born Great, author unknown
• Biography of Men Who were Never Great at All, author unknown
• Certaine Priuy Counsels by One of Her Maiestie's Most Honourable Priuy Counsels, F.L. Knight by Sir
Ferdinando Lapith
• Cosmic Cuts, author unknown
• Dictionary of the Finnish Language by Caprinulge
• History of Crome by Henry Wimbrush
• Humble Heroisms by Mr. Barbecue-Smith
• Pipe-Lines to the Infinite by Mr. Barbecue-Smith
• The Tales of Knockespotch by Knockespotch
• Thom's Works and Wanderings by Tom Thom
• unknown by Denis Stone
• unknown by Mr. Barbecue-Smith
• unknown by Hercules Lapith
• What a Young Girl Ought to Know, author unknown
• Wild Goose Chase, A Novel, author unknown

Works invented by James Hynes

In The Lecturer's Tale:
• Les Mortifications by Jean-Claude Evangeline
• Das Ding an Sich: A Cultural History of Cultural Histories by Alsace Lorraine
• To Reign in Hell: The Will to Power in Paradise Lost by Anthony Pescecane
• Where's Waldo? The Representation of Everyman in Emerson by J. O. Schmeaux
• Daughters of the Night: Clitoral Hegemony in LeFanu's Carmilla by Victoria Victorinix
• Rhythm and Metonomy in Coleridge's Christobel by Victoria Victorinix
In Publish and Perish:
• The Barbecued God: Death of a Yorkshireman by Joseph Brody
• The Missionary Position: The Franciscan Construction of Rapanui Gender 1862–1936 by Virginia Dunning
• (Re) Visioning Resurrection: The Myth of Human Sacrifice by Gregory Eyck
• A History of Early Modern Witchcraft by Victor Karswell
• Cooking the Captain: The Colonialist as Yorkshire Pudding by Stanley Tulafale
List of fictional books 376

Works invented by John Irving

In The World According to Garp:
• A Sexual Suspect by Jenny Fields (autobiography)
• A History of Everett Steering's Academy by Stewart Percy
• The Pension Grillparzer by T.S. Garp
• Procrastination by T.S. Garp
• The Second Wind of the Cuckold by T.S. Garp
• The World According to Bensenhaver by T.S. Garp
• Confessions of an Ellen Jamesian by Anonymous
• Lunacy and Sorrow: The Life and Art of T.S. Garp by Donald Whitcomb
• My Father's Illusions by T.S. Garp
In Last Night In Twisted River:
• The Kennedy Fathers by Danny Angel
• Kissing Kin by Danny Angel
• The Spinster; or, The Maiden Aunt by Danny Angel
• East of Bangor by Danny Angel

Works invented by Jinyong

• Jiu Yang Zhen Jing (九陽真經)
• Jiu Yin Zhen Jing (九陰真經)
• 金蛇秘籍
• 葵花寶典
• 闢邪劍譜
• 亂環訣
• 陰陽訣
• 玉女心經
• 紫霞秘籍

Works invented by Robert Jordan

In The Eye of the World:
• The Essays of William of Maneches
• The Travels of Jain Farstrider
• Voyages Among the Sea Folk
In The Great Hunt:
• The Dance of the Hawk and the Hummingbird by Teven Aerwin
• Mirrors of the Wheel
• To Sail Beyond the Sunset
In The Dragon Reborn:
• A Study of the War of the Shadow by Moilin daughter of Hamada daughter of Juendan
In The Shadow Rising:
List of fictional books 377

• The History of the Stone of Tear by Eban Vandes

• A Journey to Tarabon by Eurian Romavni
• The Killers of the Black Veil by Soran Milo
• Dealing with the Terrirory of Mayene, 500 - 750 of the New Era
• The Treasures of the Stone of Tear
• Travels in the Aiel Waste, with Observations on the Savage Inhabitants
In ''The Fires of Heaven:
• The Flame, the Blade and the Heart
In Lord of Chaos:
• Essays on Reason by Daria Gahand
• Men of Fire and Women of Air by Elora daughter of Amar daughter of Coura
• A Study of Men, Women, and the One Power Among Humans by Ledar son of Shandin son of Koimal

Works invented by Franz Kafka

• Die Plagen, welche Grete von ihrem Manne Hans zu erleiden hatte (in Der Prozeß/The Trial)
• Die Rache des Kommandeurs [series of columns] (in Tagebücher/Diaries)

Works invented by Caitlín R. Kiernan

• Alice by Charles Lutwidge Dodgson ("Lewis Carroll")
• The Ark of Poseidon by Sarah Crowe
• Bloody Mary, La Llorona, and the Blue Lady: Feminine Icons in a Child's Apocalypse by Judith Louise Darger
• The Boats of Morning by Alex Marlowe
• The Breathing Composition by Welleran Smith
• The Children of Artemis by Fera Delacroix
• Closing the Door: Anatomy of Hysteria by Elenore Ellis-Lincoln
• The Ecstatic River by Reese Callicot
• Evening at the Gates of Dawn by Sadie Jasper
• Famous Film Monsters and the Men Who Made Them by Ben Browning
• The Far Red World by Andre Tyson
• Hauntings of Old New England by Sadie Jasper
• Hollywood Land by William Faulkner
• The Last Loan Shark of Bodega Bay by Theo Angevine
• Lemming Cult by William L. West
• The Light Beyond Centre by Reese Callicot
• A Long Way To Morning by Sarah Crowe
• Looking for Moreau: A Posthumanist Manifesto by Maxwell White
• The Man Who Laughed at Funerals by Theo Angevine
• Memoirs of a Martian Demirep (author unknown)
• The Mound Builders and the Stars: An Archaeo-Astrological Investigation by Charles L. Patrick Akeley
• New American Monsters: More Than Myth? by Gerald Durrell
• Ode to Fanny Brawne by John Keats
• Pornographies of Pnakotus (author unknown)
• Pretoria by Theo Angevine
• Red Book of Riyadh (author unknown)
List of fictional books 378

• The Red Tree by Sarah Crowe and Dr. Charles L. Harvey

• Seven at Sunset by Theo Angevine
• Silent Riots by Sarah Crowe
• The Travels of Odysseus by Alfred, Lord Tennyson
• Waking Leviathan by Jacova Angevine
• Werewolvery in Europe and Rituals of Corporeal Transformation by Arminius Vambery
• What the Cat Dragged In by Theo Angevine
• The Magdalene Grimoire by Roderick Burgess (from The Girl Who Would Be Death miniseries, based on Neil
Gaiman's Sandman series)

Works invented by Barbara Kingsolver

In The Poisonwood Bible:
• How to Survive 101 Calamities
In The Lacuna:
• Vassals of Majesty by Harrison W. Shepherd
• Pilgrims of Chapultepec by Harrison W. Shepherd
• The Unforetold by Harrison W. Shepherd

Works invented by Elizabeth Kostova

In The Historian:
• The untitled dragon books which different characters in the book find.
• Ballads of the Carpathians
• The Cannibals by Henricus Curtius
• The "Chronicle" of Zacharias of Zographou by Atanas Angelov and Anton Stoichev
• The Damned by Giorgio of Padua
• Fortunes of an Assassin by Erasmus
• History of Central Europe by Lord Gelling
• The King of Tashkani by William Shakespeare, as a "lost work"
• Life of Saint George
• Philosophie of the Aweful
• Tales from the Carpathians published by Robert Digby
• The Torture Commissioned by the Emperor for the Good of the People by Anna Comnena

Works invented by Nicole Krauss

In The History of Love:
• The History of Love by Leo Gursky
• How to Survive in the Wild by Alma Singer
• Life as We Didn't Know It
• The Remedy
• Words for Everything
List of fictional books 379

Works invented by R. A. Lafferty

In Fourth Mansions:
• The Back Door of History by Arpad Arutinov
• Broken Cisterns and Living Waters by Endymion Ellenbogen
• New Bestiary by Audifax O’Hanlon
• The Precursors by Dr. Jurgens
• Prose Poems by Maurice Craftmaster
• Second Trefoil Lectures by Michael Fountain
• Simplicitas by Orthcutt
Miscellaneous Lafferty:
• Beard in Essential by Aristotle in Through Other Eyes
• Beard in Existential by Aristotle in Through Other Eyes
• The Contingent Mutation by Dr. Minden in Ginny Wrapped in the Sun
• Euntes Ergo Docete Omnes ("Going therefore Teach Ye All") by Pope Pious XV in Name of the Snake
• Exaltation Philosophy by Audifax O’Hanlon in Entire and Perfect Chrysolite
• History of Philosophy by Cobblestone in Thus We Frustrate Charlemagne
• Joint Report to the General Dubuque PTA Concerning the Primary Education of the Camiroi by Piper, Paul, et al.
in Primary Education of the Camiroi
• Lost Skies by Audifax O’Hanlon in Incased in Ancient Rind
• Report of Field Group for Examination of Off-Earth Customs and Codexes to the Council for Government
Renovation and Legal Re-Thinking by Piggot, Paul, et al. in Polity and Custom of the Camiroi
• The Relationship of Extradigitalism to Genius by Zubarin in The Six Fingers of Time
• The Sexagintal and the Duodecimal in the Chaldee Mysteries by Schimmelpenninck in The Six Fingers of Time
• Twenty-second Century Comprehensive Encyclopedia in Land of the Great Horses
• World as Perfection by Diogenes Pontifex in Entire and Perfect Chrysolite

Works invented by Stanisław Lem

In One Human Minute:
• One Human Minute, by J. Johnson and S. Johnson, Moon Publishers, 1988
• Weapons Systems of the Twenty-first Century: The Upside-down Evolution, 2105
• The World as Cataclysm
In Imaginary Magnitude:
• Eruntics, by Reginald Gulliver
• GOLEM XIV, by GOLEM; foreword by Irving T. Creve, M.A., PH.D.; introduction by Thomas B. Fuller II,
General, U.S. Army, RET.; afterword by Richard Popp, Indiana University Press, 2047
• A History of Bitic Literature, by Juan Rambellais, et al.
• Necrobes, by Cezary Strzybisz
• Vestrand's Extelopedia in 44 Magnetomes
In A Perfect Vacuum:
• Being Inc., by Alastair Waynewright
• Gigamesh, by Patrick Hannahan
• Gruppenfuhrer Louis XVI (or Nazi Squad Leader Louis the Sixteenth), by Alfred Zellermann
• Idiota (or The Idiot), by Gian Carlo Spallanzani
List of fictional books 380

• Die Kultur als Fehler (or Civilization as Mistake), by Wilhelm Klopper

• Odysseus of Ithaca, by Kuno Mlatje
• Pericalypsis, by Joachim Fersengeld
• Rien du tout, ou la consequence (or Nothing, or the Consequence), by Mme Solange Marriot
• Les Robinsonades (or The Robinsonad), by Marcel Coscat
• Sexplosion, by Simon Merrill
• Toi (or You), by Raymond Seurat
• U-Write-It
In Solaris:
• Historia Solaris, by Hughes and Eugel

Works invented by Madeleine L'Engle

In A Ring of Endless Light:
• untitled book about medical applications of lasers by Dr. Wallace Austin
In A Severed Wasp:
• Curing and Healing by Cardinal Wolfgang von Stromberg (establishes notability of character within the book)
In A Swiftly Tilting Planet:
• The Horn of Joy by Matthew Maddox (the book serves as a McGuffin in the novel, being sought after by Charles
Wallace and others; but ultimately is not needed) Also seen in An Acceptable Time
• Once More United by Matthew Maddox. Maddox's first book is incidental to L'Engle's novel.

Works invented by C. S. Lewis

In The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe:
• The Life and Letters of Silenus
• Is Man a Myth?
• Men, Monks, and Gamekeepers; a Study in Popular
Legend
• Nymphs and Their Ways
In Prince Caspian:
• Grammatical Garden or the Arbour of Accidence
pleasantlie open'd to Tender Wits by Pulverentus
Siccus
In The Voyage of the Dawn Treader:
• Unnamed book of spells in the house of the
Dufflepuds' master fictional books in The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. Illustration
by Pauline Baynes.
In The Silver Chair:
• Unnamed cookbook containing instructions for
cooking Mallard, Man, and Marsh-wiggle, found in the giants' kitchen at Harfang
In That Hideous Strength:
• Dialect and Semantics by Dr. Elwin Ransom
List of fictional books 381

Works invented by H. P. Lovecraft

This includes works by others in the Cthulhu Mythos.
• Azathoth and Other Horrors by Edward Pickman Derby
• Black Tome of Alsophocus
• Book of Azathoth
• Chronicles of Nath by James Sheffield
• Chronike von Nath by Rudolf Yergler
• Book of Eibon
• De Vermis Mysteriis
• Derby
• Dhol Chants
• The Eltdown Shards (tr. by Gordon Whitney)
• Ghorl Nigral (also The Book of Night)
• Ilarnek Papyri
• Liber Ivonis
• Liber-Damnatus
• Livre d'Eibon
• Necronomicon by Abdul al-Hazred
• Pnakotic Manuscripts
• Seven Cryptical Books of Hsan by Hsan the Greater (tr. Etienne-Laurent De Marigny)
• Unaussprechlichen Kulten by Friedrich von Junzt

Works invented by Ian McEwan

In Saturday:
• No Exequies (poetry) by John Grammaticus (winner of the Newdigate Prize)
• My Saucy Bark (poetry) by Daisy Perowne (granddaughter of John Grammaticus, and also Newdigate
prizewinner)

Works invented by Anne Michaels

In Fugitive Pieces:
• Bearing False Witness by Athos Roussos
• From Relics to Replica by Athos Roussos
• Groundwork by Jakob Beer
• Dilemma Poems by Jakob Beer
• Hotel Rain by Jakob Beer
• What Have You Done to Time by Jakob Beer
List of fictional books 382

Works invented by David Mitchell

In Cloud Atlas:
• Knuckle Sandwich by Dermot 'Duster' Hoggins

Works invented by Vladimir Nabokov

In Lolita:
• Histoire Abrégée de la Poésie Anglaise by Humbert Humbert
• Lolita, or the Confession of a White Widowed Male by Humbert Humbert
• The Proustian Theme in a Letter from Keats to Benjamin Bailey by Humbert Humbert
• Who's Who in the Limelight 1946
• The Little Nymph a play by Clare Quilty
• Dark Age a play by Clare Quilty
• The Strange Mushroom a play by Clare Quilty
• Fatherly Love a play by Clare Quilty
• The Enchanted Hunters a play by Clare Quilty
• The Lady who Loved Lightning a play by Clare Quilty & Vivian Darkbloom
• My Cue a biography of Clare Quilty by Vivian Darkbloom
In Look at the Harlequins!: '
The book begins with a list of "Other Books by the Narrator" (that is, Vadim rather than Vladimir Nabokov). Many
(if not all) of these titles appear to be doppelgangers of Nabokov’s real novels.
• Tamara (1925), relates to Mary
• Pawn Takes Queen (1927), relates to King, Queen, Knave combined with The Defense[1]
• Plenilune (1929), relates to The Defense
• Camera Lucida (Slaughter in the Sun), relates to Laughter in the Dark (UK title, "Camera Obscura")
• The Red Top Hat (1934), relates to Invitation to a Beheading
• The Dare (1950), relates to The Gift ("Dar", in Russian) and Glory
• See under Real (1939), relates to The Real Life of Sebastian Knight, combined with Pale Fire[1]
• Esmeralda and Her Parandrus (1941)
• Dr. Olga Repnin (1946), relates to Pnin
• Exile from Mayda (1947), a short story collection, could relate to Spring in Fialta and Other Stories
• A Kingdom by the Sea (1962), relates to Lolita
• Ardis (1970), relates to Ada or Ardor
In Pale Fire:
• A book on surnames (title unknown) by Charles X. Kinbote
• Timon Afinsken (translation of Timon of Athens by Conmal, Duke of Aros
• Voluminous correspondence by Ferz and Oswin Bretwit
• Zemblan variants of the Konungs skuggsjá collected or forged by Hodinski (also known as Hodyna)
• Ten volumes' worth of novels (titles unknown) by Jane de Faun
• Dim Gulf by John Shade
• Hebe's Cup by John Shade
• Night Rote by John Shade
• Poems by John Shade
• Supremely Blest by John Shade
List of fictional books 383

• Taming a Seahorse by John Shade

• A psychology textbook (title unknown) by Professor C.
• Birds of Mexico by Samuel Shade, illustrated by Carolyn Shade
• Historia Zemblica
• The Merman (play)
In PnIn:
• Suhie Gubi (Dry Lips) by Liza Bogolepov
• Russia Awakes by Miss Herring
• Response, A Hundred Love Lyrics by American Women
In The Real Life of Sebastian Knight:
• Lost Property by Sebastian Knight
• Success by Sebastian Knight
• The Doubtful Asphodel by Sebastian Knight
• The Funny Mountain by Sebastian Knight
• The Prismatic Bezel by Sebastian Knight
In Invitation to a Beheading:
• Quercus

Works invented by Geoff Nicholson

In Hunters and Gatherers:
• The Books of Power (18 vols.) by Thornton McCain

Works Invented by Garth Nix

In Sabriel:
• The Book of the Dead (anonymous)
In Lirael:
• The Book of Remembrance and Forgetting [anonymous]
• Creatures by Nagi by Nagi
• In the Skin of a Lyon [anonymous]

Works invented by Patrick O'Brian

In Desolation Island:
• New Operations for Suprapubic Cystotomy by Dr. Stephen Maturin
• Suggestions for the Amelioration of Sick-Bays by Dr. Stephen Maturin
• Thoughts on the Prevention of Diseases most usual among Seamen by Dr. Stephen Maturin
• Tractatus de Novae Febris Ingressu by Dr. Stephen Maturin
In The Wine-Dark Sea:
• Mariners: Consensus and Cohesion in Certain States of Adversity by Dr. Stephen Maturin
• Some Remarks on Peruvian Cirripedes by Dr. Stephen Maturin
In Treason's Harbour:
• Modest Proposals for the Preservation of Health in the Navy by Dr. Stephen Maturin
List of fictional books 384

• Remarks on Pezophaps Solitarious by Dr. Stephen Maturin

Works invented by Flann O'Brien

In At Swim-Two-Birds:
• A Conspectus of the Arts and Sciences by Cowper
• Flower o' the Prairie by William Tracy
• Jake's Last Ride by William Tracy
• Red Flannagan's Last Throw by William Tracy
In The Third Policeman:
• De Selby Compendium by Bassett
• Lux Mundi: A Memoir of de Selby by Bassett
• Recollections by Bassett
• Glauben ueber Ueberalls by Countess Schnapper
• A Memoir of Garcia by de Selby
• Codex by de Selby
• Country Album by de Selby
• Golden Hours by de Selby
• Layman's Atlas by de Selby
• Rural Atlas by de Selby
• Histoire de Notre Temps by Du Garbandier
• Great Towns by Goddard
• The Man Who Sailed Away: A Memoir by H. Barge
• Conspectus of the de Selby Dialetic by Hatchjaw
• De Selby's Life and Times by Hatchjaw
• The De Selby Water-Boxes Day by Day by Hatchjaw
• Hatchjaw and Bassett by Henderson
• De Selbys Leben by Kraus
• Collected Works by Le Clerque
• Extensions and Analyses by Le Clerque
• De Selby - l'Enigme de l'Occident by Le Fournier
• De Selby - Lieu ou Homme? by Le Fournier
• Thoughts in a Library by Peachcroft
• Bibliographie de de Selby

Works invented by George Orwell

In 1984:
• The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism by Emmanuel Goldstein

Works invented by Charles Palliser

In Betrayals:
• The Armageddon Protocol by Drummond Gilchrist (unfinished)
• The Atlantis Ultimatum by Drummond Gilchrist
• The Importance of Being Jack, a play by Maturin within the fictional television show Biggert.
List of fictional books 385

• The Cincinnatus Papers by Jeremy Prentice

• Down on Whores by Horatio Quaife
• Enough Rope by Auberon Saville
• The Finger Man by Cyril Pattison
• For Richer, For Poorer by Jeremy Prentice
• The Mystic Medicine Man: Henri Galvanauskas in Lithuania 1940-41 by Jacques Gicquiaux
• The Greater Glory by Jeremy Prentice
• Let Not Ambition by
• The Hauptmann Ultimatum by Frederick Ludlum
• The Quintain by Drummond Gilchrist
• The Quintessence by Cyril Pattison
• The Right Lines by Horatio Quaife
• The Sensation Seeker by Cyril Pattison
• Unmasking Strategies of Desire: Texts, Power, and the Phallus in the Work of Henri Galvaunauskas by Graham
Speculand
• The Sting in the Tail by Jeremy Prentice, unpublished
• The Throat Surgeon by Lavinia Armitage
• Too Clever by Half by Jeremy Prentice
• The Twister by William Henry Ireland, unpublished

Works invented by Orhan Pamuk

In The Black Book:
• Obscuri Libri by Bottfolio
• Kitabü’z- Zulmet by İbn Zerhanî

Works invented by Christopher Paolini

In Eragon:
• Domia abr Wyrda

Works invented by Elizabeth Peters

In Curse of the Pharaohs:
• History of Ancient Egypt by Professor Radcliffe Emerson
In The Deeds of the Disturber:
• Development of the Egyptian Coffin from Predynastic Times to the End of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty, With
Particular Reference to Its Reflection of Religious, Social, and Artistic Conventions by Professor Radcliffe
Emerson
In Die For Love:
• Crimson Bloom of Love by Valerie Fitzgerald
• The Slave of Lust by Valerie Vanderbilt
• With a Willow in Her Hand by Valerie Valentine
In Naked Once More:
• Lust Among the Savages by Jacqueline Kirby
• Naked in the Ice by Kathleen Darcy
• Passion of the Dark by Jacqueline Kirby
• Priestess of the Ice God by Brunnhilde Karlsdottir
List of fictional books 386

• Red Flag, Red Blood by Jack Carter

Works invented by Stephen Potter

In Gamesmanship:
• Bird Gamesmanship by Stephen Potter
• Gamesman's Handbook (1949) by Stephen Potter
• Gardens for Gamesmen, or When to be Fond of Flowers by Stephen Potter
• Moth's Way and Bee's Wayfaring by O. Agnes Bartlett
• Origins and Early History of Gamesmanship by Stephen Potter
• The Silver Book of End-Play Squeezes by Stephen Potter
• Twenty-Five Methods of Tee-Leaving by Stephen Potter
In Lifemanship:
• Dictionary of Lifemanship and Gameswords by Symes
• Kninghts, and How to Reasuure Them about their Social Position by unknown
• MP-manship 1953 by T. Driberg
• Periodship (volume 2) by J. Betjeman
• Springs on the Arun by A.C.Y. Davis
In One-Upmanship:
• The Birdsman in Society by B. Campbell
• Bricks Without Straw by Olaf Pepacanek
• The Muse in Chains by Stephen Potter
• The Tea Party by T.D. Pontefract
In Supermanship: '
• Airborne Heritage by Stephen Potter
• Down to Sixteen or Less by Stephen Potter
• Literary Guide to the Thames Valley by Stephen Potter
• My Fayre Sussex by Otto Carling
• Rhododendron Hunting in the Andes by Dr. Preissberger

Works invented by Anthony Powell

In Books Do Furnish a Room:
• Borage and Hellebore by Nick Jenkins
• Sweetskin by Alaric Kydd
• Bin Ends by F.X. Trapnel
• Camel Ride to the Tomb by X. Trapnel
• Dogs Have No Uncles by F.X. Trapnel
• Profiles in String by F.X. Trapnel
In the Dance to the Music of Time series:
• Dust Thou Art by St. John Clarke
• E'en the Longest River by St. John Clarke
• Fields of Amaranth by St. John Clarke
• The Heart is Highland by St. John Clarke
• Match Me Such Marvel by St. John Clarke
• Mimosa by St. John Clarke
• Never to the Philistines by St. John Clarke
List of fictional books 387

In Fisher King:
• An unknown title by Valentine Beals
In Hearing Secret Harmonies:
• The Gothic Symbolism of Mortality in the Texture of Jacobean Stagecraft by Emily Brightman
• Cain's Jawbone by Evadne Clapham
• Death's Head Swordsman, The Life and Works of X. Trapnel by Russell Gwinnett
• Bedsores by Ada Leintwardine
• The Bitch Pack meets on Wednesday by Ada Leintwardine
In What's Become of Waring:
• Fierce Midnights by O. Guiller-Lawson
• An unknown title by Shirley Handsworth
• Aristogeiton: a Harmony by Minhinnick
• Than Whom What Other? by Redhead
• Athletes Footmen by Quentin Shuckerly
• An unknown title by T.T. Waring

Works invented by Terry Pratchett

In the Discworld series:
In The Amazing Maurice and his Educated Rodents:
• Mr Bunnsy Has an Adventure
In Good Omens (with Neil Gaiman):
• The Nice And Accurate Prophecies of Agnes Nutter, Witch
• The "Buggre Alle Thys" Bible (fictional edition of the Bible)
In Wintersmith:
• Survival in the Snow (by T.H. Mouseholder)
• Cooking in Dire Straits (by Superflua Raven)
• Among the Snow Weasels (by K. Pierpoint Poundsworth)
• The Habits of Wolves (by Captain W.E. Lightly)
• Magnaventio Obtusis (by Perspicacia Tick)
• Ancient and Classical Mythology (by Chaffinch)
• Passion's Plaything (by Marjory J. Boddice)
• Sundered Hearts (by Marjory J. Boddice)
• Unexpurgated Dictionary

Works invented by Thomas Pynchon

• An Account of the Singular Peregrinations of Dr Diocletian Blobb among the Italians, Illuminated with
Exemplary Tales from the True History of That Outlandish And Fantastical Race
• The Courier's Tragedy by Richard Wharfinger (a Jacobean revenge play in five acts)
• The Ghastly Fop (from Mason & Dixon)
• How I Came to Love the People (anonymous)
• The Italian Wedding Fake Book by Deleuze & Guattari
• King Kong; 18 vls. by Mitchell Prettyplace (a 'definitive study')
• Neil Nosepicker's Book of 50,000 Insults. The Nayland Smith Press, Cambridge (Massachusetts), 1933
• On Preterition by William Slothrop ('among the first books to've been not only banned but ceremonially burned
in Boston')
List of fictional books 388

• The Plays of Ford, Webster, Tourneur and Wharfinger by Dr. Emory Bortz
• Plotting the Stealth and Intrigue of the Jacobean Revenge Plays by Dr. Emory Bortz
• Tales of the Schwarzkommando collected by Steve Edelman
• Things That Can Happen In European Politics by Ernest Pudding
• The Wisdom of the Great Kamikaze Pilots (with illustrations by Walt Disney)
• The Chums of Chance and the Evil Halfwit
• The Chums of Chance at Krakatoa
• The Chums of Chance Search for Atlantis
• The Chums of Chance in Old Mexico
• The Chums of Chance and the Curse of the Great Kahuna
• The Chums of Chance in the Bowels of the Earth ('for some reason one of the less appealing of this series, letters
having come in from as far away as Tunbridge Wells, England, expressing displeasure, often quite intense, with
my harmless little intraterrestrial scherzo.') (Pynchon 2006, p. 117)
• The Chums of Chance and the Ice Pirates
• The Chums of Chance Nearly Crash into the Kremlin
• The Book of Iceland Spar ('commonly described as "like the Ynglingasaga only different"')
• The Chums of Chance at the Ends of the Earth
• Adventures in Neuropathy by Puckpool
• The Chums of Chance and the Caged Women of Yokohama

Works invented by Corey Redekop

In Shelf Monkey:
• By Agnes Coleman:
• My Baby, My Love
• Baby I was Nothing Before You
• Baby Madeleine, What Happened
• By Patricia Yellow:
• A Dime of Two for Your Thoughts
• By Douglas McDonald:
• Jesus Rides Shotgun
• By Ian Falk:
• Shame on All of You
• By Nicholas Rapley:
• I'm All Out of Tea
• By Laureen Hoper:
• Lightbulbs and Dreams
• By Gerry Ewes:
• Diamonds Out of Diapers
List of fictional books 389

Works invented by Mary Renault

In The Friendly Young Ladies:
• By J.O. Flint:
• Pillar of Cloud
• Remission
• By Tex O'Hara, pseudonym of Leonora Lane:
• Lone Stair Trail
• The Mexican Spur
• Quick on the Draw
• Silver Guns
• Yippee-ih!

Works invented by J. K. Rowling

This is a list of books mentioned in the Harry Potter series.
History
Historical magic
• An Anthology of Eighteenth Century Charms
• A Guide to Medieval Sorcery
• Olde and Forgotten Bewitchments and Charmes
Historical magical people
• Great Wizards of the Twentieth Century
• Nature's Nobility: A Wizarding Genealogy
• Notable Magical Names of Our Time
• The Rise and Fall of the Dark Arts
• The Life and Lies of Albus Dumbledore by Rita Skeeter
• Armando Dippet: Master or Moron? by Rita Skeeter
Historical magical things, places and events
• Great Wizarding Events of the Twentieth Century
• Hogwarts, A History, by Chroniclus Punnet[2]
• Modern Magical History
Other
• Prefects Who Gained Power
Hogwarts textbooks
Arithmancy
• Book of Numerology
• Numerology and Grammatica
Care of Magical Creatures
• Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them by Newt Scamander
• The Monster Book of Monsters
Charms
• Standard Book of Spells (Grades One, Two, Three, Four, Five, Six and presumably Seven) by Miranda Goshawk
• Quintessence: A Quest
Defence Against the Dark Arts
List of fictional books 390

• Confronting the Faceless

• The Dark Forces: A Guide to Self-Protection by Quentin Trimble
• Defensive Magical Theory by Wilbert Slinkhard
Gilderoy Lockhart's works
• Break with a Banshee
• Gadding with Ghouls
• Holidays with Hags
• Magical Me
• Travels with Trolls
• Voyages with Vampires
• Wandering with Werewolves
• Year with the Yeti
Divination
• The Dream Oracle by Inigo Imago
• Unfogging the Future by Cassandra Vablatsky
• Death Omens: What to Do When You Know the Worst is Coming
• Broken Balls: When Fortune Turns Foul
• Predicting the Unpredictable: Insulate Yourself against Shocks"
Herbology
• One Thousand Magical Herbs and Fungi by Phyllida Spore
• Encyclopædia of Toadstools
• Magical Mediterranean Water Plants and their Properties
• Flesh-eating Trees of the World
History of Magic
• A History of Magic by Bathilda Bagshot
Muggle Studies
• Home Life and Social Habits of British Muggles
Potions
• Advanced Potion Making by Libatius Borage
• Magical Drafts and Potions by Arsenius Jigger
• Asiatic Anti-Venoms
• Moste Potente Potions
Study of Ancient Runes
• Ancient Runes Made Easy
Transfiguration
• A Beginner's Guide to Transfiguration by Emeric Switch
• Intermediate Transfiguration
• Guide to Advanced Transfiguration
Magical creatures
Dragons
• Dragon Breeding for Pleasure and Profit
• Dragon Species of Great Britain and Ireland
• Dreadful Denizens of the Deep
List of fictional books 391

• From Egg to Inferno: a Dragon-Keeper's Guide

• Men Who Love Dragons Too Much
Other magical creatures
• Handbook of Hippogriff Psychology
• Fowl or Foul? A Study of Hippogriff Brutality
• Why I Didn't Die When the Augerey Cried by Gulliver Pokeby (Little Red Books, 1824)
• Hairy Snout, Human Heart by an anonymous author (Whizz Hard Books, 1975)
Magic
Dark Arts
• Magick Moste Evile
• Secrets of the Darkest Art
Defence Against the Dark Arts
• A Compendium of Common Curses and Their Counter-Actions
• The Dark Arts Outsmarted
• Self-Defensive Spellwork
• Jinxes for the Jinxed
• Practical Defensive Magic Its Use Against the Dark Arts
Magical cooking and housecare
• Charm Your Own Cheese
• Enchantment in Baking
• Gilderoy Lockhart's Guide to Household Pests
• One-Minute Feasts—It's Magic
Magical healthcare
• Common Magical Ailments and Afflictions
• The Healer's Helpmate
Magical how-to
• Weird Wizarding Dilemmas and Their Solutions
• Where There's a Wand, There's a Way
Magical theory
• Magical Theory by Adalbert Waffling
• New Theory of Numerology
• Numerology and Grammatica
• Magical Hieroglyphs and Logograms
Other magical
• Important Modern Magical Discoveries
• The Invisible Book of Invisibility
• Powers You Never Knew You Had and What to Do With Them Now You've Wised Up
• A Study of Recent Developments in Wizardry
• An Appraisal of Magical Education in Europe
• A Study into the Possibility of Reversing the Actual and Metaphysical Effects of Natural Death, with Particular
Regard to the Reintegration of Essence and Matter
Spellbooks
General spells
List of fictional books 392

• Achievements in Charming
• Basic Hexes for the Busy and Vexed
Spells for fun and profit
• Madcap Magic for Wacky Warlocks
• Saucy Tricks for Tricky Sorts
• Curses and Counter-Curses by Professor Vindictus Viridian
Sports and games
Quidditch
• Beating the Bludgers—A Study of Defensive Strategies in Quidditch by Kennilworthy Whisp
• Flying with the Cannons
• Quidditch Through the Ages by Kennilworthy Whisp
• Quidditch Teams of Britain and Ireland
Transportation
• Handbook of Do-It-Yourself-Broomcare
• Which Broomstick?
Other books
• Sonnets of a Sorcerer (cursed, anyone who reads it speaks in limericks for the rest of their lives)
• Spellman's Syllabary
• Twelve Fail-Safe Ways to Charm Witches by Franklin Filibuster
• Tom Riddle's diary
• The Tales of Beedle the Bard is a book of children's stories which is mentioned in Harry Potter and the Deathly
Hallows.
• The Hairy Heart: A Guide to Wizards who Won't Commit
Real publication
Of those, these three books have since been written and published in the real world:
• Quidditch Through the Ages by Kennilworthy Whisp
• Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them by Newt Scamander
• The Tales of Beedle the Bard is a book of children's stories which is mentioned in Harry Potter and the Deathly
Hallows.

Works invented by Carlos Ruiz Zafón

In The Shadow of the Wind:
• By Julián Carax:
• The Angel of the Mist
• The Cathedral Thief
• The Red House
• The Shadow of the Wind
List of fictional books 393

Works invented by May Sarton

In Mrs. Stevens Hears the Mermaids Singing, by F. Hilary Stevens:
• Bull's Eye, a novel
• From a Hospital Bed, poems
• Themes & Variation, poems
• Dialogues, poems
• Country Spells, poems
• The Silences, poems
• Most of the book is an interview of Mrs. Stevens at 70, and each book represents a section of her life.

Works invented by Dorothy L. Sayers

In The Documents in the Case: In Thrones, Dominations:

• Neglected Edible Treasures by George • The Suspect by Claude Amery
Harrison • This Forked Plague by Claude Amery
• I to Hercules by Jack Munting • Gee-up Edward by Mr. Clandon
In Gaudy Night : • Distinguished Gathering
• Modern Aircraft, A Manual for Trainee Pilots
• A Study of Sheridan Le Fanu by Harriet
• The Brazen Serpent
Vane
• Death Twixt Wind and Water by Harriet In Unnatural Death:
Vane • The Murderer's Vade Mecum by Lord Peter Wimsey
• The Sands of Crime by Harriet Vane • Notes on the Collecting of Incunabula by Lord Peter Wimsey
• Gas-Filled Bulbs by Jacqueline Squills In Whose Body?:
• The Position of Women in the Modern State
• An Answer to Professor Freud, With a Description of Some Experiments Carried Out at the
by Mrs. Barton
Base Hospital in Amiens by Sir Julian Freke
• History of Prosody by Miss Lydgate
• An Examination into the Treatment of Pauper Lunacy in the United Kingdom by Sir Julian
• Passion-Flower Pie by Mrs.
Freke
Snell-Wilmington
• Cerebro-Spinal Diseases by Sir Julian Freke
• Mock-Turtle by Tasker Hepplewater
• Criminal Lunacy by Sir Julian Freke
• Ariadne Adams
• Functional Disturbances of the Nervous System by Sir Julian Freke
• Dusk and Shiver
• Modern Developments in Psycho-Therapy: A Criticism by Sir Julian Freke
• Jocund Day
• Some Notes on the Pathological Aspects of Genius by Sir Julian Freke
• Primrose Dalliance
• Statistical Contributions to the Study of Infantile Paralysis in England and Wales by Sir
• Serpent's Fang
Julian Freke
• The Squeezed Lemon
• Structural Modifications Accompanying the More Important Neuroses by Sir Julian Freke
In Have His Carcase: • The Application of Psycho-Therapy to the Treatment of Shell-Shock by Sir Julian Freke
• Murder By Degrees by Harriet Vane • The Borderland of Insanity by Sir Julian Freke
• The Fountain Pen Mystery by Harriet Vane • The Physiological Bases of the Conscience by Sir Julian Freke
• A Bid for a Throne
• The Girl who gave All
• The Trial of the Purple Python
In Strong Poison:
• Death in the Pot by Harriet Vane
• Can the Dead Speak?
List of fictional books 394

Works invented by Davis Schneiderman

In Drain:
• The Book of Maneuvers by Fulcrum Maneuvers, plays a pivotal role
In Multifesto: The Henri d'Mescan Reader:
• Summary Execution by Henri d'Mescan
• Abstractions by Henri d'Mescan
• Marginalia by Henri d'Mescan
• The Trial and Death of Henri d’Mescan: Apoplectic by Henri d'Mescan
• Spacecats of the World, Untie! by Henry Mescaline
• Tupeat, Frompeet, Repeit by Henry Mescaline
• Hallucigenome: The Henry Mescaline Reader by Henry Mescaline
• Post-America" by Henri d'Mescan
• 'Touching a Careless God, or Were by Hans Dialectic
• And the Pleasure Dome Decrees… by Lucien Spume
• Kaballah?—Cab Allah! by Henri d’Mescan
• Crocodilopolis, or, The Ribcage Sounds Like A Wooden Chest by Gact
• The Breakers — Newport, RI. in 103 New World Sites: A Compendium of the Obtuse
• Try and Catch God before God ACTs Up. by Tacg
In Dis:
• Autobiomagicatomsexmonkey by Thelonius Bosh, edited by Ablaut the monkey.

Works invented by Charles M. Schulz

The Six Bunnie-Wunnies series by Helen Sweetstory
• The Six Bunnie-Wunnies and Their Pony Cart
• The Six Bunnie-Wunnies Go To Long Beach
• The Six Bunnie-Wunnies Make Cookies
• The Six Bunnie-Wunnies Join an Encounter Group
• The Six Bunnie-Wunnies and Their XK-E
• The Six Bunnie-Wunnies and Their Water Bed
• The Six Bunnie-Wunnies and Their Layover in Anderson, Indiana
• The Six Bunnie-Wunnies and Their Female Veterinarian
• The Six Bunnie-Wunnies Freak Out
• The Six Bunnie-Wunnies Visit Plains, Georgia

Works invented by Michael Shea

In Nifft the Lean:
• The Aquademoniad
• Thaumaturgicon, by Undle Nine-fingers
• The Life and Personal Recollections, as well as Many pointed Observations, of Grahna-Shalla, son of
Shalla-hedron of Lower Adelfi, who Fished in the Demonsea and Returned with Booty Marvelous to Tell
• Thaumaturge's Pocket Pandect, by Balder Xolot
• Pan-Demonion, by Parple
List of fictional books 395

Works invented by Clark Ashton Smith

• The Book of Eibon, by Eibon
• Histoire d'Amour, by Bernard de Vaillantcoeur
• The Testament of Carnamagos

Works invented by Lemony Snicket

In The Bad Beginning: In The Wide Window:

• Inheritance Law and Its Implications • A Lachrymose Atlas
In The Miserable Mill: • Basic Rules of Grammar and Punctuation
• Handbook for Advanced Apostrophe Use
• Advanced Ocular Science by Dr. Georgina Orwell
• How Water Is Made
• Encyclopedia Hypnotica
• Ivan Lachrymose - Lake Explorer
• The History of Lucky Smells Lumbermill
• Lachrymose Trout
• The Paltryville Constitution
• The Bottom of Lake Lachrymose
In The Reptile Room: • The Correct Spelling of Every English Word That
• The Big Peruvian Book of Small Peruvian Snakes Ever, Ever Existed
• The Care and Feeding of the Androgynous Cobra • The History of the Damocles Dock Region
• An Introduction to Large Lizards • The Tides of Lake Lachrymose
• The Mamba du Mal: A Snake That Will Never Kill Me by Tony "Mommy" In The Penultimate Peril:
Eggmonteror, quoted in Lemony Snicket: The Unauthorized Autobiography.
• Odious Lusting After Finance
In The End:
• A Series of Unfortunate Events
In Lemony Snicket: The Unauthorized Autobiography:
• The Pony Party! (book 1 in the series The Luckiest
Kids in the World), by Loney M. Setnick

Works invented by Muriel Spark

In The Finishing School :
• The School Observed by Rowland Mahler
• Who Killed Darnley? by Chris Wiley
In The Girls of Slender Means :
• The Sabbath Notebooks by Nicholas Farringdon
In Loitering with Intent :
• Warrender Chase by Fleur Talbot
In Memento Mori :
• The Gates of Granella and The Seventh Child by Charmian Colston
In A Far Cry From Kensington :
• Farewell, Leicester Square by Hector Bartlett
List of fictional books 396

Works invented in The Spitting Image Book

• Jennings Has Tweaky Nipples by Anthony Buggery
• Jennings Buys a New Dress by Anthony Buggery
• Jennings and the Hormone Implants by Anthony Buggery
• Jennings Gradually Begins to Feel More at Ease When He is With Other Women by Anthony Buggery
• Jennings Spends an Intimate Evening with a Signals Officer from the Royal Navy by Anthony Buggery
• Jennings Undergoes Specialist Surgery by Anthony Buggery
• Mrs. Jennings Has Twins by Anthony Buggery

Works invented by Neal Stephenson

In Cryptonomicon:
• The Cryptonomicon
In Anathem :
• Second New Revised Book of Discipline

Works invented by Laurence Sterne

In The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman:
• Grand System of Universal Monarchy by Jean-Baptiste Colbert
• De Fartandi et Illustrandi Fallaciis by Didius
• Military Architecture and Pyroballogy by Gobesius
• Notes for a Sermon to be Preached at Court by Dr. Homenas
• Treatise on the Animus and the Anima by Metheglingius
• De Concubinis Retinendis by Phutatorius
• Works by Prignitz
• De Partu Difficili by Lithopaedus Senonesis
• A (short) List of the Virtues of the Widow Wadman by Toby Shandy
• Apologetical Oration by Toby Shandy
• The Campaigns of Uncle Toby and Corporal Trim by Tristram Shandy
• Dissertation upon the Word 'Tristram' by Walter Shandy
• Life of Socrates by Walter Shandy
• Philippicks by Walter Shandy
• Plain Stories by Tristram Shandy
• Remarks Made on a Tour of France in the Year 1765 by Tristram Shandy
• Tristrapaedia by Walter Shandy
• De Nasis by Hafen Slawkenbergius
• Treatise on Midwifery by Dr. Slop
• Works by Ludovicus Sorbonensis
• The Second Council of Carthage by St. Cyprian
• Code Louis by unknown
• Dramatic Sermons by Parson Yorick
List of fictional books 397

Works invented by Peter Straub

• In The Hellfire Club: Night Journey by Hugo Driver
• in Ghost Story: The Nightwatcher by Donald Wanderly

Works invented by J. R. R. Tolkien

Note that many of the following works about Middle-earth actually 'exist' since they were written by Tolkien
himself, although he presented them as 'translations' of the fictional originals, which were in turn written by his
characters. Some do not exist at all since he never wrote them, but are referenced by other texts.
See also The Chronicles of Middle-earth [3] for a reference.
• Ainulindalë by Rúmil
• Akallabêth by Elendil
• Book of Mazarbul by Balin and other Dwarves
• Annals of Aman by Rúmil
• Book of the Kings
• Dorgannas Iaur by Torhir Iphant
• Equessi Rúmilo by Rúmil
• Grey Annals by scholars of Doriath
• Lammas by Pengolodh
• Narn i Chîn Húrin by Dirhavel
• Noldolantë by Maglor
• Of the Beginning of Time by Quennar i Onótimo
• Old Words and Names in the Shire by Merry Brandybuck
• Parma Culuina
• Quentale Ardanomion
• Quenta Silmarillion by Pengolodh
• The Reckoning of the Years by Merry Brandybuck
• Red Book of Westmarch by Bilbo Baggins and Frodo Baggins
• Ambarkanta by Rúmil
• The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen by Barahir
• The Tale of Years by Quennar i Onótimo
• The Thain's Book by Findegil
• There and Back Again by Bilbo Baggins
• Translations from the Elvish by Bilbo Baggins
• Yénonótië by Quennar i Onótimo
List of fictional books 398

Works invented by Harry Turtledove

In American Empire: Blood and Iron:
• Over Open Sights by Jake Featherston
In American Empire: The Center Cannot Hold:
• I Sank Roger Kimball by Sylvia Enos, ghost written by Ernest Hemingway
In Settling Accounts: In at the Death:
• Equality by General Irving Morrell, U.S. Army
• How I Blew Up Philadelphia by Brigadier General Clarence Potter, C.S. Army (retired)

Works invented by Jack Vance

In Araminta Station:
• Charter of the Cadwal Conservancy by the Members of the Naturalist Society of Earth
• The Worlds of Man by the Fellows of the Fidelius Institute
In Cugel's Saga:
• Intimate Anatomy of Several Overworld Personages by Haruvoit
In the Demon Princes series:
• Better Understanding of the Institute by Charles Bronstein
• Chronicles of Navarth by Carol Lewis
• Civilized Ideas and Civilized Worlds by Michael Yeaton
• A Comparison of Mathematical Processes as Employed by Six "Intelligent" Alien Races by Baron Bodissey
Unspiek
• A Concise History of Oikumene by Albert B. Hall
• The Criminal Mentality by Michael Diaz
• Dar Sai and the Darsh by Joinville Akers
• Encyclopedia of Sociology by B. A. Edgar
• Everyman's Guide to the Stars
• Fauna of the Vegan Worlds by Rapunzel K. Funk
• Games of the Galaxy by Everett Wright
• Gustations by Michael Weist
• The Heham Fjoliot
• Human Institutions by Prade
• The Institute: A Primer by Mary Murray
• Interplanetary Crime: Causes and Consequences by Karen Miller
• The Moral Essence of Civilization by Calvin V. Calvert
• Peccant Souls by Theodore Pederson
• Peoples of the Coranne by Richard Pelto
• The Sexual Habits of the Sarkoy by B. A. Edgar
• Star Directory
• Studies in Comparative Anthropology by Russell Cooke
• The Teachings of Didram Bodo Sime by Didram Bodo Sime
• Ten Explorers: A Study of Type by Oscar Anderson
• Tourist Guide to the Coranne by Jane Szantho
List of fictional books 399

In The Eyes of the Overworld:

• Thrump's Almanac by Thrump
• Zaraides the Wizard, His Compendium of Spells, Beware by Zaraides
• Zaraides the Wizard, His Workbook, Beware by Zaraides
In The Palace of Love:
• Introduction to Old Earth by Ferencz Szantho
• Worlds I Have Known by L. G. Dusenyi
In The Star King:
• The Demon Princes by Caril Carphen
• The IPCC: Men and Methods by Raul Past
• Life by Baron Bodissey Unspiek
• Men of the Oikumene by Jan Holberk Vaenz LXII
• New Discoveries in Space by Ralph Quarry
• Popular Handbook of the Planets
• Scroll from the Ninth Dimension
Miscellaneous
• Book of Dreams, the by Howard Alan Treesong
• The Killing Machine Peoples of the Concourse by Streck and Chernitz

Works invented by Kurt Vonnegut

Attributed to Kilgore Trout:
• Asleep at the Switch
• Barring-gaffner of Bagnialto or This Year's Masterpiece
• The Big Board
• The Dancing Fool
• The Era of Hopeful Monsters
• First District Court of Thankyou
• Gilgongo!
• The Gospel from Outer Space
• The Gutless Wonder
• Hail to the Chief
• How You Doin'?
• Maniacs in the Fourth Dimension
• The Money Tree
• Now It Can Be Told
• Oh Say Can You Smell?
• The Pan-Galactic Memory Bank
• The Pan-Galactic Straw Boss
• The Pan-Galactic Three-Day Pass
• Plague on Wheels
• The Planet Gobblers
• The Protocols of the Elders of Tralfamadore
• The Smart Bunny
• The Son of Jimmy Valentine
• This Means You
List of fictional books 400

• 2BR02B
• Venus on the Half-Shell
Attributed to Beatrice Rumfoord:
• The Beatrice Rumfoord Galactic Cookbook by Beatrice Rumfoord
• Between Timid and Timbuktu, anonymously published by Beatrice Rumfood
• The True Purpose of Life in the Solar System by Beatrice Rumfoord
Attributed to other authors:
• The American Philosopher Kings by Waltham Kittredge
• Are Adults Harmoniums? by Dr. Frank Minot
• Book of Bokonon by Bokonon
• A Child's Cyclopedia of Wonders and Things to Do
• Get With Child a Mandrake Root by Arthur Garvey Ulm
• History of the Rosewaters of Rhode Island by Merrihue Rosewater
• Pan-Galactic Humbug or Three Billion Dupes by Dr. Maurice Rosenau
• Primordial Scales by Crowther Gomburg
• Ramba of Macedon by Eunice Rosewater
• The Winston Niles Rumfoord Authorized Revised Bible by Winston Niles Rumfoord
• The Winston Niles Rumfoord Pocket History of Mars by Winston Niles Rumfoord
• Too Wild a Dream? by Lavinia Waters
• Unk and Boaz in the Caves of Mercury by Sarah Horne Canby
• Winston Niles Rumfood, Benjamin Franklin, and Leonardo DaVinci by Howard W. Sams
• The Underground by Polly Madison
• The Only Way to Have a Successful Revolution in Any Field of Human Activity by Paul Slazinger
• Private Art Treasures of Tuscony by Kim Bum Suk

Works invented by Scott C. Waring

• West's Time Machine
• George's Pond; Created In The Beloved Tradition of Charlotte's Web
• Dragons of Asgard
• UFO Sightings of 2006-2009

Works invented by Bill Watterson

• Hamster Huey and the Gooey Kablooie
List of fictional books 401

Works invented by Evelyn Waugh

In Brideshead Revisited: (all by Chares Ryder)
• Ryder's Country Seats
• Ryder's English Homes
• Ryder's Village and Provincial Architecture
• Ryder's Latin America

Works invented by P. G. Wodehouse

In the Jeeves stories
• All for Love by Rosie M. Banks
• Autumn Leaves by Gwendolen Moon
• The Case of the Poisoned Doughnut by Rex West
• The Courtship of Lord Strathmorlick by Rosie M. Banks
• Inspector Biffen Views the Body by Rex West
• Jenny, The Girl Jockey
• Madcap Myrtle by Rosie M. Banks
• Memories of Eighty Interesting Years by Lady Carnaby
• Murder in Mauve by Rex West
• The Mystery of the Pink Crayfish by Rex West
• My Friends the Newts by Loretta Peabody
• Only a Factory Girl by Rosie M. Banks
• Pipped on the Post
• Recollections of a Long Life by Sir Willoughby
• A Red, Red Summer Rose by Rosie M. Banks
• 'Twas on an English June by Gwendolen Moon
• The Woman Who Braved All by Rosie M. Banks
In Joy in the Morning
• Blood on the Banisters
• The Poisoned Pen
• Spindrift by Florence Craye
• Spinning Wheel
• With Guns and Camera in Little Known Borneo
In "The Artistic Career of Corky"
• American Birds by Alexander Worple
• The Children's Book of American Birds by Muriel Singer
• More American Birds by Alexander Worple
In Aunts Aren't Gentlemen (U.S. title The Cat-nappers)
• By Order of the Czar
• The Mystery of the Handsom Cab
In The Mating Season
• Mervyn Keene, Clubman by Rosie M. Banks
• Murder at Greystone Grange
Miscellaneous
• In Clustering Around Young Bingo: Frank Recollections of a Long Life by Lady Bablockhythe
List of fictional books 402

• In Cocktail Time: Cocktail Time by Sir Raymond Bastable

• In Leave it to Psmith: Songs of Squalor by Ralston McTodd
• In Pigs Have Wings: On the Care of the Pig by Augustus Whiffle
• In Sam in the Suburbs: Is There a Hell?
• In Sleepy Time: Hypnotism As A Device To Uncover the Unconscious Drives And Mechanism In An Effort To
Analyse the Functions Involved Which Gives Rise To Emotional Conflicts In the Waking State by Professor
Pepperidge Farmer
• In Something Fresh: The Adventures of the Secret Six by Felix Clovelly
• In Strychnine in the Soup: Strychnine in the Soup by Slingsby

Works invented by Gene Wolfe

In Bibliomen : In The Book of the Long Sun :

• In "Adam Poor":
• A Salted Mine by Adam Poor
• Voices Vocable by Adam Poor
• In "Bernard A. French":
• Great Lost Art of Western Europe by Bernard
A. French, editor
• Perfection Unto Death by Bernard A. French
• In "Captain Roy C. Mirk, B.A., M.A., Ph.D.":
• A Post-Modernist Critic Views the Antebellum
Middle West by Roy C. Mirk
• Poultry as Symbolism in Nineteenth Century
American Literature by Roy C. Mirk
• Tea-Time Talk in the Novels of Louise May
Alcott by Roy C. Mirk
• Washing as a Euphemism in the Works of Jack
London by Roy C. Mirk
• In "Gertrude S. 'Spinning Jenny' Deplatta":
• an unknown title by Robert T. Brooks
• In "John Glaskin :'
• Brideshead by John Glaskin
• You Can't Go Home at All by John Glaskin
• In "John J. Jons, Jr." :
• Guide to the Public Toilets of America (aka
Jon's Guide) by John J. Jons, Jr.
• Meditation on the Utilitarian Theory of Literary
Merit by John J. Jons, Jr.
• In "Kirk Patterson Arthurs, Ph.D.":
• Fiction in Fancy Dress: John Glaskin et al.
Exposed by Kirk Patterson Arthurs
• Mask and Coin: Grub Street in the 30's by Kirk
Patterson Arthurs
• Maze of Clay: John Glaskin Revisited by Kirk
Patterson Arthurs
• Sweet Sword, High Heart: Love and War in the
Fiction of John Glaskin by Kirk Patterson
Arthurs
• In "Paul Rico":
• An unknown title by Scleroderma
• The Chrasmological Writings by unknown author
In The Book of the New Sun :
• Lives of the Seventeen Megatherians by Blaithmaic
• The Book of the New Sun by Canog
• The Book of Gold by unknown author
• The Book of the Wonders of Urth and Sky, Being a Collection from Printed Sources of
Universal Secrets of Such Age That Their Meaning has Become Obscured with Time
by unknown author
In The Book of the Short Sun :
• An unknown title by Man from Urbasecundus
In The Doctor of Death Island :
• The Death of Love by Kinglake
In The Fifth Head of Cerberus :
• Introduction to Cultural Anthropology by Miller
• A Field Guide to the Animals of Sainte Anne by unknown author
In From the Desk of Gilmer C. Merton (from the short story collection Storeys from
the Old Hotel)
• Star Shuttle by Gilray Gunn
• Come, Dark Lust! by Wolf Moon
• The Shrieking in the Nursery by Wolf Moon
In Peace :
• The Book that Binds the Dead by Louis Gold (writing as Abdul Alhazred)
• The Lusty Lawyer by Louis Gold (writing as Amanda Ros)
In Seven American Nights (from the short story collection The Island of Doctor Death
and Other Stories and Other Stories)
• Mystery Beyond the Sun's Setting by Osman Aga
In Useful Phrases (from the short story collection Strange Travelers) :
• Tohish Ablar Sens-Orriyya Ert by unknown author
In Xavier McRidy :
• Allegiance to La Villa Real de la Santa Fe de San Francisco by Juan Gabriel Sabastian
de Dolo y Varios
• The Paper Nautilus by Xavier McRidy
• Mr. Milton in Medoc by S. Peety

• Training the Mind by Paul Rico

List of fictional books 403

Miscellaneous from literature

• Abnegation as Statement: Symbol and Sacrament in the Achievement of Rex Ivory by Professor Wadding in The
Transit of Venus by Shirley Hazzard
• The Alfred G. Graebner Memorial High School Handbook of Rules and Regulations by an unknown author in The
Alfred G. Graebner Memorial High School Handbook of Rules and Regulations by Ellen Conford
• All of Them Witches by J. R. Hanslett in Rosemary's Baby by Ira Levin
• Almost Like Suicide by Cal Cunningham in About the Author by John Colapinto
• The Almshouse by Mr. Popular Sentiment (a parody of Charles Dickens) in The Warden by Anthony Trollope
• An Open Invitation to the Chymical Wedding, being a Modest Prologomenon to a Fuller Revelation of the
Hermetic Myystery by Louisa Agnew in The Chymical Wedding by Lindsay Clarke
• The Ancient Enemy by Timothy Flyte in Phantoms by Dean Koontz
• Angel's Choice by Jocelyn Lewis in Away From It All by Judy Astley
• Ariadne by Emmanuel Foxx in The Players Come Again by Amanda Cross
• Attempt at a Uniform and Pragmatic Classification of the Neuroses and Psychoses, Based on an Examination of
Fifteen Hundred Pre-Krapaelin and Post-Krapaelin Cases as they would be Diagnosed in the Terminology of the
Different Contemporary Schools Together with a Chronology of Such Subdivisions of Opinion as Have Arisen
Independently. by Dick Diver in Tender Is the Night by F. Scott Fitzgerald
• The Ball-Breakers' Guide by an unknown author in A Bitter Peace by Michael Peterson (pub. Women's Center,
Oakland, CA)
• The Banjo Players Must Die [4] by Josef Assad as a novel is itself a product of the story it tells
• Be a Perfect Person In Just Three Days! by Dr K. Pinkerton Silverfish in the book of the same name by Stephen
Manes
• Beneath the Visiting Moon by Penelope Milne, a.k.a. Edith Hope, in Hotel du Lac by Anita Brookner
• The Big Green Book by an unknown author in The Big Green Book by Robert Graves
• The Biography of a Dead Cow by Mr. Rudolph Block in The Devil's Dictionary by Ambrose Bierce
• The Biography of Celebrated Mummies by Reverend Doctor Fundgruben in The Adventures of Hajji Baba of
Ispahan by James Morier
• Blood and Loot by Horace Hackett in Typewriter in the Sky by L. Ron Hubbard
• Blood on Their Hands: The Crime of It All, A study of some selected abuses in sixteenth century Europe
(Monograph) by Ignatius J. Reilly in A Confederacy of Dunces by John Kennedy Toole
• Blue Angel by Ted Swenson in Blue Angel by Francine Prose
• The Book, a sort of fairy bible in the Artemis Fowl series by Eoin Colfer
• Book of Bride by Sisters of the Convent of St. Bride in Fires of Bride by Ellen Galford
• The Book of Counted Sorrows by an unknown author in Dark Rivers of the Heart by Dean Koontz (Epigrams
from The Book of Counted Sorrows appear in most of Dean Koontz's novels)
• The Book of Fred by an unknown author in The Book of Fred by Abby Bardi
• The Book of Gramarye by an unknown author in The Dark Is Rising by Susan Cooper
• The Book of Knights; A History of the Famous Lives and Deeds of Valor of Many Brave Knights by an unknown
author in The Book of Knights by Yves Meynard
• Book of Life and Book of the Dead in the Bible by various
• The Book of Silence by an unknown author in The Book of Silence by Lawrence Watt-Evans
• Book of the City of Ember by an unknown author in The City of Ember by Jeanne DuPrau
• The Book of the Learned (a 12th century illuminated manuscript in Latin) by an unknown author in Moving
Target by Elizabeth Lowell
• The Book of Ultimate Truths by Hugo Rune in The Book of Ultimate Truths by Robert Rankin
• Bulk Discounting by Morton Kennedy in Karlmarx.com by Susan Coll
• The Catalogue of Obsolete Entertainments by Adam Pennyman in Lucky Wander Boy by D.B. Weiss
List of fictional books 404

• Catechism (also titled Confessions of Faith) by Mogila in The Suppressed Edition by Richard Curle
• Child Heist by Richard Stark in Jimmy the Kid by Donald Westlake (Several chapters of "Child Heist" are
published in Jimmy the Kid, but the full book is not. Westlake has written real books under the name "Richard
Stark".)
• A Clockwork Orange by F. Alexander in A Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess
• Collected Works by Shunsuke Hinoki in Forbidden Colors by Yukio Mishima
• Coming Home by Alun Weaver in The Old Devils by Kingsley Amis (unfinished)
• A Compleat Atlas of the House and Immediate Environs in The Keys to the Kingdom series by Garth Nix
• Consider the Porpoise by an unknown author in Grandmother's Pigeon by Louise Erdrich
• The Cupboard Under the Stairs by Frank Prime in The Beacon by Susan Hill
• The Day of the Triffids by Bill Masen in The Night of the Triffids by Simon Clark
• Death and Resurrection by Ibn Khanu in The Secret of the Vault by Wesley Rosenquest
• The Deccan Traps And Other Unlikely Destinations by Rory McHoan in The Crow Road by Iain Banks
• A Classical Dictionary by John Lemprière in Lemprière's Dictionary by Lawrence Norfolk
• The Discourses and Edifications of Liw Osfeo by an unknown author in Fools Errant by Matt Hughes
• Divine Secrets of the Ya Ya Sisterhood by Vivi Abbott Walker in Divine Secrets of the Ya Ya Sisterhood by
Rebecca Wells
• Drummondganj Book of the Dead by Jed in The Everest Hotel by I. Allan Sealy
• Ducks and Duck Breeding by an unknown author in The Pursuit of Love by Nancy Mitford
• Dying Earth by Martin Silenus in Hyperion by Dan Simmons
• An Early Bath for Thompson by A. D. Young in The Restraint of Beasts by Magnus Mills
• Earthseed: Books of the Living by Lauren Oya Olamina in Parable of the Sower by Octavia Butler
• Elegant Waste by Griffin Silver in Strangers in Paradise by Terry Moore
• Encyclopaedia Sebestiana by various scholars unknown in Nowhere by Thomas Berger
• Encyclopedia Galactica by an unknown author in Foundation series by Isaac Asimov
• Ethics of Ygor by an unknown author in The Great White Space by Basil Copper
• Etiquette Along The Mississippi by Gaylord Gibbon in Lake Wobegon Days by Garrison Keillor
• The Failed Stone by John Dart in Starcrossed by A. A. Gill
• Faith and Morals for the Catholic Fireside: A Question-box for the Layman by Revd. Aidan Raphael Croucher in
Fludd by Hilary Mantel
• Fear Itself by Grey Berwald in Batman: Fear Itself by Michael Reaves & Steven-Elliot Altman
• The Furnace of Sin by Lucas Holderness in Love and Mr. Lewisham by H.G. Wells
• The Fighting Sailor by Jack Ryan in The Hunt for Red October by Tom Clancy (a biography of Fleet Admiral
William Halsey)
• Flixton Slick - Super Sleuth by C. E. J. and Jennings Darbishire in Jennings Goes to School by Anthony
Buckeridge (unpublished)
• Fornication comme acte culterel, La by Henri Mensonge in Mensonge by Malcolm Bradbury
• Four handwritten volumes of 100 pages each, "in a cramped hand and with Latin quotations." The last volume
was a political treatise based in Humanitas. By Bras Cubas in The Posthumous Memoirs of Bras Cubas by
Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis
• Ghosts of the New England Coast by Marshall Watkins in Captain Butcher's Body by Scott Corbett
• The Grasshopper Lies Heavy by Hawthorne Abendsen in The Man in the High Castle by Philip K. Dick
• The Great Good Thing by The Author in The Great Good Thing by Roderick Townley
• Gulf of Darkness by Leidall in Violence by Algernon Blackwood
• Handbook for Messiahs by an unknown author in Illusions by Richard Bach
• History of Damar by Astytlet in The Hero and the Crown by Robin McKinley
• Hyperion Cantos by Martin Silenus in Hyperion by Dan Simmons
List of fictional books 405

• I Love My Willy by Austin Tichenor - Reduced Shakespeare Company

• Ieximal Jelimite by an unknown author in The Poet Assassinated by Guillaume Apollinaire (play)
• Inkheart in Inkheart by Cornelia Funke
• Jacob Wrestling by James Mortmain in I Capture the Castle by Dodie Smith
• The Labyrinth of the World by an unknown author in Ex-Libris by Ross King (A palimpsest of Galileo's treatise
on Jovian moons)
• Lady Don't Fall Backwards by Darcy Sarto in The Missing Page by Ray Galton and Alan Simpson (in Hancock's
Half Hour)
• The Lair of the Dragon by Judith Adams in Death in Five Boxes by Carter Dickson
• The Law, Complete by an unknown author in After Hamelin by Bill Richardson (Law Book of the Trolavians)
• The Laws of Human History by Valentin Michael Karstev in Protect and Defend by Eric L. Harry
• Le Guide by Henri (director) LeClercq in Monsieur Pamplemousse on Probation by Michael Bond
• Lexicon Corsi by Anon(ymous) in Dictionary of the Khazars by Milorad Pavić
• Life is Stranger than Thruth, Volume II: Nine More Miniature Gods by an unknown author in The Paris Stories
by Laird Hunt (pamphlet)
• The Lord of the Swastika by Adolf Hitler in The Iron Dream by Norman Spinrad
• The Lost Heir by Phoebe (publish anonymously) Marlow in Sylvester, or the Wicked Uncle by Georgette Heyer
• The Mad Tryst by Sir Launcelot Canning in The Fall of the House of Usher by Edgar Allan Poe
• The Maxims of Marriage or The Duties of a Married Woman, Together with Her Daily Exercises by an unknown
author in The School for Wives by Molière
• Make Four Million Dollars By Next Thursday! by Dr K. Pinkerton Silverfish in the book of the same name by
Stephen Manes
• Mixed Moss by James (as Captain Flint) Turner in Swallows and Amazons by Arthur Ransome
• A Modest Proposal for the Spreading of Christianity in Foreign Parts, whereby it is hoped its entertainment will
become general all over the world by an unknown author in Melmoth the Wanderer by Charles Maturin
(Manuscript volume found in an asylum)
• Multitudes, Multitudes, an anti-war novel being written by the devious junior officer Tom Keefer in The Caine
Mutiny by Herman Wouk
• The Murder of Gonzago by an unknown playwright in Hamlet by William Shakespeare (also known as ""The
Mousetrap")
• N. P. by Sarao Takase in N. P. by Banana Yoshimoto
• Never Whistle While You're Pissing by Hagbard Celine in the Illuminatus! Trilogy by Robert Shea and Robert
Anton Wilson
• The Neverending Story by an unknown author in The Neverending Story by Michael Ende
• The Nine Doors to the Kingdom of Shadows by 17th century author Aristide Torchia in The Club Dumas by
Arturo Pérez-Reverte
• Off The Road by William Henry Deveraux in The Straight Man by Richard Russo
• One Woman's War by Kate (Unknown) in Lace by Shirley Conran
• Or I Will Sell My Soul For Guilt by Thomas Covenant in the Second Chronicles of Thomas Covenant by Stephen
R. Donaldson. Covenant is reported to have written at least two other novels prior to the start of the First
Chronicles, but these are left unnamed by Donaldson
• The Orange and the Apple in Arthur C. Clarke's A Fall of Moondust
• Um Ourives das Palavras by Amadeu Inacio de Almeida Prado in Pascal Mercier's Nachtzug nach Lissabon
• Pause-O-Men for the Virgin by an unknown author in The Great Pursuit by Tom Sharpe
• Penny Has a Plan by Ruthanne Hendry inThe Stepford Wives by Ira Levin
• Peter Flowerbuck by Adrian Healey in The Liar by Stephen Fry (a forgery that Healy tries to pass off as being
written by Charles Dickens)
List of fictional books 406

• The Practice of Thinking in Murray Leinster's Med Ship stories

• The Princess Bride by S. Morgenstern - the purportedly abridged, just the good parts version by William
Goldman is the original. Goldman asserted that Morgenstern also wrote a sequel, Buttercup's Baby, but it has
never been published apart from a "teaser" chapter at the end of later editions of The Princess Bride
• The Principles of Private Detection by Clovis Andersen in the The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency series by
Alexander McCall Smith
• The Ratisutra by Jayamala in Love in a Dead Language by Lee Siegel
• Report of a Reconnaissance of the Black Hills of Dakota by William Ludlow in Legends of the Fall by Jim
Harrison.
• Revelations of Glaaki by an unknown author in The Inhabitant of the Lake by Ramsey Campbell (in The
Inhabitant of the Lake and Less Welcome Tenants)
• Rtr's Strbk by an unknown author in Rtr's Strbk by Peter Neumeyer (from "Signal 54")
• Rules and Traffic Regulations, Which May Not be Bent or Broken by an unknown author in The Phantom
Tollbooth by Norton Juster
• The Secret Goldfish by D. B. Caulfield in The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger
• The Secret of Secrets by Duban the Sage in The Tale of King Yunan and the Sage Duban by Arabian Nights
(Richard Burton translation)
• The Secret Watcher by Halpin Chalmers in The Hounds of Tindalos by Frank Belknap Long
• The Seven Minutes by J J Jadway in The Seven Minutes by Irving Wallace
• Seven-Day Magic by an unknown author in Seven-Day Magic by Edward Eager (A magic book that writes itself.
At times it also has the titles "Wishful Ways for Wizards", "Helpful Hints for Homemakers", and "Dreadful
Deeds for Dragons".)
• The Smugglers of Lost Souls' Rock by an unknown author in October Light by John Gardner
• Songs of a Housepainter by Matthew Harrison in Suzanne's Diary for Nicholas by James Patterson
• The Southern Way by Savannah (as Renata Halpern) Wingo in The Prince of Tides by Pat Conroy
• Speaker for the Dead: The Hive Queen and the Hegemon by Andrew "Ender" Wiggin in Ender's Game by Orson
Scott Card
• Speaker for the Dead: The Life of Human by Andrew "Ender" Wiggin in Speaker for the Dead by Orson Scott
Card
• Stanzas, Scars and Scandals - A Dramatic History of the Life of Lord Byron by H. J. Ragworth in Cham by
Jonathan Trigell
• Tears, Idle Tears by an unknown author in The Rise of Silas Lapham by William Dean Howells (one of the
characters says it should have been called "Slop, Silly Slop")
• Telemachus Sneezed by Atlanta Hope in the Illuminatus! Trilogy by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson
• A True and Faithful rendering of the Life of Dona Rosalina Alvarez della Cueva, Abbess of the Convent of Santa
Barbara of Tartarus by Domenico Eucaristo Deseos in The Hearing Trumpet by Leonora Carrington
• The True Grimoire by Alibeck in Casting the Stones by John Pocsik
• The True History of the World by Lucien de Terre in The Werewolves of London by Brian Stableford (4 volumes)
• To Serve Man by an unknown author in To Serve Man by Damon Knight (from the planet Kanamit)
• Too Many Cousins by Raymond Shears in Too Many Cousins by Douglas G. Browne
• The Twelve Hours of the Night by William Ashbless in The Anubis Gates by Tim Powers
• Under a Loggia by "Joseph Emery Prank" (pseudonym of Eleanor Lavish) in A Room with a View by E. M.
Forster
• Universal Principles by an unknown author in Against a Dark Background by Iain M. Banks
• unknown by Bergotte in À la recherche du temps perdu by Marcel Proust
• Unnamed novels by Robert Cohn in The Sun Also Rises by Ernest Hemingway
• The Unwritten Book by Jason K. Kingsland in Ex-Libris by John Shire
List of fictional books 407

• The Uselessness of Everything by the Hemulen in Finn Family Moomintroll by Tove Jansson
• Vastarien by an unknown author in "Vastarien" by Thomas Ligotti (in Teatro Grottesco and Other Stories)
• Vatican Codex by Mayan in The Philosopher's Stone by Colin Wilson
• Viage to the Contree of the Cimmerians by Gervase of Langford in Codex by Lev Grossman
• Warren Peece by Chris Crutcher in The Sledding Hill by Chris Crutcher
• Who Put Back The Clock? by E. H. B. in The Wrong Box by Robert Louis Stevenson
• The Vault of Mr.Curwen by Alice Waite (short story)
• The Wings of Death by Osric Dane in "Xingu" by Edith Wharton (short story)
• Yellow Dragon by M. de Bac in The Devil's Manuscript by Sidney Kilner Levett-Yeats[5]
• You Will Never Die by Carl G. Soziere in "Divided By Infinity" by Robert Charles Wilson (Divided by Infinity is
in the anthology The Perseids)

Additional reading
• Kennedy, George A. Fictitious Authors and Imaginary Novels in French, English and American Fiction from the
18th to the Start of the 21st Century, Mellen Press [6], 2004. ISBN 0773462511

See also
• Lists of books
• List of fictional books from periodicals
• List of fictional books from non-print media
• List of fictional brands
• List of fictional companies
• List of fictional diaries
• List of fictional films
• Fictional guidebooks
• List of fictional television shows
• List of fictional media
• Musaeum Clausum

See also
• List of unpublished novels

External links
• The Invisible Library [7], curated by Brian Quinette (site dead as of October 2006 - see the Archive.org site copy,
from November 2004 [8])
• The Invisible Library, Malibu Lake Branch [9], curated by Fayaway & Hermester Barrington
• The Fictional World of Archives, Art Galleries and Museums [10]
• Underneath the Bunker [11] A frequently updated journal, offering reviews of fictional books

This literature-related list is incomplete; you can help by of fictional books expanding it [12].
List of fictional books 408

References
[1] http:/ / www. uiowa. edu/ borges/ vakalo/ books2. htm
[2] Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (game)
[3] http:/ / www. forodrim. org/ gobennas/ chron_en. html
[4] http:/ / manybooks. net/ titles/ assadjother07The_Banjo_Players_Must_Die. html
[5] Sidney Kilner Levett-Yeats was a minor Victorian novelist, known to Rudyard Kiping from Lahore's Punjab Club. Born to a once-important
British colonial family, Levett-Yeats was a low-level English bureaucrat in India turned romantic novelist.
[6] http:/ / www. mellenpress. com/ mellenpress. cfm?bookid=6217& pc=9
[7] http:/ / www. invisiblelibrary. com
[8] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20041010173631/ www. invisiblelibrary. com/ ILCatalogf. htm
[9] http:/ / webspace. webring. com/ people/ ph/ hermester/ hbinvisiblelibrary. html
[10] http:/ / www. victoria. tc. ca/ ~mattison/ ficarch/ index. htm
[11] http:/ / www. underneaththebunker. com
[12] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ :List

Novel
A novel is a long narrative in literary prose. The genre has historical
roots both in the fields of the medieval and early modern romance and
in the tradition of the novella. The latter supplied the present generic
term in the late 18th century.
The further definition of the genre is historically difficult. Most of the
criteria (such as artistic merit, fictionality, a design to create an epic
totality of life, a focus on history and the individual) are arbitrary and
designed to raise further debates over qualities that will supposedly
separate great works of literature both from a wider and lower "trivial"
New novels in a Berlin bookshop, March 2009
production and from the field of true histories. To become part of the
literary production novels have to address the discussion of art. The
construction of the narrative, the plot, the way reality is created in the works of fiction, the fascination of the
character study, and the use of language are usually discussed to show a novel's artistic merits. Most of these
requirements were introduced in the 16th and 17th centuries, in order to give fiction a justification outside the field
of factual history. The individualism of the presentation makes the personal memoir and the autobiography the two
closest relatives among the genres of modern histories.
Novel 409

Definition
The fictional narrative, the novel's distinct "literary" prose, specific
media requirements (the use of paper and print), a characteristic subject
matter that creates both intimacy and a typical epic depth can be seen
as features that developed with the Western (and modern) market of
fiction. The separation of a field of histories from a field of literary
fiction fueled the evolution of these features in the last 400 years.

A fictional narrative
Fictionality and the presentation in a narrative are the two features
most commonly invoked to distinguish novels from histories. In a
historical perspective they are problematic criteria. Histories were Gerard ter Borch, young man reading
a book c.1680, the format is that of a
supposed to be narrative projects throughout the early modern period.
French period novel.
Their authors could include inventions as long as they were rooted in
traditional knowledge or in order to orchestrate a certain passage.
Historians would thus invent and compose speeches for didactic
purposes. Novels can, on the other hand, depict the social, political,
and personal realities of a place and period with a clarity and detail
historians would not dare to explore.

The line between history and novel is eventually drawn between the
debates novelists and historians are supposed to address in the West
and wherever the Western pattern of debates has been introduced:
Novels are supposed to show qualities of literature and art. Histories
are by contrast supposed to be written in order to fuel a public debate
over historical responsibilities. A novel can hence deal with history. It
will be analyzed, however, with a look at the almost timeless value it is
supposed to show in the hands of private readers as a work of art. Madame de Pompadour spending her
afternoon with a book, 1756 –
The critical demand is a source of constant argument: Does the specific religious and scientific reading has a
novel have these "eternal qualities" of art, this "deeper meaning" an different iconography.

interpretation tries to reveal? The debate itself had positive effects. It

allowed critics to cherish fictions that are clearly marked as such. The
novel is not a historical forgery, it does not hide the fact that it was
made with a certain design. The word novel can appear on book covers
and title pages; the artistic effort or the sheer suspense created can find
a remark in a preface or on the blurb. Once it is stated that this is a text
whose craftsmanship we should acknowledge literary critics will be
responsible for the further discussion. The new responsibility Winslow Homer, The New Novel (1877), again
reading in a relaxed position
(historians were the only qualified critics up into the 1750s) made it
possible to publicly disqualify much of the previous fictional
production: Both the early 18th-century roman a clef and its fashionable counterpart, the nouvelle historique, had
offered narratives with – by and large scandalous – historical implications. Historians had discussed them with a
look at facts they had related. The modern
Novel 410

literary critic who became responsible for fictions in the 1750s offered a less
scandalous debate: A work is "literature", art, if it has a personal narrative,
heroes to identify with, fictional inventions, style and suspense – in short
anything that might be handled with the rather personal ventures of creativity and
artistic freedom. It may relate facts with scandalous accuracy, or distort them; yet
one can ignore any such work as worthless if it does not try to be an achievement
in the new field of literary works[1] – it has to compete with works of art and
invention, not with true histories. The new scandal is if it fails to offer literary
merits.

Historians reacted and left much of their own previous "medieval" and "early
modern" production to the evaluation of literary critics. New histories discussed
public perceptions of the past – the decision that turned them into the perfect
Urban commuter reading a novel,
platform on which one can question historical liabilities in the West. Fictions,
Berlin 2009.
allegedly an essentially personal subject matter, became, on the other hand, a
field of materials that call for a public interpretation: they became a field of
cultural significance to be explored with a critical and (in the school system) didactic interest in the subjective
perceptions both of artists and their readers.

Distinct literary prose

The first so called "romances" had been verse epics in the Romance language of southern France. Novel(la)s as those
Geoffrey Chaucer presented in his Canterbury Tales appeared in verse much later. A number of famous 19th-century
fictional narratives such as Lord Byron's Don Juan (1824) and Alexander Pushkin's Yevgeniy Onegin (1833)
competed with the moderne prose novels of their time and employed verse. It is hence problematic to call prose a
dicisive criterion.[2] Prose did, however, become the standard of the modern novel – thanks to a number of
advantages it had over verse once the question of the carrier medium was solved.
Prose is easy to translate and unlike verse pleasant to read in private silence. As rather initimate and informal
language prose won the market of European fiction in the 15th century and immediately developed a special style
with models both in Greek and Roman histories and the traditions of verse narratives wherever an elevated style was
needed. The development of a distinct fictional language was crucial for the genre that did not aim at forging history
but at works readers would actually identify and appreciate as fictions.
The style that became characteristic of the modern novel is for the early modern period closely connected to the
development of elegance in the belles lettres. With the beginning of the 16th century the printed market had created a
special demand for books that were neither simply published for the non academic audience nor explicitly scientific
literature – but a production of style, of elegance and of class as long as class was rather defined by fashionable
behaviour than by a distinct social status. The belles lettres became this field as a compound of genres including
modern history and science in the vernaculars, personal memoirs, present political scandal, fiction and poetry. Prose
fiction was in this wider spectrum soon the driving force creating the distinct style as it allowed the artistic
experiment and the personal touch of the author who could market his or her style as a fashion. Verse, rhetoric and
science were by contrast highly restricted areas. Fictional prose remained close to everyday language, to the private
letter, to the art of "gallant" conversation, to the personal memoir and travelogue.[3]
18th-century authors eventually criticized the French ideals of elegance the belles lettres had promoted. A less
aristocratic style of English reformed novels became the ideal in the 1740s. The requirements of style changed again
in the 1760s when prose fiction became part of the newly formed literary production. The more normal it became to
open novels with a simple statement of their fictionality (for example by labelling them as "a novel"), the less
interesting it became to imitate true histories with an additional touch of style. Novels of the 1760s such as Sterne's
Tristram Shandy began to explore prose fiction as an experimental field. Novels of the ensuing romantic period
Novel 411

played with the fragment and open-endedness. Modern late 19th and early 20th century fiction continued the
deconstruction attacking the clear author-reader communication and developing models of texts to be evaluated as
such. Modern literary criticism acted in the experimental field as a constant provider of historical models. Authors
who write fiction gain critical attention as soon as they search a position in future histories of literature, whether as
innovators or traditionalists. The situation is – in a historical perspective – new: An awareness of traditions has only
grown after the publication of Huet's Treatise on the Origin of Romances (1670). It has reached the public only with
greater impact since the 1830s.

Media requirements: Paper and print

The evolution of prose fiction required cheap carrier media. Unlike verse, prose can hardly be remembered with
precision. Oral traditions had helped prose narrators with stock narrative patterns as employed in fairy tales[4] and
with complex plot structures, whose point they could only reach if they told the story correctly (the novels of
Boccaccio and Chaucer share this mode of construction with modern jokes, the shortest form of prose narratives still
circulating in oral traditions).
Extended prose fictions needed paper to preserve their complex compositions. Parchment had been available before
the 1450s, but remained too expensive to be used for histories one would read as a private diversion. Parchment was
used for prestigious and presentable volumes of verse epics their owners would have recited on festive occasions
(see the Troilus and Criseyde illustration below). Prose was otherwise the language of scientific books. Parchments
would in their case be bought by libraries. The situation changed in the course of the 14th and 15th centuries when
prose legends became fashionable among the female urban elite. The fact that the new audience would read these
books again and again for inspirational purposes legitimated the use of parchment in the private context.
The availability of paper as a carrier medium changed the situation for prose fiction. Paper allowed the production of
cheap books one would not necessarily read twice, books one would buy exclusively for one's private diversion. The
modern novel developed with the new carrier medium in Europe in the course of the 15th and 16th centuries. The
arrival of the printed book pushed the generic development as it created a special tension between the privacy of the
reading act and the publicity of the reading material that was sold in larger editions. The formats duodecimo and
octavo (or small quarto in the case of chapbooks) immediately created books one could read privately at home or in
public without the support of a table. To read novels in coffee houses or on journeys became part of the early modern
reading culture.[5] The reader who immerses him- or herself in the novel with the wish to stay undisturbed (or to be
disturbed only with a look at his or her present reading) is here an early modern precursor of the modern commuter
reading a novel or putting on head phones with the intention to stay private in the public. A special content matter
immediately explored the new reading situations.

Special content: The novel's intricate intimacy

Whether in 11th-century Japan or 15th-century Europe, prose fiction tended to develop intimate reading situations.
Verse epics had been recited to selected audiences (see the Troilus and Criseyde illustration below), a reception that
had already allowed a greater intimacy than the performance of plays in theatres. The late medieval commercial
manuscript production created a market of private books, yet it still required the customer to contact the professional
copyist with the book he or she wanted to have copied (see the Melusine illustration below) – a situation that again
restricted the development of more private reading experiences. The invention of the printing press anonymised the
bookseller-text-reader constellation – the situation was especially interesting for prose fiction, a subject matter that
remained publicly undiscussed almost throughout the early modern period. Booksellers and readers could pretend far
into the 18th century not to know more about the particular title the new market of printed books provided. If one
wanted to know what others read in novels one had to read them oneself. Prose fiction became in this situation the
medium of open secrets, rumours, private and public gossip, a private, unscientific and irrelevant reading matter, yet
one of public relevance as one could openly see that the book one was reading had reached the public as part of a
Novel 412

larger edition.
Individualistic fashions, personal views, intimate feelings, secret anxieties, "conduct" and "gallantry" spread with
novels. Love became the typical field of experience romances and novels would focus on, as Huet noted in his early
definition: "I call them Fictions, to discriminate them from True Histories; and I add, of Love Adventures, because
Love ought to be the Principal Subject of Romance"[6] Satirical fictions widened the range of subject matter in the
17th and 18th centuries. The reader is invited to personally identify with the novel's characters (whilst historians are
supposed to aim at neutrality and a public view on whatever they discuss).
The reviewing of fiction changed the situation for the fictional work in the course of the 18th century. It created a
public discussion about what people were actually reading in novels. It had at the same moment the potential to
divide the market into a sphere to be discussed and a low production critics would only hint at. The subcultures of
trivial fiction and of genres to be sold under the counter with pornography as its most influential field followed the
arrival of literary criticism in the 1740s and 1750s.

Length and the epic depiction of life

The requirement of length is contested – in English with greater ferocity than in other languages. It rests on the
consensus that the novel is today the longest genre of narrative prose, followed by the novella and the short story.
The sequence has been unstable: 17th-century critics had handled the romance as the epic length performance and
privileged the novel as its short rival.
The question how long a novel has to be – in order to be more than a novella – is of practical importance as most of
the literary awards have developed a ranking system in which length is also a criterion of importance.[7] The Booker
Prize has thus aroused a serious debate with its 2007 listing of Ian McEwan's On Chesil Beach. Critics immediately
stated that McEwan had at best written a novella.[8]
The requirement of length has been traditionally connected with the notion that epic length performances try to cope
with the "totality of life".[9] The novella is by contrast focused on a point, the short story on a situation whose full
dimensions the reader has to grasp in a complex process of interpretation. Snoopy's novel It Was A Dark And Stormy
Night[10] which followed the 1965 cartoon in 1971 proves that the requirement of length is actually secondary to the
requirement of a certain perspective on life – which Snoopy can easily offer in 214 words:

Snoopy's Novel, 12 July 1965

Novel 413

Part I
It was a dark and stormy night. Suddenly, a shot rang out! A door slammed. The maid screamed.
Suddenly, a pirate ship appeared on the horizon!
While millions of people were starving, the king lived in luxury. Meanwhile, on a small farm in Kansas, a boy was growing up.
Part II
A light snow was falling, and the little girl with the tattered shawl had not sold a violet all day.
At that very moment, a young intern at City Hospital was making an important discovery. The mysterious patient in Room 213 had
finally awakened. She moaned softly.
Could it be that she was the sister of the boy in Kansas who loved the girl with the tattered shawl who was the daughter of the maid
who had escaped from the pirates?
The intern frowned.
"Stampede!" the foreman shouted, and forty thousand head of cattle thundered down on the tiny camp. The two men rolled on the
ground grappling beneath the murderous hooves. A left and a right. A left. Another left and right. An uppercut to the jaw. The fight
was over. And so the ranch was saved.
The young intern sat by himself in one corner of the coffee shop. He had learned about medicine, but more importantly, he had
learned something about life.
THE END

The text is shorter than most short stories yet definitely a novel thanks to the author's attempts to risk what Lukács
had seen as the "Great epic's" potential to "give form to the extensive totality of life." The difference between the
ancient Homeric epic and the modern novel is, according to Lukács, that the new genre is the perfect form to reflect
the modern individual's experience of the world: "Equilibrium, coherence and unity" had been features of the ancient
epic. A "fragmentary nature of the world's structure" is by contrast the typical experience modern novels provide, so
Lukács would argue.

History

Etymology
The present English (and Spanish) word derives from the Italian novella for "new", "news", or "short story of
something new", itself from the Latin novella, a singular noun use of the neuter plural of novellus, diminutive of
novus, meaning "new".[11] Most European languages have preserved the term "romance" (as in French and German
"Roman", and in Portuguese "Romance") for extended narratives.
The English and Spanish decisions came with the 17th-century fashion of shorter exemplary histories. See the
chapters "Petites histoires" or "novels", 1600–1740 and The words "novel" and "romance" in the following.
Novel 414

Antecedents around the world

A significant number of extended fictional prose works predate the
novel, and have been cited as its antecedents. While these anticipate
the novel in form and, to some extent, in substance, the early European
novelists were unaware of most of these works; instead they were
influenced by novellas and verse epics.
Early works of extended fictional prose include the 6th/7th-century
Daśakumāracarita by Daṇḍin, the 7th-century Kadambari by
Banabhatta, the 11th-century Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu, the
12th-century Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (or Philosophus Autodidactus, the
17th-century Latin title) by Ibn Tufail, the 13th-century Theologus
Autodidactus by Ibn al-Nafis, and the 14th-century Romance of the
Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong. Paper as the essential carrier: Murasaki Shikibu
writing her The Tale of Genji in the early 11th
Murasaki Shikibu's Tale of Genji (1010) shows essentially all the century, 17th-century depiction
qualities for which works such as Marie de La Fayette's La Princesse
de Clèves (1678) have been praised: individuality of perception, an interest in character development and
psychological observation. Parallel European developments did not occur for centuries, and awaited the time when
the availability of paper allowed similar opportunities for composition and reception, allowing explorations of
individualistic subject matter. By contrast, Ibn Tufail's Hayy ibn Yaqdhan and Ibn al-Nafis' Theologus Autodidactus
are works of didactic philosophy and theology rather than private reading pleasure in the style of popular Western
novels. In this sense, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan would be considered an early example of a philosophical novel,[12] [13]
while Theologus Autodidactus would be considered an early theological novel.[14] Hayy ibn Yaqdhan is also likely to
have influenced Daniel Defoe with its story of a human outcast surviving on an island (the work was available in a
new edition shortly before Defoe began his composition).[15]

Western traditions of the modern novel reach back into the field of verse epics, though again not in an unbroken
tradition. The Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (1300–1000 BC), Indian epics such as the Ramayana (400 BCE and 200
CE) and Mahabharata (4th century BC) were as unknown in early modern Europe as the Anglo-Saxon epic of
Beowulf (c. 750–1000 rediscovered in the late 18th and early 19th centuries).
Homer's Iliad and Odyssey (9th or 8th century BC), Virgil's Aeneid (29–19 BC) were read by Western scholars since
the Middle Ages. At the beginning of the 18th century, modern French prose translations brought Homer to a wider
public, who accepted them as forerunners of the modern novel.[16] Ancient prose narratives[17] included a didactic
strand with Plato's dialogs, a satirical with Petronius' Satyricon, the incredible stories of Lucian of Samosata, and
Lucius Apuleius' proto-picaresque The Golden Ass and a heroic production with the romances of Heliodorus and
Longus.
It is less easy to define the traditions of short fictions that led to the medieval novella. Jokes would fall into the broad
history of the "exemplary story" that gave rise to the more complex forms of novelistic story telling. The Bible is
filled with similes and stories to be interpreted. Fiction is, as Pierre Daniel Huet noted in his Traitté de l'origine des
romans in 1670, a rather universal phenomenon, and at the same moment one that lacks a single cause.
The problem of roots is matched by a problem of branches: the inventions of paper and movable type helped isolated
genres come together into a single market of exchange and awareness. The first languages of this new market were
Spanish, French, German, Dutch and English. The rise of the United States, Russia, Scandinavia and Latin America
broadened the spectrum in the 19th century. A later wave of new literatures brought forth Asian and African
novelists. The novel has become a global medium of national awareness, surrounded and encouraged in each country
by a complex of literary criticism and literary awards. The relatively late emergence of the Latin American or
African novel does not necessarily indicate lagging cultural progress leading only at a late date to the individuality
Novel 415

that brought forth the modern novel: it may just as easily reflect late arrival of such necessary material factors as
print, paper, and a marketplace.

The medieval romance and its rivals of shorter works

Romances, 1000–1500

The European tradition of the novel as the genre of extended prose fiction is
rooted in the tradition of medieval "romances". Even today, most European
languages make that clear by using the word roman roughly the way that English
uses the word novel. The word novel claims roots in the European novella.[11]
Yet, epic length or the focus on a central hero giving the work its name (as in
Robinson Crusoe or Oliver Twist) are features derived from the tradition of
"romances". The early modern novel had preferred titles that focused on curious
examples of modern life, not on heroes.

The word roman or romance had become a stable generic term by the beginning
of the 13th century, as in the Roman de la Rose (c. 1230), famous today in
English through Geoffrey Chaucer's late 14th-century translation. The term
linked fictions back to the histories that had appeared in the Romance language
of 11th and 12th-century southern France. The central subject matter was initially
derived from Roman and Greek historians. Works of the Chanson de geste
tradition revived the memory of ancient Thebes, Dido and Aeneas, and
Alexander the Great. German and Dutch adaptations of the famous histories Chaucer reciting Troilus and
appeared in the late 12th and early 13th centuries.[18] Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde: early 15th-century
Criseyde (1380–87) is a late example of this European fashion. manuscript of the work at Corpus
Christi College, Cambridge
The subject matter which was to become the central theme of the genre in the
16th and 17th centuries was initially a branch of a broader genre. Arthurian histories became a fashion in the late
12th century thanks to their ability to glorify the northern European feudal system as an independent cultural
achievement. The works of Chrétien de Troyes set an example, in that his plot construction subjected the northern
European epic traditions to ancient Greek aesthetics. The typical Arthurian romance would focus on a single hero
and lead him into a double course of episodes[19] in which he would prove both his prowess as an independent knight
and his readiness to function as a perfect courtier under King Arthur. The model invited religious redefinitions with
the quest and the adventure as basic plot elements: the quest was a mission the knight would accept as his personal
task and problem. Adventures (from Latin advenire "coming towards you") were tests sent by God to the knight on
the journey, whose course he (the knight) would no longer try to control. The plot framework survived into the world
of modern Hollywood movies which still unite, separate and reunite lovers in the course of adventures designed to
prove their love and value. Variations kept the genre alive: unexpected and peculiar adventures surprised the
audience in romances like Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (c. 1380). Satirical parodies of knight errantry (and
contemporary politics) appeared with works such as Heinrich Wittenwiler's Ring (c. 1410).

The shift from verse to prose dates from the early 13th century. The Prose Lancelot or Vulgate Cycle includes
passages of that period. The collection indirectly lead to Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur compilation of the
early 1470s.
Several factors made prose increasingly attractive: this "low" style was less prone to potentially annoying
exaggerations; it linked the popular plots to the field of serious histories traditionally composed in prose
(compilations such as Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur claimed to collect a historical sources for the sole purpose of
instruction and national edification[20] ). Prose had an additional advantage for translators, who could go directly for
meaning, where verse had to be translated by people skilled as poets in the target language. And prose survived
Novel 416

language changes: developments such as the Great vowel shift changed almost all the European languages during the
14th and 15th centuries. Copyists of prose had an easy job to deal with these shifts while those who copied verses
saw that rhymes had broken and syllables got lost in almost every second line.
Prose became the medium of the urban commercial book market in the 15th century. Monasteries sold edifying
collections of saints' and virgins' lives composed in prose. The customers were mostly women (the interiors of many
of the 14th- and 15th-century paintings of the annunciation show how far books had spread into the urban
households that painters usually depicted as the blessed virgin's bourgeois environment.[21] ) Prose became in this
environment the medium of silent and private reading. It spread with the commercial book market that began to
provide such reading materials even before the arrival of the first commercial printed histories in the 1470s.[22]

The tradition of the novella, 1200–1600

The term novel refers back to the production of short stories that
remained part of a European oral culture of storytelling into the late
19th century. Fairy tales, jokes, little funny stories designed to make a
point in a conversation, the exemplum a priest would insert in a sermon
belong into this tradition. Written collections of such stories circulated
in a wide range of products from practical compilations of examples
designed for the use of clerics to such poetic cycles as Boccaccio's
Decameron (1354) and Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales
(1386–1400).

The early modern genre conflict between "novels" and "romances" can
The Pilgrims diverting each other with tales;
be traced back to the 14th-century cycles. The standard scheme of woodcut from Caxton's 1486 edition of
stories the author claimed to have heard in a round of narrators Canterbury Tales.
promised variety of subject matter and it led to clashes of genres. Short
romances appeared within the frame tales side by side with stories of the rivalling lower genres such as the
fabliaux.[23] Individual story tellers would openly defend their tastes in a debate that grew into a metafictional
consideration.

The cycles themselves showed advantages over the production of rival extended epic-length romances. Romances
presupposed a consensus in questions of style and heroism. The cycles shifted the problem of how fictions were to
be justified onto the level of the individual storytellers: onto a level the author, Chaucer or Boccaccio, would see as
out of his control.[24] The narrators had, so Chaucer in his Canterbury Tales,[25] offered these stories to make certain
points in a lively conversation he had only chronicled. They attacked each other if they felt the stories of their
opponents had missed their points. A competition among the genres developed. If one believes the medieval
collections, differing tastes of people with different social statuses were decisive; the different professions fought a
battle over precedent with satirical plots designed to ridicule individuals of the opposing trades. A cycle bound rival
stories together and it offered the easiest way to keep a critical distance. The pluralistic discourse created here
eventually developed into the 17th- and 18th-century debate of fiction and its genres.
Much of this original conception of the genre is still alive whenever a short joke is told to make a certain humorous
point in everyday conversation. The longer exploits left the sphere of oral traditions with the arrival of the printing
press. The book eventually replaced the story teller and introduced the preface and the dedication as the paratexts in
which the authors would continue the metafictional debate over the advantages of genres and the reasons why one
published and read fictional stories.
Novel 417

Before literature: The early market of printed books, 1470–1720

Looking back to the scope of early modern histories, mentalities seem
to differ. The Enlightenment seems to separate the 21st-century
observer from early modern authors and readers of histories and
fictions. The grossest improbabilities pervade many historical accounts
found in the early modern print market. William Caxton's 1485 edition
of Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur (1471) was sold as a true
history, though the story unfolded in a series of magical incidents and
historical improbabilities. Witchcraft pervaded the medieval romance,
which no one read as "romance" as long as it claimed to be a central
text of Great Britain's national memory. Sir John Mandeville's
Voyages, written in the 14th century, circulated in printed editions
throughout the 18th century,[26] and was filled with natural wonders
like the one-footed Ethiopians who use their extremity as an umbrella
against the desert sun – again without becoming the subject of critical
historical debates. Both works eventually came to be viewed as works
of literature, fiction. The realm of history grew around 1700 into a field
1474: The customer in the copyist's shop with a
of comparatively sober argumentative rather than narrative projects.
book he wants to have copied. This illustration of
the first printed German Melusine looked back to
One can interpret this development as a sign of gradual enlightenment.
the market of manuscripts.
It stands at the same moment for a new arrangement of discourses the
Western nations established beginning with the 1660s. History became
in the Western world a secular platform on which all parties, religions, and institutions agree to settle questions of
unresolved responsibilities. Historical commissions such as the International Catholic-Jewish Historical Commission
are temporarily established whenever conflicts call for historical decisions. Debates of state and religion had a
comparable importance until the beginning of the 18th century. A new positioning of the sciences and a general
interest of the 19th-century nation states in controllable and pluralistic secular debates stand behind the process that
found its breakthrough with the American and the French revolutions and the 19th-century unification of Germany.

The transformation of history from a narrative project designed to instruct and to delight into a platform of open
controversies is the one larger process which redefined the place of prose fiction since the Middle Ages. The creation
of "literature" as a compound of poetry and fiction is the other. The modern nations won with literature a second
field of essentially pluralistic controversies in which the interpretation and collective appreciation of texts gained a
new and wider importance.
Two major incidents fuelled the separation of historical and fictional literature in the 16th and 17th centuries. The
invention of printing immediately created a new market of comparatively cheap entertainment and knowledge – the
market of chapbooks. The more elegant production 17th- and 18th-century authors would propagate as the belles
lettres – a market that would be neither low nor academic – defined its ideals of style in the course of the 17th
century. It became the wider sphere in which the modern ensemble of "literary genres" of poetry and fiction gained
greater cohesion in late 18th century. The second major development is fixed to a single title: The Spanish Amadis
de Gaula, by García Montalvo became the first best-seller of modern fiction – a title one would soon be reluctant to
accept as part of the elegant belles lettres. The Amadis eventually became the archetypical "romance" against which
the modern novel unfolded its successful wider pattern of genres in the 17th century.
Novel 418

Trivializations: Chapbooks, 1470–1800

The invention of printing subjected the existing field of histories – whether allegedly true, romantic or novel – to a
process of trivialization and commercialization. Romances had circulated in lavishly ornamented manuscripts to be
read out to audiences. The printed book allowed a comparatively inexpensive alternative for the special purpose of
silent reading. Abridgements of ancient historians, popular medieval histories of knights, stories of comical heroes,
religious legends and collections of jests and fables were the principal historical subject matter.[27] Offering suspense
and stories the audience could accept as allegedly true, even if they were fantastic and unlikely, the new books
reached the households of urban citizens and of country merchants who visited the cities as traders.
Literacy spread among the urban populations of Europe due to a
number of factors:[28] Women of wealthier households had learned to
read in the 14th and 15th centuries and had become customers of
religious devotion. The Protestant Reformation enkindled propaganda
and press wars that lasted into the 18th century. Broadsheets and
newspapers became the new media of public information. The early
modern customers would not necessarily be able to write, yet even
writing skills spread among apprentices and women of the middle
classes. Business owners were forced to adopt methods of written
book-keeping and accounting. The personal letter became a favourite
Deteriorated design: early 18th-century chapbook
medium of communication among 17th-century men and women as
edition of The Honour of Chivalry, first published
many Dutch period paintings show. The prefaces, the escapist subject in 1598.
matter, and a number of satires on the early consumption of fiction
show that cheap histories were especially popular among apprentices and younger urban readers of both sexes.[29]
Norris' and Bettesworth's 1719 edition of The Seven Famous Champions of Christendom – itself a mixture of legend
and romance – ended with a look on the entire spectrum of books the publishers would provide in their shops on
London Bridge, a famous location where those who left the city provided themselves with reading materials:

At the afore-mentioned Place, all Country Chapmen may be furnished with all Sorts of Bibles,
Commonprayers, Testaments, Psalters, Primers and Horn-books; Likewise all Sorts of three Sheets
Histories, Penny Histories, and Sermons; and Choice of new and old Ballads, at reasonable Rates.[30]
Novel 419

The new market was disregarded by scholars. The texts were offered
with promises of great erudition – to an audience that would not know
to distinguish between erudition and the misleading advertisement. The
subject matter was extremely conservative. The bestsellers of this
market – books like Till Eulenspiegel, The Seven Wise Masters, Don
Belianis of Greece, Dr. Faustus, The London Prentice, or Sir John
Mandeville's Voyages – went through innumerable editions between
1500 and 1800. People bought these books because though they were
everything but modern and fashionable; one wanted to have them,
because they were the books everyone had heard of, books of an
eternal value to be chosen if one was not too sure about one's abilities
to judge. The prefaces exploited these insecurities praising the solid
value of the old and well known titles.

The design of these books deteriorated. The texts were copied without
much editorship. Standard woodcut illustrations were repeated, often
even within a single book, wherever the plot allowed such repetition.
The illustrations began to show peculiar style mixes as the printer's
François Rabelais Gargantua (1537). stocks grew: Early 18th-century editions of 16th-century titles would
mix woodcuts of 16th-century knights in armor with equally crude
depictions 18th-century courtiers wearing wigs.

The early modern market divide that created a field of low chapbooks and an alternative market segment of
expensive fashionable, elegant belles lettres can be traced back into the 1530s and 1540s. The Amadis and Rablais'
Gargantua and Pantagruel were the most important publications that lead into this divide – both books that
specifically addressed the new customers of popular histories. The Amadis was a multi volume fictional history of
style, so the advertisements, and aroused a debate of style and elegance as it fanned the first reading craze on the
market of printed fiction. Gargantua and Pantagruel had the design of the modern popular history only to satirize its
stylistic achievements. The ensuing debate created a gap between "truly elegant" fictions and the conservative bulk
of chapbooks. The market divide became especially visible with books that appeared on both markets in the course
of the 17th and 18th centuries: The low market eventually included abridgments of classy books from Miguel
Cervantes' Don Quixote (1605/1615)[31] to the mutilations of Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719), which
infuriated the author with their claim to offer the entire plot without the tedious reflections for but half the price.[32]

The cheap abridgments openly addressed an audience that neither had the money nor the courage to buy books with
engravings and fine print. The prefaces of the abridgements promised shorter sentences, more action and less
reflection, and the title for half the money.[33] The gradual differentiation between fact and fiction that affected the
market of the belles lettres in the 17th and 18th centuries barely touched the low market. One could wonder whether
the apprentices and peasants who read such books cared about the status King Arthur, St. George or Julius Caesar
had in the historian's eye. William Caxton's preface to Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur (1485) set the tone that
would allow Sir John Mandeville's Voyages of the 1360s to continue to be published as a true account of Eastern
wonders until the end of the 18th century.
Novel 420

Heroic romances of style and fashion, 1530–1720

By the 1550s there existed a section of literature (scientific books) addressing the
academic audience and a second market of books for the wider audience. The
popular second market developed its own differentiation of class and style.
Whilst the lowest strata of chapbooks created an extremely conservative market
its antagonist the elegant "belles lettres" showed a particular design aiming at
educated readers of both sexes, though not necessarily at academics. The very
term "belles lettres" spoke of the ambition to leave the field of low books and to
reach the realm of the sciences, "literature", "les lettres". Polite literature, galante
Wissenschaften (that is sciences addressing both sexes and all readers of taste)
were the English and German terminological equivalents. The use of a French
loan word belles lettres marked the international aspect of the development. The
new market segment comprised poetry, memoirs, modern politics, books of
fashion, journals, and such. Autobiographical memoirs, personal journals and The Amadis, Spanish edition of 1533
prose fiction set the trend in the modern field as the genres that authors could
most freely use for experiments of style and personal expression.

The evolution of prose fiction needed the elegant market, a market of

changing styles and fashions, and it found its central critical debate
with the publication of the Amadis de Gaula in the 1530s. Two
questions moved into the centre of the debate as Spanish, French and
German translations and imitations flooded the European market.[34]
The first was a question of style and fashion: the Amadis had moved
back into the Arthurian Middle Ages, into a world of quests, knights
and adventures, though it had turned its princes and princesses into
paragons of style and elegance. Was this what one had to expect of
modern prose fiction? The second problem was connected with the
unprecedented public reaction: the Amadis became the object of a
widespread reading craze. Could a market of style and distinguished
taste allow such a development?

By 1600 the Amadis had become the detested epitome of the modern
romance. A search for alternative subject matters had begun. The
biographies of Greek and Roman historians became the most important
Madeleine de Scudéry, Artamene (1654)
source here. Heliodorus' romances were to be followed in matters of
style and composition,[35] whilst the heroes turned from knights to
princes and princesses acting now in ancient courts. The standard plot of adventures gave way to a new plot of love
facing intrigues, attacks, rivalry and adversity. A new art of character observation unfolded.

The works that gained the greatest fame – Honoré d'Urfé's L'Astrée (1607–27), John Barclay's Argenis (1625–26),
Madeleine de Scudéry"s ‚Clelie or Anton Ulrich von Braunschweig's Römischer Octavia (Octavia the Roman,
1679–1714) – were esteemed both as explorations of the ancient world and as works one would read with an interest
in modern life. They encapsulated present histories clad in ancient costumes and dove into the realm of the roman à
clef, the novel readers would decipher with a key that betrayed who was who within this fictional world. The present
fashions of courtly conduct could in the event be found nowhere in such perfection as in these seemingly historical
romances. Readers used them as models for their own elegant compliments, letters, and speeches.
The genre had much in common with the production of French and Italian operas in the same period. It found
trivializations with a special brand of escapist "Asian" Romances which led into the ancient empires of Assyria,
Novel 421

Persia, India. The latter were particularly fashionable among urban female French and German readers of the
younger generation, who would dream of sharing the escapes of princesses from all sorts of adversities. The
individual European markets reacted differently on these fashions. The craving had a particularly short life in
England where it began in the 1650s only to end in the 1670s, as these romantic plots fell out of fashion.

Satirical romances, 1500–1780

Stories of witty cheats were an integral part of the European novella

with its tradition of fabliaux. Several collections knitted such stories to
individual heroes who developed personal and national features.
Germany's Till Eulenspiegel (1510) was the hero of chapbooks in and
outside Germany. The Spanish Lazarillo de Tormes (1554) represented
a transition from a collection of episodes towards the story of the life
of a central character, the hero of the work. Grimmelshausen's
Simplicissimus Teutsch (1666–1668) took a further step along this
path, as its hero experienced recent world history, in this case the
history of the Thirty Years' War that had devastated Germany. Richard
Richard Head, The English Rogue (1665)
Head's The English Rogue (1665) is rooted in this tradition (the English
preface mentions the precedents; the German translation that appeared
in 1672 sold the book as an English equivalent of the German Simplicissimus). The tradition that developed with
these titles focused on a hero and his life. The adventures led to satirical encounters with the real world with the hero
either becoming the pitiable victim or the rogue who exploited the vices of those he met.

A second tradition of satirical romances can be traced back to Heinrich Wittenwiler's Ring (c. 1410) and to François
Rabelais' Gargantua and Pantagruel (1532–1564). It was rather designed to parody and satirize heroic romances,
and did this mostly by dragging them into the low realm of the burlesque. Cervantes' Don Quixote (1606/1615)
modified the satire of romances: its hero lost contact with reality by reading too many romances in the Amadisian
tradition.
Both branches of satirical production seem to have addressed a predominantly male audience (women are despicable
victims in titles like Head's The English Rogue). They found the appreciation of critics as long as they revealed the
weaknesses of the Amadis. The critics otherwise deplored that the satires could not offer alternatives. Other
important works of the tradition are Paul Scarron's Roman Comique (1651–57) with its explicit discussions of the
market of fictions, the anonymous French Rozelli with its satire on Europe's religions, Alain-René Lesage's Gil Blas
(1715–1735), Henry Fielding's Joseph Andrews (1742) and Tom Jones (1749), and Denis Diderot's Jacques the
Fatalist (1773, printed posthumously in 1796).[36]
Novel 422

"Petites histoires" or "novels", 1600–1740

The term novel – today in a twisted history (see below) connected with
the appearance of Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719) – has been
present on the market since the 16th century. William Painter's Palace
of Pleasure well furnished with pleasaunt Histories and excellent
Novelles (1566) was the first English title to use it. Compared with
"romances", "novelles", "novellas" or "novels" (all these words meant
the same, "novel" became the standard term in the 1650s) had to be
short. They had to give up all aspirations on grandeur, heroism and the
style romantic heroes and their actions required. "Romances" focused
on lonely heroes and their adventures, "novels" on revealing incidents
that could serve as examples for moral maxims. The titles of
"romances" put their respective heroes' and heroines' names front and
centre: "Artamene", "Clelie" were the heroes of "heroic romances".
"Satirical romances" did the same with their lower class protagonists.
The additional "Adventures of" would later emphasize the focus on
acts of heroism. The titles of "novels" preferred a two part formula
"[...] or [...]" in order to state the value of the incident related. William
Congreve's Incognita or Love and Duty Reconcil'd (1692) was typical
in this respect. The protagonists of "novels" were actors in a plot, in an
intrigue, and it was the plot that gave the example and taught the vital Miguel de Cervantes, Novelas Exemplares (1613)

lessons. These protagonists could be average human beings without

any special signs of grandeur, neither comical nor imitable but of the
same nature as their readers; they would by and large show
problematic character traits.[37] Unlike romances, the protagonists were
not role models: instead, the surprising results of their actions taught
the lessons.

The rise of the "novel" as the major alternative to the antiquated

"romance" began with the publication of Cervantes Novelas
Exemplares (1613). It unfolded with Scarron's Roman Comique, whose
heroes noted a rivalry of French "romances" and the new Spanish
genre. France had to find, Scarron wrote at the time, its own brand of
short stories.[38]

Late 17th-century critics looked back onto the history of prose fiction
proud of the generic shift towards the modern novel/novella.[39] A
wave of "petites histoires" or "nouvelles historiques"[40] had replaced
the old romances. The first perfect works in French were those of
Scarron and Madame de La Fayette's "Spanish history" Zayde (1670).
The development finally led to her Princesse de Clèves (1678), the first
novel with what would become characteristic French subject matter
(Marie de LaFayette's authorship remained a secret, though, over the
next decades).
William Congreve, Incognita (1692)
Novel 423

Europe witnessed the generic shift with the titles Dutch francophone publishers supplied on the international market.
English publishers exploited the novel/romance controversy in the 1670s and 1680s.[41] The word "novel" began to
replace the word "romance" on title pages in the 1680s. Contemporary critics listed the advantages of the new genre:
brevity, a lack of ambition to produce epic poetry in prose. The style was fresh and plain; the focus was on modern
life and on heroes who were neither good nor bad. One learned through their actions, not by imitating them.[42] The
novel's potential to become the medium of urban gossip and scandal fuelled the rise of the novel/novella. The authors
of modern journalistic gossip spiced their works with short anonymous histories. The stories were offered as
allegedly true recent histories, not for the sake of scandal but strictly for the moral lessons they gave. To prove this,
one would read fictionalized names (and read the true names in separate keys). The Mercure Gallant set the fashion
in the 1670s.[43] Collections of letters and memoirs appeared, and were filled with the intriguing new subject matter.
The epistolary novel grew on this market and found its first full blown example of scandalous fiction with Aphra
Behn's Love-Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister (1684/ 1685/ 1687).
The development did not lead to Robinson Crusoe – a work that was almost provocatively (both in 1719 when it
appeared and still in the 1760s) a new "romance", thanks to its exotic setting and thanks to its singular hero offering
a story of survival in isolation. Crusoe lacked almost all the amenities of the new "novels": wit, a fast narration
evolving around a group of young fashionable urban heroes and their intrigues, a scandalous moral, gallant talk to be
imitated and brevity and conciseness of the plot. The development did, however, lead to Eliza Haywood's epic length
"novel" Love in Excess (1719/20) and to Samuel Richardson's Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1741), essentially still a
novel with its typical two part title: naming the story and promising its value as an example. It led to a production of
classics of the intriguing production and to a reform movement in the 1740s.

Dubious and scandalous histories, 1660–1720

The entire market of early modern fiction remained part of the wider
production of (potentially dubious) histories. A market of "literature"
in the modern sense of the word, a market of fiction and poetry, did not
exist. "History and politicks" was the rubric early 18th-century Term
Catalogues had in stock for the entire production of pamphlets,
memoirs, travel literature, political analysis, serious histories,
romances and novels.

That fictional histories could share the same space with academic
histories and modern journalism had been criticized by historians since
the end of the Middle Ages: fictions were "lies" and therefore hardly
justifiable at all. The climate had, however, changed, in the 1670s.
Paradoxically, the same historians who pleaded for a new era of
academic research also pleaded for fiction to stay within the field of
histories. The authors who advocated Pyrrhonism, scepticism as a
historical discipline, did not demand that fictions change. Instead, they
demanded that historians should step from the old project of historical
narratives to a new project of critical analysis and discussion of
sources.[44] Pierre Bayle exemplified this with all the articles of his
Dictionnaire Historique et Critique (1697) and with his statements on
the legitimacy of fictions, especially those of the modern political
1719 newspaper reprint of Robinson Crusoe
market.[45]

The new novels, romances and dubious histories, the quasi historical and yet immensely readable works of the
Madame d'Aulnoy, César Vichard de Saint-Réal,[46] Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras,[47] and Anne-Marguerite Petit
Novel 424

DuNoyer, were, according to the modern advocates of the free press, not only embedded in the field of veritable
critical histories: they had an important function to fulfill in that field. In a time when factuality was not a sufficient
defence against a libel suit, the romantic lay out allowed the publication of histories that could not risk an
unambiguous assertion of their truth. The question was not whether one should separate the markets of true and
fictional histories from each other but whether one would be able to establish critical discourses to evaluate all the
interesting production.
The market of the late 17th and early 18th centuries employed a simple pattern of options of how fictions could both
be part of the historical production and reach out into the sphere of true histories. The fringes of this pattern
flourished as cheap excuses. They allowed it authors to claim they had published fiction, not truth, if they ever faced
outright allegations of libel:

Probably not that fictitious 3.1 Probably not that factual

Heroical Romances:
Fénelon's Telemach (1699)

1 2 3.2 4 5
Sold as romantic Sold as romantic inventions, Classics of the novel from Sold as true private history, Sold as true public history,
inventions, read as read as true histories of private the Arabian Nights to M. de risking to be read as risking to be read as
true histories of public affairs: Menantes' Satyrischer La Fayette's Princesse de romantic invention: Defoe's romantic invention: La
affairs: Roman (1706) Clèves (1678) Robinson Crusoe (1719) Guerre d'Espagne (1707)
Manley's The New
Atalantis (1709)

3.3
Satirical Romances:
Cervantes' Don Quixote
(1605) [48]

Prefaces and title pages of 17th- and early 18th-century fiction

acknowledged this pattern: histories could claim to be romances, but
threaten to relate true events, as in the roman à clef. Other works could,
conversely, claim to be factual histories, yet earn the suspicion that
they were wholly invented. A further differentiation was made between
private and public history: Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe was,
Romances of adventures: the title pages of both
within this pattern, neither "romance" nor "novel". It smelled – with its the English edition of François Fénelon's
title page alluding to Fénelon's Telemachus (1699/1700) – of romance, Telemachus (London: E. Curll, 1715) and Defoe's
whilst the preface stated that one (most certainly) read a true private Robinson Crusoe (London: W. Taylor, 1719).

history:

IF ever the Story of any private Man's Adventures in the World were worth making Pvblick, and were
acceptable when Publish'd, the Editor of this Account thinks this will be so.
The Wonders of this Man's Life exceed all that (he thinks) is to be found extant; the Life of one Man
being scarce capable of a greater Variety.
The Story is told with Modesty, with Seriousness, and with a religious Application of Events to the Uses
to which wise Men always ap[p]ly them (viz.) to the Instruction of others by this Example, and to justify
and honor the Wisdom of Providence in all the Variety of our Circumstances, let them happen how they
will.
The Editor[49] believes the thing to be a just History of Fact; neither is there any Appearance of Fiction
in it: And however thinks, because all such things are dispatch'd,[50] that the Improvement of it, as well
as the Diversion, as to the Instruction of the Reader, will be the same;[51] and as such he thinks, without
farther Compliment to the World, he does them a great Service in the Publication.[52]
Novel 425

Defoe's Robinson Crusoe did not use the twilight to spread political insinuations; the hardly credible account did,
however, offer the alternative of a deeper allegorical reading. Other authors proved the practical value of the pattern.
Delarivier Manley–under interrogation after the publication of her scandalous Atalantis (1709)–replied that she had
written a work of sheer romance, a fairy tale located on the famous fictional island. If the ruling Whigs wanted to
prove that all her stories matched a scandalous truth of their own actions, they might venture a libel case. The
authoress was released and continued her insinuations with three more volumes of proclaimed romance published
during the next two years.[53]
Whilst journalists continued to defend the dubious production (relying on the enlightened audience's ability to read
with the necessary grain of skepticism if not with amusement), the defenders of public morals demanded an entirely
new organization of the market, one that isolated fiction. This was the market the 18th century was to establish.

From dubious history to literature: The 18th-century market reform

Total numbers of English titles, 1600–1799

according to ESTC data. Years of political
turmoil produced higher numbers of controversial
[54]
short tracts.

London's book market 1700, distribution of titles

according to Term Catalogue data. The poetical
and fictional production does not have a unified
place yet.
Novel 426

[55]
The yearly output of fiction in English.

The Rise of the Novel

The 18th-century rise of the novel[56] is a compound of several stories.
One is a story of statistics. English readers of the late 17th and early 18th centuries were offered a total of some
2,000 to 3,000 titles per year. The numbers had risen dramatically after the abolition of the Star Chamber in 1641.
The simple title count gives, however, a distorted picture as it places theological and political pamphlets of short
term effect on the same level with editions of books printed to sell over several years. Statistics of the French and
German markets have their own distortions: French numbers are comparatively higher due to the fact that Dutch
publishers (re-)printed French books for the international market. French was Europe's lingua franca and the
language of international politics and fashions. Germany's book trade was large but divided between Protestant and
Catholic states. The former had arranged for a wider exchange at Leipzig's fairs. The academic production in Latin
was comparatively large on the continent due to the importance continental universities had gained as providers of
careers.
Literature in the modern sense was of marginal importance all over Europe until the end of the 18th century. In the
Western markets some two to five percent of the total production fell into the categories of poetry and dubious or
elegant historical works that were later united under the new heading literature. To give the numbers for the English
production: The fictional output remained here at 20 to 60 titles per year in the beginning of the 18th century
depending on how one accounts for the wider market of histories. French, German and Dutch statistics are
comparable.[57] The eastern and southern European neighbors largely subscribed to the international market.
The Western European output of literature in the modern sense rose significantly in the course of the 18th century;
the growth rates stabilised in the 1740s. A change in the public appreciation supported that growth and was reflected
by the growing media coverage of new works.

Cultural status and place

Fiction was no longer a predominantly aristocratic entertainment around 1700. The Provençal 12th-century romances
and their imitations had already attracted urban connoisseurs who had had the financial means to commission bigger
manuscripts in the 14th and 15th centuries. Printed books had soon gained the power to reach readers of almost all
classes, the reading habits differed. To follow fashions remained a privilege. Spain was a trendsetter into the 1630s;
French authors superseded Cervantes, de Quevedo, and Alemán in the 1640s. As Huet was to note in 1670, the
change was one of manners.[58] The new French works taught a new, on the surface freer, gallant exchange between
the sexes as the essence of life at the French court. Aristocratic and bourgeois customers sought distinctly French
authors to offer the authentic style of conversations in the 1660s.
Novel 427

The situation changed again from 1660s into the 1690s: the French market split. Dutch publishers[59] began to sell
works by French authors, published out of the reach of French censors. The publishing houses of The Hague and
Amsterdam also pirated the entire Parisian production of fashionable books and thus created a new market of
political and scandalous fictions and European fashions. Composers Corelli and Vivaldi sent their sheet music from
Italy to Étienne Roger in Amsterdam in order to reach a wider European audience. The same Roger published
Renneville's L'inquisition Françoise (1715). In the year of its publication, the latter work was available both in an
English version published in London and a German version published in Nuremberg. Books of the period boasted of
their fame on the international market and of the existence of intermediate translations. "Written originally in Italian
and translated from the third edition of the French" one read in imitation of this craze on title page of Manley's New
Atalantis in 1709. A market of European rather than French fashions had arrived in the early 18th century.[60]
By the 1680s the fashionable political European production had
inspired a second wave of private scandalous publications and
generated new productions of local importance. Women authors
reported on politics and on their private love affairs in The Hague and
in London. German students imitated them and used the relative
anonymity they enjoyed in far smaller towns like Jena, Halle and
Leipzig, to boast of their private amours in fiction.[61] The market of
the metropolis London, the anonymous international market of the
Netherlands, the urban markets of Hamburg and Leipzig generated
new public spheres.[62] Once private individuals – students of
university towns and daughters of London's upper class posing on the
title pages anonymously under announcements like "Written by a
Young Lady" – began to use the novel as platform on which they could
openly reevaluate their questionable reputations, the public began to
call for a reformation of manners.[63]

The reform became the main goal of the second generation of

18th-century novelists who, by the mid-century, openly welcomed the
change of climate that had first been promoted in journals such as The
Intimate short stories: The Court and City
Spectator (No. 10 of The Spectator had stated the aim "to enliven
Vagaries (1711).
morality with wit, and to temper wit with morality… to bring
philosophy out of the closets and libraries, schools and colleges, to
dwell in clubs and assemblies, at tea-tables and coffeehouses"). Constructive criticism of novels had until then hardly
left the world of fiction.[64] The first treatise on the history of the novel had appeared as a preface to a novel, Marie
de La Fayette's Zayde (1670). "Literary journals" devoted to the sciences could not easily switch to devote
themselves to belles lettres.[65] A distinct secondary discourse developed with a wave of entertaining new journals
like The Spectator and The Tatler at the beginning of the century. New "literary journals" like Gotthold Ephraim
Lessing's Briefe, die neuste Literatur betreffend (1758) added to this production in the middle of the century with the
offer of new, scientific reviews of art and fiction. By the 1780s, critical public reception constituted a new marketing
platform for fiction, and authors and publishers recognized it as such. One could write to satisfy the old market or
one could address the authors of secondary criticism and gain an audience through their discussions. It would take
yet another generation for the novel to arrive in the curricula of school and university education. By the end of the
18th century, the public perception of the place of a particular novel was no longer supplied simply by social status
and fashionable geographical provenance, but by critical media attention.
Novel 428

Realism and art

The term "literary realism" is regularly applied to 19th-century fiction.

The novels Defoe, Richardson and Fielding wrote between 1719 and
the 1750s can be read as precursors. Research of the last decades has,
however, contested views that it was Robinson Crusoe's realism that
ended the sway of "French baroque romances".[66]
Madeleine de Scudéry's "romances" had not been completely
unrealistic; Keys had circulated with them.[67] They had left the market
nonetheless in the 1670s, defeated by the more realistic "novels" that
appeared then. The ensuing production had broadly encroached upon
the news market: Delarivier Manley's Atalantis was reviewed by a
"Better than any romance" – Constantin de
German academic journal in 1713 as work of contemporary public Renneville's French Inquisition (1715), the
history.[68] Christian Friedrich Hunold fled Hamburg in 1706 after his author's arrest.
Satyrischer Roman had depicted the city's elegant urban life as a place
of scandal.[69] The French pseudo histories connected today with names such as Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras
(1644–1712) had become even more radical in their realism: they had depicted the real world with a detail historians
remain unable to deactivate as "merely fiction".

It has been noted that Defoe's Robinson Crusoe followed Alexander Selkirk's "true" account.[70] and that Crusoe's
style of writing recycled modes of the Protestant spiritual autobiography.[71] The presentation of his book had its
own models, however, much rather in the contemporary French pseudo histories.[72] René Auguste Constantin de
Renneville's report of his imprisonment in the Bastille had appeared in English with Defoe's publisher William
Taylor four years earlier. Renneville had promised: "Lives and strange Adventures of several Prisoners", Crusoe
risked the focus on himself: "The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe". An imprisonment of
11 years had been Renneville's bargain, Crusoe made it 28 years. Renneville's English translator had complained of
an author who was "not always in a Temper; sometimes he is all Piety and Godliness, and then again flies out into a
Romantick Strain."[73] Crusoe's "editor" Taylor repeated these complaints before the sailor himself raised his voice
with the greatest inconsistencies imaginable, claiming that he was both, most real and healthy (though 84 years of
age) and a man of an allegorical truth with which he stood on one level with Don Quixote, a hero of a roman à clef
(so Crusoe), and Jesus Christ who had resorted to allegories and parables in order to reach his audience.[74] Robinson
Crusoe was serialized as possibly true history by The Original London Post;[75] and it became the work of creative
literature Jean-Jacques Rousseau could finally praise in his Émile, ou De l'éducation in 1762.[76]
One can note a balance of opposing developments here: The 18th century witnessed the rise of increasingly realistic
fictions while both, authors and critics defined the entire field of fictions as distinct from the historical. The
development de-scandalised the market: Valuable fictions defended a higher truth, a truth beyond the flat, factual
and historical truth of every-day experience. Theories of aesthetics praised the "imitation of nature" and the artist's
almost divine power to create worlds of a deeper significance in the second half of the 18th century. The previous
conflict between historians and romancers was thus finally resolved: Valuable Fictions and true histories became two
fields the modern nations needed. Literary journals and literary histories became the privileged media of a new
analysis of literary art – the development that has been noted above as one of status and that eventually caused the
19th century conceptual change of the word literature.[77]
The market divide that led to the modern trivial production in the second half of the 18th century was the by product
of this process. The rise of pornography beginning in the 1750s is an early sign for that divide.
Novel 429

The words "novel" and "romance"

The change of words, the rise of the word "novel" at the cost of the
rivaling "romance", remained a Spanish and English phenomenon.
Readers all over western Europe had welcomed the novel(la) or short
history as an alternative in the second half of the 17th century. Only
the English and the Spanish had, however, openly discredited the old
production.
The change of taste remained a temporal phenomenon. Fénelon's
Telemachus (1699/1700) already exploited a nostalgia for the old
production of heroism and professed virtue. Jane Barker explicitly
advertised her Exilius as "A new Romance", "written after the Manner The short "novel" supplanted the longer
of Telemachus" in 1715 to which she added a preface on the "romance" in the 1680s. It found a second peak
on title pages in 1720s when it received its body
scandalous new production one had to get rid of.[79] Robinson Crusoe
of classics. The labeling of fictions became only
spoke of his own book as a "romance" though he preferred, of course, [78]
more interesting at the end of the century.
readers to believe he was utterly real.[80]

The term "novel" first peaked on the English market in the 1680s, when the novel(la) manifested itself as the
alternative to the older "romance". It lost its attractiveness with ensuing scandalous production in the twilight
between truth and fiction. The 1720s saw a second peak of "novels" with the first editions of classics of the genre
and with new large scale "novels" in the style Eliza Haywood wrote. In the mid-18th century it was no longer clear
whether the market had not simply developed two terms: "romance" as the generic term, "novel" as the term for the
fashionable production that focused on modern life.
The late 18th-century brought an answer with the "romantic" movement's readiness to reclaim the word "romance"
as term for explicitly grotesque and distant fictional settings. Robinson Crusoe became a "novel" in that period[81]
appearing now as a work of the new realism of fiction the 18th century had brought forth. The term "romance" was
eventually restricted to love stories in the course of the 19th century.

Legitimating the novel: World Classics, 1670–1830

Pierre Daniel Huet's Traitté de l'origine des romans (1670) laid the
ground for the early 18th-century market in classics of the novel. The
theologian had not only dared to praise fictions; he had also explained
techniques of theological reading, the interpretation of fictions:[82] one
could read novels and romances to gain insight into foreign and distant
cultures (and into one's own culture), once one viewed them as
something produced to achieve aims and to satisfy consumers. Christ
had used parables to teach; ancient Milesians had used them to arouse
sexual fantasies; France produced them at present to test the options of
a less inhibited conversation between the sexes.[83]

The decades around 1700 saw the appearance of new editions of Classics of the novel from the 16th century
[84] [85] [86] onwards: title page of A Select Collection of
Petronius, Lucian and Heliodorus of Emesa. The publishers
Novels (1720–22).
equipped them with prefaces that referred to Huet's treatise[87] and the
canon it had established. Exotic fictions entered the market to give
insight into the Islamic frame of mind. One read The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (first published in
Europe from 1704 to 1715 in French, and translated immediately from this edition into English and German) as a
contribution to Huet's history of romances.[88]
Novel 430

New classics added to the market: The English Select Collection of Novels in six volumes (1720–22) is a milestone in
this development, including Huet's Treatise with the European tradition of the modern novel (that is, novella) from
Machiavelli's to Marie de LaFayette's masterpieces.
Aphra Behn's prose fictions had appeared as "novels" in the 1680s and were reprinted in collections of her works
which turned the scandalous authoress into a modern classic. Fénelon's Telemachus (1699/1700) became a classic
within three years after its publication. New authors entered the market ready to use their personal names as
producers of fiction: Eliza Haywood thus followed the footsteps of Aphra Behn in 1719 using her name with
unprecedented pride.

"The reformation of manners", 1678–1790

The production of classics allowed the novel to gain a past, prestige

and a canon. It called at the same moment for a present production of
equal merits. A wave of mid-18th-century works that proclaimed their
intent to propagate improved moral values gave critics modern novels
they could discuss publicly. Instead of banning novels, the efforts at
reformation of manners that had begun in the 1690s now led to their
reform.

Female authors and heroines were the first affected by the

development. Madame d'Aulnoy and Delarivier Manley became
notorious examples of a bygone age of impudence. They had washed
their dirty linen in public and used their novels to reinvent themselves
and convert their own notoriety into fame. The new female heroines
had to show intimacy and sensitivity where their early 18th century
ancestors had been ready to appear in public in order to sanitize their
reputations. Intimate confessions and blushes filled the new novels,
feelings of guilt, even where suspicions were groundless (early 18th
Samuel Richardson's Pamela (1741)
century heroines had defended their virtues and reputations
flamboyantly even where they had gone astray). The modern heroines
acted transparently, whereas their early 18th century counterparts had resorted to secret dealings in endless
intrigues.[89] Madame de La Fayette's La Princesse de Clèves (1678) can be read as the first novel that showed the
new behavior.
Novel 431

To become a fashion, if not the standard of modern behavior, the new

personality features needed new social environments. Marie de La Fayette's
Princesse had fallen into a desperate situation as soon as she risked the
outrageous transparency to confess her feelings for another man to her
husband. Neither he nor his rival knew how to continue once all this was
clear. Mid-18th-century novels created alternatives: protagonists acted
transparently, their antagonists saw that as a weakness and exploited and
ruined them – quite the early 18th century option – but now the moral
balance shifted: the open-hearted heroines were no longer victims one
could blame for a lack of virtue, but tragic (or melodramatic) figures who
had defended a better world. Other novels placed the new transparent
heroines into equally new caring environments. Their families resisted
temptations to marry them off against their wills, and men around them
resisted temptations to seduce them in moments of weakness. The message
was that respect and care were to meet open-heartedness in a new age of
sensibility. Other novels experimented with surprising acts of an
enlightened rationality with which their protagonists could escape deadlock
Goethe's Werther (1774).
situations far worse than the one Marie de La Fayette's Princesse had
produced with her confessions.

The last volume of Antoine François Prévost's Memoirs and Adventures of a Man of Quality, "Manon Lescaut"
(1731), aroused a scandal with its melodramatic turns and its unresolved conflicts.
Samuel Richardson's Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740), composed "to cultivate the Principles of Virtue and
Religion in the Minds of the Youth of Both Sexes" focused, by contrast, on the potential victim, a heroine of all the
modern virtues vulnerable through her social status and her occupation as servant of the libertine who falls in love
with her. Eventually, she shows the power to reform her antagonist.
Christian Fürchtegott Gellert's Life of the Swedish Countess of G** (1747/48) tested the options of rationality. The
titular countess had to decide between two husbands after her first, believed to be dead, returned from a Siberian war
captivity. Both her husbands, former friends, had to come to terms with the rational problem her situation presented
(and did it in a startling mixture of piety and modern philosophy).
Male heroes adopted the new sentimental character traits in
the 1760s. Laurence Sterne's Yorick, the hero of the
Sentimental Journey (1768) did so with an enormous
amount of humour. Oliver Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield
(1766) and Henry Mackenzie's Man of Feeling (1771)
produced the far more serious role models.

The virtuous production inspired a sub- and counterculture

of pornographic novels. Greek and Latin authors in modern
translations had provided elegant transgressions on the
market of the belles lettres for the last century.[90] Satirical
novels like Richard Head's English Rogue (1665) had led
their heroes through urban brothels, women authors like
Beginnings of a secret market of pornography, illustration to vol.
Aphra Behn had offered their heroines alternative careers
1, p.50 of the 1766 Fanny Hill edition.
as precursors of the 19th-century femmes fatales – without
Novel 432

creating a subculture.[91] The market for belles lettres had been openly transgressive as long as it did not find any
reflections in other media. The new production beginning with works like John Cleland's Fanny Hill (1748) differed
in that it offered almost exact reversals of the plot lines the virtuous production demanded. Fanny Hill is introduced
to a life of prostitution, learns to enjoy her part and establishes herself as a free and economically independent
individual – in editions one could only expect to buy under the counter.[92]
Openly uncontrollable conflicts arrived in the 1770s with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's The Sorrows of Young
Werther (1774). The titular hero realised how impossible it had become for him to integrate into the new conformist
society. Pierre Choderlos de Laclos's Les Liaisons dangereuses (1782) shows the other extreme, with a group of
aristocrats playing games of intrigue and amorality.
The sentimental protagonists of the 1740s had already surprised their readers and aroused a debate whether human
nature was correctly depicted with these new novels. They discovered a truth of the heart one had not dared to deal
with so far. The radical and lonely characters that appeared in the 1760s and 1770s broke with traditions and
eventually needed entirely new back-stories to become plausible. Childhoods, and adolescences had to explain why
these protagonists should have developed so differently. The concept of character development began to fascinate
novelists in the 1760s. Jean Jacques Rousseau's novels focused on such developments in philosophical experiments.
The German Bildungsroman offered quasi-biographical explorations and autobiographical self examinations of the
individual and its personal development by the 1790s. A subcategory of the genre focused on the creation of an artist
(if not the artist writing the novel). It led to the 19th-century production of novels exploring how modern times form
the modern individual.

Fiction as a new experimental field, 1700–1800

The new 18th-century status of the novel as an object of debate is

particularly manifest in special development of philosophical[93] and
experimental novels.
Philosophical fiction was not exactly new. Plato's dialogues were
embedded in fictional narratives. Utopias had added to this production
with works from Thomas More's Utopia (1516) to Tommaso
Campanella's City of the Sun (1602). Works such as these had not been
read as novels or romances but as philosophical texts. The 1740s saw
new editions of More's work under the title that created the tradition:
Utopia: or the happy republic; a philosophical romance (1743).
Laurence Sterne, Tristram Shandy, vol.6, p.70-71
Voltaire utilised the romance to write philosophy with his (1769)

Micromegas: a comic romance. Being a severe satire upon the

philosophy, ignorance, and self-conceit of mankind (1752, English 1753). His Zadig (1747) and Candide (1759)
became central texts of the French Enlightenment and of the modern novel. Jean-Jacques Rousseau bridged the
genres with his less fictional Emile: or, On Education (1762) and his far more romantic Julie, or the New Heloise
(1761). It made sense to publish these works as romances or novels, works of fiction, only because prose fiction had
become an object of public discussion. The public reception provided by the new market of journals was both freer
and wider than the discussion in journals of philosophy would have been. It had become attractive to step into the
realm of fiction in order to provide matter for the ongoing debates.

The genre's new understanding of itself resulted in the first metafictional experiment, pressing against its limitations.
Laurence Sterne's The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (1759–1767) rejected continuous narration.
It expanded the author-reader communication from the preface into the plot itself – Tristram Shandy develops as a
conversation between the narrative voice and his audience. Besides narrative experiments, there were visual
experiments: a marbled page, a black page to express particular sorrow, a page of little lines to visualize the plot
lines of the book one was reading. Jonathan Swift's A Tale of a Tub (1704) is an early precursor in this field – a work
Novel 433

that employs visual elements with similar ambition – yet hardly a text in the tradition of the original novel or its rival
the romance.

The novel as national literature, 19th-century developments

By the beginning of the 19th century, prose fiction had moved from a
field of questionable entertainment and precarious historicity into the
centre of the new literary debate. A new arrangement of the sciences
taught at modern universities would finally protect the development.
Theology, law, medicine, and philosophy had been the four traditional
faculties. National literature became the object of a new university
system in which the natural sciences acted as exact sciences, the social
sciences with an outlook on the modern societies, and the humanities
with a responsibility for history and culture. Literature in a definition
that turned fiction into a central literary production would be a subject
of the philologies in the latter segment of research.

The traditional task of literary historians, to review the sciences, was

referred to the individual sciences and their respective academic
journals. The general debate of literature was turned into an
exploration of poetry and fiction.[94]
The modes of this exploration were new. Poetry had been analysed in
poetological treatises asking for perfection and the rules that had to be Charles Dickens on the cover of L'Eclipse June
mastered in the different genres. Early 18th-century critics had been 14, 1868 on his way across the English Channel
ready to see the opera as the central poetic production of the modern
era. One would differentiate between an Italian and a French style and consider an international production. This
arrangement was discredited in the course of the 18th century. Operas became music and the new literary histories
offered in the 19th century focused on the greatest works an outstanding nation or language had brought forth. The
new interest lay in interpretations. Georg Gottfried Gervinus' Geschichte der poetischen National-Literatur der
Deutschen, published in its successive volumes between 1835 and 1842 became the European model with a project
that rather resembled Pierre Daniel Huet's Treatise on the Origin of Romances (1670) than any of the previous works
on poetry or on literature (the sciences). The new literary historian spoke about the cultural significance of the works
he analysed. Unlike Huet Gervinus was solely interested in the works of his nation – whose history and mentality he
hoped do better understand. Other nations were of interest as they had threatened the intellectual development to be
observed. Huet had given a world history of fiction. The 19th-century literary historian offered his project with the
controversial promise to show how the nation had freed and found itself in its fictional production.

The project persuaded scholars in France and Italy to bring forth similar histories for their nations whilst the
Anglophone world remained rather uninterested. Hippolyte Taine eventually offered the first history of English
literature at first in French, a year later, in 1864 in an English version that opened with a look back on the 1st century
of modern literary history:
HISTORY, within a hundred years in Germany, and within sixty years in France, has undergone a
transformation owing to a study of literatures.
      The discovery has been made that a literary work is not a mere play of the imagination, the isolated
caprice of an excited brain, but a transcript of contemporary manners and customs and the sign of a
particular state of intellect. The conclusion derived from this is that, through literary monuments, we can
retrace the way in which men felt and thought many centuries ago. This method has been tried and
found successful.
      We have meditated over these ways of feeling and thinking and have accepted them as facts of prime
Novel 434

significance. We have found that they were dependent on most important events, that they explain these,
and that these explain them, and that henceforth it was necessary to give them their place in history, and
one of the highest.[95]
Charles Dickens offering a public reading of his
works, a symbol of the new literary life. Harper's
Weekly, December 7, 1867.
The essentially nationalistic analysis of poetical fictions had begun in
Germany in the late 1720s with a look back on three decades of
international European fashions. German authors had embraced French
"gallantry" as the essence of elegance and style. The country had
gained nothing in the wars the European nations had supported on
behalf of the Empire. The comparatively European decades of the Nine
Years War (1689–1697), the War of the Spanish Succession
(1701–1714) and the Great Northern War (1700–1721) had eventually
left the intellectual elite disenchanted. The discussion of the nation's
poetry Johann Christoph Gottsched proposed at the end of the 1720s
formulated a national project connected with the offer to reform the
entire market of German poetry. Johann Jakob Bodmer, Johann Jakob
Breitinger, and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing adopted Gottsched's project
and created the national discourse that finally gained national
importance between 1789 and 1813 when Germany had to define itself
in the events of the French Revolution and the ensuing Napoleonic
Wars.

Émile Zola, the political novelist in the centre of
the public outrage he unleashed (painting by
Henry de Groux, 1898).
At the turn into the 19th century the first German territories
implemented the new field of research in their national school
curricula. Three decades later the first histories of German literature
apperaed with proposals of the canon the young nation would need.[96]
Literature made its way into the educational systems, it became the
object of the university philologies, of German classes at schools, and
of criticism in the public media.

The new topic was of immense interest thanks to its focus on the nation,[97] thanks to its controversial perspectives
on the nation's history and identity, thanks to its attempts to reform the markets of fiction. The secularization pushed
the new topic in France and Germany. Literature offered worldly texts to be interpreted in schools and at universities
where religious texts had been interpreted thus far.[98]
The Anglophone world adopted the new topic reluctantly. London had developed a commercial production of the
belles lettres, independent from the markets of Amsterdam and Paris, as early as the early 18th century. The new
market had found its own commercial criticism and did not need an academic variant with a distinctly national
perspective. Shakespeare had become an object of national veneration without the help of academic critics by the
1760s. A rediscovery of the past had followed, with such doubtful discoveries as the Ossian-fragments. Critics
discussed the belles lettres in fashionable English journals. Latest theatre performances were discussed in the
newspapers at the end of the 18th century. The continental debate of "literature" remained uninteresting with all the
academic institutions it promised to generate.
Great Britain did not need new national platforms. State politics and religion were open platforms – in Britain
protected by modern press laws since the 1690s. The continent had opted for a fundamental secularisation. Britain
rested on the union of state and church, the USA on the opposite notion of private religiosity and a state that would
not interfere. Neither country needed a topic for school lessons, in which worldly texts would be used in much the
same way as religious texts had been used before. As for criticism of plays and fictions one could well live with the
commercial criticism the market brought forth. Germany invented a dualism of "Literaturwissenschaft", literary
criticism formulated by university professors, and "Literaturkritik", literary criticism as to be found in the
Novel 435

newspapers. A single word remained enough to speak of literary criticism in English.

The new topic was eventually adopted both in Britain and the USA in
the 1870 and 1880s. The educational systems of the Western nations
developed international standards. The Western canon became the
project of a new international competition.[99] The Western nations
defined themselves as "Kulturnationen" as exporters of a specific
Western civilisation in the middle the second European colonization
wave. To do this they eventually shared the same academic institutions
that monitored, evaluated and basically organised their public
controversies. Literature and culture had been topics the nations could
hope to handle with more competence than religion. The "republic of
letters", the "respublica literaria", the early modern scientific
community that had coined the term literature had definied itself as the
first truly pluralistic institution.[100] The universities it required would
be state run and controlled by the respective nations.

The new topic spread in win-win situations. The publishing industry

promoted fiction, literature, Belletristik. New authors profited from the
Oscar Wilde on trial in 1895.
exchange. The reading public eagerly followed the debate and was
ready to identify with the greatest authors now produced.
New commercial rules began to structure the exchange. Most of the early 18th-century authors of fiction had
published anonymously. They had offered their manuscripts and received all the payment to be expected for the
manuscript. The new copyright laws introduced in the 18th and 19th centuries[101] promised a profit share on all
future editions and created a new strategy with the revolutionary work, readers would initially hardly understand.
One would publish such a work in a small first edition hoping for critics to prove it into an eternal classic. Novelists,
a scandalous branch of authors a century ago, assumed entirely new roles as public voices; they spoke as their
nation's conscience, as national sages, as far sighted judges in newspapers, in public debates and in entirely new
celebrations of their public status. The novelist who reads in theater halls and book shops is a 19th-century
invention.[102]

Fiction gained new qualities in the exchange. The literary market gave rise to difficult texts that could not hope to be
understood without critical interpretations. New novels openly addressed the present political and social issues –
sure to be discussed by media focusing on the same issues. Responsibility became a key issue: Responsibility of the
citizen whose voice is heard or responsibility of the artist whose work future generations will have evaluate. The
theoretical debate concentrated on the moral soundness of modern novels,[103] on the integrity of individual artists,
and on the provocative claims of aestheticists such as Oscar Wilde and Algernon Charles Swinburne who proposed
to write "art for art's sake",[104] that is with a responsibility the present audience and the present critics might not be
able to understand.
The up-market of works deserving to be read as "literature" was matched by a growing market of "popular fictions",
"trivial literature" – a market that discontinued the production of chapbooks and grew in the former field of elegant
belles lettres. New institutions like the circulating library affected the market as platforms publishing houses would
address with their first editions. Fiction became the object of a new mass reading public[105] protected, monitored
and analysed by nation wide debates and by institutions the new states would hope to control.
The developments did not lead to stable definitions of the terms it popularized. "Art", "literature" and "culture"
became much rather the field of controversies authors, critics, and readers would feed in ever new attempts to find
platforms for their interests. The exchange affected from now onwards children at school as much as intellectuals
who risked their lives in public controversies.
Novel 436

Pushing art to its limits: Romanticism, 1770–1850

The very word romanticism made direct reference to the art of

romances. The genre, as opposed to the modern novel, experienced a
revival with gothic fiction from Ann Radcliffe's "romance" The
Mysteries of Udolpho (1794) to M.G. Lewis' "romance" The Monk
(1795).[106]
The new romances not only attacked the modern novel's "natural"
depictions of life, they destabilized the very differentiation modern
critics had been trying to establish between serious classical art and
popular fiction. Gothic romances were grotesque.[107] Their subject
matter deserved less credit than the worst medieval tales of Arthurian
knighthood. If the Amadis had troubled Don Quixote with curious
fantasies, the new romantic tales were worse: they became nightmares,
they explored sexual fantasies, they led to the end of human
civilization.

The authors of this new type of fiction could be (and were) accused of
exploiting all available topics to thrill, arouse or horrify their audience.
These new romantic novelists could, at the same time, claim to explore
the entire realm of fictionality. New–psychological–interpreters would Illustration of a Dutch edition of Juliette, ca.
1800.
read these works as encounters with the deeper hidden truth of the
human imagination or the collective mind with all its recesses: sexual
motives, anxieties, and insatiable desires. Under a psychological reading, novels were said to explore our deeper
motives by moving into the field of art and by trying to reach and transgress its limitations. Artistic freedom would
reveal what had not previously been openly visible: a theory that turned Huet's retrospective cultural description into
an exploration of our options. The literary world started to recognize the fragment as art potentially surpassing all the
works of intricate composition. Terror and kitsch entered the productions with explorations of the trivial.

The romantic fiction of de Sade, Poe, Mary Shelley and E. T. A. Hoffmann, their works from Les 120 Journées de
Sodome (1785/1904), Die Elixiere des Teufels (1815), to Frankenstein (1818), and the Tales of the Grotesque and
Arabesque (1840) would later attract 20th-century psychoanalysts and supply the images of 20th and 21st century
horror films, love romances, fantasy novels, role-playing computer games and surrealist art.
Novel 437

"Realism" and the reevaluation of the past and the present, 1790–1900

The ancient romancers most commonly wrote fiction about the remote
past. The present had been the object of "curious" explorations in the
hands of satirists like Grimmelshausen and Richard Head and in the
hands of scandalous authors from de Courtilz de Sandras to the
anonymous author of La Guerre d'Espagne (Cologne: Pierre Marteau,
1707).

Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin

(1852)

Walter Scott's historical novel Waverley (1814) broke with these

traditions. Scott did not write to satisfy the audience with temporal
escapism, nor did he threaten the boundaries between fact and fiction
with his works, as Constantin de Renneville had done with his French
Inquisition (1715). Scott's work remained a novel, a work of art.[108]
He used the art of imagination to re-evaluate history by rendering
things, incidents and protagonists as only the novelist was allowed to
do. His work remained historical fiction, yet it questioned existing
historical perceptions. The special power was partly gained through
research: Scott the novelist, resorted to documentary sources as any
historian would have done, but as an artist he gave things a deeper
significance. Attracting a far wider market than any historian could
address, and rendering the past vividly, his work destabilized public
perceptions of that past.

Most 19th-century authors hardly went beyond illustrating and

supporting widespread historical views.[109] The more interesting titles
won fame by doing what no historian nor journalist would do: make Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace (1868/69)

the reader experience another life. Émile Zola's novels depicted the
world of which Marx and Engels wrote in a non-fictional mode. Slavery in the United States, abolitionism and
racism became topics of far broader public debate thanks to Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle
Novel 438

Tom's Cabin (1852), as whose characters provided personifications for

topics that had previously been discussed mainly in the abstract.
Charles Dickens led the audience into contemporary British
workhouses: his novels imitated firsthand accounts of child labour.
War changed with Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace (1868/69) from
historical fact to a world of personal fate. Crime became a personal
reality with Fyodor Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment (1866).
Women authors had dominated the production of fiction from the
1640s into the early 18th century, but few before George Eliot so
openly questioned the position of women, the precepts of their
education, and their social position.

As the novel became the most interesting platform of modern

debates–allegedly free, as art could claim to be in the modern secular
western societies–a race began between nations to (re-)establish their
national literatures with novels as the essential production that could
link the present with the past. Alessandro Manzoni's, I Promessi Sposi
Illustration for Jules Verne's Vingt mille lieues
(1827) did this for Italy; Russia and the surrounding Slavonic brought sous les mers (1870)
forth their first novels; the Scandinavian countries entered the race.

With the new appreciation of history, the future also became a topic for fiction. Samuel Madden's Memoirs of the
20th century (1733) had been a satire, presenting a future that was basically the present age, but with the Jesuits
secretly ruling the globe. Louis-Sébastien Mercier‘s L'An 2440 (1771) had gone a step further and created an
enlightened future, that one could establish immediately if only one dared to live according to better moral precepts.
The step into a different future began with Mary Shelley's The Last Man (1826): a work whose plot culminated in the
catastrophic last days of a mankind extinguished by the plague, even if it remained an autobiographical allegory of
the authoress deploring her personal losses. Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward (1887) and H. G. Wells's The
Time Machine (1895) were, by contrast, marked by the idea of long term technological and biological developments.
Industrialization, Darwin's theory of evolution and Marx's theory of class divisions shaped these works and turned
historical processes into a subject matter of wide debate: Bellamy's Looking Backward became the second best
selling book of the 19th century after Harriet Beecher-Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin.[110] Such works of scientific
reflection inspired a whole genre of popular science fiction as the 20th century approached.

Explorations of the self and the modern individual, 1790–1930

The individual, the potentially isolated hero, had stood at the centre of
romantic fictions since the Middle Ages. The early novel(la) had
placed the story itself at the centre: it was driven by plot, by incident
and accident, rather than being the story of a single larger-than-life
figure. And yet, the individual had returned with a wave of satirical
romances and historical pseudo romances. Individuals such as
Robinson Crusoe, Moll Flanders, Pamela, and Clarissa reintroduced
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Wilhelm Meister
the old romantic focus on the individual as the centre of what was to
(1795)
become the modern novel.

Ancient, medieval and early modern fictional characters lacked certain features that modern readers expect. Epics
and romances created heroes, individuals who would fight against knight after knight, change (as an Assyrian
princess) into men's clothes, survive alone on an island – whilst it would never see its personal experience as an
individualizing factor. The early modern novelist had remained a historian as much as the author of the most
Novel 439

personal French contemporary memoir. As soon as it came to relating the facts and experiences, it became a question
of proper writing skills.
The modern individual changed. The rift can first be seen in the works of medieval mystics and early modern
Protestant autobiographers:[111] moments in which they witnessed a change in their very experience of things, an
inner isolation they would only be able to communicate to someone who had experienced the same. The sentimental
experience created a new field of – secular, rather than religiously motivated – individualizations which immediately
invited followers to join. Werther's step out of the value systems that surrounded him, his desperate search for the
one and only soul to understand him, inspired an instantaneous European fashion. Napoleon told Goethe he had read
the volume about a dozen times;[112] others were seen wearing breeches in Werther's colour to signal that they were
experiencing the same exceptionalism. The novel proved the ideal medium for the new movements as it was
ultimately written from an individual's point of view with the aim to unfold in the silence of another's individual
mind.
The late 18th-century exploration of personal developments created room for depictions of personal experiences; it
gained momentum with the romantic exploration of fictionality as a medium of creative imagination; and it gained a
political edge with the 19th-century focus on history and the modern societies. The rift between the individual and
his or her social environment had to have roots in personal developments which this individual shared with those
around him or her, with his or her class or the entire nation. Any such rift had the power to criticize the collective
histories the modern nations were just then producing. The new personal perceptions the protagonists of novels
offered were on the other hand interesting as they could easily become part of the collective experience the modern
nation had to create.
The novel's individual perspective allowed for personal
reevaluations of the public historical perceptions and it
allowed for personal developments that could still lead
back into modern societies. The 19th-century
Bildungsroman became the arena of such explorations
of personal developments that separated the individual
from, and then reunited it with, his or her social
environment. Outsider perspectives became the field of
mid-19th-century explorations. The artist's life had
been an interesting topic before with the artist being by
public definition the exceptional individual whose
First galley proof of In Search of Lost Time (1913–1927) with
perceptions naturally enabled him to produce different handwritten revision notes by Marcel Proust.
views. Novels from Goethe's Wilhelm Meister (1795)
to Marcel Proust's In Search of Lost Time (1913–1927) and James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man
(1916) created an entire genre of the Künstlerroman. Jane Austen's Emma (1815), Gustave Flaubert's Madame
Bovary (1856), Leo Tolstoy's Anna Karenina (1873–77), and George Eliot's Middlemarch (1871–72) brought female
protagonists into the role of the outstanding observer. Charles Dickens's Oliver Twist (1839) and Gottfried Keller's
Green Henry (1855) focused on the perspectives of children, Fyodor Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment (1866)
added a drop-out student who became a murderer to the spectrum of special observers whose views would promise
reinterpretations of modern life.

The exploration of the individual's perception eventually revolutionized the very modes of writing fiction. The
search for one's personal style stood in the centre of the competition among authors in the 19th century, now that
novelists had become publicly celebrated minds. The destabilization of the author-text connection, which 20th
century criticism was to propose later on, finally led to experiments with what had been the individual's voice so far
– speaking through the author or portrayed by him. These options were to be widened with new concepts of what
texts actually were with the beginning of the 20th century.
Novel 440

The novel and the global market of texts: 20th- and 21st-century developments
Given the number of new editions and the place of the modern
novel among the genres sold in bookshops today, the novel is
far from the crisis predicted by John Barth. Literature has not
ended in "exhaustion"[113] or in a silent "death";[114] nor have
bound paper books been superseded by such new media as
cinema, television or such new channels of distribution as the
Internet[115] or e-books. Novels such as the Harry Potter
(1997–2007) books have created public sensation among an
audience critics had seen as lost.[116]
Berlin, May 10, 1933, Nazi book burning.
Novels were among the first material artefacts the Nazis burnt
in public celebrations of their power in 1933;[117] and they
remained the very last thing they allowed their publishers to
print as World War II ended in the devastation of central
Europe: fiction could still be employed to keep the retreating
troops in dream worlds of an idyllic homeland waiting for
them.[118] Novels were in the pockets of American soldiers
who went to Vietnam and in the pockets of those who
protested against the Vietnam War: Hermann Hesse's
Steppenwolf and Carlos Castaneda's Journey to Ixtlan (1972)
had become cult classics of inner resistance. While it was
difficult to learn anything about Siberia's concentration camps
in the strictly censored Soviet media, it was a novel, Aleksandr
Persian Samizdat edition of Salman Rushdie's Satanic
Solzhenitsyn's One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962) Verses late 1990s?
and its proto-historic expansion The Gulag Archipelago (1973)
that eventually gave the world an inside view.

The novel remains both public and private. It is a public

product of modern print culture even where it circulates in
illegal samizdat copies. It remains difficult to target.
Totalitarian regimes can close down Internet service providers,
and control theatres, cinemas, radio and television stations,
whilst individual paper copies of a novel can be smuggled into
countries, defying strict censorship, and read there in cafés and
parks almost as safely as at home. Its covers can be as
inconspicuous as those of Iranian editions of Salman Rushdie's Announcement of the Laureate of the Nobel Prize in
The Satanic Verses (1988). An Orwellian regime would have Literature 2008

to search households and to burn every retrievable copy: an

engagement of utopian dimensions that only a novel, Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451 (1953), would envisage.

The artefact that constituted one of the earliest flashpoints in the current cultural confrontation between the secular
West and the Islamic East, Rushdie's Satanic Verses (1988), exemplifies almost all the advantages the modern novel
has over its rivals. It is a work of epic dimensions no film maker could achieve, a work of privacy and individuality
of perspective wherever it leads into the dream worlds of its protagonists, a work that uniquely anticipated ensuing
political debates, and a work many Western critics classified as one of the greatest novels ever written. It is
postmodernist in its ability to play with the entire field of literary traditions without ever sacrificing its topicality.[119]
Novel 441

The democratic West depicted itself as the advocate of literature as the freest form of self-expression. The Islamic
fundamentalist interpretation of the same confrontation has its own historical validity. This interpretation sees a
conflict between Western secular nations and a postsecular religious world.[120] In this view, the West has severed its
religious roots and begun to idolize an arrangement of secular "pluralistic" debates. "Literature", "art", and "history"
– the subject matter of the humanities – have become a Western substitute for religion. The Islamic republic
eventually demonstrated how far the West had created its own inviolable if not sacred spheres in this development:
Westerners can become atheists, they can admire any "blasphemy" as "art", but they cannot act with the same
freedom in the field of history. Holocaust denial is criminalised in several Western nations in defence of secular
pluralism. The Islamic nations protect, so goes the rationale, at the heart of the conflict a different hierarchy of
discourses.
In a longer perspective, the conflict arose with the worldwide expansion of Western literary and cultural life in the
20th century. To look back, around 1700 fiction had been a small but virulent market of fashionable books in the
sphere of public history. By contrast, in 19th century Europe the novel had become the center of a new literary
debate. The 20th century began with the Western export of new global conflicts, new technologies of
telecommunication and new industries. The new arrangement of the academic disciplines became a world standard.
Within this system the humanities are the ensemble of subjects that evaluate and organise public debate, from art and
literature to history.[121] Former colonies and modern third world nations adopted this arrangement in their
educational systems in order to pursue equal footing with the "leading" industrial nations. Literature entered their
public spheres almost automatically as the arena of free personal expression and as a field of national pride in which
one had to search for one's historical identity, as the Western nations had done before.
A number of literatures could challenge the
West with traditions of their own: Chinese
novels are older than any comparable
Western works. Other regions of the world
had to begin their traditions as the Slavonic
and Scandinavian nations had done in the
19th-century's European competition: South
Asia[122] and Latin America joined the
production of world literature at the
beginning of the 20th century. The run for
the first black African novel to be written by
a black African author is today a topic of
research in postcolonialist literary
studies.[123] The race was fueled by Western
theories of cultural superiority: 20th-century
Model of 20th-century literary communication. A complex interaction is organised critics such as Georg Lukács and Ian Watt
by public and academic literary criticism as the central provider of discussions,
saw the novel as the form of self expression
education and media attention.
characteristic of the "modern Western
individual". The worldwide spread of the
novel was monitored and mentored by such Western institutions as the Nobel Prize in Literature. The list of its
laureates can be read as a chronicle of the gradual expansion of Western literary life.[124] Rabindranath Tagore was
the first Indian poet and novelist to receive the prize in 1913, Japanese Yasunari Kawabata received it in 1968,
Colombian Gabriel García Márquez in 1982; the Nigerian Wole Soyinka, honoured in 1986, became the first black
African author to receive the award; the Egyptian Naguib Mahfouz became the first novelist of the Arab world to do
so in 1988; Orhan Pamuk, honoured in 2006, is a Turkish novelist. .
Novel 442

The contemporary novel defends the significance it had won by the

1860s, and it has stepped beyond, into a new awareness of its public
outreach. Nationwide debates can become international debates at any
given moment. Today's novelists can address a worldwide public, with
international institutions, prestigious prizes,[125] and such far-reaching
associations as the worldwide association of writers P.E.N. The exiled
author,[126] who is celebrated by the international audience whilst he or
she is persecuted at home is a 20th-century (and now 21st-century)
figure. The author as keeper of his or her nation's conscience is a new
cultural icon of the age of globalization.
Numbers of titles published in the UK in 2001.
Back in the early 18th century some 20–60 titles per year, that is
between one and three percent of the total annual English production of
about 2,000 titles, could be reckoned as fiction – a total of
20,000–60,000 copies on the assumption of standard print runs of
about 1,000 copies. In 2001 fiction made about 11% of the 119,001
titles published in the UK consumer book market. The percentage has
remained relatively stable over the past 20 years, though the total
numbers doubled from 5,992 in 1986 to 13,076 in 2001.[127] The press
output and the money made with fiction have risen disproportionately
since the 18th century: According to Nielsen BookScan statistics
published in 2009[128] UK publishers sold an estimated 236.8 million
books in 2008. Adult fiction (an estimated 75.3 million copies) made
Total consumer market, UK, 2008; value in £m
32% of this market. Children's, young adult and educational books, a
section comprising best-sellers such as the Harry Potter volumes,
made another 63.4 million copies, 27%. The total UK consumer market is supposed to have had a value £1,773m in
2008. Adult fiction made roughly a quarter of that value: £454m.

A vibrant literary life fuels the market. It unfolds in a complex interaction between authors, their publishing houses,
the reading public, and a literary criticism of immense diversity voiced in the media and in the nation's educational
systems. The latter provide through their branches of academic criticism many of the topics, the modes of discussion
and to a good extent the experts themselves who teach and discuss literature in schools and in the media. Modern
marketing of fiction reflects this complex interaction with an awareness of the specific reverberations a new title
must find in order to reach a wider audience.[129]
Different levels of communication mark successful modern novels as a result of the genre's present position in (or
outside) literary debates. An elite exchange has developed between novelists and literary theorists, allowing for
direct interactions between authors and critics. Authors who write literary criticism can eventually modify the very
criteria under which theorists discuss their works. Literary recognition can also be gained when novels influence
thinking about non-literary controversies. A third option remains with novels that find their audiences without the
help of critical debate. Even serious novels can become the object of direct marketing strategies along the lines
publishers usually reserve for "popular fiction".
Novel 443

Writing literary theory

Many of the techniques the novel developed over the past 100 years can be understood as the result of competition
with the new 20th- (and 21st-) century mass media: film, comics and the World Wide Web shaped the novel. Shot
and sequence, focus and perspective have moved from film editing to literary composition. Experimental
20th-century fiction is, at the same time, influenced by literary theory.
Literary theory, arising in the 20th century, questioned key factors that had been matters of agreement in
19th-century literary criticism: the author wrote the text, he was influenced by his period, by an intellectual climate
the nation provided and by his personality. The work of art eventually reflected all these aspects, and literary critics
recreated them. The ensuing debate identified a canon of the truly great works brought forth by each nation.
20th-century literary theory challenged all these notions. It moved along with what philosophers called the linguistic
turn: the artifact to be read was primarily a text. The text unfolded a meaning in the reading process. The question
was, what made the literary text so special? Its complexity: a simple answer that immediately called for a complex
science to describe and to understand these complexities. The literary theorists argued that the literary criticism of
the 19th century had not truly seen the text. It had concentrated on the author, his or her period, the culture that
surrounded him or her, his or her psyche – factors outside the text, that had allegedly shaped it. Strict theorists
argued that even the author, hitherto considered the central figure, whose message one wanted to understand, did not
even have privileged access to the meaning and significance of his or her own work. Once the text was written it
began to unfold associations, no matter whether one was its author or another reader. The theory debate stepped forth
in redefinitions of its project: Formalism (1900–1920), New Criticism (1920–1965), Structuralism (1950–1980) and
Poststructuralism (late 1960s through 1990s) became the major schools. The modes of analysis changed with each of
these schools. All assumed that the text had its own meaning, independent of all authorial intentions and period
backgrounds. If a monkey were to use a typewriter without any understanding of his actions, he would sooner or
later produce a Shakespearean sonnet among his random texts, a text whose beauty and meaning we would be able to
appreciate. Each of these schools proposed a criticism that directed its attention to an understanding of this inherent
meaning.
James Joyce's Ulysses (1922) became the central text that explored the potential
of the new theoretical options. The 19th-century narrator left the stage; what
remained was a text one could read as a reflex of thoughts. The "stream of
consciousness"[130] replaced the authorial voice. The characters endowed with
these new voices had no firm ground from which to narrate. Their audiences had
to re-create what was purposefully broken. One of the aims was to represent the
reality of thoughts, sensations and conflicting perspectives. William Faulkner
was particularly concerned with recreating real life, an undertaking which he said
was unattainable. Once the classical authorial voice was gone, the classical
composition of the text could be questioned: Ulysses did that. The argumentative
structure with which a narration used to make its points lost its importance. Each
sentence connected to sentences readers recalled. Words reverberated in a James Joyce, Ulysses (1922)

worldwide circulation of texts and language. Critics would understand more of

the possible allusions and supply them in footnotes.

Virginia Woolf's Mrs. Dalloway (1925), Samuel Beckett's trilogy Molloy (1951), Malone Dies (1951) and The
Unnamable (1953), Julio Cortázar's Rayuela (1963) and Thomas Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow (1973) all explore
this new narrative technique. Alfred Döblin went in a slightly different direction with his Berlin Alexanderplatz
(1929), where interspersed non-fictional text fragments enter the fictional sphere to create a new form of realism.
Authors of the 1960s–Robert Coover is an example–fragmented their stories and challenged time and sequentiality
as fundamental structuring concepts.
Novel 444

Postmodern authors[131] subverted the serious debate with playfulness. The new theorists' claim that art could never
be original, that it always played with existing materials, that language basically recalled itself had been an accepted
truth in the world of trivial literature. A postmodernist could reread trivial literature as the essential cultural
production. The creative avant-garde of the 1960s and 1970s "closed the gap"[132] and recycled popular knowledge,
conspiracy theories, comics and films to recombine these materials in what was to become art of entirely new
qualities. Roland Barthes' 1950s analysis of popular culture,[133] his late 1960s claim that the author was dead whilst
the text continued to live,[134] became standards of postmodern theory. Novels from Thomas Pynchon's The Crying
of Lot 49 (1966), to Umberto Eco's The Name of the Rose (1980) and Foucault's Pendulum (1989) opened
themselves to a universe of intertextual references[135] while they thematized their own constructedness in a new
postmodern metafictional awareness.[136]
What separated these authors from 18th- and 19th-century predecessors who had invited other textual worlds into
their own compositions, was the interaction the new authors sought with the field of literary criticism. 20th-century
metafictional works expect literary historians to deal with them; literary critics and theorists become the privileged
first readers that the new texts need in order to unfold. James Joyce is said to have said this about the reception he
designed for his Ulysses (1922): "I've put in so many enigmas and puzzles that it will keep the professors busy for
centuries arguing over what I meant, and that's the only way of insuring one's immortality."[137] – a statement to
which Salman Rushdie referred in 1999, according to Paul Brians's Notes for Satanic Verses:
Asked about the possibility of "Cliff's Notes" to his writings, Rushdie answered that although he didn't
expect readers to get all the allusions in his works, he didn't think such notes would detract from the
reading of them: "James Joyce once said after he had published Ulysses that he had given the professors
work for many years to come; and I'm always looking for ways of employing professors, so I hope to
have given them some work too."[138]
Novelists such as John Barth, Raymond Federman and Umberto Eco crossed the borders into criticism. Mixed forms
of criticism and fiction appeared: "critifiction", a term Raymond Federman attempted to coin in 1993.[139]
Whilst the postmodern movement has been criticized at times as theoretical if not escapist, it successfully unfolded
in several films of the 1990s and 2000s: Pulp Fiction (1994), Memento (2000), and The Matrix (1999–2003) can be
read as new textual constructs designed to prove that we are surrounded by virtual realities, by realities we construct
out of circulating fragments, of images, concept, a language of cultural materials the new filmmakers explore.
Novel 445

Writing world history

Joyce Carol Oates, 2006

Virginia Woolf, 1902

Doris Lessing, Cologne, 2006

Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn,
Vladivostok, 1995
Novel 446

Chinua Achebe, Buffalo, 2008 Paul Auster, Salman Rushdie and

Shimon Peres, New York City, 2008

Michel Houellebecq, Warsaw, 2008 Kenzaburō Ōe, Cologne, 2008

Elfriede Jelinek, Munich, 2004

Henning Mankell, Oslo, 2007

On the one hand, media and institutions of criticism enable the modern novel to become the object of global debate.
On the other hand, novels themselves, individual books, continue to arouse attention with unique personal and
subjective narratives that challenge all circulating views of world history. Novels remain personal. Their authors
remain independent individuals even where they become public figures, in contrast to historians and journalists who
tend, by contrast, to assume official positions. The narrative style remains free and artistic, whereas modern history
has by contrast almost entirely abandoned narration and turned to the critical debate of interpretations. Novels are
seen as part of the realm of "art", defended as a realm of free and subjective self-expression. Crossovers into other
genres – the novel as film, the film as novel, the amalgam of the novel and the comic book that led to the evolution
of the graphic novel – have strengthened the genre's influence on the collective imagination and the arena of ongoing
debates.
Personal realities have attracted 20th- and 21st-century novelists: first in an explicit reaction to the new science of
psychology, later, far more importantly, in a renewed interest in subject matter that almost automatically destabilizes
and marginalizes the realities of "common sense" and collective history. Personal anxieties, daydreams, magic and
hallucinatory experiences mushroomed in 20th-century novels. What would be a clinical psychosis if stated as a
personal experience – in one extreme example, Gregor Samsa, the point of view character of Kafka's The
Metamorphosis, awakes to find that he has become a giant cockroach – will, as soon as it is transformed into a novel,
Novel 447

become the object of competing literary interpretations, a metaphor, an image of the modern experience of personal
instability and isolation. The term "Kafkaesque" has joined the term "Orwellian" in common parlance to refer not
only to aspects of literature, but of the world.
Each generation of the 20th century saw its unique aspects expressed in novels. Germany's lost generation of World
War I veterans identified with the hero of Erich Maria Remarque's All Quiet on the Western Front (1928) (and with
the tougher, more existentialist rival Thor Goote created as a national socialist alternative). The Jazz Age found a
voice in F. Scott Fitzgerald, the Great Depression and the incipient Cold War in George Orwell. France's
existentialism was prominently voiced in Jean Paul Sartre's Nausea (1938) and Albert Camus' The Stranger (1942).
The counterculture of the 1960s gave Hermann Hesse's Steppenwolf (1927) a new reception, while producing such
iconic works of its own as Ken Kesey's One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest and Thomas Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow.
Chuck Palahniuk's Fight Club (1996) became (with the help of the film adaptation) an icon of late 20th-century
manhood and a reaction to the 20th-century production of female voices. Virginia Woolf, Simone de Beauvoir, Doris
Lessing, Elfriede Jelinek became prominent female and feminist voices. Questions of racial and gender identities, the
option to reclaim female heroines of a predominantly male cultural industry[140] have fascinated novelists over the
last two decades with their potential to destabilize the preceding confrontations.
The major 20th-century social processes can be traced through the modern novel: the history of the sexual
revolution[141] can be traced through the reception of sexually frank novels: D. H. Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's
Lover had to be published in Italy in 1928; British censorship lifted its ban as late as 1960. Henry Miller's Tropic of
Cancer (1934) created the comparable US scandal. Transgressive fiction from Vladimir Nabokov's Lolita (1955) to
Michel Houellebecq's Les Particules élémentaires (1998) entered a literary field that eventually opened itself to the
production of frankly pornographic works such as Anne Desclos' Story of O (1954) to Anaïs Nin's Delta of Venus
(1978).
Crime became a major subject of 20th- and 21st-century novelists. The extreme confrontations of crime fiction reach
into the very realities that modern industrialized, organized societies try and fail to eradicate. Crime is also an
intriguing personal and public subject: criminals each have their personal motivations and actions. Detectives, too,
see their moral codes challenged. Patricia Highsmith's thrillers became a medium of new psychological explorations.
Paul Auster's New York Trilogy (1985–1986) crossed the borders into the field of experimental postmodernist
literature.
The major political and military confrontations of the 20th and 21st centuries have inspired novelists. The events of
World War II found their reflections in novels from Günter Grass' The Tin Drum (1959) to Joseph Heller's Catch-22
(1961). The ensuing cold war lives on in a bulk of spy novels that reach out into the realm of popular fiction. Latin
American self awareness in the wake of the (failing) left revolutions of the 1960s and 1970s resulted in a "Latin
American Boom", connected today with the names of Julio Cortázar, Mario Vargas Llosa and Gabriel García
Márquez and the invention of a special brand of postmodern magic realism. The unstable status of Israel and the
Middle East have become the subject of Israeli and Arab perceptions. Contemporary fiction has explored the realities
of the post-Soviet nations and those of post-Tiananmen China. Arguably, though, international perceptions of these
events have been shaped more by images than words. The wave of modern media images has, in turn, merged with
the novel in the form of graphic novels that both exploit and question the status of circulating visual materials. Art
Spiegelman's two-volume Maus and, perhaps more important in its new theoretical approach, his In the Shadow of
No Towers (2004) – a graphic novel questioning the reality of the images the 9/11 attacks have produced – are
interesting artefacts here.
The extreme options of writing alternative histories have created genres of their own. Fantasy has become a field of
commercial fiction branching into the worlds of computer-animated role play and esoteric myth. Its center today is J.
R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings (1954/55), a work that mutated from a book written for young readers in
search of openly fictionalised role models into a cultural artefact of epic dimensions. Tolkien successfully revived
northern European epic literature from Beowulf and the North Germanic Edda to the Arthurian Cycles and turned
Novel 448

their incompatible worlds into an epic of global confrontations that magically preceded all known confrontations.
Science fiction has developed a broad variety of genres from the technological adventure Jules Verne had made
fashionable in the 1860s to new political and personal compositions. Aldous Huxley's Brave New World (1932) has
become a touchpoint for debate of Western consumerist societies and their use of modern technologies. George
Orwell's 1984 (1949) focuses on the options of resistance under the eyes of public surveillance. Stanisław Lem, Isaac
Asimov and Arthur C. Clarke became modern classical authors of experimental thought with a focus on the
interaction between men and machines. A new wave of authors has added post-apocalyptic fantasies and
explorations of virtual realities in crossovers into the commercial production of quickly mutating sci-fi genres.
William Gibson's Neuromancer (1984) became a cult classic here and founded a new brand of cyberpunk science
fiction.

Writing for the market of popular fiction

Bestsellers to be bought in a German

supermarket, 2009

Pulp magazines in a German newspaper shop,

2009

The contemporary market for trivial literature and popular fiction is connected to the market of "high" literature
through the numerous genres that both fields share.
The historic advantage of genres is to allow the direct marketing of fiction. Whilst the reader of "high" literature will
follow public discussions of novels, the low production has to employ the traditionally more direct and short-term
marketing strategies of open declarations of their content. Genres fill the gap the critic leaves and work as direct
promises of a foreseeable reading pleasure. The very lowest stratum of trivial fiction is based entirely on genre
expectations, which it fixes with serializations and identifiable brand names. Ghost writers hide behind collective
pseudonyms to ensure the steady supply of fictions that will have the very same hero, the very same story arc, and
the very same number of pages, issue after issue.
Novel 449

Though a production not promoted by secondary criticism it is trivial literature that holds the big market share.
Romance fiction had an estimated $1.375 billion share in estimated revenue of the US book market in 2007.
Religion/inspirational followed with $819 million, science fiction/fantasy with $700 million, mystery with $650
million and classic literary fiction with $466 million according to data supplied by the Romance Writers of America
homepage.[142]
The most important subgenres were in this period, according to Romance Writers of America data given on the basis
of numbers of releases:
• Contemporary series romance: 25.7%
• Contemporary romance: 21.8%
• Historical romance: 16%
• Paranormal romance: 11.8%
• Romantic suspense: 7.2%
• Inspirational romance: 7.1%
• Romantic suspense (series): 4.7%
• Other (chick-lit, erotic romance, women's fiction): 2.9%
• Young adult romance: 2.8%
In a historical perspective one could be tempted to see modern trivial literature as the successor of the early modern
chapbook. Both fields share a focus on readers in search of accessible reading satisfaction. Early modern booksellers
stated a reduced vocabulary and a focus on plots as the advantages of the abridgements they sold. The market of
chapbooks disappeared, however, in the course of the 19th century.[143] The modern trivial production had by that
time developed out of the once so elegant – early modern belles lettres.[144]
The 20th-century love romance is a successor of the novels Madeleine de Scudéry, Marie de La Fayette, Aphra
Behn, and Eliza Haywood wrote from the 1640s into the 1740s. The modern adventure novel goes back to Daniel
Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719) and its immediate successors. Modern pornography has no precedent in the
chapbook market; it goes back, again, to the libertine and hedonistic belles lettres, to John Cleland's Fanny Hill
(1749) and its companions of the elegant 18th-century market. Ian Fleming's James Bond is a descendant of the
anonymous yet extremely sophisticated and stylish narrator who mixed his love affairs with his political missions in
La Guerre d'Espagne (1707). Marion Zimmer Bradley's The Mists of Avalon exploits Tolkien, as well as Arthurian
literature and its romantic 19th-century reflections. Modern horror fiction also has no precedent on the market of
chapbooks – it goes back into the high market of early 19th-century romantic literature. Modern popular science
fiction has an even shorter history, hardly dating past the 1860s.
Novel 450

The modern trivial production can be said to be the result of the 19th-century
constitution of "high literature". Where "high literature" rose under the critical
debates of literature, the production that failed to receive the same critical attention
had to survive on the existing markets.
The emerging field of popular fiction immediately created its own stratifications
with a production of bestselling authors such as Raymond Chandler, Barbara
Cartland, Ian Fleming, Johannes Mario Simmel, Rosamunde Pilcher, Stephen King,
Ken Follett, Patricia Cornwell, and Dan Brown who enjoy the potential to attract
fans and who appear as role models in author-fan relationships. The lowest market
segment does not develop any mythologies of authorship. It hardly differentiates
between hero and author: one buys the new Perry Rhodan, Captain Future, or Jerry
Cotton.

Trivial literature has been accused of promoting escapism and reactionary politics. It
is supposedly designed to reinforce present divisions of class, power and gender.
Nonetheless, popular fiction has dealt with almost any topic the modern public
sphere has provided. Class and gender divisions are omnipresent in love stories: the
majority of them harp on tragic confrontations that arise wherever a heroine of lower
social status falls in love with a doctor, the wealthy heir of an estate or company, or
just the Alpine farmer whose maid she happens to be. It is not said that these
aspirations lead to happy endings. They can be read as escapist dreams of how one
could change ones social status by marriage; they are at the same time constant
indicators of existing or imaginary social barriers. All major political confrontations
of the past one hundred years have become the scenery of trivial exploits, whether Dan Brown on the book jacket
of one of his novels
they focused on soldiers, spies or on civilians fighting between the lines. Conspiracy
theories have mushroomed under the covers of trivial fictions from Robert Ludlum's
The Bourne Identity (1980) to Dan Brown's The Da Vinci Code (2003): they mirror a widespread feeling that the
electorate of the Western democracies receive at best an illusion of freedom, an omnipresent picture presented in the
media, whilst those who pull the strings hide in the dark.[145]

The authors of trivial fictions–and that is the essential functional difference between them and their counterparts in
the sphere of "high" literature–tend to proclaim that they have simply exploited the controversial topics. Dan Brown
does this on his website answering the question whether his Da Vinci Code could be called an "anti-Christian" novel:
No. This book is not anti-anything. It's a novel. I wrote this story in an effort to explore certain aspects
of Christian history that interest me. The vast majority of devout Christians understand this fact and
consider The Da Vinci Code an entertaining story that promotes spiritual discussion and debate. Even so,
a small but vocal group of individuals has proclaimed the story dangerous, heretical, and anti-Christian.
While I regret having offended those individuals, I should mention that priests, nuns, and clergy contact
me all the time to thank me for writing the novel. Many church officials are celebrating The Da Vinci
Code because it has sparked renewed interest in important topics of faith and Christian history. It is
important to remember that a reader does not have to agree with every word in the novel to use the book
as a positive catalyst for introspection and exploration of our faith[146]
The author of popular fictions has a fan community to serve and satisfy. He or she can risk rebuffing both the critical
public and its literary experts in their search for interesting readings (as Dan Brown effectively does with his
statement on possible readings of his novel). The trivial author's position towards his text is generally supposed to be
relaxed. Authors of great literature are by contrast supposed to be compelled to write. They follow (says the popular
mythology) their inner voices, a feeling for injustice, an urge to face a personal trauma, an artistic vision. The
Novel 451

authors of trivial fictions have their own call: they must not fail the expectations of their audiences. A covenant of
loyalty and mutual respect is the basis on which the author of popular fictions continues his or her work. The lower
branches of the production have no contact to mythologies of authorship.
The boundaries between the so-called high and low have blurred in recent years through the explorations of
postmodern and poststructuralist critics and through the exploitation of trivial works by the film industry. The
present landscape of media – with television and the Internet indiscriminately reaching the entire audience – has a
potential to destabilize boundaries between the fields. The division lines are, on the other hand, likely to stay intact
as the critical discourse continues to need and to produce privileged objects of debate.

See also

Genres of the novel Novels-related articles

• Campus • Byzantine novel
• Comic • Chain novel
• Crime fiction • First novel in English
• Fantasy • List of best-selling books
• Gothic • Lists of books
• Horror • List of historical novels
• Magic Realism • Live novel
• Romance • NaNoWriMo
• Science fiction • The Internet Book Database
• Speculative • Virtual novel
• Spy
• Thriller
• Westerns

Literature
• Essay
• Fiction
• Novelette
• Novella
• Romance (genre)
• Short story
• Fiction writing
• List of literary movements
• Literature
• Street Literature

Further reading

Contemporary views
• 1651: Paul Scarron, The Comical Romance, Chapter XXI. "Which perhaps will not be found very Entertaining"
(London, 1700). Scarron's plea for a French production rivalling the Spanish "Novels". online edition [147]
• 1670: Pierre Daniel Huet, "Traitté de l'origine des Romans", Preface to Marie-Madeleine Pioche de La Vergne
comtesse de La Fayette, Zayde, histoire espagnole (Paris, 1670). A world history of fiction. pdf-edition Gallica
France [148]
• 1683: [Du Sieur], "Sentimens sur l'histoire" from: Sentimens sur les lettres et sur l'histoire, avec des scruples sur
le stile (Paris: C. Blageart, 1680). The new novels as published masterly by Marie de LaFayette. online edition
[149]
Novel 452

• 1702: Abbe Bellegarde, "Lettre à une Dame de la Cour, qui lui avoit demandé quelques Reflexions sur l'Histoire"
in: Lettres curieuses de littérature et de morale (La Haye: Adrian Moetjens, 1702). Paraphrase of Du Sieur's text.
online edition [149]
• 1705/1708/1712: [Anon.] In English, French and German the Preface of The Secret History of Queen Zarah and
the Zarazians (Albigion, 1705). Bellegarde's article plagiarised. online edition [149]
• 1713: Deutsche Acta Eruditorum, German review of the French translation of Delarivier Manley's New Atalantis
1709 (Leipzig: J. L. Gleditsch, 1713). A rare example of a political novel discussed by a literary journal. online
edition [150]
• 1715: Jane Barker, preface to her Exilius or the Banish'd Roman. A New Romance (London: E. Curll, 1715). Plea
for a "New Romance" following Fénlon's Telmachus. online edition [151]
• 1718: Johann Friedrich Riederer, "Satyra von den Liebes-Romanen", from: Die abentheuerliche Welt in einer
Pickelheerings-Kappe, 2 (Nürnberg, 1718). German satire about the wide spread reading of novels and romances.
online edition [152]
• 1742: Henry Fielding, preface to Joseph Andrews (London, 1742). The "comic epic in prose" and its poetics.
online edition [153]

Secondary literature
• Erwin Rohde Der Griechesche Roman und seine Vorläufer (1876) [un-superseded history of the ancient novel]
(German)
• Lukács, Georg (1971, 1916). The Theory of the Novel. trans. Anna Bostock. Cambridge: M.I.T. Press.
ISBN 0-262-12048-8.
• Bakhtin, Mikhail. About novel. The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays [154]. Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl
Emerson and Michael Holquist. Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1981. [written during the 1930s]
• Watt, Ian (1957). The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding. Berkeley: University of Los
Angeles Press. ISBN 0-520-23069-8. Watt reads Robinson Crusoe as the first modern "novel" and interprets the
rise of the modern novel of realism as an achievement of English literature, owed to a number of factors from
early capitalism to the development of the modern individual.
• Burgess, Anthony (1963). The Novel To-day. London: Longmans, Green.
• Burgess, Anthony (1967). The Novel Now: A Student's Guide to Contemporary Fiction. London: Faber.
• Ben Edwin Perry The Ancient Romances [155] (Berkeley, 1967) review
• Richetti, John J. (1969). Popular Fiction before Richardson. Narrative Patterns 1700–1739. Oxford: OUP. ISBN.
• Burgess, Anthony (1970). "Novel, The" – classic Encyclopædia Britannica entry.
• Miller, H. K., G. S. (1970) Rousseau and Eric Rothstein, The Augustan Milieu: Essays Presented to Louis A.
Landa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970). ISBN 0-19-811697-7
• Arthur Ray Heiserman The Novel Before the Novel (Chicago, 1977) ISBN 0226325725
• Madden, David; Charles Bane, Sean M. Flory (2006) [1979]. A Primer of the Novel: For Readers and Writers
(revised ed. ed.). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-5708-1. Updated edition of pioneering typology
and history of over 50 genres; index of types and technique, and detailed chronology.
• Spufford, Magaret, Small Books and Pleasant Histories (London, 1981).
• Davis, Lennard J. (1983). Factual Fictions: The Origins of the English Novel. New York: Columbia University
Press. ISBN 0-231-05420-3.
• Spencer, Jane, The Rise of Woman Novelists. From Aphra Behn to Jane Austen (Oxford, 1986).
• Armstrong, Nancy (1987). Desire and Domestic Fiction: A Political History of the Novel. New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-504179-8.
• McKeon, Michael (1987). The Origins of the English Novel, 1600–1740. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
Press. ISBN 0-8018-3291-8.
Novel 453

• Reardon (ed.), Bryan (1989). Collected Ancient Greek Novels. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
ISBN 0-520-04306-5.
• Hunter, J. Paul (1990). Before Novels: The Cultural Contexts of Eighteenth-Century English Fiction. New York:
Norton. ISBN 0-393-02801-1.
• Ballaster, Ros (1992). Seductive Forms: Women's Amatory Fiction from 1684 to 1740. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
ISBN 0-19-811244-0.
• Doody, Margaret Anne (1996). The True Story of the Novel. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press.
ISBN 0-8135-2168-8.
• Relihan, Constance C. (ed.), Framing Elizabethan fictions: contemporary approaches to early modern narrative
prose (Kent, Ohio/ London: Kent State University Press, 1996). ISBN 0873385519
• "Reconsidering The Rise of the Novel," Eighteenth Century Fiction, Volume 12, Number 2-3 [156], ed. David
Blewett (January–April 2000).
• McKeon, Michael, Theory of the Novel: A Historical Approach (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
2000).
• Josephine Donovan, Women and the Rise of the Novel, 1405–1726 revised edition (Palgrave Macmillan, 2000).
• Simons, Olaf (2001). Marteaus Europa, oder, Der Roman, bevor er Literatur wurde: eine Untersuchung des
Deutschen und Englischen Buchangebots der Jahre 1710 bis 1720. Amsterdam: Rodopi. ISBN 90-420-1226-9. A
market study of the novel around 1700 interpreting contemporary criticism.
• Inger Leemans, Het woord is aan de onderkant: radicale ideeën in Nederlandse pornografische romans
1670–1700 (Nijmegen: Vantilt, 2002). ISBN 90-75697-89-9.
• Price, Leah (2003). The Anthology and the Rise of the Novel: From Richardson to George Eliot. London:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-53939-0. from Leah Price
• Rousseau, George (2004). Nervous Acts: Essays on Literature Culture and Sensibility (Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2004). ISBN 1-4039-3454-1
• Mentz, Steve, Romance for sale in early modern England: the rise of prose fiction (Aldershot [etc.]: Ashgate,
2006). ISBN 0-7546-5469-9
• Schultz, Lydia, "Flowing against the traditional stream: consciousness in Tillie Olsen's 'Tell Me a Riddle.'" Melus,
1997.
• Rubens, Robert, "A hundred years of fiction: 1896 to 1996. (The English Novel in the Twentieth Century, part
12)." Contemporary Review, December 1996.
• Steven Moore, The Novel: An Alternative History. Continuum, 2010. ISBN 978-1-4411-7704-9

References
[1] The process required that histories of literature were written that showed the new context as a historical fact. It is symptomatic that we hardly
have any histories of fictional texts published before the 1830s. Pierre Daniel Huet's Traitté de l'origine des romans (1670) became a precursor
but it did not trigger a production of comparable histories for the next 100 years. See the chapter on the 19th century for further insight.
[2] Huet's definition already notes that prose had not always defined the novel – Traitté de l'origine des romans (1670), Stephen Lewis' 1715
translation, p.4: "It is required to be in Prose by the Humour of the Times."
[3] Pierre Daniel Huet summarised the stylistic ambition of fictional prose accordingly in 1670: "It must be compos'd with Art and Elegance, lest
it should appear to be a rude undigested Mass, without Order or Beauty", Traitté de l'origine des romans (1670), Stephen Lewis' 1715
translation, p. 4.
[4] See the article on Vladimir Propp for the first explorations of these patterns.
[5] See Johann Friedrich Riederer's "Satyra von den Liebes-Romanen", in: Die abentheuerliche Welt in einer Pickelheerings-Kappe, vol. 2
(Nürnberg, 1718) with descriptions of the diverse situations in which people read novels at the beginning of the 18th century at Marteau (http:/
/ www. pierre-marteau. com/ editions/ 1718-liebes-romane. html).
[6] Pierre Daniel Huet, Traitté de l'origine des romans (1670), Stephen Lewis' translation (1715), p. 3–4.
[7] The Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America Nebula Award (http:/ / www. sfwa. org/ awards/ faq. htm#6) gives the following
guidelines: Novel – 40,000 words or more; Novella – 17,500–39,999 words; Novelette – 7,500–17,499 words; Short Story – 7,499 words or
fewer.
Novel 454

[8] Cf. a rather unfavourable review in the Irish Independent (http:/ / www. independent. ie/ unsorted/ features/
love-in-england-before-the-60s-started-to-swing-43482. html): "Ian McEwan's new novel has been greeted with unqualified, sometimes
ecstatic, praise from every reviewer in Britain, which may strike some readers here as a bit odd when they read the book. For a start, it's not a
novel. It's barely even a novella. In some ways it's more a long short story, built around a single event and involving just two characters – if it
was a play it would be a one-act two-hander."
[9] György Lukács The Theory of the Novel. A historico-philosophical essay on the forms of great epic literature [first German edition 1920],
transl. by Anna Bostock (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1971).
[10] Charles M. Schulz's original comic strip was published on 12 July 1965. The entire novel was first presented in Charles M. Schulz, Snoopy
and It Was A Dark And Stormy Night (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1971), the 2006 edition by Ravette Publishing, Limited, ISBN 1841612456,
does not contain it any longer; it has also become part of the 1988 TV version of Snoopy!!! The Musical youtube (http:/ / www. youtube. com/
watch?v=bZapcomLk7I& feature=related). See also "Once I Metablog on Metafiction. A self-reflective blog on self-reflective fiction. The
World’s Shortest Novel?: Snoopy’s “It was a Dark and Stormy Night” at http:/ / ronosaurusrex. com/ metablog/ (http:/ / ronosaurusrex. com/
metablog/ 2010/ 03/ 14/ the-worlds-shortest-novel-snoopys-it-was-a-dark-and-stormy-night/ ), March 10th 2010.
[11] "Britannica Online Encyclopedia" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9110453/ novel). . Retrieved 2 August 2009. "The term novel is
a truncation of the Italian word novella (from the plural of Latin novellus, a late variant of novus, meaning "new"), so that what is now, in
most languages, a diminutive denotes historically the parent form. The novella was a kind of enlarged anecdote like those to be found in the
14th-century Italian classic Boccaccio's Decameron, each of which exemplifies the etymology well enough."
[12] Jon Mcginnis, Classical Arabic Philosophy: An Anthology of Sources, p. 284, Hackett Publishing Company, ISBN .
[13] Samar Attar, The Vital Roots of European Enlightenment: Ibn Tufayl's Influence on Modern Western Thought, Lexington Books, ISBN
0-7391-1989-3.
[14] Muhsin Mahdi (1974), "The Theologus Autodidactus of Ibn at-Nafis by Max Meyerhof, Joseph Schacht", Journal of the American Oriental
Society 94 (2), pp. 232–234.
[15] The latest edition was: The Improvement of Human Reason, exhibited in the life of Hai Ebn Yokdhan: written in Arabick above 500 Years
ago, by Abu Jaafar Ebn Tophail [...] newly translated from the original Arabick, by Simon Ockley (London: W. Bray, 1711).
[16] Anne Dacier's translations, 1699 and 1708, turned Homer's verses into prose and generated an uproar among European intellectuals, who
were surprised about the archaic tone they showed.
[17] Good surveys are: John Robert Morgan, Richard Stoneman, Greek fiction: the Greek novel in context (Routledge, 1994), Niklas Holzberg,
The ancient novel: an introduction (Routledge, 1995), Gareth L. Schmeling (hrsg.), The Novel in the Ancient World (Leiden and Boston: Brill,
1996) and Tim Whitmarsh (hrsg.) The Cambridge companion to the Greek and Roman novel (Cambridge University Press 2008).
[18] See Heinrich von Veldeke's Eneas Romance written around 1175 or Herbort von Fritzlar's Liet von troye (c. 1195).
[19] For the structural analysis see: Hugo Kuhn's 1948 article on Hartmann's von Aue, Erec reprinted in Dichtung und Welt im Mittelalter
(Stuttgart, 1959). pp. 133–150. See also: Hans Fromm: "Doppelweg", in: Werk-Typ-Situation, ed. Ingeborg Glier et al. Festschrift Hugo Kuhn
(Stuttgart, 1969), pp. 64–79. The structural analysis has been criticised by Elisabeth Schmid, "Weg mit dem Doppelweg. Wider eine
Selbstverständlichkeit der germanistischen Artusforschung", in: Erzählstrukturen der Artusliteratur. Forschungsgeschichte und neue Ansätze,
ed. Friedrich Wolfzettel (Tübingen, 1999), p.69-85 and by Friedrich Wolfzettel in his, "Doppelweg und Biographie" in: Erzählstrukturen der
Artusliteratur. Forschungsgeschichte und neue Ansätze, ed. F. Wolfzettel (Tübingen, 1999), p. 119–141.
[20] See William Caxton's preface to his 1485 edition.
[21] See the annunciations of Robert Campin (c. 1430) (Image) and Rogier van der Weyden (c. 1435) (Image).
[22] See for a survey of medieval reading practices: Jessica Brantley, Reading in the Wilderness: Private Devotion and Public Performance in
Late Medieval England (University of Chicago Press, 2007).
[23] On Chaucer's tendency to increase the romance's influence see: Joseph Mersand, Chaucer's Romance Vocabulary (New York, 1939), on the
competing novelistic fabliaux tradition see: Charles Muscatine, Chaucer and the French Tradition (Berkeley, Los Angeles, 1957).
[24] See on the authorial function: George Kane, "The Autobiographical Fallacy in Chaucer and Langland Studies," Chambers Memorial Lecture
(London: HK Lewis, 1965).
[25] See: David Lawton, Chaucer's Narrators (Woodbridge, Eng., Dover, NH, 1985).
[26] The ESTC notes 29 editions published between 1496 and 1785 ESTC search result (http:/ / estc. bl. uk/ F/
YMU7APITB3P8CLP4R6J16RSRKXTRGRN9HE79F36U1UPQP8QVU9-05108?func=short-sort& set_number=093136&
sort_option=01---A02---A)
[27] See Rainer Schöwerling, Chapbooks. Zur Literaturgeschichte des einfachen Lesers. Englische Konsumliteratur 1680–1840 (Frankfurt,
1980), Magaret Spufford, Small Books and Pleasant Histories. Pleasant Fiction and its Readership in Seventeenth-Century England (London,
1981) and Tessa Watt, Cheap Print and Popular Piety 1550–1640 (Cambridge, 1990).
[28] See Guglielmo Cavallo, Roger Chartier, A History of Reading in the West, transl. by Lydia G. Cochrane (University of Massachusetts Press,
2003), and Jennifer Andersen and Elizabeth Sauer, Books and Readers in Early Modern England: Material Studies (University of
Pennsylvania Press, 2001).
[29] See Johann Friedrich Riederer German satire on the wide spread reading of novels and romances: "Satyra von den Liebes-Romanen", in: Die
abentheuerliche Welt in einer Pickelheerings-Kappe, vol. 2 (Nürnberg, 1718). online edition (http:/ / www. pierre-marteau. com/ editions/
1718-liebes-romane. html)
[30] The Illustrious and Renown'd History of the Seven Famous Champions of Christendom (London: T. Norris/ A. Bettesworth, 1719), pp.
164–168. See de:Volksbuch for a longer excerpt of the publisher's backlist.
Novel 455

[31] The history of the ever-renowned knight Don Quixote de la Mancha containing his many wonderful and admirable atchievements and
adventures (London: W.O./ H.) is an example here, Wing: 1522:14, today in the possession of the British Library. The title appeared around
1695 without a date, so that it could be sold over any period of time without appearing to be a shelf warmer. The plot was condensed to a mere
24 pages. The prestigious Peter Motteux edition published in 1706 consisted of (to show the contrast) four volumes each of 400 pages.
[32] The first of these editions was the so called "Amsterdam Coffee House Edition" published by T. Cox on August 1, 1719. The original
Publisher, Taylor, threatened to sue Cox and his customers in The St. James Post (7 August 1719), and repeated his threats in the 2nd edition
of vol. 2. Cox replied in the The Flying Post (29 October 1719). See H. C. Hutchins, Robinson Crusoe and Its Printing (New York: Columbia
University Press, 1925), pp. 99–100/ 142–45.
[33] The Contes des fées the Comtesse D'Aunois had published in 1698 sold in an English chapbook abridgment with all these promises of the
simplified and cheaper reading matter – the translator in the preface: "I did not attempt this with a Design to follow exactly the French Copy,
nor have any regard to our English Translation; which to me, are both tedious and irksome. Nor have I begun some of it many Years since:
But to make it portable for your walking Diversion, and less Chargeable: and chiefly to set aside the Distances of Sentences and Words, which
not only dissolve the Memory, but keep the most nice and material Intrigues, from a close Connexion." The History of the Tales of the Fairies.
Newly done from the French (London: E. Tracy, 1716), fol. Arv.
[34] See Hilkert Weddige, Die "Historien vom Amadis auss Franckreich": Dokumentarische Grundlegung zur Entstehung und Rezeption
(Beitrage zur Literatur des XV. bis XVIII. Jahrhunderts ; vol. 2) (Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1975).
[35] See on the early modern reception of Greek romances: Georges Molinié, Du roman grec au roman baroque. Un art majeur du genre
narratif en France sous Louis XIII (Toulouse, Presses universitaires du Mirail, 1995).
[36] Compare also: Günter Berger, Der komisch-satirische Roman und seine Leser. Poetik, Funktion und Rezeption einer niederen Gattung im
Frankreich des 17. Jahrhunderts (Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag, 1984), Ellen Turner Gutiérrez The reception of the picaresque
in the French, English, and German traditions (P. Lang, 1995), and Frank Palmeri, Satire, History, Novel: Narrative Forms, 1665–1815
(University of Delaware Press, 2003).
[37] See Camille Esmein, "Construction et démolition du 'héros de roman' au XVIIe siècle", La fabrique du personnage ed. by Françoise
Lavocat, Claude Murcia, Régis Salado (Paris: Honoré Champion éditeur, 2007).
[38] See Paul Scarron, The Comical Romance, Chapter XXI. "Which perhaps will not be found very Entertaining" (London, 1700) with its call
for the new genre. online edition (http:/ / www. pierre-marteau. com/ library/ e-1700-0002. html#c21)
[39] See [Du Sieur,] "Sentimens sur l'histoire" in: Sentimens sur les lettres et sur l'histoire, avec des scruples sur le stile (Paris: C. Blageart,
1680) online edition (http:/ / www. pierre-marteau. com/ editions/ 1683-1712-novels. html) and Camille Esmein's Poétiques du roman.
Scudéry, Huet, Du Plaisir et autres textes théoriques et critiques du XVIIe siècle sur le genre romanesque (Paris, 2004).
[40] See: René Godenne, "L'association 'nouvelle – petit roman' entre 1650 et 1750", CAIEF, n°18, 1966, p.67-78, Roger Guichemerre, "La crise
du roman et l'épanouissement de la nouvelle (1660–1690)", Cahiers de l'U.E.R. Froissart, n°3, 1978, pp. 101–106, Ellen J. Hunter-Chapco,
Theory and practice of the "petit roman" in France (1656–1683): Segrais, Du Plaisir, Madame de Lafayette (University of Regina, 1978), and
the two volumes of La Nouvelle de langue française aux frontières des autres genres, du Moyen-Âge à nos jours, vol. 1 (Ottignies: 1997), vol.
2 (Louvain, 2001).
[41] See Robert Ignatius Letellier, The English novel, 1660–1700: an annotated bibliography (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997).
[42] See the preface to The Secret History of Queen Zarah (Albigion, 1705)– the English version of Abbe Bellegarde, "Lettre à une Dame de la
Cour, qui lui avoit demandé quelques Reflexions sur l'Histoire" in: Lettres curieuses de littérature et de morale (La Haye: Adrian Moetjens,
1702) online edition (http:/ / www. pierre-marteau. com/ editions/ 1683-1712-novels. html)
[43] DeJean, Joan. The Essence of Style: How the French Invented Fashion, Fine Food, Chic Cafés, Style, Sophistication, and Glamour (New
York: Free Press, 2005).
[44] See: Markus Völkel's study of the entire debate "Pyrrhonismus historicus' und "Fides historica" (Frankfurt: Lang, 1987).
[45] See Martin Mulsow, "Pierre Bayles Beziehungen nach Deutschland. Mit einem Anhang: ein unveröffentlichtes Gespräch von Bayle",
Aufklärung 16 (2004), 233–242. online edition of Stolle's notes (http:/ / www. pierre-marteau. com/ editions/ 1703-rotterdam. html)
[46] See his Dom Carlos, nouvelle histoire (Amsterdam, 1672) and the recent dissertation by Chantal Carasco, Saint-Réal, romancier de
l'histoire: une cohérence esthéthique et morale (Nantes, 2005).
[47] Jean Lombard, Courtilz de Sandras et la crise du roman à la fin du Grand Siècle (Paris: PUF, 1980).
[48] Olaf Simons: Marteaus Europa oder Der Roman, bevor er Literatur wurde (Amsterdam/ Atlanta: Rodopi, 2001), p.194.
[49] That would be William Taylor, the publisher unless otherwise stated.
[50] Changed to "disputed" in the third edition
[51] Though Taylor has stated that he supposes the account to be "just history of fact" this is a direct rendering of what Horace has said about the
aims of poetic fictions: "aut prodesse volunt aut delectare poetae", "to instruct and to delight, that is what poets are aiming at", Ars Poetica
verse 333.
[52] Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe (http:/ / www. pierre-marteau. com/ editions/ 1719-robinson-crusoe/ p-iii. html) (London: W. Taylor, 1719)
[53] See Delarivier Manley's account of the affair in her Adventures of Rivella (http:/ / www. pierre-marteau. com/ editions/ 1714-rivella. html)
(London: E. Curl, 1714), p.114
[54] Press output statistics would be needed to see how important the political production actually was for the publishers. One would produce
them with an estimate of the numbers of sheets printed. A viable solution would be (for the period 1600–1800) to assume standard editions of
about 800 copies; the number of sheets a title needed per copy could be deduced from format and page numbers. It is not clear whether it
would be technically possible to use the ESTC data to create such a statistic.
Novel 456

[55] Numbers follow the ESTC classification of "fiction" and have to be seen as arbitrary identifications of "fictions". Searching for dubious
histories and works written in what is today perceived as the literary style of novels one is likely to arrive at higher numbers.
[56] Ian Watt's, The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding (London, 1957) set the phrase and inspired a number of
ensuing publications. Major titles are here John J. Richetti, Popular Fiction before Richardson. Narrative Patterns 1700–1739 (1969),
Lennard J. Davis, Factual Fictions: The Origins of the English Novel (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), J. Paul Hunter, Before
Novels: The Cultural Contexts of Eighteenth-Century English Fiction (New York: Norton, 1990), Margaret Anne Doody, The True Story of
the Novel (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996), and a volume of the journal Eighteenth Century Fiction brought out under
the title " Reconsidering The Rise of the Novel (http:/ / digitalcommons. mcmaster. ca/ ecf/ vol12/ iss2/ )" (which appeared in January–April
2000). Research in Aphra Behn, Delarivier Manley and Eliza Haywood has changed the picture since the 1970s with a focus on the two
generations of female authors who dominated the stage into the 1720s. Major studies and text editions have been provided here by Patricia
Köster, Ros Ballaster, Janet Todd and Patrick Spedding. A compound story is here Josephine Donovan, Women and the Rise of the Novel,
1405–1726 revised edition (Palgrave Macmillan, 2000).
[57] See the statistics Inger Leemans offers for the Dutch and French production, Het woord is aan de onderkant: radicale ideeën in Nederlandse
pornografische romans 1670–1700 (Nijmegen: Vantilt, 2002), S.359–364. See also for an overview of the German and English early
18th-century production: (http:/ / www. pierre-marteau. com/ resources/ novels/ index. html)
[58] "We owe (I believe) this Advantage to the Refinement and Politeness of our Gallantry; which proceeds, in my Opinion, from the great
Liberty which the Men of France allow to the Ladies. They are in a manner Recluses in Italy and Spain; and separated from Men by so many
Obstacles, that they are scarce to be seen, and not to be spoken with at all. Hence the Men have neglected the Art of Engaging the Tender Sex,
because the Occasions of it are so rare. All the Study and Business there, is to surmount the Difficulties of Access; when this is effected, they
make Use of the Time, without amusing themselves with Forms. But in France, the Ladies go at large upon their Parole; and being under no
Custody but that of their own Heart, erect it into a Fort, more strong and secure than all the Keys, Grates, and Vigilance of the Douegnas. The
Men are obliged to make a Regular and Formal Assault against this Fort, to employ so much Industry and Address to reduce it, that they have
formed it into an Art scarce known to other Nations. 'Tis this Art which distinguishes the French from other Romances, and renders the
Reading of them so Delicious, that they cause more Profitable Studies to be neglected." Pierre Daniel Huet, The History of Romances, transl.
by Stephen Lewis (London: J. Hooke/ T. Caldecott, 1715), pp. 138–140.
[59] See for the following: Christiane Berkvens-Stevelinck, H. Bots, P. G. Hoftijzer (eds.), Le Magasin de L'univers: The Dutch Republic as the
Centre of the European Book Trade: Papers Presented at the International Colloquium, Held at Wassenaar, 5–7 July 1990 (Leiden/ Boston,
MA: Brill, 1992).
[60] See also the article on Pierre Marteau for a profile of the European production of (not only) political scandal.
[61] See George Ernst Reinwalds Academien- und Studenten-Spiegel (Berlin: J. A. Rüdiger, 1720), p.424-427 and the novels written by such
"authors" as Celander, Sarcander, and Adamantes at the beginning of the 18th century.
[62] The standard study, though problematic with its theory of historical delays, is here Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the
Public Sphere: An Inquiry Into a Category of the Bourgeois Society [1962], translated by Thomas Burger (MIT Press, 1991).
[63] The Entertainments of Gallantry: or Remedies for Love. Familiarly discours'd, by a society of persons of quality (London: J. Morphew,
1712) celebrate how easy it has become for private individuals to write little novels – the entire book wants to prove this in the End. For
criticism of the new production see the Entertainments pp.74–77, Jane Barker's preface to her Exilius (http:/ / www. pierre-marteau. com/
editions/ 1715-exilius. html) (London: E. Curll, 1715), and George Ernst Reinwalds Academien- und Studenten-Spiegel (Berlin: J. A. Rüdiger,
1720), pp.424–427.
[64] See for a European perspective: Hugh Barr Nisbet, Claude Rawson (eds.), The Cambridge history of literary criticism, vol. IV (Cambridge
University Press 1997); for greater detail Ernst Weber, Texte zur Romantheorie: (1626–1781), 2 vols. (München: Fink, 1974/ 1981) and the
individual volumes of Dennis Poupard (et al.), Literature Criticism from 1400 to 1800: Critical Discussion of the Works of Fifteenth-,
Sixteenth-, Seventeenth-, and Eighteenth-Century Novelists, Poets, Playwrights, Philosophers, and Other Creative Writers (Detroit, Mich.:
Gale Research Co, 1984 ff.).
[65] See: Siegfried Seifert, "The learned periodical as the medium of current literary criticism and information in 18th-century Germany",
Transactions of the 7th International Congress on the Enlightenment, 2 (1988), p.661-63.
[66] Ian Watt's The Rise of the Novel (London, 1957) established the standard connections between Defoe, Richardson and Fielding and the
19th-century emergence of literary realism. J. Davis's, Factual Fictions: The Origins of the English Novel (New York: Columbia University
Press, 1983) and J. Paul Hunter's Before Novels: The Cultural Contexts of Eighteenth-Century English Fiction (New York: Norton, 1990)
substantiated the connection. Feminist research on Defoe's precursors, research on female authors from Aphra Behn and Delarivier Manley
revised the picture and coincided with research in the market of French late 17th century (fictional) memoirs and histories. See e.g. Gustave
Reynier, Le Roman réaliste au XVIIe siècle [1914] (Genève: Slatkine Reprints, 1971), Roger Francillon, "Fiction et réalité dans le roman
français de la fin du XVIIe siècle", Saggi e ricerche di letteratura francese, vol. XVII, (1978), pp. 99–130, and Günter Berger, "Histoire et
fiction dans les pseudo-mémoires de l'âge classique: dilemme du roman ou dilemme de l'historiographie?", Perspectives de la recherche sur le
genre narratif français du XVIIe siècle, actes du colloque de Pavie (octobre 1998), Pise-Genève, Edizioni Ets–Éditions Slatkine n° 8 (2000).
p.213-226.
[67] See on connections between the heroical romance and French historical fiction: Camille Esmein, "Le roman héroïque (1640–1680),
première théorisation d'un roman historique" in Fiction narrative et hybridation générique dans la littérature française ed. by Hélène Baby
(L'Harmattan, 2006).
Novel 457

[68] See the serious political review of Manley's New Atalantis (http:/ / www. pierre-marteau. com/ editions/ 1712-atalantis. html) the Deutsche
Acta Eruditorum (1713), vol. 9, p.771-779, and vol. 14, pp. 112–115.
[69] See Benjamin Wedel, Geheime Nachrichten und Briefe von Herrn Menantes Leben und Schriften (Cologne: Oelscher, 1731, reprint:
Zentralantiquariat der DDR, Leipzig 1977).
[70] Compare John Howell, The life and adventures of Alexander Selkirk: Containing the Real Incidents Upon which the Romance of Robinson
Crusoe is Founded (Oliver & Boyd, 1829) and Diana Souhami, Selkirk's Island: The True and Strange Adventures of the Real Robinson
Crusoe (Harcourt, 2002).
[71] See George Alexander Starr, Defoe and Spiritual Autobiography (Princeton: University Press, 1964).
[72] See Wilhelm Füger, Die Entstehung des historischen Romans aus der fiktiven Biographie in Frankreich und England, unter besonderer
Berücksichtigung von Courtilz de Sandras und Daniel Defoe (Munich, 1963).
[73] See: The French Inquisition: or, The History of the Bastille in Paris [...] written by Constantin de Renneville (London: A. Bell/ T. Varnham/
J. Osborne/ W. Taylor/ J. Baker, 1715), fol. A2r-v.
[74] See Crusoe's own preface to the third volume of his work.
[75] Volume 1 was reprinted in The Original London Post, or Heathcot's Intelligence, numbers 125–202 (London: 7 October 1719 – 30 March
1720), volume 2 followed with numbers 203-89 (London, 1 April – 18 October 1720). The advertisement for W. Taylor's edition of the
second part in no. 202 implies that this was no pirated edition. It is rather likely that Taylor and Defoe allowed the serialization to the
disadvantage of the rival pirate publishers.
[76] See Wyatt James Dowling, Science, "Robinson Crusoe", and judgment: A commentary on Book III of Rousseau's "Emile" [Boston College
Dissertation] (2007). online edition (http:/ / escholarship. bc. edu/ dissertations/ AAI3301787/ ).
[77] See the beginning of the 19th-century chapter for a look back onto the process and for secondary literature.
[78] The statistic includes a small number of plays that came out as "novels" or "romances" whilst both words also stood for genres of stories.
[79] See the preface to her Exilius (http:/ / www. pierre-marteau. com/ editions/ 1715-exilius. html) (London: E. Curll, 1715)
[80] See the preface to his third volume published in 1720 where he attacks all who said "that[..] the Story is feign'd, that the Names are
borrow'd, and that it is all a Romance; that there never were any such Man or Place..."
[81] The terminological fixation cannot be dated. John Howell used the word "romance" in 1829 in the title of his The life and adventures of
Alexander Selkirk: Containing the Real Incidents Upon which the Romance of Robinson Crusoe is Founded (Oliver & Boyd, 1829). The word
"novel" had by that time referred to Robinson Crusoe on the very same ground with the publication of Providence displayed: or, the
remarkable adventures of Alexander Selkirk [...] whose adventures was founded the celebrated novel of Robinson Crusoe (Bristol: I. James
etc., 1800).
[82] The interpretation of worldly fictions was a novelty. Huet had gone, however, into this direction with a longer preparation. His De
interpretatione libri duo, quorum prior est de optimo genere interpretandi alter de claris interpretibus (1661) had by 1670 become one of the
greatest works in the field of theological interpretation.
[83] See the extended excerpt of Stephen Lewis 1715 edition at Traitté de l'origine des romans (1670) for the collection of these statements and
further literature.
[84] The Works of T. Petronius Arbiter [...] second edition [...] made English by Mr. Wilson, Mr. Burnaby, Mr. Blount, Mr. Tho. Brown, Capt
Ayloff, and several others (London: S. Briscoe/ J. Woodward/ J. Morphew, 1710).
[85] The Works of Lucian, translated from the Greek, by several eminent hands, 2 vols. (London: S. Briscoe/ J. Woodward/ J. Morphew, 1711).
[86] See The Adventures of Theagenes and Chariclia [...] written originally in Greek by Heliodorus Bishop of Tricca, in the Fourth Century, 2
vols. (London: W. Taylor/ E. Curll/ R. Gosling/ J. Hooke/ J. Browne/ J. Osborn, 1717).
[87] A tongue in cheek reference to Huet can be found in The German Rogue: or, The Life and Merry Adventures, Cheats, Stratagems, And
Contrivances of Tiel Eulespiegle [...] Made English from the High-Dutch (London, 1720), a German chapbook offered in the new design of a
classic according to Huet.
[88] August Bohse's (alias Talander) preface to the German edition starting in 1710 offers the link between the Arabian Nights and Huet. See:
Die Tausend und eine Nacht [...] erstlich vom Hrn. Galland, der Kön. Academie Mitgliede, aus der arabischen Sprache in die frantzösische,
und aus selbiger anitzo ins Teutsche übersetzt: erster und anderer Theil. Mit einer Vorrede von Talandern (Leipzig: J. L. Gleditsch/ M. G.
Weidmann, 1710).
[89] See for novels teaching strategies: Vera Lee, Love and strategy in the eighteenth-century French novel (Schenkman Books, 1986), Anton
Kirchhofer, Strategie und Wahrheit: Zum Einsatz von Wissen über Leidenschaften und Geschlecht im Roman der englischen Empfindsamkeit
(München: Fink, 1995). online edition (http:/ / www. pierre-marteau. com/ c/ kirchhofer/ strategy. html) and the two first context chapters in
Olaf Simons, Marteaus Europa, oder Der Roman, bevor er Literatur wurde (Amsterdam, 2001), p.200-207 and pp.259–290.
[90] The elegant and clearly fashionable edition of The Works of Lucian (London: S. Briscoe/ J. Woodward/ J. Morphew, 1711), would thus
include the story of "Lucian's Ass", vol.1 p.114-43.
[91] Aphra Behn's Love-Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister (1684/ 1685/ 1687) – with her heroine becoming a high-tier prostitute – had
explicit sex scenes and nonetheless became a classic that male and female readers of taste could openly praise.
[92] See Robert Darnton, The Forbidden Best-Sellers of Pre-Revolutionary France (New York: Norton, 1995), Lynn Hunt, The Invention of
Pornography: Obscenity and the Origins of Modernity, 1500–1800 (New York: Zone, 1996), Inger Leemans, Het woord is aan de onderkant:
radicale ideeën in Nederlandse pornografische romans 1670–1700 (Nijmegen: Vantilt, 2002), and Lisa Z. Sigel, Governing Pleasures:
Pornography and Social Change in England, 1815–1914 (January: Scholarly Book Services Inc, 2002).
Novel 458

[93] See for the 17th- and 18th-century philosphical novel: The chapter "The Spinozistic Novel in French", in Jonathan Irvine Israel, Radical
Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650–1750 (Oxford University Press, 2002), p.591-599, Roger Pearson, The fables
of reason: a study of Voltaire's "Contes philosophiques" (Oxford University Press 1993), Dena Goodman, Criticism in action: Enlightenment
experiments in political writing (Cornell University Press 1989), Robert Francis O'Reilly, The Artistry of Montesquieu's Narrative Tales
(University of Wisconsin., 1967), and René Pomeau and Jean Ehrard, De Fénelon à Voltaire (Flammarion, 1998).
[94] In-depth studies are here Jürgen Fohrmann's Das Projekt der deutschen Literaturgeschichte (Stuttgart, 1989), giving the structure of the
following: Olaf Simons, Marteaus Europa, oder Der Roman, bevor er Literatur wurde (Amsterdam/ Atlanta: Rodopi, 2001), p.85-95, and pp.
116–193 and Lee Morissey's, The Constitution of Literature. Literacy, Democracy, and Early English Literary Criticism (Stanford University
Press, 2008). For the conceptual change see: Rainer Rosenberg, "Eine verworrene Geschichte. Vorüberlegungen zu einer Biographie des
Literaturbegriffs", Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik, 77 (1990), p.36-65, Richard Terry, "The Eighteenth-Century Invention
of English Literature: A Truism Revisited", Journal for Eighteenth Century Studies, 19.1 (1996), p.47-62.
[95] .Hippolyte Taine, Histoire of English Literature (http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 39/ 46. html) [French 1863] (1864)
[96] See for the project of a German "Nationalliteratur": Peter Uwe Hohendahl, Building a National Literature: The Case of Germany,
1830–1870 transl. by Renate Franciscono (Cornell University Press, 1989).
[97] See for the connection of criticism and the (early) modern nation building: Thomas Docherty, Criticism and Modernity: Aesthetics,
Literature, and Nations in Europe and Its Academies (Oxford University Press, 1999) and Terry Eagleton, The Function of Criticism [1984]
(Verso, 2005).
[98] See Ian Hunter, Culture and Government. The Emergence of Literary Education (Basingstoke, 1988).
[99] See on the politics of the 19th and 20th century canon building: John Guillory, Cultural Capital: The Problem of Literary Canon Formation
(University of Chicago Press, 1993) and Mihály Szegedy-Maszák, Literary Canons: National and International (Akadémiai Kiadó, 2001).
[100] See: Sebastian Neumeister und Conrad Wiedemann (eds.), Res publica litteraria: Die Institutionen der Gelehrsamkeit in der frühen Neuzeit
(Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1987) and Dena Goodman, The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment (Cornell
University Press, 1996).
[101] See Mark Rose, Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright 3rd ed. (Harvard University Press, 1993) and Joseph Lowenstein, The
Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright (University of Chicago Press, 2002) and, with a special perspective on the censor's
interest to establish copyright laws and thus to fix responsibilities: Lyman Ray Patterson, Copyright in Historical Perspective (Vanderbilt
University Press, 1968).
[102] See Susan Esmann, "Die Autorenlesung – eine Form der Literaturvermittlung", Kritische Ausgabe 1/2007 PDF; 0,8 MB (http:/ /
kritische-ausgabe. de/ hefte/ werkstatt/ esmann. pdf).
[103] See: James Engell, The committed word: Literature and Public Values (Penn State Press, 1999) and Edwin M. Eigner, George John Worth
(ed.), Victorian criticism of the novel (Cambridge: CUP Archive, 1985).
[104] Gene H. Bell-Villada, Art for Art's Sake & Literary Life: How Politics and Markets Helped Shape the Ideology & Culture of Aestheticism,
1790–1990 (University of Nebraska Press, 1996).
[105] See Richard Altick and Jonathan Rose, The English Common Reader: A Social History of the Mass Reading Public, 1800–1900, 2nd ed.
(Ohio State University Press, 1998) and William St. Clair, The Reading Nation in the Romantic Period (Cambridge: CUP, 2004).
[106] See for the following Gerald Ernest Paul Gillespie, Manfred Engel, and Bernard Dieterle, Romantic prose fiction (John Benjamin's
Publishing Company, 2008).
[107] See Geoffrey Galt Harpham, On the Grotesque: Strategies of Contradiction in Art and Literature, 2nd ed. (Davies Group, Publishers,
2006).
[108] The early reviews immediately argued in this direction. See John Wilson Croker's criticism in his article "Waverley; or, 'tis Sixty Years
since", Quarterly Review (November 1814), 354–77.
[109] For the wider context of 19th century encounters with history see: Hayden White, Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in
Nineteenth-Century Europe (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1977).
[110] See Scott Donaldson and Ann Massa American Literature: Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (David & Charles, 1978), p. 205. On
the publishing history of Uncle Tom's Cabin: Claire Parfait, The Publishing History of Uncle Tom's Cabin, 1852–2002 (Ashgate Publishing,
Ltd., 2007).
[111] See D. Bruce Hindmarsh, The Evangelical Conversion Narrative: Spiritual Autobiography in Early Modern England (Oxford University
Press, 2005), Owen C. Watkins, The Puritan Experience: Studies in Spiritual Autobiography (Routledge & K. Paul, 1972).
[112] See Gustav Seibt, Goethe und Napoleon. Eine historische Begegnung (München: C. H. Beck, 2008).
[113] John Barth "The Literature of Exhaustion" (1967)
[114] Alvin Kernan, The Death of Literature (Yale University Press, 1990).
[115] The entire English book production from 1473 to 1700 became available to experts through Early English Books Online and the production
from 1700 to 1800 through Eighteenth Century Collections Online. Gallica France provides similar services for all French readers. Google is
currently scanning massive numbers of 19th-century books. Html databases such as Project Gutenberg offer classic fiction. Modern Internet
fiction exists on numerous platforms, with a special emphasis on graphic novels.
[116] As of June 2008, the Potter series has sold more than 400 million copies and has been translated into 67 languages. Guy Dammann (June
18, 2008). "Harry Potter breaks 400m in sales" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ business/ 2008/ jun/ 18/ harrypotter. artsandentertainment).
The Guardian (Guardian News and Media Limited). . Retrieved 2008-10-17.
[117] Jan-Pieter Barbian, Literaturpolitik im "Dritten Reich". Institutionen, Kompetenzen, Betätigungsfelder, new edition (Stuttgart: dtv, 1995).
Novel 459

[118] See the chapters on the war production of the most important German publisher of the period in Saul Friedländer, Norbert Frei, Trutz
Rendtorff and Reinhard Wittmann (eds.), Bertelsmann im Dritten Reich (Gütersloh: Bertelsmann, 2002). See also: Hans-Eugen and Edelgard
Bühler, Der Frontbuchhandel 1939–1945. Organisationen, Kompetenzen, Verlage, Bücher (Frankfurt am Main: Buchhändler-Vereinigung,
2002).
[119] See: Sabrina Hassumani, Salman Rushdie: a postmodern reading of his major works (Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 2002).
[120] See e.g. Malise Ruthven, A satanic affair: Salman Rushdie and the rage of Islam (Chatto & Windus, 1990), Girja Kumar, The book on
trial: fundamentalism and censorship in India (Har-Anand Publications, 1997) and Madelena Gonzalez, Fiction After the Fatwa: Salman
Rushdie and the Charm of Catastrophe (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2005).
[121] See: Donovan R. Walling, Under Construction: The Role of the Arts and Humanities in Postmodern Schooling (Bloomington, Indiana: Phi
Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, 1997).
[122] See Paul Brian, Modern South Asian Literature in English (Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Press, 2003).
[123] See for the rise of postcolonial literatures Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, Helen Tiffin (eds.), The empire writes back: theory and practice
in post-colonial literatures (London/ New York: Routledge, 1989), 2nd edition (London/ New York: Routledge, 2002).
[124] See: Kjell Espmark, The Nobel Prize in literature: a study of the criteria behind the choices (G.K. Hall, 1991), Julia Lovell, The politics of
cultural capital: China's quest for a Nobel Prize in literature (University of Hawaii Press, 2006) und Richard Wires, The Politics of the Nobel
Prize in Literature: How the Laureates Were Selected, 1901–2007 (Edwin Mellen Press, 2009).
[125] See James F. English, The Economy of Prestige (2005).
[126] See: Andrew Gurr, Writers in exile: the identity of home in modern literature (Brighton, Sussex: Harvester Pr., 1981); John Glad (ed.),
Literature in exile (Durham: Duke Univ. Pr., 1990); David Bevan (ed.), Literature and exile (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1990); James Whitlark and
Wendell Aycock (eds.) The literature of emigration and exile (Lubbock, Tex: Texas Tech University Press, 1992); and Guy Stern,
Literarische Kultur im Exil: gesammelte Beiträge zur Exilforschung (1989–1997) (Dresden: Dresden Univ. Press, 1998).
[127] Data published in The Bookseller and made available at Book Marketing Ltd. (http:/ / www. bookmarketing. co. uk/ index. cfm/
asset_id,885/ index. html)
[128] See the Press Release (http:/ / www. bookscan. com/ uploads/ press/ BookSalesHoldOwnIn2008_Feb09. pdf) issued of February 9, 2009.
[129] See titles like David Cole, The Complete Guide to Book Marketing 2nd edition (Allworth Communications, Inc., 2004) and Alison
Baverstock, How to Market Books: The Essential Guide to Maximizing Profit and Exploiting All Channels to Market, 4th edition (Kogan Page
Publishers, 2008).
[130] The term was first used by William James in 1890 and entered the terminology of literary criticism with the discussions of Woolf and
Joyce, as well as Faulkner. See Erwin R. Steinberg (ed.) The Stream-of-consciousness technique in the modern novel (Port Washington, N.Y:
Kennikat Press, 1979). On the extra-European usage of the technique see also: Elly Hagenaar/ Eide, Elisabeth, "Stream of consciousness and
free indirect discourse in modern Chinese literature", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 56 (1993), p.621 and P. M. Nayak
(ed.), The voyage inward: stream of consciousness in Indian English fiction (New Delhi: Bahri Publications, 1999).
[131] See for a first survey Brian McHale, Postmodernist Fiction (Routledge, 1987) and John Docker, Postmodernism and popular culture: a
cultural history (Cambridge University Press, 1994).
[132] See Leslie Fiedler's "Cross the border, close the gap!" Playboy (December 1969).
[133] Roland Barthes, Mythologies [1957] (New York: Hill & Wang, 1987).
[134] Roland Barthes "The Death of the Author" [1969] in Image, Music, Text (London: Fontana, 1977).
[135] See Gérard Genette, Palimpsests, trans. Channa Newman & Claude Doubinsky (Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press) and Graham
Allan, Intertextuality (London/New York: Routledge, 2000).
[136] See Linda Hutcheon, Narcissistic Narrative. The Metafictional Paradox (London: Routledge, 1984) and Patricia Waugh, Metafiction. The
Theory and Practice of Self-conscious Fiction (London: Routledge 1988).
[137] The statement was allegedly made by Joyce in October 1921, recalled by Jacques Benoist-Méchin in 1956 before it became a standard with
Richard Ellman's biography, James Joyce (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982) p.521.
[138] Paul Brians in his Notes for Salman Rushdie,The Satanic Verses (1988) Version (February 13, 2004), p.5. (http:/ / www. wsu. edu/ ~brians/
anglophone/ satanic_verses/ svnotes. pdf)
[139] Raymond Federman, Critifiction: Postmodern Essays, (Suny Press, 1993).
[140] See, for example, Susan Hopkins, Girl Heroes: The New Force In Popular Culture (Annandale NSW:, 2002).
[141] See: Charles Irving Glicksberg, The Sexual Revolution in Modern American Literature (Nijhoff, 1971) and his The Sexual Revolution in
Modern English Literature (Martinus Nijhoff, 1973). On recent trends: Elizabeth Benedict, The Joy of Writing Sex: A Guide for Fiction
Writers (Macmillan, 2002). Very interesting with its focus on trivial literature written for the female audience: Carol Thurston, The Romance
Revolution: Erotic Novels for Women and the Quest for a New Sexual Identity (University of Illinois Press, 1987).
[142] See the page Romance Literature Statistics: Overview (http:/ / www. rwanational. org/ cs/ the_romance_genre/
romance_literature_statistics) (visited March 16, 2009) of Romance Writers of America (http:/ / www. rwanational. org/ cs/ home) homepage.
The subpages offer further statistics for the years since 1998.
[143] The German rediscovery of chapbooks in the 1840s and their new identification as an extinct though truly original production of
"Volksbücher", books the people had brought forth, is symptomatic here. See Karl Joseph Simrock's edition Sammlung deutscher
Volksbücher, 13 vols. (Frankfurt, 1845–67) and Jan Dirk Müller (ed.) in his Romane des 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts, vol. 1 (Frankfurt a. M.,
1990).
Novel 460

[144] John J. Richetti was the first to point out the various similarities within the spectrum of genres. See his Popular Fiction before Richardson.
Narrative Patterns 1700–1739 (Oxford: OUP, 1969).
[145] See Timothy Melley, Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture of Paranoia in Postwar America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000).
[146] Dan Brown on his website (http:/ / www. danbrown. com/ novels/ davinci_code/ faqs. html) visited February 3, 2009.
[147] http:/ / www. pierre-marteau. com/ library/ e-1700-0002. html#c21
[148] http:/ / visualiseur. bnf. fr/ Visualiseur?Destination=Gallica& O=NUMM-57594
[149] http:/ / www. pierre-marteau. com/ editions/ 1683-1712-novels. html
[150] http:/ / www. pierre-marteau. com/ editions/ 1712-atalantis. html
[151] http:/ / www. pierre-marteau. com/ library/ e-1715-0008. html
[152] http:/ / www. pierre-marteau. com/ editions/ 1718-liebes-romane. html
[153] http:/ / www. munseys. com/ diskone/ joeandrewdex. htm
[154] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=JKZztxqdIpgC
[155] http:/ / links. jstor. org/ sici?sici=0009-8353(196704)62%3A7%3C321%3ATARALA%3E2. 0. CO%3B2-J
[156] http:/ / digitalcommons. mcmaster. ca/ ecf/ vol12/ iss2/

Satire

1867 edition of Punch, a ground-breaking British magazine of popular

humour, including a good deal of satire of the contemporary social and
political scene.
Satire 461

Performing arts
Major forms

Dance · Music · Opera · Theatre · Circus

Minor forms

Magic · Puppetry

Genres

Drama · Tragedy · Comedy · Tragicomedy · Romance · Satire · Epic · Lyric

Satire is primarily a literary genre or form, although in practice it can also be found in the graphic and performing
arts. In satire, vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, ideally with the intent of shaming
individuals, and society itself, into improvement.[1] Although satire is usually meant to be funny, its greater purpose
is constructive social criticism, using wit as a weapon.
A common feature of satire is strong irony or sarcasm—"in satire, irony is militant"[2] —but parody, burlesque,
exaggeration, juxtaposition, comparison, analogy, and double entendre are all frequently used in satirical speech and
writing. This "militant" irony or sarcasm often professes to approve (or at least accept as natural) the very things the
satirist wishes to attack.
Satire is nowadays found in many artistic forms of expression, including literature, plays, commentary, and media
such as lyrics.

Term
The word satire comes from the Latin word satur and the subsequent phrase lanx satura. Satur meant "full," but the
juxstaposition with lanx shifted the meaning to "miscellany or medley": the expression lanx satura literally means "a
full dish of various kinds of fruits."[3]
The word satura as used by Quintilian however, indicated a narrower genre than what would be later intended as
satire; it denoted only works in strictly hexameter form, which were a distinctly Roman genre.[3] Quintilian
famously said that satura, that is a satire in hexameter verses, was a literary genre of wholly Roman origin (satura
tota nostra est).[3] He was aware of and commented on Greek satire, but at the time there was no word to label it
under the same genre.[3] It is likely that Aristophanes' Old Comedy, which is considered today the origin of the
current literary genre of satire, would have been considere satire by Quintilian as well.[3] The first critic to use satire
in the modern broader sense was Apuleio.[3]
The derivation of satire from satura properly has nothing to do with the Greek mythological figure satyr[4] . To
Quintilian, the satire was a strict literary form, but the term soon escaped from the original narrow definition. Robert
Elliott writes:
"As soon as a noun enters the domain of metaphor, as one modern scholar has pointed out, it clamours for
extension; and satura (which had had no verbal, adverbial, or adjectival forms) was immediately broadened by
appropriation from the Greek word for “satyr” (satyros) and its derivatives. The odd result is that the English
“satire” comes from the Latin satura; but “satirize,” “satiric,” etc., are of Greek origin. By about the 4th century
AD the writer of satires came to be known as satyricus; St. Jerome, for example, was called by one of his
enemies 'a satirist in prose' ('satyricus scriptor in prosa'). Subsequent orthographic modifications obscured the
Latin origin of the word satire: satura becomes satyra, and in England, by the 16th century, it was written
'satyre.'"[5]
Satire 462

Satire and humour

Satirical works often contain "straight" humour, usually to give relief from what might otherwise be relentless
preaching. Although this has always been so, it is probably more marked in modern satire. Yet some satire is not
"funny", nor is meant to be. Obviously, not all humour - even on such such topics as politics, religion or art, or using
the great satirical tools of irony, parody, and burlesque - is necessarily "satirical"; the most light-hearted satire
always has a serious "after-taste". The Ig Nobel Prize satire on trivial scientific research describes this as "first make
people laugh, and then make them think" - a fair definition of satire itself.

Types of Satire
Satirical literature can commonly be categorized as either Horatian or Juvenalian.

Horatian
Named for the Roman satirist, Horace, this playfully criticizes some social vice through gentle, mild, and
light-hearted humour. It directs wit, exaggeration, and self-deprecating humour toward what it identifies as folly,
rather than evil. Horatian satire's sympathetic tone is common in modern society. Some examples include Jonathan
Swift's Gulliver’s Travels, Daniel Defoe's The True-Born Englishman, Alexander Pope's The Rape of the Lock, C.S.
Lewis' The Screwtape Letters, The Onion, Matt Groening's The Simpsons and the Ig Nobel Prizes.

Juvenalian
Named after the Roman satirist Juvenal, this type of satire is more contemptuous and abrasive than the Horatian.
Juvenalian satire addresses social evil through scorn, outrage, and savage ridicule. This form is often pessimistic,
characterized by irony, sarcasm, moral indignation and personal invective, with less emphasis on humour. Some
Juvenalian satire: Joseph Hall's Virgidemiarum, Jonathan Swift's A Modest Proposal, Samuel Johnson's London,
George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four and Animal Farm, Ray Bradbury’s Fahrenheit 451, William Golding's Lord
of the Flies, Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, Anthony Burgess' A Clockwork Orange, Joseph Heller's Catch 22,
William Burroughs' Naked Lunch, Stephen Colbert's performance at the 2006 White House Correspondents Dinner,
anarcho-punk band Crass, and the cartoon South Park.

Development

Ancient Egypt
One of the earliest examples of what we might call satire, The Satire of the Trades[6] , is in Egyptian writing from the
beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. The text's apparent readers are students, tired of studying. It argues that their
lot as scribes is useful, and their lot far superior to that of the ordinary man. Scholars such as Helck [7] think that the
context was meant to be serious.
The Papyrus Anastasi I[8] (late 2nd millennium BC) contains a satirical letter which first praises the virtues of its
recipient, but then mocks the reader's meagre knowledge and achievements.

Greco-Roman world
The Greeks had no word for what later would be called "satire", although the terms cynicism and parody were used.
Modern critics call the Greek playwright Aristophanes one of the best known early satirists: his plays are known for
their critical political and societal commentary,[9] particularly for the political satire by which he criticized the
powerful Cleon (as in The Knights). He is also notable for the persecution he underwent.[9] [10] [11] [12]
Aristophanes's bawdy style was adopted by Greek dramatist-comedian Menander. His early play Drunkenness
contains an attack on the politician Callimedon.
Satire 463

The oldest form of satire still in use is the Menippean satire by Menippus of Gadara. His own writings are lost.
Examples from his admirers and imitators mix seriousness and mockery in dialogues and present parodies before a
background of diatribe. The reader is meant to question approved truths in order to form a didactic set of knowledge.
The first Roman to discuss satire critically was Quintilian, who invented the term to describe the writings of
Lucilius. The two most prominent and influential ancient Roman satirists are Horace and Juvenal, who wrote during
the early days of the Roman Empire. Other important satirists in ancient Latin are Lucilius and Persius. Satire in
their work is much wider than in the modern sense of the word, including fantastic and highly coloured humorous
writing with little or no real mocking intent. When Horace criticized Augustus, he used veiled ironic terms. In
contrast, Pliny reports that the 6th century BC poet Hipponax wrote satirae that were so cruel that the offended
hanged themselves.[13]

Medieval Islamic world

Main articles: Arabic satire and Persian satire
Medieval Arabic poetry included the satiric genre hija. Satire was introduced into Arabic prose literature by the
Afro-Arab author Al-Jahiz in the 9th century. While dealing with serious topics in what are now known as
anthropology, sociology and psychology, he introduced a satirical approach, "based on the premise that, however
serious the subject under review, it could be made more interesting and thus achieve greater effect, if only one
leavened the lump of solemnity by the insertion of a few amusing anecdotes or by the throwing out of some witty or
paradoxical observations. He was well aware that, in treating of new themes in his prose works, he would have to
employ a vocabulary of a nature more familiar in hija, satirical poetry."[14] For example, in one of his zoological
works, he satirized the preference for longer human penis size, writing: "If the length of the penis were a sign of
honor, then the mule would belong to the (honorable tribe of) Quraysh". Another satirical story based on this
preference was an Arabian Nights tale called "Ali with the Large Member".[15]
In the 10th century, the writer Tha'alibi recorded satirical poetry written by the Arabic poets As-Salami and Abu
Dulaf, with As-Salami praising Abu Dulaf's wide breadth of knowledge and then mocking his ability in all these
subjects, and with Abu Dulaf responding back and satirizing As-Salami in return.[16] An example of Arabic political
satire included another 10th century poet Jarir satirizing Farazdaq as "a transgressor of the Sharia" and later Arabic
poets in turn using the term "Farazdaq-like" as a form of political satire.[17]
The terms "comedy" and "satire" became synonymous after Aristotle's Poetics was translated into Arabic in the
medieval Islamic world, where it was elaborated upon by Islamic philosophers and writers, such as Abu Bischr, his
pupil Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes. Due to cultural differences, they disassociated comedy from Greek
dramatic representation and instead identified it with Arabic poetic themes and forms, such as hija (satirical poetry).
They viewed comedy as simply the "art of reprehension", and made no reference to light and cheerful events, or
troubled beginnings and happy endings, associated with classical Greek comedy. After the Latin translations of the
12th century, the term "comedy" thus gained a new semantic meaning in Medieval literature.[18]
Ubayd Zakani introduced satire in Persian literature during the 14th century. His work is noted for its satire and
obscene verses, often political or bawdy, and often cited in debates involving homosexual practices. He wrote the
Resaleh-ye Delgosha, as well as Akhlaq al-Ashraf ("Ethics of the Aristocracy") and the famous humorous fable
Masnavi Mush-O-Gorbeh (Mouse and Cat), which was a political satire. His non-satirical serious classical verses
have also been regarded as very well written, in league with the other great works of Persian literature. Between
1905 and 1911, Bibi Khatoon Astarabadi and other Iranian writers wrote notable satires.
Satire 464

Medieval Europe
In the Early Middle Ages, examples of satire were the songs by Goliards or vagants now best known as an anthology
called Carmina Burana and made famous as texts of a composition by the 20th century composer Carl Orff. Satirical
poetry is believed to have been popular, although little has survived. With the advent of the High Middle Ages and
the birth of modern vernacular literature in the 12th century, it began to be used again, most notably by Chaucer. The
disrespectful manner was considered "Unchristian" and ignored but for the moral satire, which mocked
misbehaviour in Christian terms. Examples are Livre des Manières (~1170), and some of Chaucer's Canterbury
Tales. The epos was mocked, and even the feudal society, but there was hardly a general interest in the genre.
Two major satirists of Europe in the Renaissance were Giovanni Boccaccio and François Rabelais. Other examples
of Renaissance satire include Till Eulenspiegel, Reynard the Fox, Sebastian Brant's Narrenschiff (1494), Erasmus'
Moriae Encomium (1509) and Thomas More's Utopia (1516).

Early modern western satire

The Elizabethan (i.e. 16th century English) writers thought of satire as related to the notoriously rude, coarse and
sharp satyr play. Elizabethan "satire" (typically in pamphlet form) therefore contains more straight forward abuse
than subtle irony. By the 1590s however a new wave of verse satire broke with the publication of Hall's
Virgidemiarum, six books of verse satires targeting everything from literary fads to corrupt noblemen. Although
Donne had already circulated satires in manuscript, Hall's was the first real attempt at verse satire on the Juvenalian
model.[19] The success of his work combined with a national mood of disillusion in the last year's of Elizabeth's
reign triggered an avalanche of satire - much of it less conscious of classical models than Hall's - until the fashion
was brought to an abrupt stop by censorship.[20] The French Huguenot Isaac Casaubon pointed out in 1605 that satire
in the Roman fashion was something altogether more civilised. 17th century English satire once again aimed at the
"amendment of vices" (Dryden).
Direct social commentary via satire returned with a vengeance in the 16th century, when farcical texts such as the
works of François Rabelais tackled more serious issues (and incurred the wrath of the crown as a result). In the Age
of Enlightenment, an intellectual movement in the 17th and 18th century advocating rationality, began the
breakthrough of English satire, largely due to the creation of Tory and Whig groups and the necessity to convey the
true meaning of criticism, especially true for Daniel Defoe (The True-Born Englishman,The Shortest-Way with the
Dissenters), Jonathan Swift, John Dryden and Alexander Pope. Here, astute and biting satire of institutions and
individuals became a popular weapon. Although Early Modern satire was already an established genre, Isaac
Casaubon discovered and published Quintilian's writing and presented the original meaning of the term (satira, not
satyr), and the sense of wittiness (reflecting the "dishfull of fruits") became more important again.
Jonathan Swift was one of the greatest of Anglo-Irish satirists, and one of the first to practise modern journalistic
satire. For instance, his A Modest Proposal suggests that poor Irish parents be encouraged to sell their own children
as food. In his book Gulliver's Travels he writes about the flaws in human society in general and English society in
particular. Swift creates a moral fiction, a world in which parents do not have their most obvious responsibility,
which is to protect their children from harm. Similarly, Defoe presents a world in which freedom of religion is
reduced to the freedom to conform. Swift's purpose is of course to attack indifference to the plight of the desperately
poor, and Defoe's to advocate freedom of conscience.
John Dryden also wrote an influential essay on satire that helped fix its definition in the literary world.
Satire 465

Anglo-American satire
Ebenezer Cooke, author of "The Sot-Weed Factor," was among the first American colonialists to write literary satire.
Benjamin Franklin and others followed, using satire to shape an emerging nation's culture through its sense of the
ridiculous.
Mark Twain was a great American satirist: his novel Huckleberry Finn is set in the antebellum South, where the
moral values Twain wishes to promote are completely turned on their heads. His hero, Huck, is a rather simple but
goodhearted lad who is ashamed of the "sinful temptation" that leads him to help a runaway slave. In fact his
conscience, warped by the distorted moral world he has grown up in, often bothers him most when he is at his best.
Ironically, he is prepared to do good, believing it to be wrong.
Twain's younger contemporary Ambrose Bierce gained notoriety as a cynic, pessimist and black humorist with his
dark, bitterly ironic stories, many set during the American Civil War, which satirized the limitations of human
perception and reason. Bierce's most famous work of satire is probably The Devil's Dictionary, in which the
definitions mock cant, hypocrisy and received wisdom.

Satire in Victorian England

Novelists such as Charles Dickens often used passages of satiric writing in their treatment of social issues. Several
satiric papers competed for the public's attention in the Victorian era and Edwardian period, such as Punch and Fun.
Perhaps the most enduring examples of Victorian satire, however, are to be found in the Savoy Operas of W. S.
Gilbert and Sir Arthur Sullivan. In fact, in The Yeomen of the Guard, a jester is given lines that paint a very neat
picture of the method and purpose of the satirist, and might almost be taken as a statement of Gilbert's own intent:
"I can set a braggart quailing with a quip,
The upstart I can wither with a whim;
He may wear a merry laugh upon his lip,
But his laughter has an echo that is grim!"

20th century satire

In the 20th century, satire was used by authors such as Aldous Huxley and George Orwell to make serious and even
frightening commentaries on the dangers of the sweeping social changes taking place throughout Europe and United
States. The film The Great Dictator (1940) by Charlie Chaplin is a satire on Adolf Hitler. Many social critics of the
time, such as Karl Kraus, Dorothy Parker and H. L. Mencken, used satire as their main weapon, and Mencken in
particular is noted for having said that "one horse-laugh is worth ten thousand syllogisms" in the persuasion of the
public to accept a criticism. Joseph Heller's most famous work, Catch-22, satirizes bureaucracy and the military, and
is frequently cited as one of the greatest literary works of the twentieth century[21] . Novelist Sinclair Lewis was
known for his satirical stories such as Babbitt, Main Street, and It Can't Happen Here. His books often explored and
satirized contemporary American values.
The film Dr. Strangelove from 1964 was a popular satire on the Cold War. A more humorous brand of satire enjoyed
a renaissance in the UK in the early 1960s with the Satire Boom, led by such luminaries as Peter Cook, Alan
Bennett, Jonathan Miller, John Cleese, and Dudley Moore, whose stage show Beyond the Fringe was a hit not only
in Britain, but also in the United States. Other significant influences in 1960s British satire include David Frost,
Eleanor Bron and the television program That Was The Week That Was.
Satire 466

Contemporary satire
Contemporary popular usage often uses the term "satire" in a very imprecise manner. While satire often uses
caricature and parody, by no means are all uses of these or other humorous devices, satiric. Refer to the careful
definition of satire that heads this article.
Stephen Colbert’s television program, The Colbert Report, is
instructive in the methods of contemporary American satire. Colbert's
character is an opinionated and self-righteous commentator who, in his
TV interviews, interrupts people, points and wags his finger at them,
and "unwittingly" uses a number of logical fallacies. In doing so, he
demonstrates the principle of modern American political satire: the
ridicule of the actions of politicians and other public figures by taking
all their statements and purported beliefs to their furthest (supposedly)
logical conclusion, thus revealing their perceived hypocrisy. Other
political satire includes various political causes in the past, including
the relatively successful Polish Beer-Lovers' Party and the joke
political candidates Molly the Dog[22] and Brian Miner [23] .
Stephen Colbert satirically impersonates an
The television program South Park relies almost exclusively on satire opinionated and self-righteous television
to address issues in American culture, with episodes addressing commentator on his Comedy Central program in
anti-Semitism, militant atheism, homophobia, environmentalism, the United States.

corporate culture, political correctness and Catholic sex scandals,

among many other issues.
In the United Kingdom, one of the most popular modern satirists is Sir Terry Pratchett, author of the internationally
best-selling Discworld series.
Satire is used on many UK television programmes, particularly popular panel shows and quiz shows such as Mock
the Week, Have I got News for You, and The Now Show. Similarly it is found on radio quiz shows such as The
News Quiz.
In Canada, satire has become an important part of the comedy scene. Stephen Leacock was one of the best known
early Canadian satirists, and in the early 20th century, he achieved fame by targeting the attitudes of small town life.
In more recent years, Canada has had several prominent satirical television series. Some, including CODCO, The
Royal Canadian Air Farce, and This Hour Has 22 Minutes deal directly with current news stories and political
figures, while others, like History Bites present contemporary social satire in the context of events and figures in
history. The Canadian website The Daily Week combines social and political satire with absurdity. Canadian
songwriter Nancy White uses music as the vehicle for her satire, and her comic folk songs are regularly played on
CBC Radio.
Cartoonists often use satire as well as straight humour. Al Capp's satirical comic strip Li'l Abner was censored in
September 1947. The controversy, as reported in Time, centred around Capp's portrayal of the US Senate. Said
Edward Leech of Scripps-Howard, "We don't think it is good editing or sound citizenship to picture the Senate as an
assemblage of freaks and crooks... boobs and undesirables." Walt Kelly's Pogo was likewise censored in 1952 over
his overt satire of Senator Joe McCarthy, caricatured in his comic strip as "Simple J. Malarky". Garry Trudeau,
whose comic strip Doonesbury has charted and recorded many American follies for the last generation, deals with
story lines such as the Vietnam War (and now, the Iraq War), dumbed-down education, and over-eating at
"McFriendly's". Trudeau exemplifies humour mixed with criticism. Recently, one of his gay characters lamented that
because he was not legally married to his partner, he was deprived of the "exquisite agony" of experiencing a nasty
and painful divorce like heterosexuals. This, of course, satirized the claim that gay unions would denigrate the
sanctity of heterosexual marriage. Doonesbury also presents an example of how satire can cause social change. The
Satire 467

comic strip satirized a Florida county that had a law requiring minorities to have a passcard in the area; the law was
soon repealed with an act nicknamed the Doonesbury Act.[24] Like some literary predecessors, many recent
television satires contain strong elements of parody and caricature; for instance, the popular animated series The
Simpsons and South Park both parody modern family and social life by taking their assumptions to the extreme; both
have led to the creation of similar series. As well as the purely humorous effect of this sort of thing, they often
strongly criticise various phenomena in politics, economic life, religion and many other aspects of society, and thus
qualify as satirical. Due to their animated nature, these shows can easily use images of public figures and generally
have greater freedom to do so than conventional shows using live actors.
Fake News is also a very popular form of contemporary satire, appearing in as wide an array of formats as the news
media itself: print (e.g. The Onion, The Humour Times), radio (e.g. On the Hour), television (e.g. The Day Today,
Saturday Night Live) and the web (e.g. Mindry.in, Scunt News [25], Faking News, The Giant Napkin [26],
Unconfirmed Sources [27] and The Onion's website). Other satires are on the list of satirists and satires. Another
internet-driven form of satire is to lampoon bad internet performers. An example of this is the Internet meme
character Miranda Sings.[28] [29]
Zhou Libo, a comedian from Shanghai, is the most popular satirist in China. His humour has interested the
middle-class people and had sold out shows ever since his rise to fame. Primarily a theater performer, Zhou said his
work is never scripted, allowing him to improvise jokes about recent events. He often mocks political figures he
supports.

Misconception of satire
Because satire often combines anger and humour it can be profoundly disturbing - because it is essentially ironic or
sarcastic, it is often misunderstood. In an interview with Wikinews, Sean Mills, President of The Onion, said angry
letters about their news parody always carried the same message. "It’s whatever affects that person," said Mills. "So
it’s like, 'I love it when you make a joke about murder or rape, but if you talk about cancer, well my brother has
cancer and that’s not funny to me.' Or someone else can say, 'Cancer’s hilarious, but don’t talk about rape because my
cousin got raped.' Those are rather extreme examples, but if it affects somebody personally, they tend to be more
sensitive about it."[30]
Common uncomprehending responses to satire include revulsion (accusations of poor taste, or that "it's just not
funny" for instance), to the idea that the satirist actually does support the ideas, policies, or people he is attacking.
For instance, at the time of its publication, many people misunderstood Swift’s purpose in "A Modest Proposal",
assuming it to be a serious recommendation of economically motivated cannibalism. Again, some critics of Mark
Twain see Huckleberry Finn as racist and offensive, missing the point that its author clearly intended it to be satire
(racism being in fact only one of a number of Mark Twain's known concerns attacked in Huckleberry Finn).[31] [32] .
This same misconception was suffered by the main character of the 1960s British television comedy satire Till Death
Us Do Part. The character of Alf Garnett (played by Warren Mitchell) was created to poke fun at the kind of
narrow-minded, racist, little-Englander that Garnett represented. Instead, his character became a sort of anti-hero to
people who actually agreed with his views.
The Australian satirical television comedy show The Chaser's War on Everything has suffered repeated attacks based
on misconceived interpretations of the "target" of its attacks. The "Make a Realistic Wish Foundation" sketch (June
2009), which attacked in classical satiric fashion the heartlessness of people who are reluctant to donate to charities,
was widely interpreted as an attack on the Make a Wish Foundation. Prime Minister of the time Kevin Rudd stated
that The Chaser team "should hang their heads in shame". He went on to say that "I didn't see that but it's been
described to me....But having a go at kids with a terminal illness is really beyond the pale, absolutely beyond the
pale."[33] Television station management suspended the show for two weeks and reduced the third season to eight
episodes.
Satire 468

Satire under fire

Because satire criticises in an ironic, essentially indirect way, it frequently escapes censorship in a way more direct
criticism might not. Periodically, however, it runs into serious opposition, and people in power who perceive
themselves as attacked attempt to censor it or prosecute its practitioners. In a very early instance of this,
Aristophanes was persecuted by the demagogue Cleon.
In 1599, the Archbishop of Canterbury John Whitgift and the Bishop of London George Abbot, whose offices had
the function of licensing books for publication in England, issued a decree banning verse satire. The decree ordered
the burning of certain volumes of satire by John Marston, Thomas Middleton, Joseph Hall, and others; it also
required histories and plays to be specially approved by a member of the Queen's Privy Council, and it prohibited the
future printing of satire in verse.[34] The motives for the ban are obscure, particularly since some of the books banned
had been licensed by the same authorities less than a year earlier. Various scholars have argued that the target was
obscenity, libel, or sedition. It seems likely that lingering anxiety about the Martin Marprelate controversy, in which
the bishops themselves had employed satirists, played a role; both Thomas Nashe and Gabriel Harvey, two of the
key figures in that controversy, suffered a complete ban on all their works. In the event, though, the ban was little
enforced, even by the licensing authority itself.
In Italy the media tycoon and Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi attacked RAI Television's satirical series, Raiot,
Daniele Luttazzi's Satyricon, Enzo Biagi, Michele Santoro's Sciuscià, even a special Blob series on Berlusconi
himself, by arguing that they were vulgar and full of disrespect to the government. He claimed that he would sue the
RAI for 21,000,000 Euros if the show went on. RAI stopped the show. Sabina Guzzanti, creator of the show, went to
court to proceed with the show and won the case. However, the show never went on air again.
In 2001 the British television network Channel 4 aired a special edition of the spoof current affairs series Brass Eye,
which was intended to mock and satirize the fascination of modern journalism with child molesters and paedophiles.
The TV network received an enormous number of complaints from members of the public, who were outraged that
the show would mock a subject considered by many to be too "serious" to be the subject of humour.
In 2005, the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy caused global protests by offended Muslims and
violent attacks with many fatalities in the Near East. It was not the first case of Muslim protests against criticism in
the form of satire, but the Western world was surprised by the hostility of the reaction: Any country's flag in which a
newspaper chose to publish the parodies was being burnt in a Near East country, then embassies were attacked,
killing 139 people in mainly four countries (see article); politicians throughout Europe agreed that satire was an
aspect of the freedom of speech, and therefore to be a protected means of dialogue. Iran threatened to start an
International Holocaust Cartoon Competition, which was immediately responded to by Jews with an Israeli
Anti-Semitic Cartoons Contest.
In 2006 British comedian Sacha Baron Cohen released Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit
Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan, a "mockumentary" that satirized everyone, from high society to frat boys. Criticism
of the film was heavy, from claims of antisemitism (despite the fact Cohen is Jewish) to the massive boycott of the
film by the Kazakh government; the film itself had been a reaction to a longer quarrel between the government and
the comedian.
In 2008, the cover of the New Yorker magazine was denounced as "tasteless" by Democratic party candidate Barack
Obama's campaign workers. The editor David Remnick explained that the controversial illustration by Barry Blitt on
the July cover was meant to be satire, and mocked the right wing's perception of the formidable couple. They were
portrayed burning the flag in the fireplace of the Oval Office, with a portrait of Osama Bin Laden over their mantle,
performing a fist bump. Obama wears a turban; his wife Michelle, sporting a full Afro, wears combat boots and
camouflage, with a Kalashnikov assault rifle slung over her shoulder. Many people did not get the joke, and the
image was quickly circulated around the world.
Satire 469

On March 27, 2009, HK Magazine columnist Chip Tsao wrote an article to tease Chinese patriots and government on
the territorial dispute of the Spratly islands between China and the Philippines. He disguised himself as a patriotic
employer in Hong Kong who claimed the Chinese sovereignty on the Spratly islands by means of insulting his
Filipino maid. He wrote, "As a nation of servants, you don't flex your muscles at your master, from whom you earn
most of your bread and butter". Tsao continued in his article that he gave his Filipina household help a harsh lecture
and even threatened to deport her from her employment. In this article, Tsao tried to satirize the irrationality of
Chinese patriots. It was widely mistaken as a racist attack against Filipinos, mainly in Filipino circles. His article
received much unwanted publicity and clamor from Diplomatic and Filipino communities and the article was quickly
removed from the website. HK Magazine later issued a statement saying that Tsao's column was merely meant as a
satire and they apologized if it caused any insult.
In 2008, popular South African cartoonist and satirist Jonathan Shapiro (who is published under the pen name
Zapiro) came under fire for depicting then-president of the ANC Jacob Zuma in the act of undressing in preparation
for the implied rape of 'Lady Justice' which is held down by Zuma loyalists.[35] The cartoon was drawn in response
to Zuma's efforts to duck corruption charges, and the controversy was heightened by the fact that Zuma was himself
acquitted of rape in May 2006. In February 2009, the South African Broadcasting Corporation, viewed by some
opposition parties as the mouthpiece of the governing ANC[36] , shelved a satirical TV show created by Shapiro[37] ,
and in May 2009 the broadcaster pulled a documentary about political satire (featuring Shapiro among others) for the
second time, hours before scheduled broadcast.[38] Apartheid South Africa also had a long history of censorship.
On December 29, 2009, Samsung sued Mike Breen, and the Korea Times for $1 million, claiming criminal
defamation over a satirical column published on Christmas Day, 2009.[39] [40]

Satirical prophecy
Satire is occasionally prophetic: the jokes precede actual events.[41] [42] Among the eminent examples are:
• The 1784 presaging of modern daylight saving time, later actually proposed in 1907. While an American envoy to
France, Benjamin Franklin anonymously published a letter in 1784 suggesting that Parisians economize on
candles by arising earlier to use morning sunlight.[43]
• In the 1920s an English cartoonist imagined a very laughable thing for that time: a hotel for cars. He drew a
multi-story car park.[42]
• The second episode of Monty Python's Flying Circus, which debuted in 1969, featured a skit entitled "The Mouse
Problem" (meant to satirize contemporary media exposés on homosexuality), which depicted a cultural
phenomenon eerily similar to modern furry fandom (which did not become widespread until the 1980s, over a
decade after the skit was first aired)
• In January 2001, a satirical news article in The Onion, entitled "Our Long National Nightmare of Peace and
Prosperity Is Finally Over" [44] had newly elected President George Bush vowing to "develop new and expensive
weapons technologies" and to "engage in at least one Gulf War-level armed conflict in the next four years."
Furthermore he would "bring back economic stagnation by implementing substantial tax cuts, which would lead
to a recession." Furthermore, the article predicted the "deregulation of ... industries, and the defunding of ...
social-service programs," as well as a return to deficit spending.
• In 2004, The Onion satirized Gillette's use of multi-blade razors with a mock article proclaiming Gillette will now
introduce a five-blade razor.[45] In 2006, Gillette released the Gillette Fusion, a five-blade razor.
Satire 470

See also
• Juvenalian satire
• Onomastì komodèin
• Parody religion
• List of satirists and satires
• Political satire
• News satire
• Uncyclopedia

Bibliography
• Lee, Jae Num. "Scatology in Continental Satirical Writings from Aristophanes to Rabelais" and "English
Scatological Writings from Skelton to Pope." Swift and Scatological Satire. Albuquerque: U of New Mexico P,
1971. 7-22; 23-53.
• Jacob Bronowski & Bruce Mazlish, The Western Intellectual Tradition From Leonardo to Hegel, p. 252 (1960; as
repub. in 1993 Barnes & Noble ed.).
• Theorizing Satire: A Bibliography [46], by Brian A. Connery, Oakland University
• Bloom, Edward A. . "Sacramentum Militiae: The Dynamics of Religious Satire." Studies in the Literary
Imagination 5 (1972): 119-42.
• The Modern Satiric Grotesque. Lexington: U of Kentucky P, 1991.
Theories/Critical approaches to satire as a genre:
• Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism. (See in particular the discussion of the 4 "myths").
• Udo Kindermann, Satyra. Die Theorie der Satire im Mittellateinischen. Vorstudie zu einer Gattungsgeschichte.
Nürnberg 1978.
• Emil Draitser. Techniques of Satire: The Case of Saltykov-Shchedrin. (Berlin-New York: Mouton de Gruyter,
1994) ISBN 3110126249.
• Hammer, Stephanie. Satirizing the Satirist.
• Highet, Gilbert. Satire.
• Kernan, Alvin. The Cankered Muse
The Plot of Satire.
• Seidel, Michael. Satiric Inheritance.
• Entopia: Revolution of the Ants (2008), by Rad Zdero.

References
[1] Robert C. Elliott, Satire, in: Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004
[2] Northrop Frye, literary critic, quoted in: Elliott, satire
[3] Theodore D. Kharpertian, Thomas Pynchon and Postmodern American Satire pp.25-7, in Kharpertian A hand to turn the time: the Menippean
satires of Thomas Pynchon (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=um0h0arlUdoC)
[4] The Renaissance confusion of the two origins encouraged a satire more aggressive than that of its Roman forebearers, B.L. Ullman "Satura
and Satire" Classical Philology 8:2
[5] Robert C. Elliott, The nature of satire, in: Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Satire", 2004
[6] M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, volume I, 1973, pp.184-193
[7] W. Helck, Die Lehre des DwA-xtjj, Wiesbaden, 1970
[8] Alan H. Gardiner, Egyptian Hieratic Texts - Series I: Literary Texts of the New Kingdom, Part I, Leipzig 1911
[9] Sutton, D. F., Ancient Comedy: The War of the Generations (New York, 1993), p.56.
[10] Political and social satires of Aristophanes (http:/ / www. theatrehistory. com/ ancient/ aristophanes003. html) in: Alfred Bates (ed.), The
Drama, Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization, vol. 2.,London: Historical Publishing Company, 1906. pp. 55-59.
[11] J. E. Atkinson Curbing the Comedians: Cleon versus Aristophanes and Syracosius' Decree (http:/ / links. jstor. org/
sici?sici=0009-8388(1992)2:42:1<56:CTCCVA>2. 0. CO;2-K& size=LARGE) The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 42, No. 1 (1992),
Satire 471

pp. 56-64
[12] Aristophanes: the Michael Moore of his Day (http:/ / www. commondreams. org/ views04/ 0714-06. htm) by John Louis Anderson
[13] Cuddon, Dictionary of Literary Terms, Oxford 1998, "satire"
[14] Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1976). The Mediaeval Islamic Underworld: The Banu Sasan in Arabic Society and Literature. Brill Publishers.
p. 32. ISBN 9004043926
[15] Ulrich Marzolph, Richard van Leeuwen, Hassan Wassouf (2004). The Arabian Nights Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 97–8.
ISBN 1576072045
[16] Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1976). The Mediaeval Islamic Underworld: The Banu Sasan in Arabic Society and Literature. Brill Publishers.
pp. 77–8. ISBN 9004043926
[17] Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1976). The Mediaeval Islamic Underworld: The Banu Sasan in Arabic Society and Literature. Brill Publishers.
p. 70. ISBN 9004043926
[18] Webber, Edwin J. (January 1958). "Comedy as Satire in Hispano-Arabic Spain" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 470561). Hispanic Review
(University of Pennsylvania Press) 26 (1): 1–11. doi:10.2307/470561.
[19] DAVENPORT, A., ed: The Poems of Joseph Hall, Liverpool University Press, 1969:"...Hall's Virgidemiae was a new departure in that the
true Juvenalian mode of satire was being attempted for the first time, and successfully, in English."
[20] The Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of London, the censors of the press, issued Orders to the Stationers' Company on June 1st and
4th, 1599, prohibiting the further printing of satires - the so-called 'Bishop's Ban'. DAVENPORT, A: The Poems of Joseph Hall, Liverpool
University Press, 1969.
[21] (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ uk/ 1868619. stm)"What is Catch-22? And why does the book matter?" BBC
[22] Molly the Dog 2008 (http:/ / www. mollythedog2008. com)
[23] http:/ / www. brianminer2008. com
[24] Melnik, Rachel. A picture is worth a thousand politicians, Cartoons catalyze social justice (http:/ / media. www. mcgilltribune. com/ media/
storage/ paper234/ news/ 2007/ 01/ 23/ Features/ A. Picture. Is. Worth. A. Thousand. Politicians-2667563. shtml?sourcedomain=www.
mcgilltribune. com& MIIHost=media. collegepublisher. com), McGill Tribune (2007-01-23), Retrieved on 2007-01-25.
[25] http:/ / www. scunt. co. uk
[26] http:/ / www. thegiantnapkin. com
[27] http:/ / www. unconfirmedsources. com
[28] Ng, David. "YouTube sensation Miranda seduces Broadway", (http:/ / latimesblogs. latimes. com/ culturemonster/ 2009/ 05/
miranda-sings-colleen-ballinger-jim-caruso-cast-party-jersey-boys-daniel-reichard. html) Los Angeles Times, May 11, 2009
[29] This Week, (http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2009/ 10/ 04/ PKGE19REP8. DTL) San Francisco Chronicle, October
4, 2009
[30] An interview with The Onion, David Shankbone, Wikinews, November 25, 2007.
[31] Leonard, James S.; Thomas A. Tenney and Thadious M. Davis (December 1992). Satire or Evasion?: Black Perspectives on Huckleberry
Finn (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=fdrBtpSSCisC& pg=RA1-PA116& lpg=RA1-PA116& dq=hemingway+ "huckleberry+ finn"+ "green+
hills"). Duke University Press. pp. 224. ISBN 9780822311744. .
[32] Shelley Fisher Fishin, Lighting out for the Territory: Reflections on Mark Twain and American Culture (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1997).
[33] "'Hang your heads' Rudd tells Chaser boys" (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ news/ stories/ 2009/ 06/ 04/ 2589532. htm). Australian Broadcasting
Corporation. 2009-06-04. . Retrieved 2009-06-05.
[34] A Transcript of the Registers of the Company of Stationers of London, 1554-1640, Vol. III, ed. Edward Arber (London, 1875-94), p.677.
[35] "Zuma claims R7m over Zapiro cartoon" (http:/ / www. mg. co. za/ article/ 2008-12-18-zuma-claims-r7m-over-zapiro-cartoon). .
[36] "Mail and Guardian interview with Democratic Alliance spokesperson Helen Zille" (http:/ / www. mg. co. za/ articlePage.
aspx?articleid=248529& area=/ breaking_news/ breaking_news__national/ ). . Retrieved August 2005.
[37] "ZNews: Zapiro's puppet show" (http:/ / www. dispatch. co. za/ article. aspx?id=308632). .
[38] "SABC pulls Zapiro doccie, again" (http:/ / www. mg. co. za/ article/ 2009-05-26-sabc-pulls-zapiro-doccie-again). .
[39] http:/ / www. techdirt. com/ articles/ 20100510/ 1820159367. shtml
[40] http:/ / www. latimes. com/ news/ nationworld/ world/ asia/ la-fg-korea-samsung-20100510,0,7395282,full. story
[41] Paul Krassner (2003) Reality or satire, what’s the difference? (http:/ / www. nypress. com/ print. cfm?content_id=8774) New York Press,
Volume 16, Issue 35, August 26, 2003
[42] Daniele Luttazzi Lepidezze postribolari (2007, Feltrinelli, p.275) (Italian)
[43] Benjamin Franklin, writing anonymously (1784-04-26). "Aux auteurs du Journal" (in French). Journal de Paris (117). Its first publication
was in the journal's "Économie" section. The revised English version (http:/ / webexhibits. org/ daylightsaving/ franklin3. html) (retrieved on
2007-05-26) is commonly called "An Economical Project", a title that is not Franklin's; see A.O. Aldridge (1956). "Franklin's essay on
daylight saving" (http:/ / links. jstor. org/ sici?sici=0002-9831(195603)28:1<23:FEODS>2. 0. CO;2-W). American Literature (American
Literature, Vol. 28, No. 1) 28 (1): 23–29. doi:10.2307/2922719. . Retrieved 2007-05-16.
[44] http:/ / www. theonion. com/ content/ node/ 28784
[45] http:/ / www. theonion. com/ content/ node/ 33930
[46] http:/ / www2. oakland. edu/ english/ showcase/ satbib. htm#Classical
Unreliable narrator 472

Unreliable narrator
An unreliable narrator is a narrator, whether in literature, film, or
theatre, whose credibility has been seriously compromised.[1] The term
was coined in 1961 by Wayne C. Booth in The Rhetoric of Fiction.[2]
This narrative mode is one that can be developed by an author for a
number of reasons, usually to deceive the reader or audience.[1]
Unreliable narrators are usually first-person narrators, but third-person
narrators can also be unreliable.

The nature of the narrator is sometimes immediately clear. For

instance, a story may open with the narrator making a plainly false or
delusional claim or admitting to being severely mentally ill, or the
story itself may have a frame in which the narrator appears as a
character, with clues to his unreliability. A more dramatic use of the
device delays the revelation until near the story's end. This twist ending
forces the reader to reconsider their point of view and experience of the
story. In some cases the narrator's unreliability is never fully revealed
Illustration by Gustave Doré for Baron
but only hinted at, leaving the reader to wonder how much the narrator Münchhausen: tall tales, such as those of the
should be trusted and how the story should be interpreted. Baron, often feature unreliable narrators.

Historical novels, speculative fiction, and clearly delineated dream

sequences are generally not considered instances of unreliable narration, even though they describe events that did
not or could not happen.

Examples of unreliable narrators

Historical occurrences
The idea of unreliable narrators dates back to the science of hadith in Islamic historiographical literature, where
narrators of hadiths (narratives) regarding Muhammad and his companions were subjected to scrutiny by 9th-century
hadith scholars such as Muhammad al-Bukhari, who only included narrations from those he deemed to be reliable
narrators in his Sahih al-Bukhari and rejected ones from those he deemed to be unreliable narrators. This was used as
a literary device by the 10th-century Islamic philosopher, Abū Hayyān al-Tawhīdī. In one of his works, he assumed
the role of an "unreliable narrator" providing intentionally misleading narrations of his teacher Abu Yaqub Sijistani.
Al-Tawhidi "occasionally enciphered records of discussions concerning sensitive issues in cryptic language,
employing literary techniques of reticence and self-contradiction to entice the attuned reader to deeper penetration
and understanding."[3]
The literary device of the "unreliable narrator" was used in several medieval fictional Arabic tales of the One
Thousand and One Nights, also known as the Arabian Nights.[4] In one tale, "The Seven Viziers", a courtesan
accuses a king's son of having assaulted her, when in reality she had failed to seduce him (inspired by the
Qur'anic/Biblical story of Yusuf/Joseph). Seven viziers attempt to save his life by narrating seven stories to prove the
unreliability of the courtesan, and the courtesan responds by narrating a story to prove the unreliability of the
viziers.[5] The unreliable narrator device is also used to generate suspense in another Arabian Nights tale, "The Three
Apples", an early murder mystery. At one point of the story, two men claim to be the murderer, one of which is
revealed to be lying. At another point in the story, in a flashback showing the reasons for the murder, it is revealed
that an unreliable narrator convinced the man of his wife's infidelity, thus leading to her murder.[6]
Unreliable narrator 473

This device of an unreliable narrator misleading a man into believing the infidelity of his wife and thus murdering
her is also later used in "Un Capitano Moro", a tale from Giovanni Battista Giraldi's Gli Hecatommithi (1565), and
its theatrical adaptation, Shakespeare's Othello (1603).[7]
Another early example of unreliable narration is Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales. In the Merchant's Tale
for example, the narrator, being unhappy in his marriage, allows his misogynistic bias to slant much of his tale. In
the Wife of Bath, the Wife often makes inaccurate quotations and incorrectly remembers stories.

Novels
Wilkie Collins' early detective story The Moonstone (1868) is an early example of the unreliable narrator in crime
fiction. The plot of the novel unfolds through several narratives by different characters, which contradict each other
and reveal the biases of the narrators.
A controversial example of an unreliable narrator occurs in Agatha Christie's novel The Murder of Roger Ackroyd,
where the narrator hides essential truths in the text (mainly through evasion, omission, and obfuscation) without ever
overtly lying. Many readers at the time felt that the plot twist at the climax of the novel was nevertheless unfair.
Christie used the concept again in her 1967 novel Endless Night.
Many novels are narrated by children, whose inexperience can impair their judgment and make them unreliable. In
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884), Huck's innocence leads him to make overly charitable judgments about the
characters in the novel, even going so far as to accuse his author, "Mr. Mark Twain", of having stretched the truth in
the previous book, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, an early example of a fourth-wall breach.
Ken Kesey's two most famous novels feature unreliable narrators. "Chief" Bromden in One Flew Over the Cuckoo's
Nest suffers from schizophrenia, and his telling of the events often includes things such as people growing or
shrinking, walls oozing with slime, or the orderlies kidnapping and "curing" Santa Claus. Narration in Sometimes a
Great Notion switches between several of the main characters, whose bias tends to switch the reader's sympathies
from one person to another, especially in the rivalry between main character Leland and Hank Stamper. Many of
Susan Howatch's novels similarly use this technique; each chapter is narrated by a different character, and only after
reading chapters by each of the narrators does the reader realize each of the narrators has biases and "blind spots"
that cause them to perceive shared experiences differently.
Charlie Gordon, the narrator in Daniel Keyes' epistolary novel Flowers for Algernon, is mentally retarded at the start
of the novel but develops greater intelligence and understanding. Following a Rorschach inkblot test early in the
novel, Charlie reports that he was told to imagine pictures in the ink contrary to the standardised way of delivering
the test. Subsequently, on listening to an audio recording of the test, he realises that his memory was flawed.
Humbert Humbert, the main character and narrator of Vladimir Nabokov's Lolita, often tells the story in such a way
as to justify his pedophilic fixation on young girls, in particular his sexual relationship with his 12-year-old
stepdaughter. Similarly, the narrator of A.M. Homes' The End of Alice deliberately withholds the full story of the
crime that put him in prison — the rape and murder of a young girl — until the end of the novel.
In some instances, unreliable narration can bring about the fantastic in works of fiction. In Kingsley Amis' The
Green Man, for example, the unreliability of the narrator Maurice Allington destabilizes the boundaries between
reality and the fantastic. The same applies to Nigel Williams's Witchcraft.[8] An Instance of the Fingerpost by Iain
Pears also employs several points of view from narrators whose accounts are found to be unreliable and in conflict
with each other.[9]
Mike Engleby, the narrator of Sebastian Faulks' Engleby, leads the reader to believe a version of events of his life
that is shown to be increasingly at odds with reality.[10]
Unreliable narrator 474

Films
The film Rashomon (1950), adapted from In a Grove (1921), uses multiple narrators to tell the story of the death of a
samurai. Each of the witnesses describe the same basic events but differ wildly in the details, alternately claiming
that the samurai died by accident, suicide, or murder. The term Rashomon effect is used to describe how different
witnesses are able to produce differing, yet plausible, accounts of the same event, with equal sincerity.
In Citizen Kane (1941), the story of Charles Foster Kane is told by five different acquaintances of his, each with
varying opinions of the character.
In Possessed (1947), Joan Crawford plays a woman who is taken to a psychiatric hospital in a state of shock. She
gradually tells story of how she came to be there to her doctors, which is related to the audience in flashbacks, some
of which are later revealed to be hallucinations or distorted by paranoia.[11]
The narrator of the 1950 Billy Wilder film Sunset Boulevard, William Holden's character of down-and-out
screen-writer turned kept man Joseph C. Gillis, is an unreliable narrator because his narration of the film is delivered
from beyond the grave, as Gloria Swanson's character, former silent-screen actress Norma Desmond, had shot and
killed him the night before the earliest events in the film (which he narrates posthumously, and in flashback) began.
The 1995 film The Usual Suspects reveals that the narrator had been deceiving another character, and hence the
audience, by inventing stories and characters from whole cloth.[12] [13]
The 1945 film noir Detour is told from the perspective of an unreliable protagonist who may be trying to justify his
actions.[14] [15] [16]
The play and film Amadeus is narrated by an elderly Antonio Salieri from an insane asylum, where he claims to have
murdered his rival, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. It is left unclear whether the story actually happened, or whether it
is the product of Salieri's delusions; this is especially ambiguous, as there is no concrete historical evidence that
Salieri killed Mozart.
In the 1975 Stanley Kubrick film "Barry Lyndon", based on the novel by William Makepeace Thackeray, the story is
told by a semi-unreliable third person narrator. He is reliable in the sense that he correctly describes objective facts
and actions by characters and sometimes genuine emotional feelings of characters, yet unreliable in that he does
often does not fully understand the motivation of the title character. His understanding of Barry is owed to his
superficial worldview, which is both a product and dramatization of 18th century European aristocratic society. The
omnipresent narrator is truly an "outsider" trying to look in, yet he mostly understands Barry just as Barry's aloof and
often emotionally shallow contemporaries understand each other. Power, fortune, style, chivalry, and pretension are
the dominant societal values; charity, courage, and true friendship are suppressed values, and when they do appear
lead to tension and conflict. With this underlying cultural bias the narrator does not fully understand character and is
prone to make the same mistakes as characters apposite Barry.

Music
Randy Newman is noted for his use of the unreliable narrator; most of his lyrics are from the perspective of a
character far removed from Newman's own biography. For example, the 1972 song "Sail Away" is written as a slave
trader's sales pitch to attract slaves, while the narrator of "Political Science" is a U.S. nationalist who complains of
worldwide ingratitude toward America and proposes a brutally ironic final solution. One of his biggest hits, "Short
People" was written from the perspective of a lunatic who hates short people.
Rap music artist Eminem often uses his "Slim Shady" persona as an unreliable narrator.[17] In "Stan", however, the
unreliable narrator is actually an obsessed fan whose messages to Eminem become increasingly erratic and who
eventually commits a murder-suicide. "Shady" is presented in this song as a reliable secondary narrator.[18]
Unreliable narrator 475

Television
In the final episode of M*A*S*H, unreliable narration is used to create dramatic effect; Hawkeye Pierce, now a
patient of Sidney Freedman in an army mental hospital ward, recounts a traumatic memory of a recent event. In the
recounting a key component is substituted with something more innocuous, leaving the viewer wondering why that
incident resulted in his mental illness. Later, psychoanalysis with free-association reveals the true memory, which is
much more disturbing and can be clearly seen as the cause. Citation of the key component would spoil the plot of the
episode and has been avoided here.
In the episode "Three Stories" of the show House, M.D., the title character, Dr. Gregory House, gives a lecture
recounting the stories of three patients who came in with leg pain. House constantly changes details and lies about
the stories to make them more interesting and, as is ultimately revealed, to conceal the identity of one of the patients.
How I Met Your Mother creator Craig Thomas has explicitly said that the series narrator, "Future Ted", is an
unreliable narrator. The narrator would sometimes come up with "what if?" conversations for other characters and
almost revealing key plot points.[19]
In the episode "Remember this [20]" (Season 3, episode 4) of the British sitcom "Coupling", the story of the first
meeting of Patrick and Sally is recounted by several people, all of whom turn out to be unreliable narrators. Most
jokes in this episode hinge on disparities amongst certain details of the story (and their psychological implications).

Comics
Between his first appearance in 2008 and 2010, the human identity of Red Hulk, a tactically intelligent version of the
Hulk, was a source of mystery. In the 2010 book Fall of the Hulks: Gamma, Red Hulk is depicted in flashback to
have killed General Thunderbolt Ross at the behest of Bruce Banner (the Hulk's human identity), with whom he has
formed an alliance.[21] However, in the 2010 "World War Hulks" storyline that flashback is revealed to have been
false when, during a battle with Red She-Hulk, the Red Hulk reverts to human form, and is revealed to be General
Thunderbolt Ross himself.[22]

Works featuring unreliable narrators

• Martin Amis's Time's Arrow[23]
• Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights[24]
• Angela Carter's Wise Children[25]
• Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales
• Wilkie Collins's The Moonstone[26]
• The works of Bret Easton Ellis, most prominently American Psycho[27]
• William Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury[1]
• F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby[28]
• Ford Madox Ford's The Good Soldier[29]
• Kazuo Ishiguro's When We Were Orphans[30]
• Henry James's The Turn of the Screw[31]
• James Lasdun's The Horned Man[32]
• Anita Loos's Gentlemen Prefer Blondes[33]
• Vladimir Nabokov's Pale Fire[34]
• Robert Shea & Robert Anton Wilson's The Illuminatus! Trilogy
• Gene Wolfe's The Fifth Head of Cerberus[35]
Films with an unreliable point-of-view (or points-of-view):
• Amarcord directed by Federico Fellini[36]
• Big Fish directed by Tim Burton[37]
Unreliable narrator 476

• The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari directed by Robert Wiene[38]

• Fight Club directed by David Fincher[39]
• Hero (2002) directed by Zhang Yimou[40]
• Memento directed by Christopher Nolan[41]
• Rashomon directed by Akira Kurosawa [42]
• Stage Fright directed by Alfred Hitchcock[43]
• "Box" segment from "Three... Extremes" (2004) directed by Takashi Miike[44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53]
• The Usual Suspects directed by Bryan Singer[54]

References

Textbook
Smith, M. W. (1991). Understanding Unreliable Narrators. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

External links
• Henry Sutton's top 10 unreliable narrators [55]

References
[1] "How to Write a Damn Good Novel, II", by James N. Frey (1994) ISBN 0312104782, p. 107 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=pA1h1ti1tzEC& pg=PA107& dq="unreliable+ narrator")
[2] "Professor Wayne Booth" (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ article/ 0,,60-1824513,00. html), an obituary, The Times, October 14, 2005
[3] Kraemer, Joel L. (1986), Philosophy in the Renaissance of Islam: Abū Sulaymān Al-Sijistānī and His Circle, Brill Publishers, pp. x & 136,
ISBN 9004072586
[4] Irwin, Robert (2003), The Arabian Nights: A Companion, Tauris Parke Paperbacks, p. 227, ISBN 1860649831
[5] Pinault, David (1992), Story-telling Techniques in the Arabian Nights, Brill Publishers, p. 59, ISBN 9004095306
[6] Pinault, David (1992), Story-Telling Techniques in the Arabian Nights, Brill Publishers, pp. 93–7, ISBN 9004095306
[7] Young, John G., M.D., "Essay: What Is Creativity?" (http:/ / www. adventuresincreativity. net/ 2mag1. html), Adventures in Creativity:
Multimedia Magazine 1 (2), , retrieved 2008-10-17
[8] Martin Horstkotte. "Unreliable Narration and the Fantastic in Kingsley Amis's The Green Man and Nigel Williams's Witchcraft".
Extrapolation 48,1 (2007): 137-151.
[9] (http:/ / www. themysteryreader. com/ pears-instance. html)
[10] Roberts, Michèle (18 May 2007). "Engleby, by Sebastian Faulks. Sad lad, or mad lad?" (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/
arts-entertainment/ books/ reviews/ engleby-by-sebastian-faulks-449269. html). The Independent (London). . Retrieved 2009-03-21.
[11] "Possessed movie review" (http:/ / www. alifeatthemovies. com/ movie-of-the-day/ possessed/ ). A Life At the Movies. June 20, 2010. .
[12] Schwartz, Ronald (2005), Neo-Noir: The New Film Noir Style from Psycho to Collateral (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=VRCgRGFV0ycC& lpg=PP1& pg=PA71#v=onepage& q=), Scarecrow Press, p. 71,
[13] Lehman, David (2000), The Perfect Murder: A Study in Detection (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ZYC09Sc8-jQC& lpg=PA41&
pg=PA221#v=onepage& q=) (2nd ed.), University of Michigan Press, pp. 221–222, : "[H]e has improvised, spontaneously and with reckless
abandon, a coherent, convincing, but false-bottomed narrative to beguile us and deceive his interrogator."
[14] Detour (1945) (Ferdy on Films, etc.) (http:/ / ferdyonfilms. com/ 2006/ 12/ detour-1945. php)
[15] http:/ / www. cinematheque. bc. ca/ archives/ ffnoso98. html
[16] Film Talk > Detour (1945) (http:/ / www. film-talk. com/ forums/ lofiversion/ index. php/ t14372. html)
[17] allmusic (((The Slim Shady LP > Overview))) (http:/ / www. allmusic. com/ cg/ amg. dll?p=amg& sql=10:jhdkyl61xpzb)
[18] Eminem: Poetic genius or obscene ephemera? Fancy a roll in Robbie's bed? - Turkish Daily News March 3, 2001. (http:/ / www.
turkishdailynews. com. tr/ archives. php?id=22208)
[19] "'How I Met Your Mother's' Craig Thomas on Ted & Barney's Breakup, Eriksen Babies and The Future of Robarn" (http:/ / blog. zap2it.
com/ korbitv/ 2008/ 05/ how-i-met-your. html). Zap2it.com. . Retrieved 2008-07-21.
[20] http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ comedy/ coupling/ episodes/ s3ep4. shtml
[21] Loeb, Jeph. Fall of the Hulks: Gamma Marvel Comics. (Feb 2010)
[22] Loeb, Jeph. Hulk vol. 2 #22 Marvel Comics. (July 2010)
[23] The New York Times. http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ books/ 98/ 02/ 01/ home/ amis-arrow. html?_r=1& oref=slogin.
[24] (http:/ / links. jstor. org/ sici?sici=0029-0564(197303)27:4<449:TUNIWH>2. 0. CO;2-6)
Unreliable narrator 477

[25] "Comedy Is Tragedy That Happens to Other People" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.
html?res=9E0CE3D91730F93AA25752C0A964958260). The New York Times. 1992-01-19. .
[26] Historicizing unreliable narration: unreliability and cultural (http:/ / www. encyclopedia. com/ doc/ 1G1-97074176. html)
[27] Sarah Webster. When Writer Becomes Celebrity. The Oxonian Review of Books, Vol. 5, No. 2 (spring 2006) (http:/ / www. oxonianreview.
org/ issues/ 5-2/ 5-2webster. html)
[28] Thomas E. Boyle. Unreliable Narration in "The Great Gatsby". The Bulletin of the Rocky Mountain Modern Language Association, Vol. 23,
No. 1 (Mar., 1969), pp. 21-26 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 2307/ 1346578)
[29] Womack, Kevin and William Baker, eds. The Good Soldier: A Tale of Passion. Broadview Press, 2003. (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=ISGzVIjrHmIC& pg=PA3& dq=ford+ madox+ ford+ good+ soldier+ unreliable+ narrator& source=gbs_selected_pages& cad=5)
[30] Mudge, Alden. "Ishiguro takes a literary approach to the detective novel." (http:/ / www. bookpage. com/ 0009bp/ kazuo_ishiguro. html)
[31] Helal, Kathleen, ed. The Turn of the Screw and Other Short Works. Enriched Classics. Simon and Schuster, 2007. (http:/ / books. google.
com/ books?id=rb-7OYNkItUC& pg=PA455& lpg=PA455& dq=the+ turn+ of+ the+ screw+ unreliable& source=bl& ots=tU39iFN6C5&
sig=1-7VHB3wsRtpbcN_aepdXSgvO1w& hl=en& ei=WEJTSuT9CdK_twfBqeWrCA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4)
[32] DarkEcho Review: The Horned Man by James Lasdun (http:/ / www. darkecho. com/ darkecho/ reviews/ horned. html)
[33] Landay, Lori (1998), Madcaps, Screwballs, and Con Women: The Female Trickster in American Culture, University of Pennsylvania Press,
p. 200 (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=n5BpcSboBEEC& printsec=frontcover#PPA200,M1)
[34] Dowling on Pale Fire (http:/ / www. rci. rutgers. edu/ ~wcd/ palenarr. htm)
[35] Interview with Gene Wolfe Conducted by Lawrence Person (http:/ / home. roadrunner. com/ ~lperson1/ wolfe. html)
[36] Tom Dawson, (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ films/ 2004/ 08/ 24/ amarcord_2004_review. shtml), reviewing Amracord on BBC flims
[37] Lance Goldenberg, "There's Something Fishy About Father" (http:/ / tampa. creativeloafing. com/ gyrobase/ Content?oid=oid:3527),
Creative Loafing Tampa, January 8th 2004.
[38] Ferenz, Volker, "Fight Clubs, American Psychos and Mementos," New Review of Film and Television Studies, Vol. 3, No. 2 (1 November
2005), pp. 133-159, ( link (http:/ / taylorandfrancis. metapress. com/ link. asp?id=j0496042631634l1), accessed 5 March 2007, reg. required).
[39] Church, David, " Remaining Men Together: Fight Club and the (Un)pleasures of Unreliable Narration (http:/ / www. offscreen. com/ biblio/
phile/ essays/ fight_club/ )", Offscreen, Vol. 10, No. 5 (May 31, 2006). Retrieved on 14 April 2009.
[40] Hero review in the Montreal Film Journal (http:/ / www. montrealfilmjournal. com/ review. asp?R=R0000709)
[41] http:/ / www. reel. com/ movie. asp?MID=131667& buy=closed& PID=10099964& Tab=reviews& CID=18
[42] (http:/ / www. tcm. com/ thismonth/ article. jsp?cid=136021& mainArticleId=160926) Rashomon article on Turner Classic Movies
[43] The "lying" opening flashback, Hitchcock/Truffaut
[44] (http:/ / rogerebert. suntimes. com/ apps/ pbcs. dll/ article?AID=/ 20051027/ REVIEWS/ 51026001/ 1023)
[45] Hartlaub, Peter (2005-10-28). "FILM CLIPS / Opening today" (http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2005/ 10/ 28/
DDG17FEJ0A1. DTL). The San Francisco Chronicle. .
[46] (http:/ / popmatters. com/ film/ reviews/ t/ three-extremes. shtml)
[47] (http:/ / atlanta. creativeloafing. com/ gyrobase/ Content?oid=oid:62889)
[48] (http:/ / www. avclub. com/ articles/ three-extremes,4240/ )
[49] (http:/ / www. filmcritic. com/ misc/ emporium. nsf/ 2a460f93626cd4678625624c007f2b46/
0d3a140cc7bb8e30882570a6006e0bad?OpenDocument)
[50] (http:/ / hollywoodgothique. com/ threeextremes2004. html)
[51] (http:/ / thoughtsonstuff. blogspot. com/ 2006/ 04/ threeextremes. html)
[52] (http:/ / www. best-horror-movies. com/ three-extremes. html)
[53] (http:/ / www. citypaper. net/ articles/ 2006-03-09/ screen. shtml)
[54] (http:/ / www. filmintuition. com/ unreliable_narrator. html) "'Where Is My Mind?' — Chaucer's 'Unreliable Narrator' Goes Neo-Noir: (The
Usual Suspects, Fight Club and Memento)" by Jen Johans
[55] http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ books/ 2010/ feb/ 17/ henry-sutton-top-10-unreliable-narrators
 478

Afflictions

Mental institution
Psychiatric hospitals, also known as mental hospitals, are hospitals specializing in the treatment of serious mental
disorder. Psychiatric hospitals vary widely in their goals and methods. Some hospitals may specialize only in
short-term or outpatient therapy for low-risk patients. Others may specialize in the temporary or permanent care of
residents who as a result of a psychological disorder, require routine assistance, treatment or a specialized and
controlled environment. Patients are often admitted on a voluntary basis, but involuntary commitment is practiced
when an individual may pose a significant danger to themselves or others.

History
Modern psychiatric hospitals evolved from, and eventually replaced the older lunatic asylums. The development of
the modern psychiatric hospital is also the story of the rise of organised, institutional psychiatry. While there were
earlier institutions that housed the 'insane' the arrival of institutionalisation as a solution to the problem of madness
was very much an event of the nineteenth century. To illustrate this with one regional example, in England at the
beginning of the nineteenth century there were, perhaps, a few thousand 'lunatics' housed in a variety of disparate
institutions but by 1900 that figure had grown to about 100,000. That this growth coincided with the growth of
alienism, later known as psychiatry, as a medical specialism is not coincidental.[1]
The treatment of inmates in lunatic asylums was often brutal, focused on containment and restraint. With successive
waves of reform, and the introduction of effective evidence-based treatments, modern psychiatric hospitals provide a
primary emphasis on treatment, and attempt where possible to help patients control their own lives in the outside
world, with the use of a combination of psychiatric drugs and psychotherapy. These treatments can be involuntary
and are questioned by the Anti-Psychiatric movement, among others. Most psychiatric hospitals now restrict internet
access and any device that can take photos.

Types
There are a number of different types of modern psychiatric hospitals, but all of them house people with mental
illnesses of widely variable severity.

Crisis stabilization
The crisis stabilization unit is in effect an emergency room for psychiatry, frequently dealing with suicidal, violent,
or otherwise critical individuals. Laws in many jurisdictions providing for long term involuntary commitment require
a commitment order issued by a judge within a short time (after 72 hours, the evaluation period) of the patient's entry
to the unit, if the patient does not or is unable to consent.

Open units
Open units are psychiatric units that are less secure than crisis stabilization units. They are not used for acutely
suicidal persons; the focus in these units is to make life as normal as possible for patients while continuing treatment
to the point where they can be discharged. However, patients are usually still not allowed to hold their own
medications in their rooms, because of the risk of an impulsive overdose. While some open units are physically
unlocked, other open units still use locked entrances and exits depending on the type of patients admitted.
Mental institution 479

Medium-term
Another type of psychiatric hospital is a medium term, which provides care lasting several weeks. Most drugs used
for psychiatric purposes take several weeks to take effect, and the main purpose of these hospitals is to monitor the
patient for the first few weeks of therapy to ensure the treatment is effective.

Juvenile wards
Juvenile wards are sections of psychiatric hospitals or psychiatric wards set aside for children and/or adolescents
with mental illness. However, there are a number of institutions specializing only in the treatment of juveniles,
particularly when dealing with drug abuse, self harm, eating disorders, or a serious mental illness.

Long term care facilities

In the UK long-term care facilities are now being replaced with smaller secure units (some within the hospitals listed
above). Modern buildings, modern security and being locally sited to help with reintegration into society once
medication has stabilized the condition[2] [3] are often features of such units. An example of this is the Three Bridges
Unit, in the grounds of Hanwell Asylum in West London and the John Munroe Hospital in Staffordshire. However
these modern units have the goal of treatment and rehabilitation back into society within a short time-frame (two or
three years) and not all forensic patients' treatment can meet this criterion, so the large hospitals mentioned above
often retain this role. These hospitals provide stabalization and rehabilitation for those who are having difficulties
such as depression, eating disorders, mental disorders, and so on.

Halfway houses
One type of institution for the mentally ill is a community-based halfway house. These facilities provide assisted
living [4] for patients with mental illnesses for an extended period of time, and often aid in the transition to
self-sufficiency. These institutions are considered to be one of the most important parts of a mental health system by
many psychiatrists, although some localities lack sufficient funding.

Political imprisonment
In some countries the mental institution may be used for the incarceration of political prisoners, as a form of
punishment. A notable historical example was the use of punitive psychiatry in the Soviet Union.

Secure Units
In the British Isles, criminal courts or the Home Secretary can refer people to what are known as psychiatric secure
units, even though for many decades now, the term 'criminally insane' is no longer legally or medically recognized.
Some people and especially journalists often misconceive these as being prisons. However, they are hospitals mostly
run by the National Health Service, which undertake psychiatric assessments and can also provide treatment and
accommodation in a safe, hospital environment where its patients can be prevented from harming themselves or
others. They also run under clearly defined Home office rules. These secure hospital facilities are divided into three
main categories and are referred to as High, Medium and Low Secure. Although as a phrase it often used by
newspapers, there is no such classification of 'Maximum Secure'. Low Secure units are often referred to a Local
Secure as patients are referred there frequently by local criminal courts for psychiatric assessment before sentencing.
Some units have been opened in recent years with the specific purpose of providing Therapeutically Enhanced
Treatment and so form a subcategory to the three main ones.
The general public are familiar with the names of the High Secure Hospitals due to the frequency that they are
mentioned in the news reports about the people who are sent there. Those in England include, Ashworth Hospital in
Merseyside;[5] Broadmoor Hospital in Crowthorne, Berkshire and Rampton Secure Hospital in Retford,
Mental institution 480

Nottinghamshire and in Scotland is The State Hospital, Carstairs [6] . Northern Ireland and the Isle of Man have their
own Medium and Low Secure units but use the mainland faculties for High Secure, which smaller Channel Islands
also transfer their patients to as Out of Area Referrals under the Mental Health Act 1983.
Of the Medium Secure units, there are many more of these in number scattered throughout the UK. As of 2009 there
were 27 women only units in England alone.[7] . Irish units include those at prisons in Portlaise, Castelrea and Cork.

Anti-psychiatry objections
Some critics, notably psychiatrist Dr. Thomas Szasz, have objected to calling mental hospitals "hospitals" (see
anti-psychiatry).
The French historian Michel Foucault is widely known for his comprehensive critique of the use and abuse of the
mental hospital system in Madness and Civilization. He argued that Tuke and Pinel's asylum was a symbolic
recreation of the condition of a child under a bourgeois family. It was a microcosm symbolizing the massive
structures of bourgeois society and its values: relations of Family-Children (paternal authority), Fault-Punishment
(immediate justice), Madness-Disorder (social and moral order).[8] [9]
Erving Goffman coined the term 'Total Institution' for places which took over and confined a person's whole life.
The anti-psychiatry movement coming to the fore in the 1960s oppose many of the practices, conditions, or existence
of mental hospitals. The Consumer/Survivor Movement has often objected to or campaigned against conditions in
mental hospitals or their use, voluntarily or involuntarily.
Some anti-psychiatry activists have advocated for the abolition of long-term hospitals for the criminally insane,
including on the grounds that those judged not guilty by reason of insanity should not then be indefinitely confined
with potentially less legal rights, or on the converse grounds that insanity is not a coherent concept and so should not
be a basis for different treatment.

See also
• History of psychiatric institutions
• History of mental illness
• Deinstitutionalisation
• Institutional syndrome
• Kirkbride Plan
• Mental health law
• MindFreedom International
• New Freedom Commission on Mental Health
• Punitive psychiatry in the Soviet Union
• Psychiatric survivors movement
• Treatment Advocacy Center, involuntary treatment proponent group
To see lists of individual establishments: view the categorical index for Psychiatric hospitals; which appears at the
very bottom of this article.
Mental institution 481

External links
• BBC.co.uk [10] - 'Mental hospital wards "dire"', BBC (July 7, 2000)
• Camarillo State Mental Hospital History [11]
• Historical Asylums website [12]
• Asylum Projects [13] - Asylum wiki database
• Example of Patient Rights policy in U.S. [14]
• "AlterNet: Movie Mix: Must-See Indy Film Exposes Cruel Teen Correction Programs" [15]. Retrieved
2007-07-08.
• National Resource Center on Psychiatric Advance Directives [16]
• Kirkbride Buildings [17] History and photographs of early psychiatric hospitals

References
[1] Porter, Roy (2006). Madmen: A Social History of Madhouses, Mad-Doctors & Lunatics. Tempus: p. 14.
[2] http:/ / www. medscape. com/ viewarticle/ 481700_3
[3] http:/ / www. hospital. com/ psychiatry. html
[4] Vaslamatzis G.; Katsouyanni K.; Markidis M., "The efficacy of a psychiatric halfway house: a study of hospital recidivism and global
outcome measure", European Psychiatry, 12:2, 1997 , pp. 94-97(4). doi: 10.1016/S0924-9338(97)89647-2
[5] Official site. Accessed 2010-06-02 (http:/ / www. merseycare. nhs. uk/ services/ clinical/ high_secure/ High_Secure_Services_Contact_Us.
asp)
[6] http:/ / www. tsh. scot. nhs. uk/ Official site. Accessed 2010-06-02
[7] Georgie Parry‐Crooke (June 2009) My life: in safe hands? (http:/ / www. ohrn. nhs. uk/ resource/ policy/ WMSSEvaluationFinalReport. pdf).
Accessed 2010-06-02
[8] Deleuze and Guattari (1972) Anti-Oedipus p. 102
[9] Michel Foucault [1961] The History of Madness, Routledge 2006, pp.490-1, 507-8, 510-1
[10] http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ health/ 823732. stm
[11] http:/ / resist. ca/ ~kirstena/ pagecamarillo. html
[12] http:/ / www. rootsweb. com/ ~asylums/
[13] http:/ / www. asylumprojects. org/
[14] http:/ / www. retreathealthcare. org/ faq/ rights. html
[15] http:/ / www. alternet. org/ movies/ 56241/
[16] http:/ / www. nrc-pad. org
[17] http:/ / www. kirkbridebuildings. com/
Agoraphobia 482

Agoraphobia
Agoraphobia
Classification and external resources

ICD-10 F 40. [1]

F40.00 Without panic disorder, F40.01 With panic disorder

ICD-9 [2] [3]

300.22 Without panic disorder, 300.21 With panic disorder

MeSH [4]
D000379

Agoraphobia (from Greek ἀγορά, "marketplace"; and φόβος/φοβία, -phobia) is an anxiety disorder. Agoraphobia
may arise by the fear of having a panic attack in a setting from which there is no easy means of escape.
Alternatively, social anxiety problems may also be an underlying cause. As a result, sufferers of agoraphobia avoid
public and/or unfamiliar places, especially large, open, spaces such as shopping malls or airports where there are few
places to hide. In severe cases, the sufferer may become confined to his or her home, experiencing difficulty
traveling from this safe place. Although mostly thought to be a fear of public places, it is now believed that
agoraphobia develops as a complication of panic attacks.[5] However, there is evidence that the implied one-way
causal relationship between spontaneous panic attacks and agoraphobia in DSM-IV may be incorrect.[6]
Approximately 3.2 million adults in the US between the ages of 18 and 54, or about 2.2%, suffer from
agoraphobia.[7]

Definition
Not to be confused with agraphobia, agoraphobia is a condition where the sufferer becomes anxious in environments
that are unfamiliar or where he or she perceives that they have little control. Triggers for this anxiety may include
wide open spaces, crowds (social anxiety), or traveling (even short distances). Agoraphobia is often, but not always,
compounded by a fear of social embarrassment, as the agoraphobic fears the onset of a panic attack and appearing
distraught in public. This is also sometimes called 'Social Agoraphobia' which may be a type of social anxiety
disorder also sometimes called "social phobia".
Not all agoraphobia is social in nature, however. Some agoraphobics have a fear of open spaces. Agoraphobia is also
a defined as "a fear, sometimes terrifying, by those who have experienced one or more panic attacks". In these cases,
the sufferer is fearful of a particular place because they have experienced a panic attack at the same location in a
previous time. Fearing the onset of another panic attack, the sufferer is fearful or even avoids the location.
The sufferer is now considered to suffer from Agoraphobia. The sufferer can sometimes go to great lengths to avoid
the locations where they have experienced the onset of a panic attack. Agoraphobia, as described in this manner, is
actually a symptom professionals check for when making a diagnosis of panic disorder. Other syndromes like
obsessive compulsive disorder or post traumatic stress disorder can also cause agoraphobia, basically any irrational
fear that keeps one from going outside can cause the syndrome.[8]
There are basically three levels of severity in agoraphobia as related to travel distance that are currently not covered
in diagnostic statistical manuals of mental disorders.
Level I Agoraphobia consists of an ideational fear or actual panic attack as the result of traveling beyond the general
perimeters of the region one resides in, such as a large city or county.
Level II Agoraphobia consists of an ideational fear or actual panic attack as the result of traveling beyond the general
perimeters of one’s neighborhood or residential district.
Agoraphobia 483

Level III Agoraphobia consists of an ideational fear or actual panic attack as the result of stepping outside the
boundaries or premises of one’s residence. Most sufferers of this category are able to walk outdoors onto a porch,
balcony, roof, yard or patio, but a minority of Level III suffers are fearful of stepping outdoors at all.
It is not uncommon for Level II and Level III agoraphobics in particular to also suffer from temporary Separation
Anxiety Disorder when certain other individuals of the household depart from the residence temporarily, such as a
parent or spouse, or when the agoraphobic is left home alone. Such temporary conditions can result in an increase in
anxiety or a panic attack.
Another common associative disorder of agoraphobia is thanatophobia—fear of death. The anxiety level of
agoraphobics often increases when dwelling upon the idea of eventually dying, which they consciously or
unconsciously associate with being the ultimate separation from their mortal emotional comfort and safety zones and
loved ones, even for those who may otherwise spiritually believe in some form of divine afterlife existence.

Gender differences
Agoraphobia occurs about twice as commonly among women as it does in men.[9] The gender difference may be
attributable to social-cultural factors that encourage, or permit, the greater expression of avoidant coping strategies
by women. Other theories include the ideas that women are more likely to seek help and therefore be diagnosed, that
men are more likely to abuse alcohol as a reaction to anxiety and be diagnosed as an alcoholic, and that traditional
female sex roles encourage women to react to anxiety by engaging in dependent and helpless behaviors.[10] Research
results have not yet produced a single clear explanation as to the gender difference in agoraphobia.

Causes and contributing factors

The exact causes of agoraphobia are currently unknown, although some clinicians that have treated or attempted to
treat agoraphobia offer valid theories. The condition has been linked to the presence of other anxiety disorders, a
stressful environment or substance abuse. Chronic use of tranquilizers and sleeping pills such as benzodiazepines has
been linked to causing agoraphobia.[11] When benzodiazepine dependence has been treated and after a period of
abstinence, agoraphobia symptoms gradually abate.[12]
Research has uncovered a linkage between agoraphobia and difficulties with spatial orientation.[13] [14] Individuals
without agoraphobia are able to maintain balance by combining information from their vestibular system, their visual
system and their proprioceptive sense. A disproportionate number of agoraphobics have weak vestibular function
and consequently rely more on visual or tactile signals. They may become disoriented when visual cues are sparse as
in wide open spaces or overwhelming as in crowds. Likewise, they may be confused by sloping or irregular
surfaces.[15] Compared to controls, in virtual reality studies, agoraphobics on average show impaired processing of
changing audiovisual data.[16]

Alternate theories

Attachment theory
Some scholars [17] [18] have explained agoraphobia as an attachment deficit, i.e., the temporary loss of the ability to
tolerate spatial separations from a secure base.[19] Recent empirical research has also linked attachment and spatial
theories of agoraphobia.[20]

Spatial theory
In the social sciences there is a perceived clinical bias [21] in agoraphobia research. Branches of the social sciences,
especially geography, have increasingly become interested in what may be thought of as a spatial phenomenon. One
such approach links the development of agoraphobia with modernity.[22]
Agoraphobia 484

Diagnosis
Most people who present to mental health specialists develop agoraphobia after the onset of panic disorder
(American Psychiatric Association, 1998). Agoraphobia is best understood as an adverse behavioral outcome of
repeated panic attacks and subsequent anxiety and preoccupation with these attacks that leads to an avoidance of
situations where a panic attack could occur.[23] In rare cases where agoraphobics do not meet the criteria used to
diagnose Panic Disorder, the formal diagnosis of Agoraphobia Without History of Panic Disorder is used (Primary
Agoraphobia).

Association with panic attacks

Agoraphobia patients can experience sudden panic attacks when traveling to places where they fear they are out of
control, help would be difficult to obtain, or they could be embarrassed. During a panic attack, epinephrine is
released in large amounts, triggering the body's natural fight-or-flight response. A panic attack typically has an
abrupt onset, building to maximum intensity within 10 to 15 minutes, and rarely lasts longer than 30 minutes.[24]
Symptoms of a panic attack include palpitations, a rapid heartbeat, sweating, trembling, vomiting, dizziness,
tightness in the throat and shortness of breath. Many patients report a fear of dying or of losing control of emotions
and/or behavior.[24]

Treatments

Cognitive behavioral treatments

Exposure treatment can provide lasting relief to the majority of patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia.
Disappearance of residual and subclinical agoraphobic avoidance, and not simply of panic attacks, should be the aim
of exposure therapy.[25] Similarly, Systematic desensitization may also be used.
Cognitive restructuring has also proved useful in treating agoraphobia. This treatment involves coaching a
participant through a dianoetic discussion, with the intent of substituting irrational, counterproductive beliefs with
more factual and beneficial ones.
Relaxation techniques are often useful skills for the agoraphobic to develop, as they can be used to stop or prevent
symptoms of anxiety and panic.

Psychopharmaceutical treatments
Anti-depressant medications most commonly used to treat anxiety disorders are mainly in the SSRI (selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitor) class and include sertraline, paroxetine and fluoxetine. Benzodiazepine tranquilizers,
MAO inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressants are also commonly prescribed for treatment of agoraphobia.

Alternative treatments
Eye movement desensitization and reprogramming (EMDR) has been studied as a possible treatment for
agoraphobia, with poor results.[26] As such, EMDR is only recommended in cases where cognitive-behavioral
approaches have proven ineffective or in cases where agoraphobia has developed following trauma.[27]
Many people with anxiety disorders benefit from joining a self-help or support group (telephone conference call
support groups or online support groups being of particular help for completely housebound individuals). Sharing
problems and achievements with others as well as sharing various self-help tools are common activities in these
groups. In particular stress management techniques and various kinds of meditation practices as well as visualization
techniques can help people with anxiety disorders calm themselves and may enhance the effects of therapy. So can
service to others which can distract from the self-absorption that tends to go with anxiety problems. There is also
preliminary evidence that aerobic exercise may have a calming effect. Since caffeine, certain illicit drugs, and even
Agoraphobia 485

some over-the-counter cold medications can aggravate the symptoms of anxiety disorders, they should be
avoided.[28]

Notable agoraphobes
• Rose McGowan (1973–), American actress, known for her roles of Paige Matthews in the show Charmed and
several Hollywood films.[29]
• Bolesław Prus (1847–1912), Polish journalist and novelist.[30]
• Howard Hughes (1905–1976), American aviator, industrialist, film producer and philanthropist.[31]
• H.L. Gold (1914–1996), science fiction editor; as a result of trauma during his wartime experiences, his
agoraphobia became so severe that for more than two decades he was unable to leave his apartment. Towards the
end of his life he acquired some control over the condition.[32]
• Woody Allen (1935-), American actor, director, musician.[33]
• Brian Wilson (1942-), American singer and songwriter; primary songwriter of the Beach Boys. A former recluse
and agoraphobic who underwent bouts of schizophrenia.[34]
• Paula Deen (1947-), American Chef.[35]
• Olivia Hussey (1951-), Anglo-Argentine Actress.[36] [37]
• Kim Basinger (1953-), American actress.[38]
• Daryl Hannah (1960-), American actress.[39]
• Peter Robinson (1962-), British musician known simply as Marilyn.[40]

See also
• List of films featuring mental illness#Agoraphobia
• Agyrophobia, fear of crossing roads
• Enochlophobia, fear of crowds
• Generalized anxiety disorder
• Hikikomori
• Obsessive compulsive disorder, can have a variety of specific fears that cause one to become homebound
• Post traumatic stress disorder
• Social anxiety
• Social phobia
• Xenophobia, fear of strangers

References
[1] http:/ / apps. who. int/ classifications/ apps/ icd/ icd10online/ ?gf40. htm+ f40
[2] http:/ / www. icd9data. com/ getICD9Code. ashx?icd9=300. 22
[3] http:/ / www. icd9data. com/ getICD9Code. ashx?icd9=300. 21
[4] http:/ / www. nlm. nih. gov/ cgi/ mesh/ 2010/ MB_cgi?field=uid& term=D000379
[5] http:/ / helpguide. org/ mental/ panic_disorder_anxiety_attack_symptom_treatment. htm
[6] Br J Psychiatry. 2006 May;188:432-8.
[7] Phobia Fear Release. "Percentage Of Americans With Phobias" (http:/ / www. phobia-fear-release. com/
percentage-of-americans-with-phobias. html). . Retrieved 2010-4-7.
[8] Psych Central: Agoraphobia Symptoms (http:/ / psychcentral. com/ disorders/ sx29. htm)
[9] Magee, W. J., Eaton, W. W. , Wittchen, H. U., McGonagle, K. A., & Kessler, R. C. (1996). Agoraphobia, simple phobia, and social phobia in
the National Comorbidity Survey, Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 159–168.
[10] Agoraphobia Research Center. "Is agoraphobia more common in men or women?" (http:/ / www. agoraphobia. ws/ whogets. htm). .
Retrieved 2007-11-15.
[11] Hammersley D, Beeley L (1996). "The effects of medication on counselling" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=wnIBEQKQi7IC). in Palmer
S, Dainow S, Milner P (eds.). Counselling: The BACP Counselling Reader. 1. Sage. pp. 211–4. ISBN 978-0803974777. .
Agoraphobia 486

[12] Professor C Heather Ashton (1987). "Benzodiazepine Withdrawal: Outcome in 50 Patients" (http:/ / www. benzo. org. uk/ ashbzoc. htm).
British Journal of Addiction 82: 655–671. .
[13] Yardley, L; Britton, J; Lear, S; Bird, J; Luxon, LM (1995 May). "Relationship between balance system function and agoraphobic
avoidance.". Behav Res Ther. 33 (4): 435–9. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(94)00060-W. PMID : 7755529.
[14] Jacob, RG; Furman, JM; Durrant, JD; Turner, SM (1996). "Panic, agoraphobia, and vestibular dysfunction". Am J Psychiatry 153 (4):
503–512. PMID 8599398.
[15] Jacob, RG; Furman, JM; Durrant, JD; Turner, SM (1997 May-June). "Surface dependence: a balance control strategy in panic disorder with
agoraphobia". Psychosom Med. 59 (3): 323–30. PMID : 9178344.
[16] Viauddelmon, I; Warusfel, O; Seguelas, A; Rio, E; Jouvent, R (2006 October). "High sensitivity to multisensory conflicts in agoraphobia
exhibited by virtual reality.". Eur Psychiatry 21 (7): 501–8. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2004.10.004. PMID : 17055951.
[17] G. Liotti, (1996). Insecure attachment and agoraphobia, in: C. Murray-Parkes, J. Stevenson-Hinde, & P. Marris (Eds.). Attachment Across
the Life Cycle.
[18] J. Bowlby, (1998). Attachment and Loss (Vol. 2: Separation).
[19] K. Jacobson, (2004). "Agoraphobia and Hypochondria as Disorders of Dwelling." International Studies in Philosophy 36, 31-44.
[20] J. Holmes, (2008). "Space and the secure base in agoraphobia: a qualitative survey", Area, 40, 3, 357 - 382.
[21] J. Davidson, (2003). Phobic Geographies
[22] J. Holmes, (2006). "Building Bridges and Breaking Boundaries: Modernity and Agoraphobia", Opticon1826, 1, 1, http:/ / www. ucl. ac. uk/
opticon1826/ archive/ issue1
[23] Barlow, D. H. (1988). Anxiety and its disorders: The nature and treatment of anxiety and panic. Guilford Press.
[24] David Satcher etal. (1999). "Chapter 4.2" (http:/ / www. surgeongeneral. gov/ library/ mentalhealth/ chapter4/ sec2. html). Mental Health: A
Report of the Surgeon General. .
[25] Fava, G.A.; Rafanelli, C.; Grandi, S.; Cinto, S.; Ruini, C.; Mangelli, L; Belluardo, P (2001). "Long-term outcome of panic disorder with
agoraphobia treated by exposure". Psychological Medicine (Cambridge University Press) 31 (5): 891–898. doi:10.1017/S0033291701003592.
PMID 11459386.
[26] Goldstein, Alan J.; Goldstein, Alan J., de Beurs, Edwin, Chambless, Dianne L., Wilson, Kimberly A. (2000). "EMDR for Panic Disorder
With Agoraphobia : Comparison With Waiting List and Credible Attention-Placebo Control Conditions". Journal of Consulting & Clinical
Psychology 68 (6): 947–957. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.68.6.947.
[27] Agoraphobia Resource Center. "Agoraphobia treatments - Eye movement desensitization and reprogramming" (http:/ / www. agoraphobia.
ws/ treatment-emdr. htm). . Retrieved 2008-04-18.
[28] National Institute of Mental Health. "How to get help for anxiety disorders" (http:/ / www. nimh. nih. gov/ health/ publications/
anxiety-disorders/ how-to-get-help-for-anxiety-disorders. shtml). . Retrieved 2008-04-18.
[29] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Rose_McGowan#Personal_life
[30] Stanisław Fita, ed., Wspomnienia o Bolesławie Prusie (Reminiscences about Bolesław Prus), Warsaw, Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy
(State Publishing Institute), 1962, p. 113.
[31] Psychological Autopsy can help understand controversial deaths -- The Crime Library on truTV.com (http:/ / www. crimelibrary. com/
criminal_mind/ forensics/ psych_autopsy/ 4. html)
[32] "Editing H. L. Gold (section) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia" (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=H. _L. _Gold&
action=edit& section=4). En.wikipedia.org. 2009-02-05. . Retrieved 2009-08-19.
[33] "Reconstructing Woody" (http:/ / www. vanityfair. com/ culture/ features/ 2005/ 12/ woodyallen200512?currentPage=4)
[34] Profile of Brian Wilson (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ news/ people/ profiles/ brian-wilson-here-comes-the-sun-401202. html). The
Independent. Retrieved 3 September 2007.
[35] Moskin, Julia (2007-02-28). "From Phobia to Fame: A Southern Cook's Memoir" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 02/ 28/ dining/ 28deen.
html?_r=1& ref=dining). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2010-03-27.
[36] Olivia Hussey - People Magazine – March 16, 1992 (http:/ / www. oliviahussey. com/ olivia_scrapbook/ clippings/ people. htm)
[37] Olivia Hussey Biography - Internet Movie Database (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0001377/ bio)
[38] "Kim Basinger" (http:/ / www. nndb. com/ people/ 310/ 000025235). Nndb.com. . Retrieved 2009-08-19.
[39] Biography for Daryl Hannah (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0000435/ bio). Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 28 November 2007.
[40] Whatever Happened to the Gender Benders?, Channel 4 documentary, United Kingdom.

 This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Institute of Mental
Health.
Agoraphobia 487

Suggested Links
• Support Group Providers for / Agoraphobia (http://www.dmoz.org/Health/Mental_Health/Disorders/
Anxiety/Social_Anxiety/Support_Groups/) at the Open Directory Project Includes Telephone Support Group
Providers for Homebound Agoraphobics
Blindness 488

Blindness
Blindness
Classification and external resources

A white cane, the international symbol of blindness

ICD-10 [1] [2] [3]

H 54.0 , H 54.1 , H 54.4

ICD-9 [4]
369

DiseasesDB [5]
28256

Blindness is the condition of lacking visual perception due to physiological or neurological factors.
Various scales have been developed to describe the extent of vision loss and define blindness.[6] Total blindness is
the complete lack of form and visual light perception and is clinically recorded as NLP, an abbreviation for "no light
perception."[6] Blindness is frequently used to describe severe visual impairment with residual vision. Those
described as having only light perception have no more sight than the ability to tell light from dark and the general
direction of a light source.
In order to determine which people may need special assistance because of their visual disabilities, various
governmental jurisdictions have formulated more complex definitions referred to as legal blindness.[7] In North
America and most of Europe, legal blindness is defined as visual acuity (vision) of 20/200 (6/60) or less in the better
eye with best correction possible. This means that a legally blind individual would have to stand 20 feet (6.1 m) from
an object to see it—with corrective lenses—with the same degree of clarity as a normally sighted person could from
200 feet (61 m). In many areas, people with average acuity who nonetheless have a visual field of less than 20
degrees (the norm being 180 degrees) are also classified as being legally blind. Approximately ten percent of those
deemed legally blind, by any measure, have no vision. The rest have some vision, from light perception alone to
relatively good acuity. Low vision is sometimes used to describe visual acuities from 20/70 to 20/200.[8]
By the 10th Revision of the WHO International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries and Causes of Death,
low vision is defined as visual acuity of less than 20/60 (6/18), but equal to or better than 20/200 (6/60), or
corresponding visual field loss to less than 20 degrees, in the better eye with best possible correction. Blindness is
defined as visual acuity of less than 20/400 (6/120), or corresponding visual field loss to less than 10 degrees, in the
better eye with best possible correction.[9] [10]
Blindness 489

Blind people with undamaged eyes may still register light non-visually for the purpose of circadian entrainment to
the 24-hour light/dark cycle. Light signals for this purpose travel through the retinohypothalamic tract, so a damaged
optic nerve beyond where the retinohypothalamic tract exits it is no hindrance.

Classification
In 1934, the American Medical Association adopted the following definition of blindness:
Central visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye with corrective glasses or central visual acuity of
more than 20/200 if there is a visual field defect in which the peripheral field is contracted to such an
extent that the widest diameter of the visual field subtends an angular distance no greater than 20
degrees in the better eye.[11]
The United States Congress included this definition as part of the Aid to the Blind program in the Social Security
Act passed in 1935.[11] [12] In 1972, the Aid to the Blind program and two others combined under Title XVI of the
Social Security Act to form the Supplemental Security Income program[13] which currently states:
An individual shall be considered to be blind for purposes of this title if he has central visual acuity of
20/200 or less in the better eye with the use of a correcting lens. An eye which is accompanied by a
limitation in the fields of vision such that the widest diameter of the visual field subtends an angle no
greater than 20 degrees shall be considered for purposes of the first sentence of this subsection as having
a central visual acuity of 20/200 or less. An individual shall also be considered to be blind for purposes
of this title if he is blind as defined under a State plan approved under title X or XVI as in effect for
October 1972 and received aid under such plan (on the basis of blindness) for December 1973, so long
as he is continuously blind as so defined.[14]
In the United States, legal blindness due to acuity loss is most often measured by a regular eye doctor with an eye
chart.
Legal blindness due to visual field being less than 20 degrees is measured by a visual field test using a number IV
target size. If the doctor or facility performing the test is approved by the Social Security Administration, this is the
official US determination for legal blindness due to field loss in conditions like retinitis pigmentosa.
Kuwait is one of many nations that share the same criteria for legal blindness.[15]
In the UK, the Certificate of Vision Impairment (CVI) is used to certify patients as severely sight impaired or sight
impaired.[16] The accompanying guidance for clinical staff states:
The National Assistance Act 1948 states that a person can be certified as severely sight impaired if they
are “so blind as to be as to be unable to perform any work for which eye sight is essential” (National
Assistance Act Section 64(1)). The test is whether a person cannot do any work for which eyesight is
essential, not just his or her normal job or one particular job.[17] .
In practice, the definition depends on individuals' visual acuity and the extent to which their field of vision is
restricted. The Department of Health identifies three groups of patients who may be classified as severely visually
impaired.[17] .
1. Those below 3/60 Snellen (most people below 3/60 are severely sight impaired),
2. Those better than 3/60 but below 6/60 Snellen (people who have a very contracted field of vision only),
3. Those 6/60 Snellen or above (people in this group who have a contracted field of vision especially if the
contraction is in the lower part of the field),
The Department of Health also state that a person is more likely to be classified as severely visually impaired if their
eyesight has failed recently or if they are an older individual, both groups being perceived as less able to adapt to
their vision loss.[17] .
Blindness 490

Causes
Serious visual impairment has a variety of causes:

Diseases
According to WHO estimates, the most common causes of blindness
around the world in 2002 were:
1. cataracts (47.9%),
2. glaucoma (12.3%),
3. age-related macular degeneration (8.7%), A blind man is led by a guide dog in Brasília,
4. corneal opacity (5.1%), and Brazil.
5. diabetic retinopathy (4.8%),

6. childhood blindness (3.9%),

7. trachoma (3.6%)
8. onchocerciasis (0.8%).[18]
In terms of the worldwide prevalence of blindness, the vastly greater number of people in the developing world and
the greater likelihood of their being affected mean that the causes of blindness in those areas are numerically more
important. Cataract is responsible for more than 22 million cases of blindness and glaucoma 6 million, while leprosy
and onchocerciasis each blind approximately 1 million individuals worldwide. The number of individuals blind from
trachoma has dropped dramatically in the past 10 years from 6 million to 1.3 million, putting it in seventh place on
the list of causes of blindness worldwide. Xerophthalmia is estimated to affect 5 million children each year; 500,000
develop active corneal involvement, and half of these go blind. Central corneal ulceration is also a significant cause
of monocular blindness worldwide, accounting for an estimated 850,000 cases of corneal blindness every year in the
Indian subcontinent alone. As a result, corneal scarring from all causes now is the fourth greatest cause of global
blindness (Vaughan & Asbury's General Ophthalmology, 17e)
People in developing countries are significantly more likely to experience visual impairment as a consequence of
treatable or preventable conditions than are their counterparts in the developed world. While vision impairment is
most common in people over age 60 across all regions, children in poorer communities are more likely to be affected
by blinding diseases than are their more affluent peers.
The link between poverty and treatable visual impairment is most obvious when conducting regional comparisons of
cause. Most adult visual impairment in North America and Western Europe is related to age-related macular
degeneration and diabetic retinopathy. While both of these conditions are subject to treatment, neither can be cured.
In developing countries, wherein people have shorter life expectancies, cataracts and water-borne parasites—both of
which can be treated effectively—are most often the culprits (see river blindness, for example). Of the estimated 40
million blind people located around the world, 70–80% can have some or all of their sight restored through
treatment.
In developed countries where parasitic diseases are less common and cataract surgery is more available, age-related
macular degeneration, glaucoma, and diabetic retinopathy are usually the leading causes of blindness.[19]
Childhood blindness can be caused by conditions related to pregnancy, such as congenital rubella syndrome and
retinopathy of prematurity.
Blindness 491

Abnormalities and injuries

Eye injuries, most often occurring in people under 30, are the leading cause of monocular blindness (vision loss in
one eye) throughout the United States. Injuries and cataracts affect the eye itself, while abnormalities such as optic
nerve hypoplasia affect the nerve bundle that sends signals from the eye to the back of the brain, which can lead to
decreased visual acuity.
People with injuries to the occipital lobe of the brain can, despite having undamaged eyes and optic nerves, still be
legally or totally blind.

Genetic defects
People with albinism often have vision loss to the extent that many are legally blind, though few of them actually
cannot see. Leber's congenital amaurosis can cause total blindness or severe sight loss from birth or early childhood.
Recent advances in mapping of the human genome have identified other genetic causes of low vision or blindness.
One such example is Bardet-Biedl syndrome.

Poisoning
Rarely, blindness is caused by the intake of certain chemicals. A well-known example is methanol, which is only
mildly toxic and minimally intoxicating, but when not competing with ethanol for metabolism, methanol breaks
down into the substances formaldehyde and formic acid which in turn can cause blindness, an array of other health
complications, and death.[20] Methanol is commonly found in methylated spirits, denatured ethyl alcohol, to avoid
paying taxes on selling ethanol intended for human consumption. Methylated spirits are sometimes used by
alcoholics as a desperate and cheap substitute for regular ethanol alcoholic beverages.

Willful actions
Blinding has been used as an act of vengeance and torture in some instances, to deprive a person of a major sense by
which they can navigate or interact within the world, act fully independently, and be aware of events surrounding
them. An example from the classical realm is Oedipus, who gouges out his own eyes after realizing that he fulfilled
the awful prophecy spoken of him.
In 2003, a Pakistani anti-terrorism court sentenced a man to be blinded after he carried out an acid attack against his
fiancee that resulted in her blinding.[21] The same sentence was given in 2009 for the man who blinded Ameneh
Bahrami.

Comorbidities
Blindness can occur in combination with such conditions as mental retardation, autism, cerebral palsy, hearing
impairments, and epilepsy.[22] [23] In a study of 228 visually impaired children in metropolitan Atlanta between 1991
and 1993, 154 (68%) had an additional disability besides visual impairment.[22] Blindness in combination with
hearing loss is known as deafblindness.

Management
A 2008 study published in the New England Journal of Medicine[24] tested the effect of using gene therapy to help
restore the sight of patients with a rare form of inherited blindness, known as Leber Congenital Amaurosis or LCA.
Leber Congenital Amaurosis damages the light receptors in the retina and usually begins affecting sight in early
childhood, with worsening vision until complete blindness around the age of 30.
The study used a common cold virus to deliver a normal version of the gene called RPE65 directly into the eyes of
affected patients. Remarkably all 3 patients aged 19, 22 and 25 responded well to the treatment and reported
Blindness 492

improved vision following the procedure. Due to the age of the patients and the degenerative nature of LCA the
improvement of vision in gene therapy patients is encouraging for researchers. It is hoped that gene therapy may be
even more effective in younger LCA patients who have experienced limited vision loss as well as in other blind or
partially blind individuals.
Two experimental treatments for retinal problems include a cybernetic replacement and transplant of fetal retinal
cells.[25]

Adaptive techniques and aids

Mobility
Many people with serious visual impairments can travel
independently, using a wide range of tools and techniques.
Orientation and mobility specialists are professionals who are
specifically trained to teach people with visual impairments how to
travel safely, confidently, and independently in the home and the
community. These professionals can also help blind people to
practice travelling on specific routes which they may use often,
such as the route from one's house to a convenience store.
Becoming familiar with an environment or route can make it much
easier for a blind person to navigate successfully.
Folded long cane.
Tools such as the white cane with a red tip - the international
symbol of blindness - may also be used to improve mobility. A long cane is used to extend the user's range of touch
sensation. It is usually swung in a low sweeping motion, across the intended path of travel, to detect obstacles.
However, techniques for cane travel can vary depending on the user and/or the situation. Some visually impaired
persons do not carry these kinds of canes, opting instead for the shorter, lighter identification (ID) cane. Still others
require a support cane. The choice depends on the individual's vision, motivation, and other factors.

A small number of people employ guide dogs to assist in mobility. These dogs are trained to navigate around various
obstacles, and to indicate when it becomes necessary to go up or down a step. However, the helpfulness of guide
dogs is limited by the inability of dogs to understand complex directions. The human half of the guide dog team does
the directing, based upon skills acquired through previous mobility training. In this sense, the handler might be
likened to an aircraft's navigator, who must know how to get from one place to another, and the dog to the pilot, who
gets them there safely.
In addition, some blind people use software using GPS technology as a mobility aid. Such software can assist blind
people with orientation and navigation, but it is not a replacement for traditional mobility tools such as white canes
and guide dogs.
Government actions are sometimes taken to make public places more accessible to blind people. Public
transportation is freely available to the blind in many cities. Tactile paving and audible traffic signals can make it
easier and safer for visually impaired pedestrians to cross streets. In addition to making rules about who can and
cannot use a cane, some governments mandate the right-of-way be given to users of white canes or guide dogs.
Blindness 493

Reading and magnification

Most visually impaired people who are not totally blind read print,
either of a regular size or enlarged by magnification devices. Many
also read large-print, which is easier for them to read without such
devices. A variety of magnifying glasses, some handheld, and some on
desktops, can make reading easier for them.
Others read Braille (or the infrequently used Moon type), or rely on
talking books and readers or reading machines, which convert printed
text to speech or Braille. They use computers with special hardware
such as scanners and refreshable Braille displays as well as software
written specifically for the blind, such as optical character recognition
applications and screen readers.

Some people access these materials through agencies for the blind,
such as the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically
Handicapped in the United States, the National Library for the Blind or
the RNIB in the United Kingdom.
Watch for the blind
Closed-circuit televisions, equipment that enlarges and contrasts
textual items, are a more high-tech alternative to traditional
magnification devices.
There are also over 100 radio reading services throughout the world that provide people with vision impairments
with readings from periodicals over the radio. The International Association of Audio Information Services provides
links to all of these organizations.

Computers
Access technology such as screen readers, screen magnifiers and refreshable Braille displays enable the blind to use
mainstream computer applications and mobile phones. The availability of assistive technology is increasing,
accompanied by concerted efforts to ensure the accessibility of information technology to all potential users,
including the blind. Later versions of Microsoft Windows include an Accessibility Wizard & Magnifier for those
with partial vision, and Microsoft Narrator, a simple screen reader. Linux distributions (as live CDs) for the blind
include Oralux and Adriane Knoppix, the latter developed in part by Adriane Knopper who has a visual impairment.
Mac OS also comes with a built-in screen reader, called VoiceOver.
The movement towards greater web accessibility is opening a far wider number of websites to adaptive technology,
making the web a more inviting place for visually impaired surfers.
Experimental approaches in sensory substitution are beginning to provide access to arbitrary live views from a
camera.
Blindness 494

Other aids and techniques

Blind people may use talking equipment such as thermometers,
watches, clocks, scales, calculators, and compasses. They may also
enlarge or mark dials on devices such as ovens and thermostats to
make them usable. Other techniques used by blind people to assist
them in daily activities include:
• Adaptations of coins and banknotes so that the value can be
determined by touch. For example:
• In some currencies, such as the euro, the pound sterling and the
Indian rupee, the size of a note increases with its value. A tactile feature on a Canadian banknote.
• On US coins, pennies and dimes, and nickels and quarters are
similar in size. The larger denominations (dimes and quarters) have ridges along the sides (historically used to
prevent the "shaving" of precious metals from the coins), which can now be used for identification.
• Some currencies' banknotes have a tactile feature to indicate denomination. For example, the Canadian
currency tactile feature is a system of raised dots in one corner, based on Braille cells but not standard
Braille.[26]
• It is also possible to fold notes in different ways to assist recognition.
• Labeling and tagging clothing and other personal items
• Placing different types of food at different positions on a dinner plate
• Marking controls of household appliances
Most people, once they have been visually impaired for long enough, devise their own adaptive strategies in all areas
of personal and professional management.

Epidemiology
The WHO estimates that in 2002 there were 161 million visually impaired people in the world (about 2.6% of the
total population). Of this number 124 million (about 2%) had low vision and 37 million (about 0.6%) were blind.[27]
In order of frequency the leading causes were cataract, uncorrected refractive errors (near sighted, far sighted, or an
astigmatism), glaucoma, and age-related macular degeneration.[28] In 1987, it was estimated that 598,000 people in
the United States met the legal definition of blindness.[29] Of this number, 58% were over the age of 65.[29] In
1994-1995, 1.3 million Americans reported legal blindness.[30]
Blindness 495

Society and culture

Metaphorical uses
The word "blind" (adjective and verb) is often used to signify a lack of
knowledge of something. For example, a blind date is a date in which the people
involved have not previously met; a blind experiment is one in which
information is kept from either the experimenter or the participant in order to
mitigate the placebo effect or observer bias. The expression "blind leading the
blind" refers to incapable people leading other incapable people. Being blind to
something means not understanding or being aware of it. A "blind spot" is an
area where someone cannot see, e.g. where a car driver cannot see because parts
of his car's bodywork are in the way.

Portrait of a Blind woman by Diego

Sports Velázquez.

Blind and partially sighted people participate in sports such as swimming, snow
skiing and athletics. Some sports have been invented or adapted for the blind such as goalball, association football,
cricket, and golf.[31] The worldwide authority on sports for the blind is the International Blind Sports Federation.[32]
People with vision impairments have participated in the Paralympic Games since the 1976 summer Paralympics in
Toronto.[33]

In other animals
Statements that certain species of mammals are "born blind" refers to them being born with their eyes closed and
their eyelids fused together; the eyes open later. One example is the rabbit. In humans the eyelids are fused for a
while before birth, but open again before the normal birth time, but very premature babies are sometimes born with
their eyes fused shut, and opening later. Other animals such as the blind mole rat are truly blind and rely on other
senses.
The theme of blind animals has been a powerful one in literature. Peter Schaffer's Tony-Award winning play, Equus,
tells the story of a boy who blinds six horses. Theodore Taylor's classic young adult novel, The Trouble With Tuck, is
about a teenage girl, Helen, who trains her blind dog to follow and trust a seeing-eye dog. Jacob Appel's
prize-winning story, "Rods and Cones," describes the disruption that a blind rabbit causes in a married couple's life.
In non-fiction, a recent classic is Linda Kay Hardie's essay, "Lessons Learned from a Blind Cat," in Cat Women:
Female Writers on their Feline Friends.

See also
• Blindism
• Blindness and education
• Color blindness
• Cortical blindness
• Eye disease
• List of blind people
• Nyctalopia
• Stereoblindness
• Tactile alphabets
• Tactile graphic
Blindness 496

• Tangible symbol systems

• World Blind Union

External links
• Blindness Resource Center [34] from The New York Institute for Special Education

References
[1] http:/ / apps. who. int/ classifications/ apps/ icd/ icd10online/ ?gh53. htm+ h540
[2] http:/ / apps. who. int/ classifications/ apps/ icd/ icd10online/ ?gh53. htm+ h541
[3] http:/ / apps. who. int/ classifications/ apps/ icd/ icd10online/ ?gh53. htm+ h544
[4] http:/ / www. icd9data. com/ getICD9Code. ashx?icd9=369
[5] http:/ / www. diseasesdatabase. com/ ddb28256. htm
[6] International Council of Ophthalmology. "International Standards: Visual Standards — Aspects and Ranges of Vision Loss with Emphasis on
Population Surveys." (http:/ / www. icoph. org/ pdf/ visualstandardsreport. pdf) April 2002.
[7] Belote, Larry. "Low Vision Education and Training: Defining the Boundaries of Low Vision Patients." (http:/ / www. larrybelote. com/ Files/
Low Vision Education and Training/ Extending the Boundaries of Service. DOC) A Personal Guide to the VA Visual Impairment Services
Program. Retrieved March 31, 2006.
[8] Living with Low Vision - American Foundation for the Blind (http:/ / www. afb. org/ Section. asp?SectionID=26& TopicID=144)
[9] http:/ / www3. who. int/ icd/ currentversion/ fr-icd. htm
[10] WHO | Magnitude and causes of visual impairment (http:/ / www. who. int/ mediacentre/ factsheets/ fs282/ en/ )
[11] Koestler, F. A., (1976). The unseen minority: a social history of blindness in the United States. New York: David McKay.
[12] Corn, AL; Spungin, SJ. "Free and Appropriate Public Education and the Personnel Crisis for Students with Visual Impairments and
Blindness." (http:/ / www. coe. ufl. edu/ copsse/ docs/ IB-10/ 1/ IB-10. pdf) Center on Personnel Studies in Special Education. April 2003.
[13] http:/ / www. ssa. gov/ history/ pdf/ 80chap12. pdf
[14] Social Security Act. "Sec. 1614. Meaning of terms." (http:/ / www. ssa. gov/ OP_Home/ ssact/ title16b/ 1614. htm) Retrieved February 17,
2006.
[15] Al-Merjan JI, Pandova MG, Al-Ghanim M, Al-Wayel A, Al-Mutairi S. "Registered blindness and low vision in Kuwait." Ophthalmic
Epidemiol. 2005 Aug;12(4):251-7. PMID 16033746.
[16] "Identification and notification of sight loss" (http:/ / www. dh. gov. uk/ en/ Healthcare/ Primarycare/ Optical/ DH_4074843) Retrieved
April 26, 2010.
[17] "Certificate of Vision Impairment: Explanatory Notes for Consultant Ophthalmologists and Hospital Eye Clinic Staff" (http:/ / www. dh.
gov. uk/ prod_consum_dh/ groups/ dh_digitalassets/ documents/ digitalasset/ dh_078294. pdf) retrieved April 26, 2010.
[18] "Causes of blindness and visual impairment" (http:/ / www. who. int/ blindness/ causes/ en/ ). World Health Organization. . Retrieved 19
February 2009.
[19] Bunce C, Wormald R. "Leading Causes of Certification for Blindness and Partial Sight in England & Wales." (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral.
gov/ articlerender. fcgi?tool=pubmed& pubmedid=16524463) BMC Public Health. 2006 March 8;6(1):58 [Epub ahead of print]. PMID
16524463.
[20] "Methanol" (http:/ / www. safety-council. org/ info/ OSH/ methanol. htm) (Web). Symptoms of Methanol Poisoning. Canada Safety Council.
2005. . Retrieved March 27, 2007.
[21] "Eye-for-eye in Pakistan acid case" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 3313207. stm). BBC News. 12 December 2003. . Retrieved
2008-06-30.
[22] "Causes of Blindness" (http:/ / www. lighthouse. org/ about-low-vision-blindness/ causes-of-blindness/ ). Lighthouse International. .
Retrieved 27 May 2010.
[23] "Autism and Blindness" (http:/ / www. ncecbvi. org/ autism. htm). Nerbraska Center for the Education of Children who are Blind or
Visually Impaired. . Retrieved 27 May 2010.
[24] Bainbridge JW, Smith AJ, Barker SS, et al. (May 2008). "Effect of gene therapy on visual function in Leber's congenital amaurosis" (http:/ /
content. nejm. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ NEJMoa0802268). N. Engl. J. Med. 358 (21): 2231–9. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0802268.
PMID 18441371. .
[25] Bionic Eye Opens New World Of Sight For Blind (http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/ story/ story. php?storyId=113968653) by Jon
Hamilton. All Things Considered, National Public Radio. 20 Oct 2009.
[26] Accessibility features - Bank Notes - Bank of Canada (http:/ / www. bankofcanada. ca/ en/ banknotes/ accessibility. html)
[27] "World Health Organization" (http:/ / www. who. int/ en/ ) (Web). World Health Organization. 2006. . Retrieved December 16, 2006.
[28] "WHO | Visual impairment and blindness" (http:/ / www. who. int/ mediacentre/ factsheets/ fs282/ en/ index. html). .
[29] Kirchner, C., Stephen, G. & Chandu, F. (1987). "Estimated 1987 prevalence of non-institutionalized 'severe visual impairment' by age base
on 1977 estimated rates: U. S.", 1987. AER Yearbook.
Blindness 497

[30] American Foundation for the Blind. "Statistics and Sources for Professionals." (http:/ / www. afb. org/ Section. asp?SectionID=15&
DocumentID=1367#prev) Retrieved April 1, 2006.
[31] "Blind Sports Victoria" (http:/ / www. blindsports. org. au/ ). . Retrieved 2008-03-04.
[32] "IBSA General Assembly Elects New Leadership" (http:/ / www. paralympic. org/ paralympian/ 20014/ 2001430. htm). The Paralympian.
International Paralympic Committee. April 2001. . Retrieved 2008-03-04.
[33] "The history of people with disabilities in Australia - 100 years" (http:/ / www. dsa. org. au/ life_site/ text/ sport/ index. html). Disability
Services Australia. . Retrieved 2008-03-04.
[34] http:/ / www. nyise. org/ blind. htm

Claustrophobia
Claustrophobia (from Latin claustrum "a shut in place" and Greek φόβος, phóbos, "fear") is the fear of having no
escape and being closed in (opposite: claustrophilia). It is typically classified as an anxiety disorder and often results
in panic attack. One study indicates that anywhere from 5–7% of the world population is affected by severe
claustrophobia, but only a small percentage of these people receive some kind of treatment for the disorder.[1]

Basic symptoms of claustrophobia

Claustrophobia is typically thought to have two key symptoms: fear of restriction and fear of suffocation. A typical
claustrophobic will fear restriction in at least one, if not several, of the following areas: small rooms, locked rooms,
cars, tunnels, cellars, elevators, subway trains, caves, and crowded areas. Additionally, the fear of restriction can
cause some claustrophobics to fear trivial matters such as sitting in a barber’s chair or waiting in line at a grocery
store simply out of a fear of confinement to a single space.
However, claustrophobics are not necessarily afraid of these areas themselves, but, rather, they fear what could
happen to them should they become confined to an area. Often, when confined to an area, claustrophobics begin to
fear suffocation, believing that there may be a lack of air in the area to which they are confined.
Many claustrophobics remove clothing during attacks, believing it will relieve the symptoms. Any combination of
the above symptoms can lead to severe panic attacks. However, most claustrophobics do everything in their power to
avoid these situations.[2]

Diagnosis

Claustrophobia scale
This method was developed in 1979 by interpreting the files of patients diagnosed with claustrophobia and by
reading various scientific articles about the diagnosis of the disorder. Once an initial scale was developed, it was
tested and sharpened by several experts in the field. Today, it consists of 20 questions that determine anxiety levels
and desire to avoid certain situations. Several studies have proved this scale to be effective in claustrophobia
diagnosis.[3]

Claustrophobia questionnaire
This method was developed by Rachman and Taylor, two experts in the field, in 1993. This method is effective in
distinguishing symptoms stemming from fear of suffocation and fear of restriction. In 2001, it was modified from 36
to 24 items by another group of field experts. This study has also been proved very effective by various studies.[4]
Claustrophobia 498

Treatment

Cognitive therapy
Cognitive therapy is a widely accepted form of treatment for most anxiety disorders.[5] It is also thought to be
particularly effective in combating disorders where the patient doesn’t actually fear a situation but, rather, fears what
could result from being in said situation.[6] The ultimate goal of cognitive therapy is to modify distorted thoughts or
misconceptions associated with whatever is being feared; the theory is that modifying these thoughts will decrease
anxiety and avoidance of certain situations.[7] For example, cognitive therapy would attempt to convince a
claustrophobic patient that elevators are not dangerous but are, in fact, very useful in getting you where you would
like to go faster. A study conducted by S.J. Rachman, an acclaimed expert in the field, shows that cognitive therapy
decreased fear and negative thoughts/connotations by an average of around 30% in claustrophobic patients tested,
proving it to be a reasonably effective method.[8]

In vivo exposure
This method forces patients to face their fears by complete exposure to whatever fear they are experiencing.[9] This
is usually done in a progressive manner starting with lesser exposures and moving upward towards severe
exposures.[10] For example, a claustrophobic patient would start by going into an elevator and work up to an MRI.
Several studies have proven this to be an effective method in combating various phobias, claustrophobia included.[11]
S.J. Rachman has also tested the effectiveness of this method in treating claustrophobia and found it to decrease fear
and negative thoughts/connotations by an average of nearly 75% in his patients.[12] Of the methods he tested in this
particular study, this was by far the most significant reduction.[13]

Interoceptive exposure
This method attempts to recreate internal physical sensations within a patient in a controlled environment.[14] In
other words, it is a less intense version of in vivo exposure.[15] This was the final method of treatment tested by S.J.
Rachman in his 1992 study.[16] It lowered fear and negative thoughts/connotations by about 25%.[17] These numbers
did not quite match those of in vivo exposure or cognitive therapy, but still resulted in significant reductions.[18]
Other forms of treatment that have also been shown to be reasonably effective are psychoeducation,
counter-conditioning, regressive hypnotherapy and breathing re-training. Medications often prescribed to help treat
claustrophobia include anti-depressants and beta-blockers, which help to relieve the heart-pounding symptoms often
associated with anxiety attacks.

Studies

MRI procedure
Because they can produce a fear of both suffocation and restriction, MRI scans often prove difficult for
claustrophobic patients.[19] In fact, estimates say that anywhere from 4–20% of patients refuse to go through with the
scan for precisely this reason.[20] One study estimates that this percentage could be as high as 37% of all MRI
recipients.[21] The average MRI takes around 50 minutes; this is more than enough time to evoke extreme fear and
anxiety in a severely claustrophobic patient.
This study was conducted with three goals: 1. To discover the extent of anxiety during an MRI. 2. To find predictors
for anxiety during an MRI. 3. To observe psychological factors of undergoing an MRI. Eighty patients were
randomly chosen for this study and subjected to several diagnostic tests to rate their level of claustrophobic fear;
none of these patients had previously been diagnosed with claustrophobia. They were also subjected to several of the
same tests after their MRI to see if their anxiety levels had elevated. This experiment concludes that the primary
component of anxiety experienced by patients was most closely connected to claustrophobia.
Claustrophobia 499

This assertion stems from the high Claustrophobic Questionnaire results of those who reported anxiety during the
scan. Almost 25% of the patients reported at least moderate feelings of anxiety during the scan and 3 were unable to
complete the scan at all. When asked a month after their scan, 30% of patients (these numbers are taken of the 48
that responded a month later) reported that their claustrophobic feelings had elevated since the scan. The majority of
these patients claimed to have never had claustrophobic sensations up to that point. This study concludes that the
Claustrophobic Questionnaire (or an equivalent method of diagnosis) should be used before allowing someone to
have an MRI.[22]

Separating the fear of restriction and fear of suffocation

Many experts who have studied claustrophobia claim that it consists of two separable components: fear of
suffocation and fear of restriction. In an effort to fully prove this assertion, a study was conducted by three experts in
order to clearly prove a difference. The study was conducted by issuing a questionnaire to 78 patients who received
MRI’s.
The data was compiled into a “fear scale” of sorts with separate subscales for suffocation and confinement.
Theoretically, these subscales would be different if the contributing factors are indeed separate. The study was
successful in proving that the symptoms are separate. Therefore, according to this study, in order to effectively
combat claustrophobia, it is necessary to attack both of these underlying causes.
However, because this study only applied to people who were able to finish their MRI, those who were unable to
complete the MRI were not included in the study. It is likely that many of these people dropped out because of a
severe case of claustrophobia. Therefore, the absence of those who suffer the most from claustrophobia could have
skewed these statistics.[23]
A group of students attending the University of Texas at Austin were first given an initial diagnostic and then given a
score between 1 and 5 based on their potential to have claustrophobia. Those who scored a 3 or higher were used in
the study. The students were then asked how well they felt they could cope if forced to stay in a small chamber for
an extended period of time. Concerns expressed in the questions asked were separated into suffocation concerns and
entrapment concerns in order to distinguish between the two perceived causes of claustrophobia. The results of this
study showed that the majority of students feared entrapment far more than suffocation. Because of this difference in
type of fear, it can yet again be asserted that there is a clear difference in these two symptoms.[24]

Probability ratings in claustrophobic patients and non-claustrophobics

This study was conducted on 98 people, 49 diagnosed claustrophobics and 49 "community controls" to find out if
claustrophobics' minds are distorted by "anxiety-arousing" events (i.e. claustrophobic events) to the point that they
believe those events are more likely to happen. Each person was given three events—a claustrophobic event, a
generally negative event, and a generally positive event—and asked to rate how likely it was that this event would
happen to them. As expected, the diagnosed claustrophobics gave the claustrophobic events a significantly higher
likelihood of occurring than did the control group. There was no noticeable difference in either the positive or
negative events. However, this study is also potentially flawed due to the fact that the claustrophobic people had
already been diagnosed. Diagnosis of the disorder could likely bias one’s belief that claustrophobic events are more
likely to occur to them.[25]
Claustrophobia 500

See also
• List of phobias
• Anxiety disorder
• Premature burial
• Panic Attack

References
[1] Phobias a Handbook of Theory, Research, and Treatment. Chichester ;New York: Wiley, 1997.
[2] Phobias a Handbook of Theory, Research, and Treatment. Chichester ;New York: Wiley, 1998.
[3] Öst, Lars-Göran. "The Claustrophobia Scale: A Psychometric Evaluation." Behaviour Research and Therapy 45.5 (2007): 1053–64.
[4] Öst, Lars-Göran. "The Claustrophobia Scale: A Psychometric Evaluation." Behaviour Research and Therapy.45.5 (2007): 1053–64.
[5] Choy, Yujuan, Abby J. Fyer, and Josh D. Lipsitz. "Treatment of Specific Phobia in Adults." Clinical Psychology Review 27.3 (2007):
266–86.
[6] Choy, Yujuan, Abby J. Fyer, and Josh D. Lipsitz. "Treatment of Specific Phobia in Adults." Clinical Psychology Review 27.3 (2007):
266–86.
[7] Choy, Yujuan, Abby J. Fyer, and Josh D. Lipsitz. "Treatment of Specific Phobia in Adults." Clinical Psychology Review 27.3 (2007):
266–86.
[8] Phobias Handbook of Theory, Research, and Treatment. Chichester ;New York: Wiley, 1997.
[9] Choy, Yujuan, Abby J. Fyer, and Josh D. Lipsitz. "Treatment of Specific Phobia in Adults." Clinical Psychology Review 27.3 (2007):
266–86.
[10] Choy, Yujuan, Abby J. Fyer, and Josh D. Lipsitz. "Treatment of Specific Phobia in Adults." Clinical Psychology Review 27.3 (2007):
266–86.
[11] Choy, Yujuan, Abby J. Fyer, and Josh D. Lipsitz. "Treatment of Specific Phobia in Adults." Clinical Psychology Review 27.3 (2007):
266–86.
[12] Phobias a Handbook of Theory, Research, and Treatment. Chichester ;New York: Wiley, 1997.
[13] Phobias a Handbook of Theory, Research, and Treatment. Chichester ;New York: Wiley, 1997.
[14] Choy, Yujuan, Abby J. Fyer, and Josh D. Lipsitz. "Treatment of Specific Phobia in Adults." Clinical Psychology Review 27.3 (2007):
266–86.
[15] Choy, Yujuan, Abby J. Fyer, and Josh D. Lipsitz. "Treatment of Specific Phobia in Adults." Clinical Psychology Review 27.3 (2007):
266–86.
[16] Phobias a Handbook of Theory, Research, and Treatment. Chichester ;New York: Wiley, 1997.
[17] Phobias a Handbook of Theory, Research, and Treatment. Chichester ;New York: Wiley, 1997.
[18] Phobias a Handbook of Theory, Research, and Treatment. Chichester ;New York: Wiley, 1997.
[19] McIsaac, Heather K., et al. "Claustrophobia and the Magnetic Resonance Imaging Procedure." Journal of Behavioral Medicine 21.3 (1998):
255–68.
[20] Harris, Lynne M., and John Robinson. "Evidence for Fear of Restriction and Fear of Suffocation as Components of Claustrophobia."
Behaviour Research & Therapy 37.2 (1999): 155.
[21] McIsaac, Heather K., et al. "Claustrophobia and the Magnetic Resonance Imaging Procedure." Journal of Behavioral Medicine 21.3 (1998):
255–68.
[22] McIsaac, Heather K., et al. "Claustrophobia and the Magnetic Resonance Imaging Procedure." Journal of Behavioral Medicine 21.3 (1998):
255–68.
[23] Harris, Lynne M., and John Robinson. "Evidence for Fear of Restriction and Fear of Suffocation as Components of Claustrophobia."
Behaviour Research & Therapy 37.2 (1999): 155.
[24] Valentiner, David P., and Michael J. Telch. "Cognitive Mechanisms in Claustrophobia: An Examination of Reiss and McNally's Expectancy
Model and Bandura's Self-Efficacy Theory." Cognitive Therapy & Research 20.6 (1996): 593–612.
[25] Ost, Lars-Goran, and Peter Csatlos. "Probability Ratings in Claustrophobic Patients and Normal Controls." Behaviour Research & Therapy
38.11 (2000): 1107.
Echolalia 501

Echolalia
Echolalia is the automatic repetition of vocalizations made by another person. It is closely related to echopraxia, the
automatic repetition of movements made by another person.
The word "echolalia" is derived from the Greek ἠχώ meaning "echo" or "to repeat",[1] and λαλιά (laliá) meaning
"babbling, meaningless talk"[2] (of onomatopoeic origin from the verb λαλέω (laléo) meaning "to talk").

Associated conditions
Echolalia can be present in autism[3] and other developmental disabilities, Tourette syndrome, aphasia,
Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome, schizophrenia, Asperger syndrome, Alzheimer's Disease and, occasionally, other forms
of psychopathology. It is also frequently found in blind or visually impaired children, although most will outgrow
this behavior. When done involuntarily, echolalia may be considered a tic.
It has been observed after cerebral infarction (stroke).[4]

Presentation
Immediate echolalia causes the immediate repetition of a word or phrase. Some autistic people and people with
Asperger syndrome may use repetition as a method of allowing themselves more time to process language.
A typical pediatric presentation of echolalia might be: a child is asked, "Do you want dinner?" the child echoes back
"Do you want dinner?" followed by a pause and then a response, "Yes. What's for dinner?"[5]
In delayed echolalia, a phrase is repeated after a delay, such as a person with autism who repeats TV commercials,
favorite movie scripts, or parental reprimands.

References
[1] (Greek) Triantafyllidis Online Dictionary (http:/ / www. komvos. edu. gr/ dictonlineplsql/ simple_search.
display_full_lemma?the_lemma_id=18904& target_dict=1), ηχώ, Retrieved on 2007-06-11
[2] (Greek) Triantafyllidis Online Dictionary (http:/ / www. komvos. edu. gr/ dictonlineplsql/ simple_search.
display_full_lemma?the_lemma_id=25040& target_dict=1), λαλιά, Retrieved on 2007-06-11
[3] Simon N (1975). "Echolalic speech in childhood autism. Consideration of possible underlying loci of brain damage". Arch. Gen. Psychiatry
32 (11): 1439–46. PMID 812450.
[4] Suzuki T, Itoh S, Hayashi M, Kouno M, Takeda K (July 2009). "Hyperlexia and ambient echolalia in a case of cerebral infarction of the left
anterior cingulate cortex and corpus callosum" (http:/ / www. informaworld. com/ openurl?genre=article& doi=10. 1080/
13554790902842037& magic=pubmed& #124;& #124;1B69BA326FFE69C3F0A8F227DF8201D0). Neurocase 15 (5): 1–6.
doi:10.1080/13554790902842037. PMID 19585352. .
[5] Bashe, P. R. The OASIS Guide to Asperger Syndrome; Advice, Support, Insight, and Inspiration. Crown Publishers, 2001, p. 22.
Panic attack 502

Panic attack
Panic attack
Classification and external resources

In case of a panic attack, remain calm and comfort the person.

ICD-10 [1]
F 41.0

ICD-9 [2]
300.01

MeSH [3]
D016584

Panic attack has been described as an episode of incredibly intense fear or apprehension that is of sudden onset.[4]
The DSM-IV describes a panic attack as a discrete period of intense fear or discomfort in which (at least 4 of 13)
symptoms developed abruptly and reached a peak within 10 minutes.
According to the American Psychological Association, the symptoms of a panic attack commonly last approximately
thirty minutes. However, panic attacks can be as short as 15 seconds, while sometimes panic attacks may form a
cyclic series of episodes, lasting for an extended period, sometimes hours. Often those afflicted will experience
significant anticipatory anxiety and limited symptom attacks in between attacks, in situations where attacks have
previously occurred.
The effects of a panic attack vary from person to person. Some, notably first-time sufferers, may call for emergency
services. Many who experience a panic attack, mostly for the first time, fear they are having a heart attack or a
nervous breakdown.[5] Experiencing a panic attack has been said to be one of the most intensely frightening,
upsetting and uncomfortable experiences of a person's life.[6]

Descriptions
Sufferers of panic attacks often report a fear or sense of dying, "going crazy," or experiencing a heart attack or
"flashing vision," feeling faint or nauseated, a numb sensation throughout the body, heavy breathing (and almost
always, hyperventilation), or losing control of themselves. Some people also suffer from tunnel vision, mostly due to
blood flow leaving the head to more critical parts of the body in defense. These feelings may provoke a strong urge
to escape or flee the place where the attack began (a consequence of the sympathetic "fight-or-flight response") in
which the hormone which causes this response is released in significant amounts. This response floods the body with
hormones, particularly epinephrine (adrenaline), that aid it in defending against harm.[6]
A panic attack is a response of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). The most common symptoms may include
trembling, dyspnea (shortness of breath), heart palpitations, chest pain (or chest tightness), hot flashes, cold flashes,
burning sensations (particularly in the facial or neck area), sweating, nausea, dizziness (or slight vertigo),
light-headedness, hyperventilation, paresthesias (tingling sensations), sensations of choking or smothering, and
Panic attack 503

derealization. These physical symptoms are interpreted with alarm in people prone to panic attacks. This results in
increased anxiety, and forms a positive feedback loop.[7]
Often the onset of shortness of breath and chest pain are the predominant symptoms; the sufferer incorrectly
appraises this as a sign or symptom of a heart attack. This can result in the person experiencing a panic attack
seeking treatment in an emergency room.
Panic attacks are distinguished from other forms of anxiety by their intensity and their sudden, episodic nature.[6]
They are often experienced in conjunction with anxiety disorders and other psychological conditions, although panic
attacks are not usually indicative of a mental disorder.

Triggers and causes

• Long-term, predisposing causes — Heredity. Panic disorder has been found to run in families, and this may
mean that inheritance plays a strong role in determining who will get it. However, many people who have no
family history of the disorder develop it. The onset of panic disorder usually occurs in early adulthood, although it
may appear at any age. It occurs more frequently in women and often in people with above average intelligence.
Various twin studies where one identical twin has an anxiety disorder have reported an incidence ranging from 31
to 88 percent of the other twin also having an anxiety disorder diagnosis. Environmental factors such as an overly
cautious view of the world expressed by parents and cumulative stress over time have been found to be causes.[6]
• Biological causes — obsessive compulsive disorder, post traumatic stress disorder, hypoglycemia,
hyperthyroidism, Wilson's disease, mitral valve prolapse, pheochromocytoma and inner ear disturbances
(labyrinthitis).[6] Vitamin B deficiency from inadequate diet or caused by periodic depletion due to parasitic
infection from tapeworm can be a trigger of anxiety attacks.
• Phobias — People will often experience panic attacks as a direct result of exposure to a phobic object or
situation.
• Short-term triggering causes — Significant personal loss, including an emotional attachment to a romantic
partner, life transitions, significant life change, and as seen below, stimulants such as caffeine or nicotine, can act
as triggers.[6]
• Maintaining causes — Avoidance of panic provoking situations or environments, anxious/negative self-talk
("what-if" thinking), mistaken beliefs ("these symptoms are harmful and/or dangerous"), withheld feelings, lack
of assertiveness.[6]
• Lack of assertiveness — A growing body of evidence supports the idea that those that suffer from panic attacks
engage in a passive style of communication or interactions with others. This communication style, while polite
and respectful, is also characteristically un-assertive. This un-assertive way of communicating seems to contribute
to panic attacks while being frequently present in those that are afflicted with panic attacks.[6]
• Medications — Sometimes panic attacks may be a listed side effect of medications such as Ritalin
(methylphenidate) or even fluoroquinolone type antibiotics.[8] These may be a temporary side effect, only
occurring when a patient first starts a medication, or could continue occurring even after the patient is accustomed
to the drug, which likely would warrant a medication change in either dosage, or type of drug. Nearly the entire
SSRI class of antidepressants can cause increased anxiety in the beginning of use. It is not uncommon for
inexperienced users to have panic attacks while weaning on or off the medication, especially ones prone to
anxiety.
• Alcohol, medication or drug withdrawal — Various substances both prescribed and unprescribed can cause
panic attacks to develop as part of their withdrawal syndrome or rebound effect. Alcohol withdrawal and
benzodiazepine withdrawal are the most well known to cause these effects as a rebound withdrawal symptom of
their tranquillising properties.[9]
Panic attack 504

• Hyperventilation syndrome — Breathing from the chest may cause overbreathing, exhaling excess carbon
dioxide in relation to the amount of oxygen in one's bloodstream. Hyperventilation syndrome can cause
respiratory alkalosis and hypocapnia. This syndrome often involves prominent mouth breathing as well. This
causes a cluster of symptoms including rapid heart beat, dizziness, and lightheadedness which can trigger panic
attacks.[6]
• Situationally bound panic attacks — Associating certain situations with panic attacks, due to experiencing one
in that particular situation, can create a cognitive or behavioral predisposition to having panic attacks in certain
situations (situationally bound panic attacks). It is a form of classical conditioning. Examples of this include
college, work, or deployment.[6] See PTSD
• Pharmacological triggers — Certain chemical substances, mainly stimulants but also certain depressants, can
either contribute pharmacologically to a constellation of provocations, and thus trigger a panic attack or even a
panic disorder, or directly induce one.[10] [11] This includes caffeine, amphetamine, alcohol and many more. Some
sufferers of panic attacks also report phobias of specific drugs or chemicals, that thus have a merely
psychosomatic effect, thereby functioning as drug-triggers by non-pharmacological means.[12]
• Chronic and/or serious illness — Cardiac conditions that can cause sudden death such as Long QT syndrome;
CPVT or Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome can also result in panic attacks. This is particularly difficult to
manage as the anxiety relates to events that may occur such as cardiac arrest, or if an Implantable
cardioverter-defibrillator is in situ, the possibility of having a shock delivered. It can be difficult for someone with
a cardiac condition to distinguish between symptoms of cardiac dysfunction and symptoms of anxiety. In CPVT,
anxiety itself can and does trigger arrythmia.Current management of panic attacks secondary to cardiac conditions
appears to rely heavily on Benzodiazepines; Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and/or Cognitive Behavioural
Therapy. However, people in this group often experience multiple and unavoidable hospitalisations; in people
with these types of diagnoses, it can be difficult to differentiate between symptoms of a panic attack versus
cardiac symptoms without an electrocardiogram.

Physiological considerations
While the various symptoms of a panic attack may cause the victim to feel that their body is failing, it is in fact
protecting itself from harm. The various symptoms of a panic attack can be understood as follows. First, there is
frequently (but not always) the sudden onset of fear with little provoking stimulus. This leads to a release of
adrenaline (epinephrine) which brings about the so-called fight-or-flight response wherein the person's body prepares
for strenuous physical activity. This leads to an increased heart rate (tachycardia), rapid breathing (hyperventilation)
which may be perceived as shortness of breath (dyspnea), and sweating (which increases grip and aids heat loss).
Because strenuous activity rarely ensues, the hyperventilation leads to a drop in carbon dioxide levels in the lungs
and then in the blood. This leads to shifts in blood pH (respiratory alkalosis or hypocapnia), which in turn can lead to
many other symptoms, such as tingling or numbness, dizziness, burning and lightheadedness. Moreover, the release
of adrenaline during a panic attack causes vasoconstriction resulting in slightly less blood flow to the head which
causes dizziness and lightheadedness. A panic attack can cause blood sugar to be drawn away from the brain and
towards the major muscles. It is also possible for the person experiencing such an attack to feel as though they are
unable to catch their breath, and they begin to take deeper breaths, which also acts to decrease carbon dioxide levels
in the blood.
Panic attack 505

Symptoms

Diagnostic criteria
DSM-IV Diagnostic Criteria for Panic Attack
A discrete period of intense fear or discomfort, in which four (or more) of the following symptoms developed
abruptly and reached a peak within 10 minutes:
• Palpitations, or accelerated heart rate
• Sweating
• Trembling or shaking
• Muscle tension
• Sensations of shortness of breath or smothering
• Feeling of choking
• Chest pain or discomfort
• Nausea or abdominal distress
• Feeling dizzy, unsteady, lightheaded, or faint
• Derealization (feelings of unreality) or depersonalization (being detached from oneself)
• Fear of losing control or going insane
• Fear of dying
• Paresthesias (numbness or tingling sensations)
• Chills or hot flashes
• Weakness in the knees
• Confusion
• Tunnel vision
• Blank mind
• Sensing time going by very slowly
• Feeling the need to escape

Agoraphobia
Agoraphobia is actually not a fear of open spaces but a fear of having panic attacks in certain places. Panic attacks
are commonly linked to agoraphobia and the fear of not being able to escape a bad situation. Many who experience
panic attacks feel trapped and unable to free themselves, or severe social anxiety.
Agoraphobia is an anxiety disorder which primarily consists of the fear of experiencing a difficult or embarrassing
situation from which the sufferer cannot escape. As a result, severe sufferers of agoraphobia may become confined to
their homes, experiencing difficulty traveling from this "safe place". The word "agoraphobia" is an English adoption
of the Greek words agora (αγορά) and phobos (φόβος).The term "agora" refers to the place where ancient Greeks
used to gather and talk about issues of the city, so it basically applies to any or all public places; however the essence
of agoraphobia is a fear of panic attacks especially if they occur in public as the victim may feel like he or she has no
escape and in the case of agoraphobia caused by social phobia or social anxiety, may be very embarrassed of having
one publicly in the first place. This translation is the reason for the common misconception that agoraphobia is a fear
of open spaces, and is not clinically accurate.
People who have had a panic attack in certain situations may develop irrational fears, called phobias, of these
situations and begin to avoid them. Eventually, the pattern of avoidance and level of anxiety about another attack
may reach the point where individuals with panic disorder are unable to drive or even step out of the house. At this
stage, the person is said to have panic disorder with agoraphobia. This can be one of the most harmful side-effects of
panic disorder as it can prevent sufferers from seeking treatment in the first place. It should be noted that upwards of
90% of agoraphobics achieve a full recovery.
Panic attack 506

Panic disorder
People who have repeated, persistent attacks or feel severe anxiety about having another attack are said to have
panic disorder. Panic disorder is strikingly different from other types of anxiety disorders in that panic attacks are
often sudden and unprovoked.[13]

Treatment
Panic disorder can be effectively treated with a variety of interventions including psychological therapies,
medication[6] with the evidence that cognitive behaviour therapy has the longest duration of effect, followed by
specific selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.[14]

Psychotherapies
According to the American Psychological Association, " most specialists agree that a combination of cognitive and
behavioral therapies are the best treatment for panic disorder. Medication might also be appropriate in some
cases".[15] The first part of therapy is largely informational; many people are greatly helped by simply understanding
exactly what panic disorder is, and how many others suffer from it. Many people who suffer from panic disorder are
worried that their panic attacks mean they're 'going crazy' or that the panic might induce a heart attack. 'Cognitive
restructuring' (changing one's way of thinking) helps people replace those thoughts with more realistic, positive ways
of viewing the attacks.

Paper bag rebreathing

Many panic attack sufferers as well as doctors recommend breathing into a paper bag as an effective short-term
treatment of an acute panic attack.[16] However, this treatment has been criticised by others as ineffective and
possibly hazardous to the patient, even potentially worsening the panic attack.[17] They say it can fatally lower
oxygen levels in the blood stream,[18] and increase carbon dioxide levels, which in turn has been found to be a major
cause of panic attacks.[19]
It is therefore important to discover whether hyperventilation is truly involved in each case. If it is, then rebalancing
the oxygen/CO2 levels in the blood and/or re-establishing an even, measured breathing pattern is an appropriate
treatment which may be also achieved by extending the outbreath either by counting or even humming.[20]

Increased risk of heart attack and stroke in menopausal women

A recent study suggests that menopausal women with panic disorder and many occurrences of panic attacks have a
threefold higher risk of suffering heart attack or stroke over the next five years. The researchers believe that panic
attacks or more accurately their associated symptoms (chest pain, dyspnea) can be manifestations of undiagnosed
cardiovascular disease, or result in heart damage due to cardiovascular stress in patients with panic disorder and
many panic attacks over periods of years.[21] However, the study did not find that isolated cases of panic attacks in
patients without panic disorder or agoraphobia would lead to immediate heart damage, nor did it prove that the
correlation between panic disorder and strokes was causal, or that it couldn't be attributed to the cardiovascular
effects of medication that many panic disorder patients receive, such as SSRIs and benzodiazepines. For example
one study albeit in the elderly found that the consumption of benzodiazepines combined with analgesics in elderly
men is correlated with an increased risk of dying of ischaemic heart disease in a small study. The study doesn't say if
this is to be blamed on the benzodiazepine drug in this case nitrazepam, the analgetics or their combination.[22]
Panic attack 507

Limited symptom attack

Many people being treated for panic attacks begin to experience limited symptom attacks. These panic attacks are
less comprehensive with fewer than 4 bodily symptoms being experienced.[6]

References
[1] http:/ / apps. who. int/ classifications/ apps/ icd/ icd10online/ ?gf40. htm+ f410
[2] http:/ / www. icd9data. com/ getICD9Code. ashx?icd9=300. 01
[3] http:/ / www. nlm. nih. gov/ cgi/ mesh/ 2010/ MB_cgi?field=uid& term=D016584
[4] http:/ / m-w. com/ dictionary/ panic%20attack
[5] Reid, Wilson (1996). Don't Panic: Taking Control of Your Anxiety Attacks. Revised Edition, HC.
[6] Bourne, E. (2005). The Anxiety and Phobia Workbook, 4th Edition: New Harbinger Press.
[7] Klerman, Gerald L.; Hirschfeld, Robert M. A.; Weissman, Myrna M. (1993). Panic Anxiety and Its Treatments: Report of the World
Psychiatric Association Presidential Educational Program Task Force. American Psychiatric Association. pp. 44. ISBN 978-0880486842.
[8] Sternbach H, State R (1997). "Antibiotics: neuropsychiatric effects and psychotropic interactions". Harv Rev Psychiatry 5 (4): 214–26.
doi:10.3109/10673229709000304. PMID 9427014.
[9] Cohen SI (February 1995). "Alcohol and benzodiazepines generate anxiety, panic and phobias" (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/
picrender. fcgi?artid=1295099& blobtype=pdf) (PDF). J R Soc Med 88 (2): 73–7. PMID 7769598. PMC 1295099. .
[10] MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia: Panic disorder (http:/ / www. nlm. nih. gov/ medlineplus/ ency/ article/ 000924. htm)
[11] Caffeine and Panic Disorder (http:/ / panicdisorder. about. com/ cs/ shfitness/ a/ caffeine. htm)
[12] Psychosomatic And Drug-induced Panic Attacks (http:/ / fondationmarievictorin. qc. ca/ panic-and-anxiety-attack-medication. php)
[13] Panic Disorder: Panic Attacks and Agoraphobia - familydoctor.org (http:/ / familydoctor. org/ 137. xml)
[14] Anxiety: management of anxiety (panic disorder, with or without agoraphobia, and generalised anxiety disorder) in adults in primary,
secondary and community care. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Clinical Guideline 22. Issue date: April 2007 (http:/ /
www. nice. org. uk/ nicemedia/ pdf/ CG022quickrefguideamended. pdf) ISBN 1-84629-400-2
[15] http:/ / www. apa. org/ topics/ anxietyqanda. html
[16] Breathing in and out of a paper bag (http:/ / www. netdoctor. co. uk/ ate/ mentalhealth/ 205625. html)
[17] Hyperventilation Syndrome - Can I treat hyperventilation syndrome by breathing into a paper bag? (http:/ / firstaid. about. com/ od/
shortnessofbreat1/ f/ 07_paper_bags. htm)
[18] Breathing into a paper bag restricts the fresh air you are able to get. Without fresh air, less oxygen is inhaled. So, breathing into a paper bag,
it is argued, dangerously lowers the amount of oxygen in your bloodstream. There have been several documented cases of heart attack patients
incorrectly thinking they had hyperventilation syndrome and fatally worsening their heart attacks by breathing into a paper bag. http:/ /
firstaid. about. com/ od/ shortnessofbreat1/ f/ 07_paper_bags. htm
[19] To make matters worse, several studies now show a link between high concentrations of CO2 and panic attacks, which means that artificially
increasing CO2 in inhaled air is likely to trigger more feelings of panic in patients who suffer from anxiety. http:/ / firstaid. about. com/ od/
shortnessofbreat1/ f/ 07_paper_bags. htm
[20] http:/ / www. anxietyawareness. com/ overcoming-anxiety. php
[21] http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ aponline/ us/ AP-Panic-Attacks-Heart. html
[22] Merlo J; Hedblad B, Ogren M, Ranstam J, Ostergren PO, Ekedahl A, Hanson BS, Isacsson SO, Liedholm H, Melander A (1996). "Increased
risk of ischaemic heart disease mortality in elderly men using anxiolytics-hypnotics and analgesics. Results of the 10-year follow-up of the
prospective population study "Men born in 1914", Malmo, Sweden". Eur J Clin Pharmacol 49 (4): 261–5. PMID 8857070.
16. # ^ Carbonell, David. (2004) Panic Attacks Workbook: A Guided Program for Beating the Panic Trick. Berkley, CA: Ulysses Press.

External links
• American Psychological Association: Answers to Your Questions About Panic Disorder (http://www.apa.org/
pubinfo/panic.html)
• Anxiety Disorders Association of America (http://www.adaa.org) Information for families, clinicians and
researchers
• Anxiety Disorders (http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/chapter4/sec2.html) on the United
States Surgeon General Website
• Panic Attack Resources (http://panicdisorder.about.com/od/pdbasics/a/attackquiz.htm) by About.com
Insanity 508

Insanity
Insanity, craziness or madness is a spectrum of
behaviors characterized by certain abnormal mental or
behavioral patterns. Insanity may manifest as violations
of societal norms, including becoming a danger to
themselves and others, though not all such acts are
considered insanity. In modern usage insanity is most
commonly encountered as an informal unscientific term
denoting mental instability, or in the narrow legal
context of the insanity defense. In the medical
profession the term is now avoided in favor of
diagnoses of specific mental illness such as
schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders.[1] When
discussing mental illness in general terms,
"psychopathology" is considered a preferred
Engraving of the eighth print of William Hogarth's A Rake's
descriptor.[2]
Progress depicting Inmates at Bedlam Asylum

In English, the word "sane" derives from the Latin

adjective sanus meaning "healthy". The phrase "mens sana in corpore sano" is often translated to mean a "healthy
mind in a healthy body". From this perspective, insanity can be considered as poor health of the mind, not
necessarily of the brain as an organ (although that can affect mental health), but rather refers to defective function of
mental processes such as reasoning. A Latin phrase for "sane" is "compos mentis" (lit. "of composed mind"), and a
euphemistic term for insanity is "non compos mentis". In law, mens rea means having had criminal intent, or a guilty
mind, when the act (actus reus) was committed.

Historical views and treatment

Madness, the non-legal word for insanity, has been recognized throughout history in every known society. Primitive
cultures turned to witch doctors or shamans to apply magic, herbal mixtures, or folk medicine to rid deranged
persons of evil spirits or bizarre behavior, for example.[3]
In ancient Israel it was held that disturbances of the mind or emotions were caused by "supernatural forces" or an
angry God, as a punishment for sin or failure to follow the commandments. The Old Testament is replete with
references to kings and commoners that go insane, and the Jewish prophets were thought to be psychologically
abnormal because they acted in strange ways, departed markedly from the norm in appearance, and foretold of future
events that few understood.[4]
The Greeks replaced concepts of the supernatural with a secular view, believing that afflictions of the mind did not
differ from diseases of the body. They saw mental and physical illness as a result of natural causes and an imbalance
in bodily humors. Hippocrates frequently wrote that an excess of black bile resulted in irrational thinking and
behavior.[5]
Romans made further contributions to psychiatry, in particular the precursor to contemporary practice. They put
forth the idea that strong emotions could lead to bodily ailments, the basis of today’s theory of psychosomatic illness.
The Romans also supported humane treatment of the mentally ill, and to support such codified into law the principle
of insanity as a mitigation of responsibility for criminal acts.
The Middle Ages, however, witnessed the end of the progressive ideas of the Greeks and Romans.
Insanity 509

During the 18th century, the French and the British introduced humane treatment of the clinically insane, though the
criteria for diagnosis and placement in an asylum were considerably looser than today, often including such
conditions as Speech disorder, speech impediments, epilepsy and depression.
Europe's oldest asylum is the Bethlem Royal Hospital of London, also known as Bedlam, which began admitting the
mentally ill in 1403. The first American asylum was built in Williamsburg, Virginia, circa 1773. Before the 19th
century these hospitals were used to isolate the mentally ill or the socially ostracized from society rather than cure
them or maintain their health. Pictures from this era portrayed patients bound with rope or chains, often to beds or
walls, or restrained in straitjackets.

In medicine
Insanity is no longer considered a medical diagnosis but is a legal term in the United States, stemming from its
original use in common law.[6] The disorders formerly encompassed by the term covered a wide range of mental
disorders now diagnosed as organic brain syndromes, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and other psychotic
disorders.[1]

Legal use of the term

In United States criminal law, insanity may serve as an affirmative defense to criminal acts and thus does not need to
negate an element of the prosecution's case such as general or specific intent.[7] The States differ somewhat in their
definition of insanity but most follow the guidelines of the Model Penal Code. All jurisdictions require a sanity
evaluation to address the question first of whether or not the defendant has a mental illness.
Most courts accept a major mental illness such as psychosis but will not accept the diagnosis of a personality
disorder for the purposes of an insanity defense. The second question is whether the mental illness interfered with the
defendant's ability to distinguish right from wrong. That is, did the defendant know that the alleged behavior was
against the law at the time the offense was committed.
Additionally, some jurisdictions add the question of whether or not the defendant was in control of their behavior at
the time of the offense. For example, if the defendant was compelled by some aspect of their mental illness to
commit the illegal act, the defendant could be evaluated as not in control of their behavior at the time of the offense.
The forensic mental health specialists submit their evaluations to the court. Since the question of sanity or insanity is
a legal question and not a medical one, the judge and or jury will make the final decision regarding the defendant's
status regarding an insanity defense.[8] [9]
In most jurisdictions within the United States, if the insanity plea is accepted, the defendant is committed to a
psychiatric institution for at least 60 days for further evaluation, and then reevaluated at least yearly after that.
Insanity is generally no defense in a civil lawsuit. However, in civil cases, the insanity of the plaintiff can toll the
statute of limitations for filing a suit until the plaintiff has recovered from this condition, or until a statute of repose
has run.

Feigned insanity
Feigned insanity is the simulation of mental illness in order to avoid or lessen the consequences of a confrontation or
conviction for an alleged crime. A number of treatises on medical jurisprudence were written during the nineteenth
century, the most famous of which was Isaac Ray in 1838 (fifth edition 1871); others include Ryan (1832), Taylor
(1845), Wharton and Stille (1855), Ordronaux (1869), Meymott (1882). The typical techniques as outlined in these
works are the background for Dr. Neil S. Kaye's widely recognized guidelines that indicate an attempt to feign
insanity.[10]
Insanity 510

Today feigned insanity is considered malingering. In a 2005 court case, United States v. Binion, the defendant was
prosecuted and convicted for obstruction of justice (adding to his original sentence) because he feigned insanity in a
Competency to Stand Trial evaluation.

External links
• Rosenhan, David L. "On Being Sane in Insane Places." [11]

References
[1] L M Tierney, S J McPhee, M A Papadakis (2002). Current medical Diagnosis & Treatment. International edition. New York: Lange Medical
Books/McGraw-Hill. pp. 1078–1086. ISBN 0-07-137688-7.
[2] An interview with Dr. Joseph Merlino, David Shankbone, Wikinews, October 5, 2007.
[3] Weinstein, Raymond M. (2007) "madness" in George Ritzer (ed.) The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, Blackwell Publishing, 2007, pp.
2693-2695
[4] Weinstein 2007, p. 2693
[5] Weinstein 2007, p. 2693
[6] ""What’s in a Name?": A Brief Foray into the History of Insanity in England and the United States" (http:/ / www. jaapl. org/ cgi/ content/
full/ 33/ 2/ 252?maxtoshow=& HITS=10& hits=10& RESULTFORMAT=& searchid=1& FIRSTINDEX=40& minscore=5000&
resourcetype=HWCIT). Journal of the Academy of American Psychiatry and the Law. 2005. . Retrieved 2007-10-20.
[7] "Criminal Responsibility and Intent -- Poortinga and Guyer 35 (1): 124 -- Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law
Online" (http:/ / www. jaapl. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 35/ 1/ 124?maxtoshow=& HITS=10& hits=10& RESULTFORMAT=& searchid=1&
FIRSTINDEX=0& minscore=5000& resourcetype=HWCITCriminal). www.jaapl.org. . Retrieved 2008-02-22.
[8] Shapiro, David L. (1991). Forensic Psychological Assessment: An Integrative Approach. Needham Heights, MA: Simon & Schuster.
pp. 70–72. ISBN 0-205-12521-2.
[9] Gary, Melton (1997). Psychological Evaluations for the Courts: A Handbook for Mental Health Professionals and Lawyers (2nd ed.). New
York: The Guilford Press. pp. 186–248. ISBN 1-57230-236-4.
[10] Neil S. Kaye M.D.. "Feigned Insanity in Nineteenth Century America Legal Cases" (http:/ / courtpsychiatrist. com/ pdf/ Feigned Insanity in
Nineteenth. pdf) (PDF). .
[11] http:/ / psychrights. org/ Articles/ Rosenham. htm
Murder 511

Murder
Murder, as defined in common law countries, is the unlawful killing of another human being with "malice
aforethought", and generally this state of mind distinguishes murder from other forms of unlawful homicide (such as
manslaughter). As the loss of a human being inflicts enormous grief upon the individuals close to the victim, as well
as the fact that the commission of a murder is highly detrimental to the good order within society, most societies both
present and in antiquity have considered it a most serious crime worthy of the harshest of punishment. In the US, a
person convicted of murder is typically given a life sentence or even the death penalty for such an act. A person who
commits murder is called a murderer ;[1] the term murderess, meaning a woman who murders, has largely fallen into
disuse.[2]

Legal analysis of murder

William Blackstone (citing Edward Coke), in his Commentaries on the Laws of England set out the common law
definition of murder as

“ when a person, of sound memory and discretion, unlawfully killeth any reasonable creature in being and under the king's peace, with malice
aforethought, either express or implied.
[3]
”
The elements of common law murder are:
1. the killing
2. of a human being
3. by another human being
4. with malice aforethought.[4]
The killing - At common law life ended with cardiopulmonary arrest[5] - the total and permanent cessation of blood
circulation and respiration.[6] With advances in medical technology courts have adopted irreversible cessation of all
brain function as marking the end of life.[7]
of a human being - This element presents the issue of when life begins. At common law a fetus was not a human
being. Life began when the fetus passed through the birth canal and took her first breath.[8]
by another human being - at early common law suicide was considered murder.[9] The requirement that the person
killed be someone other than the perpetrartor excluded suicide from the definition of murder.
with malice aforethought - originally "malice aforethought" carried its every day meaning - a deliberate and
premeditated killing of another motivated by ill will. Murder necessarily required that an appreciable time pass
between the formation and execution of the intent to kill. The courts broadened the scope of murder by eliminating
the requirement of actual premeditation and deliberation as well as true malice. All that was required for malice
aforethought to exist is that the perpetrator act with one of the four states of mind that constitutes "malice."
The four states of mind recognized as constituting "malice" are:
i. Intent to kill,
ii. Intent to inflict grievous bodily harm short of death,
iii. Reckless indifference to an unjustifiably high risk to human life (sometimes described as an "abandoned and
malignant heart"), or
iv. Intent to commit a dangerous felony (the "felony-murder" doctrine).
Under state of mind (i), intent to kill, the deadly weapon rule applies. Thus, if the defendant intentionally uses a
deadly weapon or instrument against the victim, such use authorizes a permissive inference of intent to kill. An
example of a deadly weapon or instrument is a gun, a knife, or even a car when intentionally used to strike the
Murder 512

victim.
Under state of mind (iii), an "abandoned and malignant heart", the killing must result from defendant's conduct
involving a reckless indifference to human life and a conscious disregard of an unreasonable risk of death or serious
bodily injury. An example of this is a 2007 law in California where an individual could be convicted of third-degree
murder if he or she kills another person while operating a motor vehicle while being under the influence of alcohol,
drugs, or controlled substances.
Under state of mind (iv), the felony-murder doctrine, the felony committed must be an inherently dangerous felony,
such as burglary, arson, rape, robbery or kidnapping. Importantly, the underlying felony cannot be a lesser included
offense such as assault, otherwise all criminal homicides would be murder as all are felonies.
Many jurisdictions divide murder by degrees. The most common divisions are between first and second degree
murder. Generally second degree murder is common law murder with first degree being an aggravated form. The
aggravating factors that distinguish first degree murder from second degree are first degree murder requires a
specific intent to kill and premeditation and deliberation. In addition murder committed by acts such as strangulation,
poisoning, or lying in wait are treated as first degree murder.[10]

Origins

Murder in religion
One of the oldest known prohibitions against murder appears in the Sumerian Code of Ur-Nammu written sometime
between 2100 and 2050 BC. The code states, "If a man commits a murder, that man must be killed."
In Abrahamic religions, the prohibition against murder is one of the Ten Commandments given by God to Moses in
(Exodus: 20v13) and (Deuteronomy 5v17) (See Murder in the Bible). The Vulgate and subsequent early English
translations of the Bible used the term secretly killeth his neighbor or smiteth his neighbour secretly rather than
murder for the Latin clam percusserit proximum.[11] [12]
Later editions such as Young's Literal Translation and the World English Bible have translated the Latin occides
simply as murder rather than the alternatives of kill, assassinate, fall upon or slay. Christian churches have some
doctrinal differences about what forms of homicide are prohibited biblically, though all agree murder is.
In Islam according to the Qur’an, one of the greatest sins is to kill a human being who has committed no fault. "For
that cause We decreed for the Children of Israel that whosoever killeth a human being for other than manslaughter or
corruption in the earth, it shall be as if he had killed all mankind, and whoso saveth the life of one, it shall be as if he
had saved the life of all mankind."[Qur'an  5:32 [13]] "Those who invoke not, with Allah, any other god, nor slay such
life as Allah has made sacred except for just cause, nor commit fornication; - and any that does this (not only) meets
punishment. "[Qur'an  25:68 [14]]
The term 'Assassin' derives from Hashshashin,[15] a militant Ismaili Shi-ite sect, active from the eighth to the
fourteenth centuries. This mystic secret society killed members of the Abbasid, Fatimid, Seljuq and Crusader élite
for political and religious reasons.[16] The Thuggee cult that plagued India was devoted to Kali, the goddess of death
and destruction.[17] [18] According to the Guinness Book of Records the Thuggee cult was responsible for
approximately 2 million deaths. According to Ross Hassig, author of Aztec Warfare, "between 10,000 and 80,400
persons" were sacrificed in the 1487 re-consecration of the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan.[19] [20] [21]
Murder 513

Legal definition
As with most legal terms, the precise definition of murder varies between jurisdictions and is usually codified in
some form of legislation.

At common law
According to Blackstone, English common law identified murder as a public wrong.[22] At common law, murder is
considered to be malum in se, that is an act which is evil within itself. An act such as murder is wrong/evil by its
very nature. And it is the very nature of the act which does not require any specific detailing or definition in the law
to consider murder a crime.[23]
Some jurisdictions still take a common law view of murder. In such jurisdictions, precedent case law or previous
decisions of the courts of law defines what is considered murder. However, it tends to be rare and the majority of
jurisdictions have some statutory prohibition against murder.

Exclusions
• Unlawful killings without malice or intent are considered manslaughter.
• Justified or accidental killings are considered homicides. Depending on the circumstances, these may or may not
be considered criminal offenses.
• Suicide is not considered murder in most societies. Assisting a suicide, however, may be considered murder in
some circumstances.
• Capital punishment ordered by a legitimate court of law as the result of a conviction in a criminal trial with due
process for a serious crime.
• Killing of enemy combatants by lawful combatants in accordance with lawful orders in war, although illicit
killings within a war may constitute murder or homicidal war crimes. (see the Laws of war article)
• The administration of lethal drugs by a doctor to a terminally ill patient, if the intention is solely to alleviate pain,
is seen in many jurisdictions as a special case (see the doctrine of double effect and the case of Dr John Bodkin
Adams).[24]
• In some cases, killing a person who is attempting to kill another can be classified as self-defense and thus, not
murder.

Self-defense
Acting in self-defense or in defense of another person is generally accepted as legal justification for killing a person
in situations that would otherwise have been murder. However, a self-defense killing might be considered
manslaughter if the killer established control of the situation before the killing took place. In the case of self-defense
it is called a justifiable homicide.[25]

Victim
All jurisdictions require that the victim be a natural person; that is a human being who was still alive at the time of
being murdered. In other words, under the law, one cannot murder a cadaver, a corporation, a non-human animal, or
any other non-human organism.
California's murder statute, Penal Code Section 187, was interpreted by the Supreme Court of California in 1994 as
not requiring any proof of the viability of the fetus as a prerequisite to a murder conviction.[26] This holding has two
peculiar implications. The first is that a defendant in California can be convicted for murdering a fetus which the
mother herself could legally abort under the framework established in Roe v. Wade (1973).[26] However, only the
woman's right to abort and thereby kill the fetus before the third trimester is constitutionally protected by Roe v.
Wade (1973) and therefore although this nullifies the effect of any federal or state legislation criminalizing abortion
of a fetus before that point, it does not apply to other persons who kill the fetus. The even stranger part of this
Murder 514

holding, as pointed out by Justice Stanley Mosk in dissent, is that a nonviable fetus may be so small, and thus not
externally visible, that a defendant can be convicted of intentionally murdering a person he did not even know
existed.[26]

Mitigating circumstances
Some countries allow conditions that "affect the balance of the mind" to be regarded as mitigating circumstances.
This means that a person may be found guilty of "manslaughter" on the basis of "diminished responsibility" rather
than murder, if it can be proved that the killer was suffering from a condition that affected their judgment at the time.
Depression, post-traumatic stress disorder and medication side-effects are examples of conditions that may be taken
into account when assessing responsibility.

Insanity
Mental disorder may apply to a wide range of disorders including psychosis caused by schizophrenia and dementia,
and excuse the person from the need to undergo the stress of a trial as to liability. In some jurisdictions, following the
pre-trial hearing to determine the extent of the disorder, the defense of "not guilty by reason of insanity" may be used
to get a not guilty verdict.[27] This defense has two elements:
1. That the defendant had a serious mental illness, disease, or defect.
2. That the defendant's mental condition, at the time of the killing, rendered the perpetrator unable to determine
right from wrong, or that what he or she was doing was wrong.
Under New York law, for example:
§ 40.15 Mental disease or defect. In any prosecution for an offense, it is an affirmative defense that when the
defendant engaged in the proscribed conduct, he lacked criminal responsibility by reason of mental disease or
defect. Such lack of criminal responsibility means that at the time of such conduct, as a result of mental
disease or defect, he lacked substantial capacity to know or appreciate either: 1. The nature and consequences
of such conduct; or 2. That such conduct was wrong.
Under the French Penal Code:
Article 122-1
• A person is not criminally liable who, when the act was committed, was suffering from a psychological or
neuropsychological disorder which destroyed his discernment or his ability to control his actions.
• A person who, at the time he acted, was suffering from a psychological or neuropsychological disorder which
reduced his discernment or impeded his ability to control his actions, remains punishable; however, the court
shall take this into account when it decides the penalty and determines its regime.
Those who successfully argue a defense based on a mental disorder are usually referred to mandatory clinical
treatment until they are certified safe to be released back into the community, rather than prison.[28]

Post-partum depression
Some countries, such as Canada, Italy, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom, New Zealand and Australia, allow
postpartum depression (also known as post-natal depression) as a defense against murder of a child by a mother,
provided that a child is less than two years old (this may be the specific offense of infanticide rather than murder and
include the effects of lactation and other aspects of post-natal care).
In 2009, Texas state representative Jessica Farrar proposed similar rules for her home state.[29]
Murder 515

Unintentional
For a killing to be considered murder, there normally needs to be an element of intent. For this argument to be
successful the killer generally needs to demonstrate that they took precautions not to kill and that the death could not
have been anticipated or was unavoidable, whatever action they took. As a general rule, manslaughter[30] constitutes
reckless killing, while criminally negligent homicide is a grossly negligent killing.[31]

Diminished capacity
In those jurisdictions using the Uniform Penal Code, such as California, diminished capacity may be a defense. For
example, Dan White used this defense[32] to obtain a manslaughter conviction, instead of murder, in the assassination
of Mayor George Moscone and Supervisor Harvey Milk.

Aggravating circumstances
Murder with specified aggravating circumstances is often punished more harshly. Depending on the jurisdiction,
such circumstances may include:
• Premeditation
• Poisoning
• Murder of a police officer, judge, fireman or witness to a crime[33]
• Where the victim was a pregnant woman[34]
• Committed for pay or other reward[35]
• Exceptional brutality or cruelty
In the United States these aggravated murders are referred to as First Degree murders.

Year-and-a-day rule
In some common law jurisdictions, a defendant accused of murder is not guilty if the victim survives for longer than
one year and one day after the attack. This reflects the likelihood that if the victim dies, other factors will have
contributed to the cause of death, breaking the chain of causation. Subject to any statute of limitations, the accused
could still be charged with an offence representing the seriousness of the initial assault.
With advances in modern medicine, most countries have abandoned a fixed time period and test causation on the
facts of the case.
In the UK, due to medical advancements, the "year-and-a-day-rule" is no longer in use. However, if death occurs
three years or more after the original attack then prosecution can take place only with the Attorney-General's
approval.
In the United States, many jurisdictions have abolished the rule as well. Abolition of the rule has been accomplished
by enactment of statutory criminal codes, which had the effect of displacing the common-law definitions of crimes
and corresponding defenses. In 2001, the Supreme Court of the United States held that retroactive application of a
state supreme court decision abolishing the year-and-a-day rule did not violate the Ex Post Facto Clause of Article I
of the United States Constitution.[36]
In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, a 74-year-old man, William Barnes, was acquitted of murder charges on May 24,
2010. He was on trial for murder for the death of Philadelphia police officer Walter Barkley. Barnes shot Barkley on
November 27, 1966, and served 16 years in prison for attempted murder. Barkley died on August 19, 2007, allegedly
from complications of the wounds suffered nearly 41 years earlier.[37]
Murder 516

Epidemiology
An estimated 520,000 people were
murdered in 2000 around the globe.
Two-fifths of them were young people
between the ages of 10 and 29 who
were killed by other young people.[38]
Murder rates vary greatly among
countries and societies around the
world. In the Western world, murder
rates in most countries have declined
significantly during the 20th century
and are now between 1-4 cases per
100,000 people per year. Murder rates
in Japan, Ireland and Iceland are
among the lowest in the world, around
0.5; the rate of the United States is
among the highest of developed
Murders (per 100,000 people per annum) (1998 - 2000) by country
countries, around 5.5 in 2004,[39] with
rates in larger cities sometimes over 40
per 100,000.[40]

Within the Western world, nearly 90% of all murders are committed by males, with males also being the victims of
74.6% of murders (according the United States Department of Justice). There is a sharp peak in the age distribution
of murderers between the ages of 17 and 30. People become less likely to commit a murder as they age. Incidents of
children and adolescents committing murders are also extremely rare.
The following absolute murder counts per-country are not comparable because they are not adjusted by each
country's total population. Nonetheless, they are included here for reference. There are an estimated 55,000 murders
in Brazil every year,[41] about 30,000 murders committed annually in the early 2000s (down to 17000 in 2009) in
Russia, approximately 16,000 [42] murders in Colombia in 2009 (the murder rate was 36 per 100,000 people, in 2005
murders went down to 15,000[43] ), approximately 20,000 murders each year in South Africa, approximately 17,000
murders in the United States (666,160 murders from 1960 to 1996),[44] approximately 15,000 murders in Mexico,
approximately 11,000 murders in Venezuela, approximately 6,000 murders in El Salvador, approximately 1,600
murders in Jamaica,[45] approximately 1,000 murders in France, approximately 580 murders per year in Canada,[46]
and approximately 200 murders in Chile.[47] The murder rate in Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea is 23 times that of
London.[48] 32,719 murder cases were registered across India in 2007. Pakistan reported 9,631 murders.[49]
Murder is the leading cause of death for African American males aged 15 – 34. In 2006, FBI's Supplementary
Homicide Report indicated that most of the 14,990 murder victims were Black (7421).[50] In the year 2007
non-negligent homicides, there were 3,221 black victims and 3,587 white victims. While 2,905 of the black victims
were killed by a black offender, 2,918 of the white victims were killed by white offenders. There were 566 white
victims of black offenders and 245 black victims of white offenders.[51] It should be noted that the "white" category
in the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) includes non-black Hispanics.[52] In London in 2006, 75% of the victims of
gun crime and 79% of the suspects were "from the African/Caribbean community."[53] More than 500,000 people
have been killed by firearms in Brazil between 1979 and 2003.[54]
Murder demographics are affected by the improvement of trauma care, leading to reduced lethality of violent
assaults - thus the murder rate may not necessarily indicate the overall level of social violence.[55]
Murder 517

Development of murder rates over time in different countries is often used by both supporters and opponents of
capital punishment and gun control. Using properly filtered data, it is possible to make the case for or against either
of these issues. For example, one could look at murder rates in the United States from 1950 to 2000,[56] and notice
that those rates went up sharply shortly after a moratorium on death sentences was effectively imposed in the late
1960s. This fact has been used to argue that capital punishment serves as a deterrent and, as such, it is morally
justified. Capital punishment opponents frequently counter that the United States has much higher murder rates than
Canada and most European Union countries, although all those countries have abolished the death penalty. Overall,
the global pattern is too complex, and on average, the influence of both these factors may not be significant and
could be more social, economic, and cultural.
The fraction of murders solved has decreased in the United States, from 90% in 1960 to 61% in 2007.[57] Solved
murder rates in major U.S. cities varied in 2007 from 36% in Boston, Massachusetts to 76% in San Jose,
California.[58] Major factors affecting the arrest rate include witness cooperation[57] and the number of people
assigned to investigate the case.[58]

History
According to scholar Pieter Spierenburg murder rates per 100,000 in Europe have fallen over the centuries, from 35
per 100,000 in medieval times, to 20 in 1500 AD, 5 in 1700, to below two per 100,000 "where it has held steady,
with minor fluctuations, for the past century."[59] In the United States, murders rates have been higher and have
fluctuated. They rose during the nineteenth century, dropped in the years following World War II, before rising
again. The rate reached eleven per 100,000 in 1991 before falling to five per 100,000 in present times.[59]
In Corsica, vendetta was a social code that required Corsicans to kill anyone who wronged the family honor. It has
been estimated that between 1683 and 1715, nearly 30,000 out of 120,000 Corsicans lost their lives to vendetta,[60]
and between 1821 and 1852, no less than 4,300 murders were perpetrated in Corsica.[61]

Country-specific murder law

• Australia
• Brazil
• Canada
• China
• Denmark
• England and Wales
• Finland
• France
• Germany
• Hong Kong
• India
• Israel
• Italy
• The Netherlands
• Norway
• Portugal
• Romania
• Russia
• Sweden
• Switzerland
• United States
Murder 518

Medieval Iceland (8th to 11th centuries)

The culture of medieval Iceland had a very different concept of murder. If a person killed someone, then it was up to
the murderer to pay the family fair compensation (weregild) for the labor lost by the member's death. If the
perpetrator refused to pay weregild, it was up to the family of the slain to extract it from the perpetrator, or take his
life.[62] In Nordic countries, the payment of weregild was used in homicide cases until the 16th century.
The only other type of killing with consequences in Icelandic culture was "unjust killing", i.e. killing someone while
they were sleeping or had their back to the killer. While the financial implications of unjust killing were no more
severe, the killer in question suffered from a tremendous loss of trust and could be declared an outlaw.

See also
• 187, a slang term from California • Internet homicide
• Capital punishment • Killology
• Crime of passion • Life imprisonment
• Cult homicides • List of countries by homicide rate
• Deicide • List of events named massacres
• Depraved heart murder • List of unsolved murders and deaths
• Double murder • Misdemeanor murder
• Execution-style murder • Model Penal Code
• Felony murder • Murder conviction without a body
• Femicide • Seven laws of Noah
• Homicide • Thrill killing

References
[1] Definition of murderer in Merriam Webster's Online Dictionary (2009) (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ murderer).
Retrieved on 2009-05-17.
[2] Usage note for -ess in The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition (2000) (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/
20080514070135/ http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 61/ 63/ E0216300. html). Retrieved on 2009-05-17.
[3] "Avalon Project - Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England - Book the Fourth - Chapter the Fourteenth : Of Homicide" (http:/ /
avalon. law. yale. edu/ 18th_century/ blackstone_bk4ch14. asp). Avalon Project, Yale University. . Retrieved 2009-05-11.
[4] Joshua Dressler, Understanding Criminal Law, 3rd ed. (Lexis 2001) ISBN 0-8205-5027-2
[5] Joshua Dressler, Understanding Criminal Law, 3rd ed. (Lexis 2001) ISBN 0-8205-5027-2
[6] Joshua Dressler, Understanding Criminal Law, 3rd ed. (Lexis 2001) ISBN 0-8205-5027-2
[7] Joshua Dressler, Understanding Criminal Law, 3rd ed. (Lexis 2001) ISBN 0-8205-5027-2
[8] Joshua Dressler, Understanding Criminal Law, 3rd ed. (Lexis 2001) ISBN 0-8205-5027-2
[9] Joshua Dressler, Understanding Criminal Law, 3rd ed. (Lexis 2001) ISBN 0-8205-5027-2
[10] Murder in the First and Second Degree (14-17)

A murder which shall be perpetrated by ... poison, lying in wait, imprisonment, starving, torture, or by any other kind
of willful, deliberate and premeditated killing or which shall be committed in the perpetration or attempted
perpetration of any arson, rape or sex offense, robbery, kidnapping, burglary, or other felony committed or attempted
with the use of a deadly weapon, shall be ... murder in the first degree ... and shall be punished by death or life
imprisonment ... except that any person ... under 17 years of age at the time of the murder shall be punished with
imprisonment ... for life.
All other kinds of murder, including that which shall be proximately caused by the unlawful distribution of opium or
any synthetic or natural salt, compound, derivative, or the preparation of opium ... cause the death of the user, shall
be ... murder in the second degree and ... shall be punished as a Class C felony. http:/ / www. ncsu. edu/ police/
Information/NCLaw.html
[11] "''Vulgate'' Deuteronomy Ch27 V24" (http:/ / www. latinvulgate. com/ verse. aspx?t=0& b=5& c=27). Latinvulgate.com. . Retrieved
2010-06-25.
Murder 519

[12] "''Parallel Hebrew Old Testament'' Deuteronomy Ch27 V24" (http:/ / www. hebrewoldtestament. com/ B05C027. htm#V24).
Hebrewoldtestament.com. . Retrieved 2010-06-25.
[13] http:/ / www. usc. edu/ dept/ MSA/ quran/ 005. qmt. html#005. 032
[14] http:/ / www. usc. edu/ dept/ MSA/ quran/ 025. qmt. html#025. 068
[15] American Speech - McCarthy, Kevin M.. Volume 48, pp. 77-83
[16] Secret Societies Handbook, Michael Bradley,Altair Cassell Illustrated, 2005. ISBN 978-1844034161
[17] Thug: the true story of India's murderous cult by Mike Dash (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ arts-entertainment/ books/ reviews/
thug-the-true-story-of-indias-murderous-cult-by-mike-dash-497902. html), The Independent
[18] "Thuggee (Thagi) (13th C. to ca. 1838)" (http:/ / users. erols. com/ mwhite28/ warstatv. htm#Thagi). Users.erols.com. . Retrieved
2010-06-25.
[19] Hassig, Ross (2003). "El sacrificio y las guerras floridas". Arqueología mexicana, p. 46-51.
[20] The Enigma of Aztec Sacrifice (http:/ / www. latinamericanstudies. org/ aztecs/ sacrifice. htm). Natural History, April 1977 Vol. 86, No. 4,
pages 46-51.
[21] "Science and Anthropology" (http:/ / cdis. missouri. edu/ exec/ data/ courses2/ 2065/ lesson01. htm). Cdis.missouri.edu. . Retrieved
2010-06-25.
[22] "Blackstone, Book 4, Chapter 14" (http:/ / www. yale. edu/ lawweb/ avalon/ blackstone/ bk4ch14. htm). Yale.edu. . Retrieved 2010-06-25.
[23] A Dictionary of Modern Legal Usage By Bryan A. Garner, pg. 545.
[24] Margaret Otlowski, ''Voluntary Euthanasia and the Common Law'', Oxford University Press, 1997, pp. 175-177 (http:/ / books. google.
com/ ?id=mDvBJ5J4tusC& pg=PA177& lpg=PA177& dq="Thomas+ Lodwig"+ dr). Books.google.pl. 1997. ISBN 9780198259961. .
Retrieved 2010-06-25.
[25] The French Parliemant. "Article 122-5" (http:/ / www. legifrance. gouv. fr/ affichTexte. do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000278633&
dateTexte=) (in fr). French Criminal Law. Legifrance. . Retrieved 2007-11-01.
[26] People v. Davis, 7 Cal. 4th 797, 30 Cal. Rptr. 2d 50, 872 P.2d 591 (http:/ / online. ceb. com/ CalCases/ C4/ 7C4t797. htm) (1994).
[27] R. v. M'Naughten, get full cite.
[28] "Code de la Santé Publique Chapitre III: Hospitalisation d'office Article L3213-1" (http:/ / www. legifrance. gouv. fr/ affichCodeArticle.
do?cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006072665& idArticle=LEGIARTI000006687933& dateTexte=20080929) (in fr). Legifrance. 2002. . Retrieved
2007-10-23., note: this text refer to the procedure of Involuntary commitment by the demand of the public authority, but the prefect
systematically use that procedure whenever a man is discharged due to his dementia.
[29] "Proposed Texas House bill would recognize postpartum psychosis as a defense for moms who kill infants" (http:/ / www. dallasnews. com/
sharedcontent/ dws/ dn/ latestnews/ stories/ 032209dnmetinfanticide. 3030173. html). Dallasnews.com. 2009-03-21. . Retrieved 2010-06-25.
[30] The French Parliemant. "Article 222-8" (http:/ / 195. 83. 177. 9/ code/ liste. phtml?lang=uk& c=33& r=3691). French Criminal Law.
Legifrance. . Retrieved 2007-11-01.
[31] The French Parliemant. "Section II - Involuntary Offences Against Life" (http:/ / 195. 83. 177. 9/ code/ liste. phtml?lang=uk& c=33&
r=3686). French Criminal Law. Legifrance. . Retrieved 2007-11-01.
[32] (the so-called "Twinkie defense").
[33] Murder (United States law)
[34] Murder (Romanian law)]]
[35] Murder (Brazilian law)
[36] Rogers v. Tennessee, 532 U.S. 451 (http:/ / supreme. justia. com/ us/ 532/ 451/ case. html) (2001).
[37] CBS News coverage of Barnes' acquittal (http:/ / www. cbsnews. com/ stories/ 2010/ 05/ 24/ ap/ national/ main6514983.
shtml?utm_source=feedburner& utm_medium=feed& utm_campaign=Feed:+ CBSNewsPCAnswer+ (PC+ Answer:+ CBSNews. com))
Accessed May 24, 2010
[38] "WHO: 1.6 million die in violence annually" (http:/ / online. sfsu. edu/ ~rone/ Buddhism/ FivePrecepts/ AnnualViolence. html).
Online.sfsu.edu. 2002-10-04. . Retrieved 2010-06-25.
[39] "FBI web site" (http:/ / www. fbi. gov/ ucr/ cius_04/ offenses_reported/ violent_crime/ murder. html). Fbi.gov. 2001-09-11. . Retrieved
2010-06-25.
[40] Infoplease.com (http:/ / www. infoplease. com/ ipa/ A0004902. html).
[41] " Brazil murder rate similar to war zone, data shows" (http:/ / www. nzherald. co. nz/ world/ news/ article. cfm?c_id=2&
objectid=10402998) NZ Herald News. September 26, 2006.
[42] "2009 Murders in Colombia (in spanish)" (http:/ / www. elpais. com. co/ paisonline/ notas/ Febrero092010/ jud4. html). Elpais.com.co. .
Retrieved 2010-06-25.
[43] "Colombia's Uribe wins second term" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ americas/ 5024428. stm). BBC News. 2006-05-29. . Retrieved
2010-06-25.
[44] "Twentieth Century Atlas - Homicide" (http:/ / users. erols. com/ mwhite28/ warstat8. htm#Murders). Users.erols.com. . Retrieved
2010-06-25.
[45] "Jamaica "murder capital of the world"" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ caribbean/ news/ story/ 2006/ 01/ 060103_murderlist. shtml). Bbc.co.uk.
. Retrieved 2010-06-25.
[46] "Canada's National Statistical Agency:Homicides" (http:/ / www. statcan. ca/ Daily/ English/ 071017/ d071017b. htm). Statcan.ca.
2007-10-17. . Retrieved 2010-06-25.
Murder 520

[47] "Crime Statistics" (http:/ / www. nationmaster. com/ graph/ cri_mur-crime-murders). Nationmaster.com. . Retrieved 2010-06-25.
[48] Fickling, David (2004-09-22). "Raskol gangs rule world's worst city" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ 2004/ sep/ 22/ population.
davidfickling). The Guardian. . Retrieved 2007-01-09.
[49] Record 32,719 killings in India last year (http:/ / www. irishtimes. com/ newspaper/ world/ 2008/ 0604/ 1212513052295. html) Irish Times 6
June 2008
[50] " Encyclopedia of Victimology and Crime Prevention (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=pZM0jm8xn_cC& pg=PA706& dq&
hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". Bonnie S. Fisher, Steven P. Lab (2010). p.706. ISBN 1412960479
[51] Sourcebook of criminal justice statistics Online (http:/ / www. albany. edu/ sourcebook/ pdf/ t31292007. pdf) (31st ed.). Albany, New York:
Bureau of Justice Statistics. .
[52] " Race and crime: a biosocial analysis (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vgHgNsmZ3vsC& pg=PA23& dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=&
f=false)". Anthony Walsh (2004). Nova Publishers. p.23. ISBN 1590339703
[53] "MPS Response to Guns, Gangs and Knives in London" (http:/ / www. mpa. gov. uk/ committees/ cop/ 2007/ 070503/ 05. htm).
Metropolitan Police Authority. 2007-05-03. . Retrieved 2007-07-01.
[54] Kingstone, Steve (2005-06-27). "Americas | UN highlights Brazil gun crisis" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ americas/ 4628813. stm). BBC
News. . Retrieved 2010-06-25.
[55] Harris, Anthony R.; Stephen H. Thomas ; Gene A. Fisher ; David J. Hirsch (May 2002). "Murder and medicine: the lethality of criminal
assault 1960-1999" (http:/ / hsx. sagepub. com/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 6/ 2/ 128) (fee required). Homicide studies 6 (2): 128–166.
doi:10.1177/1088767902006002003. . Retrieved 2006-12-08.
[56] Christopher Effgen (2001-09-11). "Disaster Center web site" (http:/ / www. disastercenter. com/ crime/ uscrime. htm). Disastercenter.com. .
Retrieved 2010-06-25.
[57] Why Fewer Murder Cases Get Solved These Days (http:/ / www. miller-mccune. com/ legal_affairs/ fewer-murder-cases-get-solved-1218)
by Lewis Beale. 19 May 2009.
[58] CS Monitor (http:/ / www. csmonitor. com/ 2008/ 1224/ p02s01-usgn. html) by Brian Whitley. Christian Science Monitor. 24 Dec 2008.
[59] Spierenburg, Pieter, A History of Murder: Personal Violence in Europe from the Middle Ages to the Present, Polity, 2008. Referred to in
"Rap Sheet Why is American history so murderous?" (http:/ / www. newyorker. com/ arts/ critics/ atlarge/ 2009/ 11/ 09/
091109crat_atlarge_lepore#ixzz0ePRpHvGz) by Jill Lepore New Yorker, November 9, 2009
[60] " Corsican Soup and Pulp Fiction (http:/ / www. soupsong. com/ zjan02. html)"
[61] " Wanderings in Corsica: its history and its heroes (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=udhEAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA196& dq&
hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". Ferdinand Gregorovius (1855). p.196.
[62] May Damages Be Recovered by a Non-Resident Alien for the Death of a Son? University of Pennsylvania Law Review and American Law
Register, Vol. 57, No. 3, Volume 48 New Series (December 1908), pages 171-173 doi:10.2307/3313315

Bibliography
• Lord Mustill on the Common Law concerning murder (http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199798/
ldjudgmt/jd970724/gneral01.htm)
• Sir Edward Coke Co. Inst., Pt. III, ch.7, p. 50

External links
• Murder in the UK - detailed site (http://www.murderuk.com/index.html)
• 1986 Seville Statement on Violence (from [[UNESCO (http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.
php-URL_ID=3247&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html)])]
• "This Could Never Happen to Me - A Handbook for Families of Murder Victims and People Who Assist Them" -
Hosted by the Texas Department of Criminal Justice
• Introduction (http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/publications/victim.svcs/murder-book-intro.pdf)
• Section 1 (http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/publications/victim.svcs/murder-book-section1.pdf)
• Section 2 (http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/publications/victim.svcs/murder-book-sections1&2.pdf)
• Introduction and Updated Information on the Seville Statement on Violence (http://www.culture-of-peace.info/
ssov-intro.html)
• U.S. Centers for Disease Control "Atlas of United States Mortality" (http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/
pubd/other/atlas/atlas.htm)
• Cezanne's depiction of "The Murder" (http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/picture-of-month/
furtherReading.asp?id=141&venue=2)
 521

Colors

Blue
Blue

 — Spectral coordinates —

Wavelength 440–490 nm

Frequency ~680–610 THz

 — Common connotations —

ice, water, sky, sadness, winter, royalty, boys, cold, calm, magic, trueness (taken from the fact that the sky is blue in its constancy, i.e.:
'true blue', the sky is unwaveringly blue on a clear day), conservatism (universally), liberalism (US), and capitalism

— Colour coordinates —
Hex triplet #0000FF

sRGBB (r, g, b) (0, 0, 255)

HSV (h, s, v) (240°, 100%, 100%)

Source [1]
HTML/CSS

B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)

Blue is a colour, the perception of which is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a
wavelength of roughly 440–490 nm. It is considered one of the additive primary colours. On the HSV Colour Wheel,
the complement of blue is yellow; that is, a colour corresponding to an equal mixture of red and green light. On a
colour wheel based on traditional colour theory (RYB), the complementary colour to blue is considered to be orange
(based on the Munsell colour wheel).[2] The English language commonly uses "blue" to refer to any colour from
navy blue to cyan. The word itself is derived from the Old French word bleu.
Blue 522

Etymology and definitions

The modern English word blue comes from Middle English bleu or
blewe, from Old French bleu, bleve, blöe, a word of Germanic origin
(Frankish or possibly Old High German blāo, "blue"). Bleu replaced
Old English blāw "blue" and blǣwen "light blue". The root of all these
variations is Proto-Germanic blǣwaz, from Proto-Indo-European
*bhlāw-, *bhlēw- "light-coloured, yellow, grey, blue", from *bhel- "to
shine, be light or bright", also the root of Old Norse blār and the
modern Icelandic blár, and the Scandinavian word blå, which can also
refer to other non blue colours. A Scots and Scottish English word for
Blueberries
"blue-grey" is blae, from the Middle English bla ("dark blue", from
Old Norse blār). Also related is the English word blee meaning
"colour, complexion". Ancient Greek lacked a word for blue and
Homer called the colour of the sea "wine dark", except that the word
kyanos (cyan) was used for dark blue enamel. As a curiosity, blue is
thought to be cognate with blond, blank and black through the
Germanic word. Through a Proto-Indo-European root, it is also linked
with Latin flavus ("yellow"; see flavescent and flavine), with Greek
phalos (white), French blanc (white, blank) (borrowed from Old
Frankish), and with Russian белый, belyi ("white," see beluga), and
Welsh blawr (grey) all of which derive (according to the American
Heritage Dictionary) from the Proto-Indo-European root *bhel- Lactarius indigo is one of only a few
blue-coloured mushrooms
meaning "to shine, flash or burn", (more specifically the word
bhle-was, which meant light coloured, blue, blond, or yellow), whence
came the names of various bright colours, and that of colour black
from a derivation meaning "burnt" (other words derived from the root
*bhel- include bleach, bleak, blind, blink, blank, blush, blaze, flame,
fulminate, flagrant and phlegm).

In the English language, blue may refer to the feeling of sadness. "He
was feeling blue". This is because blue was related to rain, or storms,
and in Greek mythology, the god Zeus would make rain when he was
sad (crying), and a storm when he was angry. Kyanos was a name used
in Ancient Greek to refer to dark blue tile (in English it means
blue-green or cyan).[3] The phrase "feeling blue" is linked also to a
custom among many old deepwater sailing ships. If the ship lost the
captain or any of the officers during its voyage, she would fly blue
flags and have a blue band painted along her entire hull when returning
to home port.[4]

Many languages do not have separate terms for blue and or green, Blue Turkish Tiles
instead using a cover term for both (when the issue is discussed in
linguistics, this cover term is sometimes called grue in English).
Blue 523

In science

Pigments
Traditionally, blue has been considered a primary colour in painting,
with the secondary colour orange as its complement.
Blue pigments include azurite (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2), ultramarine
(Na8-10Al6Si6O24S2-4), cerulean blue (primarily cobalt (II) stanate: The sky and water often appear blue
Co2SnO4), cobalt blue (cobalt(II) aluminate: CoAl2O4), and Prussian
blue (milori blue: primarily Fe7(CN)18).

Scientific natural standards for blue

• Emission spectrum of Cu2+
• Electronic spectrum of aqua-ions Cu(H2O)2+5

Animals
• When an animal's coat is described as "blue", it usually refers to a
shade of grey that takes on a bluish tint, a diluted variant of a pure
black coat. This designation is used for a variety of animals,
including dog coats, some rat coats, cat coats, some chicken breeds,
some horse coat colours and rabbit coat colours. Some animals,
such as giraffes and lizards, also have blue tongues.

In culture
Dendrobates azureus
Symbolic language
• In the English language, blue often represents the human emotion of
sadness, e.g. "He was feeling blue". In German, on the other hand,
to be "blue" (blau sein) is to be drunk. This derives from the ancient
use of urine (which is produced copiously by the human body after
drinking alcohol) in dyeing cloth blue with woad or indigo.[5] It may
also be in relation to rain, which is usually regarded as a trigger of
depressive emotions.[6]

• Conversely blue, a very popular colour[7] can represent happiness

and optimism[8] as days with clearer, blue skies tend to be
Blue Jay
considered times where these emotions are more easily expressed.
Many artistic contributions have been made referencing clear days
with blue skies as part of the happiness or as a symbolism of the happiness the artist felt, such as Tony Bennett's
Put on a Happy Face.[9] If this were untrue there would obviously be more complaints about days with clear blue
skies.

• Blue is commonly used in the Western hemisphere to symbolize the male gender in contrast to pink used for
females.
Blue 524

National colours
• Azzurro, a light blue, is the national colour of Italy (from the livery
colour of the former reigning family, the House of Savoy).
• Blue is the national sports colour for India, as it denotes secularism.
• Blue is the national colour used on flags of several countries
surrounded by seas or oceans such as Australia and Europe, though
not necessarily with this interpretation in mind.
• Blue and white are the national colours of Scotland, Argentina, El
Salvador, Finland, Greece, Guatemala, Honduras, Israel,
Flag of Greece
Micronesia, Nicaragua, and Somalia as well as of the United
Nations using a light shade of blue symbolising peace.
• Blue and yellow are the national colours of Barbados, Kazakhstan,
Palau, Sweden, and Ukraine, and along with green, of Brazil, and
along with red, of Chad, Colombia, Ecuador, Moldova, Romania,
and Venezuela.
• Blue, white and yellow are the national colours of Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Kosovo and Uruguay.
• Blue and red are the national colours of Haiti and Liechtenstein, and
(along with white) of Australia, Cambodia, Costa Rica, Chile,
Croatia, Cuba, the Czech Republic, the Dominican Republic,
France, Iceland, North Korea, Laos, Liberia, Luxembourg,
Myanmar, Nepal, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Panama,
Paraguay, Russia, Samoa, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Thailand, the
United Kingdom, and the United States
• Blue, white and black are the national colours of Estonia.[10]
Coat of Arms symbol of Israel

Mysticism
• In Hinduism, Blue is used to symbolically represent the fifth, throat chakra (Vishuddha).[11]

Politics
• The Blue House is the residence of the President of South Korea[12] .
• Blue has been associated with a variety of political positions, often differentiated from communist red or anarchist
black. During the revolt in the Vendée against the French Revolution, blues stood for the revolutionary forces,
and white for the counter-revolutionaries. Later movements like the Breton blues used the colour to signify
allegiance to the ideals of the revolution.
• The blueshirts was a quasi-fascist political organisation active in Ireland during the 1930s (the name comes from
the fact that St. Patrick's Blue is one of the traditional colours of Ireland).
• Blue is the colour of the Conservative Party in Britain and Conservative Party of Canada. In the United States it
has become fashionable since the 2000 presidential election to link the Democratic Party as "blue" and the
Republican Party as "red" (especially in reference to "red states and blue states"). In Brazil, blue states are the
ones in which the Social Democratic Party has the majority, in opposition to the Workers' Party, usually
represented by red.
Blue 525

Religion
• Blue is associated in Christianity generally and Catholicism in
particular, with the Virgin Mary.
• Blue in Hinduism: Many of the gods are depicted as having
blue-coloured skin, particularly those associated with Vishnu, who
is said to be the Preserver of the world and thus intimately
connected to water. Krishna and Ram, Vishnu's avatars, are usually
blue. Shiva, the Destroyer, is also depicted in light blue tones and is
called neela kantha, or blue-throated, for having swallowed poison Blue stripes on a traditional Jewish tallit.
in an attempt to turn the tide of a battle between the gods and
demons in the gods' favour.
• Blue in Judaism: In the Torah,[13] the Israelites were commanded to put fringes, tzitzit, on the corners of their
garments, and to weave within these fringes a "twisted thread of blue (tekhelet)".[14] In ancient days, this blue
thread was made from a dye extracted from a Mediterranean snail called the hilazon. Maimonides claimed that
this blue was the colour of "the clear noonday sky"; Rashi, the colour of the evening sky.[15] According to several
rabbinic sages, blue is the colour of God's Glory.[16] Staring at this colour aids in mediation, bringing us a glimpse
of the "pavement of sapphire, like the very sky for purity", which is a likeness of the Throne of God.[17] (The
Hebrew word for glory.) Many items in the Mishkan, the portable sanctuary in the wilderness, such as the
menorah, many of the vessels, and the Ark of the Covenant, were covered with blue cloth when transported from
place to place.[18]
• Blue in Islam: In verse 20:102 of the Qur’an, the word ‫ قرز‬zurq (plural of azraq 'blue') is used metaphorically for
evildoers whose eyes are glazed with fear, as if the sclera is filmed over with a bluish tint.

Symbolism
• In Thailand, blue is associated with Friday on the Thai solar calendar. Anyone may wear blue on Fridays and
anyone born on a Friday may adopt blue as their colour. The Thai language, however, is one that has had trouble
distinguishing blue from green. The default word for Blue was recently สีน้ำเงิน literally, the colour of silver, a
poetical reference to the silvery sheen of the deep blue sea. It now means Navy Blue, and the default word is now
สีฟ้า literally, the colour of the sky.[19]

Variations
Please see the article variations of blue.

See also
• Blue Flag
• Blue movie
• Blue ribbon
• Blue Screen of Death
• Distinguishing "blue" from "green" in language
• Engineer's blue
• Lapis lazuli, a blue stone
• List of colours
• Non-photo blue
• St. Patrick's Blue
Blue 526

• Three Colors: Blue, a film

• Turquoise
• Variations of blue

References
[1] W3C TR CSS3 Color Module, HTML4 color keywords (http:/ / www. w3. org/ TR/ css3-color/ #html4)
[2] "Glossary Term: Color wheel" (http:/ / www. sanford-artedventures. com/ study/ g_color_wheel. html). Sanford-artedventures.com. .
Retrieved 2009-04-14.
[3] Merriam-Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary Springfield, Mass.:1984--Merriam-Webster Page 319
[4] "US Navy - origins of Navy Terminology" (http:/ / www. navy. mil/ navydata/ traditions/ html/ navyterm. html#feelblue)
[5] Heller, Eva. Wie Farben wirken: Farbpsychologie, Farbsymbolik, kreative Farbgestaltung. Berlin: Rowohlt, 2004.
[6] Top 10 weather complaints (http:/ / www. theweatherprediction. com/ habyhints2/ 469/ )
[7] Preferences - Favorite Color (http:/ / www. joehallock. com/ edu/ COM498/ preferences. html)
[8] Psychology of Color (http:/ / www. precisionintermedia. com/ color. html)
[9] "Put on a Happy Face" lyrics (http:/ / www. stlyrics. com/ lyrics/ byebyebirdie/ putonahappyface. htm)
[10] "Estonia in brief: National Symbols" at Estonica website Estonica.org (http:/ / www. estonica. org/ eng/ lugu. html?kateg=73&
menyy_id=779& alam=85& leht=1)
[11] Stevens, Samantha. The Seven Rays: a Universal Guide to the Archangels. City: Insomniac Press, 2004. ISBN 1-894663-49-7 pg. 24
[12] Cheong Wa Dae / The Blue House (http:/ / english. president. go. kr/ tours/ place_buildings/ main_office. php), , "The Main Building and its
two annexes are covered with a total of 150,000 traditional Korean blue roof tiles (hence, the name "Blue House" is also commonly used when
referring to Cheongwadae)."
[13] Numbers 15:38.
[14] Tekhelet.com (http:/ / www. tekhelet. com), the Ptil Tekhelet Organization
[15] Mishneh Torah, Tzitzit 2:1; Commentary on Numbers 15:38.
[16] Numbers Rabbah 14:3; Hullin 89a.
[17] Exodus 24:10; Ezekiel 1:26; Hullin 89a.
[18] Numbers 4:6-12.
[19] Glenn Slayden. "Thai language" (http:/ / www. thai-language. com/ dict/ ). thai-language.com. . Retrieved 2009-04-14.
Red 527

Red
Red

 — Spectral coordinates —

Wavelength [1] [2]

~630–740 nm

Frequency ~480–405 THz

 — Common connotations —

passion, aggression, courage, energy, guilt, love, anger, hatred, pain, socialism, fire, heat, sacrifice, violence, bullfighting, emergency,
danger, sin, negativity, blood, devils, lust, communism, stop, exit, honor, leadership, Valentine's Day, yield sign, blushing, Christmas,
purity, attraction, beauty, error, failure, wrong way, conservatism (US), happiness (China), good luck (China), HIV/AIDS awareness
and drug intolerance

— Color coordinates —
Hex triplet #FF0000

sRGB
B (r, g, b) (196, 2, 51)

Source [3]
sRGB approximation to NCS S 1080-R

B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)

Red is any of a number of similar colors evoked by light consisting predominantly of the longest wavelengths of
light discernible by the human eye, in the wavelength range of roughly 630–740 nm.[2] Longer wavelengths than this
are called infrared (below red), and cannot be seen by the naked human eye. Red is used as one of the additive
primary colors of light, complementary to cyan, in RGB color systems. Red is also one of the subtractive primary
colors of RYB color space but not CMYK color space.

Etymology and definitions

The word red comes from the Old English rēad.[4] Further back, the word can be traced to the Proto-Germanic
rauthaz and the Proto-Indo European root reudh-. In Sanskrit, the word rudhira means red or blood. In the English
language, the word red is associated with the color of blood, certain flowers (e.g. roses), and ripe fruits (e.g. apples,
cherries). Fire is also strongly connected, as is the sun and the sky at sunset. Healthy light-skinned people are
sometimes said to have a "ruddy" complexion (as opposed to appearing pale). After the rise of socialism in the
mid-19th century, red was to describe revolutionary movements.[5]
Red 528

In science

Colorimetry, color science, vision, and photography

Red is any of a number of similar colors evoked by light consisting
predominantly of the longest wavelengths of light discernible by the human eye,
in the wavelength range of approximately 630–700 nm.[2] Longer wavelengths
than this are called infrared, or below red and cannot be seen by human eyes.[6]
Red's wavelength has been an important factor in laser technologies as red lasers,
used in early compact disc technologies, are being replaced by blue lasers, as
red's longer wavelength causes the laser's recordings to take up more space on
the disc than blue lasers.[7] A main theory for why primates developed sensitivity
to red, is that it allowed ripe fruit to be distinguished from unripe fruit and
inedible vegetation.[8] This further drove other adaptations to take advantage of
Artificial red poppies
this new ability, such as red faces.[9] Red light is also used to preserve night
vision in low-light or night-time situations, as the rod cells in the human eye
aren't sensitive to red.[10] [11] Red is one of the three additive primary colors of light, complementary to cyan, in
RGB color systems. Red is also one of the three subtractive primary colors of RYB color space but not CMYK color
space.[12]

One common use of red as an additive primary color is in the RGB color model. Because red is not by itself
standardized, color mixtures based on red are not exact specifications of color either. The United States government
sets certain specifications for what paints to use when red is stated in a design.[13] In order for computers to produce
exact colors, the color red needs to be defined in terms of an absolute color space, such as sRGB.[14] color correction
(so that a standardized red is produced that is not in fact full intensity of only the red colorant).
Red illumination was (and sometimes still is) used as a safelight while working in a darkroom, as it does not expose
most photographic paper and some films.[15] Though many more modern darkrooms use an amber safelight, red
illumination is closely associated with the darkroom in the public mind.[16]

In nature
Mars is called the Red Planet because of the reddish color imparted to
its surface by the abundant iron oxide present there.[17] Astronomical
objects which are moving away from the observer exhibit a red shift.
Jupiter's surface displays a Great Red Spot, a football-shaped gigantic
storm south of the planet's equator.[18]

Mars possesses a distinct red color, particularly

when seen up close
Red 529

Oxygenated blood is red due to the presence of oxygenated

hemoglobin.[19] When used about animal coloration red usually refers
to a brownish, reddish-brown or ginger color. In this sense it is used to
describe coat colors of reddish-brown cattle and dogs, and in the names
of various animal species or breeds such as red fox, red squirrel, red
deer, Robin Redbreast, Red Grouse, Red Knot, Redstart, Redwing, Red
Setter, Red Devon cattle etc. The usage for animal color appears
similar to that for red ochre, red hair and Red Indian. When used for
Red blood cells on agar plates
flowers, red often refers to purplish (red deadnettle, red clover, red
helleborine) or pink (red campion, red valerian) colors.

Symbolism

Sin, guilt, pain, passion, blood, and anger

Red is used as a symbol of guilt, sin and anger, often as connected with blood or sex.[20] A Biblical example is found
in Isaiah: "Though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be white as snow."[21] Also, The Scarlet Letter, an 1850
American novel by Nathaniel Hawthorne, features a woman in a Puritan New England community who is punished
for adultery with ostracism, her sin represented by a red letter 'A' sewn into her clothes.[22] This all comes from a
general Hebrew view inherited by Christianity which associates red with the blood of murder,[23] as well as with
guilt in general. Often, things will be in red to scare.[24] Another popular example of this is in the phrase "caught
red-handed", meaning either caught in an act of crime or caught with the blood of murder still on one's hands.[25] At
one point, red was associated with prostitutes, or now, with brothels (red-light districts).[26] [27] In Roman
Catholicism, red represents wrath, one of the Seven Deadly Sins. In Christianity, Satan is usually depicted as colored
red and/or wearing a red costume in both iconography and popular culture.[28] Statistics have shown that red cars are
more likely to be involved in accidents.[29] In Sderot, Israel rockets form gaza [controlled by Palestine] hit Sderot in
a uncontrolled fashion sirens form radars announce Tzeveh Adom which means color red which is warning for
civilians that they have 15 seconds to get to shelter
The color red is associated with lust, passion, love, and beauty as well. The association with love and beauty is
possibly related to the use of red roses as a love symbol.[30] Both the Greeks and the Hebrews considered red a
symbol of love, as well as sacrifice.[31] Psychological research has shown that men find women who are wearing red
more attractive.[32]

Courage and sacrifice

Red is used as a symbol of courage and sacrifice, as in blood spilt in sacrifice or courage in the face of lethal
danger.[33] Examples of this are found in the flags of many nations including the United States, as well as in the
novel The Red Badge of Courage, in which a soldier in the American Civil War discovers the meaning of
courage.[34] Besides the association with guilt previously mentioned, in Christianity, red represents the color of
Christian martyrs who suffered death for their faith. It is sometimes used for Holy Thursday and during Eastertide,
and red green and white is the color scheme of Christmas. In Roman Catholic tradition it is used for all feast days of
Christian martyrs as well as Palm Sunday in anticipation of the death of Jesus.[28] Red is associated in Roman
mythology with the god of war, Mars.[33] A Roman general receiving a triumph had his entire body painted red in
honor of his achievement.[35] The phrase "red-blooded" describes someone who is audacious, robust, or virile.[25] In
English heraldry, red (called gules) denoted ardent affection or love, while crimson (blood-color) stood for boldness,
enthusiasm, or impetuosity.[36] In Edward de Bono's book Six Thinking Hats a red hat represents feelings and
emotions.[37]
Red 530

Warning
Red catches people's attention, and can be used either in a negative
way to indicate danger and emergency, or in a positive way in
advertising to gain more viewers, or in nature, as a ripe fruit announces
its readiness with its red color.[38] Several studies have indicated that
red carries the strongest reaction of all the colors, with the level of
reaction decreasing gradually with orange, yellow, and white,
respectively.[39] Because of this, red is often used to catch people's
attention in a variety of situations (see: penalty card).[40]

The port, or left, side of a sea-going vessel carries a red navigation

light, to warn other vessels approaching from that side to change
course to avoid a collision.[41]
Stop sign used in various countries. The shape
and color red is used nearly universally today.
Eastern and African traditions
In China, red (红 pinyin: hóng) is the symbol of fire and the south
(both south in general and Southern China specifically). It carries a
largely positive connotation, being associated with courage, loyalty,
honor, success, fortune, fertility, happiness, passion, and summer.[42]
[43] [44]
In Chinese cultural traditions, red is associated with weddings
(where brides traditionally wear red dresses) and red paper is also
frequently used to wrap gifts of money or other things. Special red
packets (hong bao in Mandarin or lai see in Cantonese) - are
specifically used during the Chinese New Year to give monetary gifts.
On the more negative end, obituaries are traditionally written in red Red sky at night, sailor's/shepherd's delight.

ink, and to write someone's name in red signals either cutting them out
of your life, or that they have died.[44] Red is also associated with both the feminine and the masculine (yin and yang
respectively), depending on the source.[44] [45]

In Japan, red is a traditional color for a heroic figure.[46] In the Indian Sub-continent, red is the traditional color of
bridal dresses, and is frequently represented in the media as a symbolic color for married women. The color is
associated with purity, sexuality in marriage relationships through its connection to heat and fertility.[47] It is also the
color of wealth, beauty, and the goddess Lakshmi.[33]
In Central Africa, Ndembu warriors rub themselves with red during celebrations. Since their culture sees the color as
a symbol of life and health, sick people are also painted with it. Like most Central African cultures, the Ndembu see
red as ambivalent, better than black, but not as good as white.[48] In other parts of Africa, however, red is a color of
mourning, representing death.[49] Because of the connection red bears with death in many parts of Africa, the Red
Cross has changed its colors to green and white in parts of the continent.[50]
Red 531

In sports
Teams throughout the world wear red on their uniforms. Major League
Baseball is especially well known for red teams. Numerous teams in
various sports use red in their team colors.[51]
The Cincinnati Red Stockings are the oldest professional baseball
team, dating back to 1869.[52] The franchise soon relocated to Boston
and is now the Atlanta Braves, but its name survives as the origin for
both the Cincinnati Reds and Boston Red Sox. During the 1950s when
red was so strongly associated with communism, the modern
Cincinnati team was known as the "Redlegs" and the term was even Both the Cleveland Indians and the Boston Red
used on baseball cards. After the red scare faded, the team was known Sox wear red

as the Reds again.[53]

In association football, teams that wear red as part of their kit include Manchester United, Liverpool FC, Arsenal FC,
AFC Ajax, Bayern Munich and AC Milan.
The Cleveland Cavaliers use a shade of red called wine.

On flags
Red is one of the most common colors used on national flags. The use of red has similar connotations from country
to country: the blood, sacrifice, and courage of those who defended their country; the sun and the hope and warmth it
brings; and the sacrifice of Christ's blood (in some historically Christian nations) are a few examples. Red is the
color of the flags of several countries which once belonged to the former British Empire. The British flag bears the
colors red, white and blue; it includes the cross of Saint George, patron saint of England, and the saltire of Saint
Patrick, patron saint of Ireland, both of which are red on white.[54] The United States flag bears the colors of
Britain,[55] the colors of the French tricolore are believed to have been inspired by the American flag, and other
countries' flags, such as those of Australia, New Zealand and Fiji, carry a small inset of the British flag in memory of
their ties to that country.[56] Former colonies of Spain, such as Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela, also
feature red, one of the colors of the Spanish flag, on their own banners. Red flags are also used to symbolize storms,
bad water conditions, and many other things. Navy flags are often Red and Yellow.
Red, blue and white are also the Pan-Slavic colors adopted by the Slavic solidarity movement of the late nineteenth
century. Initially these were the colors of the Russian flag; as the Slavic movement grew, they were adopted by other
Slavic peoples including Slovaks, Slovenes and Serbs. The flags of the Czech Republic and Poland, which contain
red use it for historic heraldic reasons (see Coat of arms of Poland and Coat of arms of the Czech Republic), not due
to Pan-Slavic connotations.
Red, white, and black are the colors of Pan-Arabism, and are used by many Arab countries.[57]
Red, gold, green and black are the colors of Pan-Africanism. Several African countries thus use the color on their
flags, including South Africa, Ghana, Senegal, Mali, Ethiopia, Togo, Guinea, Benin, and Zimbabwe. The
Pan-African colors are borrowed from the flag of Ethiopia, one of the oldest independent African countries.[57] [58]
Rwanda, notably, removed red from its flag after the Rwandan Genocide, because Pan-Africanism was so strongly
associated with the event and because of red's association with blood.[59]
For other reasons, the flag of Japan has a red circle in the middle while the flag of the Philippines has a red trapezoid
on the bottom and the flag of Singapore has a red rectangle on the top.
Red 532

Use by political movements

As early as the 9th century, the Khurramites successors to the Mazdak
religion and proto-communists in the Middle Ages of the Middle East
used red as their symbol for revolution. Even before Europe's
Revolutions of 1848, Socialist red was used as a color of European
Revolutionaries, often in the form of the red flag. It was also used by
Garibaldi's camicie rosse (redshirts) in the Italian Risorgimento, and
taken up by Leftist and generally revolutionary groups, while the white The red flag of the former Soviet Union
of legitimist Bourbon partisans became associated with pre-World War
I conservatives. This relates to the term "Blood of the workers", representing the suffering of the proletariat. For
instance the Civil War in Russia and the Civil War in Finland were fought between the Red Army and various White
Armies.

The identification of Communism with Socialist red (with the red flag being the primary color of the flag of the
Soviet Union) and the red star being a Communist emblem led to such Cold War phrases as "the Red Menace" and
"Red China" (distinguished from Nationalist China, "Blue China" or "Free China").
China's de-facto anthem under Mao Zedong was "The East Is Red".[60] Mao Zedong was sometimes referred to as a
"red sun".[61] The color was also associated with political vehicles such as the Red Guard in China and the Red
Guards during the Russian Revolution of 1917 as well as with left wing paramilitary terrorist groups such as the Red
Army Faction in Germany and the Japanese Red Army. Red remains associated with parties on the left of the
political spectrum. However, the major exception is the United States. There, red is associated with the center-right
Republican Party. (The reason is that U.S. television networks assigned blue and red to states awarded to the
Republicans and the Democrats, respectively, on news maps; the color assignments were alternated every
presidential election, but the controversial 2000 presidential election was when commentators happened to pick up
on the color choices.) Red and black are colors associated with anarchism, and, specifically, anarcho-syndicalism.

Food and drink

Most red foods derive from one of two sources. Plants
like apples, strawberries, cherries, tomatoes, peppers and
pomegranates are often colored by forms of carotenoids,
red pigments that were originally developed to assist
photosynthesis.[62] Meat gets its color from the iron found
in the myoglobin and hemoglobin in the muscles and
residual blood.[63]

Society
The Red Hat Society is a social group founded in 1998
for women 50 and over.
A red apple in a tree

See also
• Variations of red
• List of colors
Red 533

References
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story/ 0,2933,444415,00. html
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[35] Ramsay, William (1875). "Triumphus" (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ secondary/ SMIGRA*/ Triumphus.
html). . Retrieved 2007-12-09.
[36] The American Girl's Handy Book, p. 369-370
[37] Published by Little, Brown and Company in 1985 ISBN 0-316-17791-1 (hardback) and 0316178314 (paperback).
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[39] Robertson, S. (Editor). Contemporary Ergonomics 1996. Boca Raton: CRC, 1996. ISBN 0-7484-0549-6 pgs. 148-150
[40] Karwowski, Waldemar. International Encyclopedia of Ergonomics and Human Factors, Second Edition - 3 Volume Set. Boca Raton: CRC,
2006. ISBN 0-415-30430-X pg. 1518
[41] Llana, Chris; George Wisneskey (October 23, 2006). "22" (http:/ / navruleshandbook. com/ Rule22. html). Handbook of the Nautical Rules
of the Road. A (2/3 ed.). Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press. pp. 103. ISBN 978-1557505040. . Retrieved April 18, 2010.
[42] Li Sujun (李素军), China Red (中国红) (http:/ / www. hercity. com/ enews/ news/ 200708/ 0015_1242519177. html). (In Chinese.)
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[44] Cullen, Cheryl. Global Graphics. Gloucester: Rockport Publishers, 2000. ISBN 1-56496-293-8 pg. 147
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[46] "PS2 News: CVG goes straight to hell with Devil May Cry director - ComputerAndVideoGames.com:" (http:/ / www.
computerandvideogames. com/ article. php?id=17957). . Retrieved 2007-10-14.
[47] Lamb, Sarah. White Saris and Sweet Mangoes. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000. ISBN 0-520-22001-3 pg. 188
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[49] Bradley, Carolyn. Western World Costume. New York: Dover Publications, 2001. ISBN 0-486-41986-X pg. 8
[50] Austin, Erica and Bruce Pinkleton. Strategic Public Relations Management: Planning and Managing Effective Communication Programs.
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[51] Dart, Tom (March 12, 2008). "Teams with red shirts have a head start" (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ sport/ football/
article3533300. ece). Times Online (London: News International Group). . Retrieved 13 April 2010.
[52] Frommer, Harvey (April 9, 2010). "First Professional Baseball Team: Flashback" (http:/ / www. travel-watch. com/ firstprobaseballteam.
htm). Dr. Harvey Frommer on Sports. Diamond Bar, California: Travel Watch. . Retrieved 18 April 2010.
[53] Cuordileone, K.A. Manhood and American Political Culture in the Cold War. New York: Routledge, 2005. ISBN 0-415-92599-1 pg. XIII
[54] Brabazon, Tara. Tracking the Jack. Sydney: UNSW Press, 2000. ISBN 0-86840-699-6 pg. 10
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Purple 535

Purple
Purple

 — Common connotations —

royalty, imperialism, nobility, Lent, Easter, Mardi Gras, episcopacy, upper class, poison, friendship, passion, sharing, wisdom, rage,
homosexuality, contrition, sympathy, extreme and sophistication

— Color coordinates —
Hex triplet #800080

sRGB
B (r, g, b) (128, 0, 128)

HSV (h, s, v) (300°, 100%, 50%)

Source [1] [2]

HTML/CSS

B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)

Purple is a general term used in English (Australia, Canada, New

Zealand, UK and USA) for the range of hues of color occurring
between red and blue.[3] In additive light combinations it occurs by
mixing the primary colors red and blue in varying proportions. In
subtractive pigments it can be equal to the primary color magenta or be
formed by mixing magenta with the colors red or blue, or by mixing
just the latter two, in which case a color of low saturation will result.
Low saturation will also be caused by adding a certain quantity of the
third primary color (green for light or yellow for pigment). There is a
A purple plasma ball.
disagreement over exactly which shades can be described as purple,
some people preferring more precise terms such as magenta or
heliotrope for particular shades. A difference in retinal sensitivity to red and blue light between individuals can cause
further disagreement.

In color theory, a "purple" is defined as any non-spectral color between violet and red (excluding violet and red
themselves).[4] The spectral colors violet and indigo are not purples according to color theory but they are purples
according to common English usage since they are between red and blue.
In art, purple is the color on the color wheel between magenta and violet and its tints and shades. This color, electric
purple, is shown below.[5]
Purple 536

In human color psychology, purple is also associated with royalty and nobility (stemming from classical antiquity
when Tyrian Purple was only affordable to the elites).

Etymology and definitions

The word 'purple' comes from the Old English word purpul which
originates from the Latin purpura. This in turn is derived from the
Koine Greek πορφύρα (porphyra), name of the Tyrian purple dye
manufactured in classical antiquity from a mucus secreted by the spiny
dye-murex snail.[6]
The first recorded use of the word 'purple' in English was in the year
A.D. 975.[7]
Murex brandaris or spiny dye-murex

Purple versus violet

Violet
— Color coordinates —
Hex triplet #8F00FF

RGB
B (r, g, b) (143, 0, 255)

HSV (h, s, v) (274°, 100%, 100[8] %)

Source [9]
HTML Color Chart @274

B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)

Violet is a spectral color (approximately 380-420 nm), of a shorter wavelength than blue, while purple is a
combination of red and blue or violet light.[10] The purples are colors that are not spectral colors – purples are
extra-spectral colors. In fact, purple was not present on Newton's color wheel (which went directly from violet to
red), though it is on modern ones, between red and violet. There is no such thing as the "wavelength of purple light";
it only exists as a combination.[4]
On the CIE xy chromaticity diagram, violet is on the curved edge in
the lower left, while purples are the straight line connecting the
extreme colors red and violet; this line is known as the line of purples,
or the purple line.[11] [12]
One interesting psychophysical feature of the two colors that can be
used to separate them is their appearance with increase of light
intensity. Violet, as light intensity increases, appears to take on a far
more blue hue as a result of what is known as the Bezold-Brücke shift.
The same increase in blueness is not noted in purples.
Pure violet cannot be reproduced by a Red-Green-Blue (RGB) color
system, but it can be approximated by mixing blue and red. The
resulting color has the same hue but a lower saturation than pure violet.
The CIE xy chromaticity diagram
Purple 537

Properties
On a chromaticity diagram, the straight line connecting the extreme spectral colors (red and violet) is known as the
line of purples (or 'purple boundary'); it represents one limit of human color perception. The color magenta used in
the CMYK printing process is near the center of the line of purples, but most people associate the term "purple" with
a somewhat bluer tone, such as is displayed by the color "electric purple" (a color also directly on the line of
purples), shown below. Some common confusion exists concerning the color names "purple" and "violet". Purple is a
mixture of red and blue light, whereas violet is a spectral color.

Historical development

Tyrian purple: Classical antiquity

Tyrian Purple
— Color coordinates —
Hex triplet #66023C

RGB
B (r, g, b) (102, 2, 60)

HSV (h, s, v) (329°, 98%, 40%)

Source [13]
Internet

B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)

The actual color of Tyrian purple, the original color purple from which the
name purple is derived, is the color of a dye made from a mollusc that in
classical antiquity became a symbol of royalty because only the very wealthy
could afford it. Therefore, Tyrian purple was also called imperial purple.
Tyrian purple may have been discovered as early as the time of the Minoan
civilization. Alexander the Great (when giving imperial audiences as the
Emperor of the Macedonian Empire), the emperor of the Seleucid Empire, and
the kings of Ptolemaic Egypt all wore Tyrian purple. The imperial robes of
Roman emperors were Tyrian purple trimmed in metallic gold thread. The badge
of office of a Roman Senator was a stripe of Tyrian purple on their white
toga.[14] Tyrian purple was continued in use by the emperors of the Eastern
Byzantine Emperor Justinian I clad
in Tyrian purple, 6th-century mosaic
Roman Empire until its final collapse in 1453.
at Basilica of San Vitale

Han purple: Ancient China

Purple 538

Han Purple
— Color coordinates —
Hex triplet #5218FA

RGBB (r, g, b) (82, 24, 250)

HSV (h, s, v) (260°, 97%, 47%)

Source [15]
Internet

B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)

Han purple is a type of artificial pigment found in China between 500 BC and AD 220. It was used in the
decoration of the Terracotta Army.

The graduated colors of crocus cultivars

can appear as han purple in direct
sunlight.

Royal purple: Medieval Europe

Royal Purple
— Color coordinates —
Hex triplet #6B3FA0

RGBB (r, g, b) (107, 63, 160)

HSV (h, s, v) (273°, 62%, 54%)

Source Crayola

B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)

This shade of purple is bluer than the ancient Tyrian purple.

In medieval Europe, blue dyes were rare and expensive,[16] so only the most wealthy or the aristocracy could afford
to wear them. (The working class wore mainly green and brown.) Because of this (and also because Tyrian purple
had gone out of use in western Europe after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in AD 476), Europeans' idea
of purple shifted towards this more bluish purple known as royal purple because of its similarity to the royal blue
worn by the aristocracy. This was the shade of purple worn by kings in medieval Europe.
Purple 539

Artists' pigment purple (red-violet): 1930s

Medium violet red

— Color coordinates —
Hex triplet #C71585

RGBB (r, g, b) (199, 21, 133)

HSV (h, s, v) (322°, 89%, 78%)

Source X11

B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)

'Royal purple' (shown above) or the dark violet color known as generic purple is the common layman's idea of
purple, but professional artists, following Munsell color system (introduced in 1905 and widely accepted by 1930),
regard purple as being synonymous with the red-violet color shown at right, in order to clearly distinguish purple
from violet and thus have access to a larger palette of colors. This red-violet color, called artist's purple by artists,
is the pigment color that would be on a pigment color color wheel between pigment violet and pigment (process)
magenta. In the Munsell color system, this color at the maximum chroma of 12 is called Red-Purple.
Artists' pigments and colored pencils labeled as purple are colored the red-violet color shown at right.

Electric purple: 2000s

Electric Purple
— Color coordinates —
Hex triplet #BF00FF

RGB
B (r, g, b) (191, 0, 255)

HSV (h, s, v) (285°, 100%, 100[17] %)

Source [18]
Colour Lovers

B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)

This color, electric purple, is precisely halfway between violet and magenta and thus fits the artistic definition of
purple.[19]
Using additive colors such as those on computer screens, it is possible to create a much brighter purple than with
pigments where the mixing subtracts frequencies from the component primary colors. The equivalent color on a
computer to the pigment color red-violet shown above would be this electric purple, i.e. the much brighter purple
you can see reproduced on the screen of a computer. This color is pure purple conceived as computer artists conceive
it, as the pure chroma on the computer screen color wheel halfway between color wheel violet and electric magenta.
Thus, electric purple is the purest and brightest purple that it is possible to display on a computer screen.
Purple 540

Computer web color purples

Purple (HTML/CSS color)

Purple (HTML/CSS
color)
— Color coordinates —
Hex triplet #800080

sRGBB (r, g, b) (128, 0, 128)

HSV (h, s, v) (300°, 100%, 50.2%)

Source [1]
HTML/CSS

B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)

This purple used in HTML and CSS actually is deeper and has a more reddish hue (#800080) than the X11 color
purple shown below as purple (X11 color) (#A020F0), which is bluer and brighter.
This color may be called HTML/CSS purple.

Purple (X11 color)

Purple (X11 color)

— Color coordinates —
Hex triplet #A020F0

RGB
B (r, g, b) (160, 32, 240)

HSV (h, s, v) (276.92°, 86.67%, 94.12%)

Source X11

B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)

At right is displayed the color purple, as defined in the X11 color, which is a lot brighter and bluer than the HTML
purple shown above.
See the chart Color names that clash between X11 and HTML/CSS in the X11 color names article to see those colors
which are different in HTML and X11.
This color can be called X11 purple.

Medium purple (X11)

Purple 541

Medium Purple
— Color coordinates —
Hex triplet #9370DB

RGBB (r, g, b) (147, 112, 219)

HSV (h, s, v) (270°, 68%, 72%)

Source X11

B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)

Displayed at right is the web color medium purple.

This color is a medium shade of the bright X11 purple shown above.

Additional variations

Orchid

Cattleya labiata

Orchid
— Color coordinates —
Hex triplet #DA70D6

RGBB (r, g, b) (218, 112, 214)

HSV (h, s, v) (302°, 49%, 85%)

Source X11

B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)

The color orchid is a light shade of purple. The name 'orchid' originates from the flowers of some species of the vast
orchid flower family, such as Laelia furfuracea and Ascocentrum pusillum, which have petals of this color.
Purple 542

Heliotrope

Heliotropium arborescens

Heliotrope
— Color coordinates —
Hex triplet #DF73FF

RGB
B (r, g, b) (223, 115, 255)

HSV (h, s, v) (286°, 55%, 100%)

Source [Unsourced]

B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)

The color heliotrope is a brilliant shade of purple.

Heliotrope is a pink-purple tint that is a representation of the color of the heliotrope flower.

Psychedelic purple

Psychedelic purple
— Color coordinates —
Hex triplet #DD00FF

RGB
B (r, g, b) (221, 0, 255)

HSV (h, s, v) (290°, 100%, 92%)

Source [20]
Colour Lovers

B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)

The pure essence of purple was approximated in pigment in the late 1960s by mixing fluorescent magenta and
fluorescent blue pigments together to make fluorescent purple to use in psychedelic black light paintings. This shade
of purple was very popular among hippies and was the favorite color of Jimi Hendrix. Thus it is called psychedelic
purple. It is shaded somewhat more toward the magenta than electric purple.
In the 1980s there was a Jimi Hendrix Museum in a Victorian house on the east side of Central Ave. one half block
south of Haight Street in the Haight-Ashbury neighborhood of San Francisco which was painted this color.
Purple 543

Mulberry

Mulberry
— Color coordinates —
Hex triplet #C54B8C

RGBB (r, g, b) (197, 75, 140)

HSV (h, s, v) (285°, 67%, 70%)

Source Crayola

B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)

The color mulberry is displayed at right. This color is a representation of the color of mulberry jam or pie. This was
a Crayola crayon color from 1958 to 2003.
The first recorded use of Mulberry as a color name in English was in 1776.[21]

Pansy purple

Pansy Purple
— Color coordinates —
Hex triplet #78184A

RGB
B (r, g, b) (120, 24, 74)

HSV (h, s, v) (287°, 36%, 27%)

Source [22]
ISCC-NBS

B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)

The pansy flower has varieties that exhibit three different colors: pansy (a deep
shade of violet), pansy pink, and pansy purple.
The first recorded use of Pansy Purple as a color name in English was in
1814.[23]

Purple Pansy

Regalia
Purple 544

Regalia
— Color coordinates —
Hex triplet #522D80

RGBB (r, g, b) (82, 45, 128)

HSV (h, s, v) (267°, 65%, 50%)

Source [24]
Clemson University

B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)

Regalia is a shade of purple used by Clemson University as one of its primary school colors.

In nature

Plants
• Purple needlegrass is the state grass of California.

Animals
• The purple frog is a species of amphibian discovered in India in 2003.
• Purple Honeycreeper

In culture
Academic Dress
• In the French academic dress system, the five traditional fields of study (Arts, Science, Medicine, Law and
Divinity) are each symbolized by a distinctive color, which appears in the academic dress of the people who
graduated in this field. Purple (usually a hue close to Royal Purple) is the distinctive color for Divinity. It is also
worn by high academic officials (University President, Head of Faculty, Rector, etc.) regardless of the field in
which they graduated.

Anti-apartheid movement
• The Purple Rain Protest was a protest against apartheid that took place in Cape Town, South Africa on September
2, 1989, in which a police water cannon with purple dye sprayed thousands of demonstrators. This led to the
slogan The purple shall govern.

Astronomy
• One of the stars in the Pleiades, called Pleione, is sometimes called Purple Pleione because, being a fast spinning
star, it has a purple hue caused by its blue-white color being obscured by a spinning ring of electrically excited
red hydrogen gas.[25]
Purple 545

Billiard games
• Purple is the color of the ball in Snooker Plus with a 10-point value.
• In the game of pool, purple is the color of the 4-solid and the 12-striped balls.

Computer games
• Strange Adventures in Infinite Space (SAIS) is a hybrid strategy/adventure computer game in which players
explore a "plausibly implausible" (fictional) region of the Milky Way galaxy called The Purple Void.

Calendars
• Purple is associated with Saturday on the Thai solar calendar. Anyone may wear purple on Saturdays and anyone
born on a Saturday may adopt purple as their color.

Comedy
• The Purple Onion is a celebrated comedy club in the North Beach area of San Francisco, California.[26]

Cultural associations
• In parts of East Asian countries such as Japan, purple is known as the color of death.

Gaming
• In Super Mario Galaxy (2007, Wii), one of the five Prankster Comets is known simply as 'Purple'.
• In Role-playing games such as Pokemon and Final Fantasy, purple is often used to depict psychic energy or dark
magic. In Kingdom Hearts, purple is often mixed with black to depict darkness.

Geography
• Purple Mountain is located on the eastern side of Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, People’s Republic of China. Its peaks
are often found enveloped in mysterious purple clouds at dawn and dusk, hence comes its name "Purple
Mountain".

Heraldry

• Porpora, or purpure, was not one of the usual tinctures in European

heraldry, being added at a late date to bring the number of colors plus
metals to seven, so that they could be given planetary associations. The
classic early example of purpure is in the coat of arms of the Kingdom of
León: argent, a lion purpure, as early as 1245.

History

• Byzantine empresses gave birth in the Purple Chamber of the palace of the
Byzantine Emperors. Therefore, being named Porphyrogenitus ("born to
the purple") marked a dynastic emperor as opposed to a general who won
the throne by his effort.
• In China, the Chinese name of the Forbidden City literally means "purple
forbidden city" 紫禁城 with first character 紫 meaning purple (even
Coat of arms of the Kingdom of León
though the Chinese Emperor himself wore yellow, which was considered
in China to be the imperial color).
Purple 546

Holocaust
• The purple triangle was a Nazi concentration camp badge used by the Nazis to identify several un-orthodox
non-conformist religious groups known as Bibelforscher, mostly Jehovah’s Witnesses.[27]

Literature
• Alice Walker, author of The Color Purple, said, "Womanist is to feminist as purple is to lavender."
• As a result of its association with royalty and luxury, the term purple is often used to describe pretentious or
overly embellished literature. For example, a paragraph containing an excessive number of long and unusual
words is called a purple passage (see Purple prose).
• Purple and violet are frequently mentioned in the poem The Raven by Edgar Allan Poe. The narrator's curtains are
decribed as being purple and the cushions are described as having "velvet violet linng."

Massively multiplayer online role-playing games

• In the MMORPG World of Warcraft, items of an "Epic" quality (extremely rare items) are the color purple, and
are often referred to as "Purples".

Microbiology
• In April 2007 it was suggested that early archaea may have used retinal, a purple pigment, instead of chlorophyll,
to extract energy from the sun. If so, large areas of the ocean and shoreline would have been colored purple; this
is called the Purple Earth hypothesis.[28]

Military
• In the US and United Kingdom militaries, purple refers to programs or assignments that are "joint", i. e., that are
not confined to a single service such as the army or navy, but apply to the entire defense establishment. In the
Canadian Armed Forces they are known as purple trades. Assignment to one or more joint billets is required for
promotion to flag rank (Rear Admiral and higher) in the U.S. Navy. Officers in joint billets are sometimes
referred to as "wearing purple" (the phrase is purely metaphorical as there are no purple uniforms in the U.S.
armed forces, UK armed forces or Canadian Armed Forces.)
• During and before World War II, the Japanese used a code known as PURPLE or the Purple Code. The Allies'
military successes in the Pacific theater depended on the fact that the Japanese did not know that Allied
cryptographers had broken the code.
• The Purple Heart is a US military decoration awarded in the name of the President of the USA to those who have
been wounded or killed while serving on or after April 5, 1917 with the U.S. military.

Mourning
• In 16th century England, purple was the color for the final stage of mourning, according to Mark Twain in his
first attempt at historical fiction, "The Prince and the Pauper".[29]

Music
• Deep Purple is a popular rock band.
• "Deep Purple" (song) is also the name of a popular song that was the favorite of Babe Ruth.
• Purple are a British tribute band to Deep Purple.
• The Mulberry Purple is a popular modern rock band.
• "Purple People Eater" was one of the biggest rock and roll hits of 1958.[30]
• "Purple Haze" is one of the most popular songs by Jimi Hendrix.
• "Tha Purple" is a song performed by the duo Pablo and Victor.
Purple 547

• Purple is the favorite color of the pop celebrity Prince. His 1984 film and album Purple Rain is one of his best
known works. The title track is Prince's signature song and is nearly always played in concert to this day. Prince
encourages his fans to wear purple to his concerts.[31]
• "Start Wearing Purple" is a song by Gogol Bordello.
• Purple Ribbon Records is a hip-hop record label owned by rapper Big Boi of the rap duo Outkast. 2005 saw the
release of the mixtape Got Purp? Vol 2 featuring the Purple Ribbon All-Stars and other artists on the label. In this
case, purple refers to a particular quality of marijuana.
• Purple is a 1994 album by the band Stone Temple Pilots.
• Purple is also the name of a track by rap artist Nas.
• Purple Music, Inc is a company in Switzerland that produces house music.[32]
• The New Riders of the Purple Sage is an American country rock band. The group emerged from the psychedelic
rock scene in San Francisco in 1969, and its original lineup included members of the Grateful Dead.
• "The Purple Bottle" is a song by Animal Collective.

Parapsychology
• People with purple auras are said to have a love of ritual and ceremony.[33]

People
• There is a woman named Barbara Meislin in Tiburon, California who is called The Purple Lady.[34]
• Singer Prince is often referred to as 'The Purple One', or 'His Royal Purpleness' by fans and the media alike. He
starred in a film called Purple Rain and released a single entitled Purple Rain from his Purple Rain album, one of
the best selling albums of all time. There are also various references to the color purple in Prince songs and
media.

Politics
• In Italy, since the global demonstration of 5th December 2009, purple has been used by a large civic movement
protesting against Berlusconi's government, accused to be a media-dictatorship heavily connected with Mafia.
This color was chosen as an apartitic statement because it doesn't belong to any current Italian political symbol.
The movement, operating mainly through the web, thus defines itself Popolo Viola (Purple People).
• In British politics, purple is used to represent the United Kingdom Independence Party, a eurosceptic party
wanting to pull Britain out of the European Union.
• In the politics of the Netherlands, purple ("paars" in Dutch) means a government coalition of right-liberals and
socialists (symbolized by blue and red, respectively), as opposed to the more common coalitions of the
Christian-democratic center-party with one of the other two. From 1994 to 2002 there have been two purple
cabinets.
• In United States politics, a purple state is a state equally balanced between Republicans (currently symbolized by
red) and Democrats (currently symbolized as blue) :see:red states and blue states.
Purple 548

Religious text
• In the Byzantine Empire, Gospel manuscripts were written in gold lettering on parchment that was colored Tyrian
purple.[35]

Rhyme
• Few, if any words used in modern English rhyme with the word "purple."
• Robert Burns rhymes purple with "curple" in his Epistle to Mrs. Scott. Burns is, as far as we can tell, the only
writer to have used the word. A curple refers to 1) the small of the waist before the flare of the hips 2) a derriere,
rump or behind or 3) the part of a saddle that passes under the rear end of the horse - often called a "crapper".
• The Scottish word hurple meaning an impediment similar to a limp also rhymes with purple.

Science fiction
• In the Star Trek universe, Klingons have purple blood.[36]
• In Star Wars the character Mace Windu is the only character with a purple lightsaber.
• Purple is a color commonly used by Decepticons and Predacons in various Transformers media.

Sexuality
• Today the color purple is also known as a "pride" color among the gay and LGBT community.
• At the 24 June 2007 San Francisco Gay Pride Parade, Yahoo passed out 3 7/16" in diameter round plastic stickers
with a picture of a gay man or woman imaged as one of the Yahoo Gay Pride avatars against an HTML/CSS
Purple background that said Out, Proud, and Purple.[37]
• In the mid 1970s, there was a gay piano bar at 2223 Market St. between Noe and Castro in San Francisco called
the Purple Pickle.[38]
• The purple hand is an LGBT symbol that derives from an incident which occurred on Halloween night (31
October), 1969, when sixty members of the Gay Liberation Front (GLF) and the Society for Individual Rights
(SIR) staged a protest at the San Francisco Examiner in response to a series of news articles disparaging LGBT
people in San Francisco's gay bars and clubs.

Sports
• The National Basketball Association's Los Angeles Lakers, Phoenix Suns and Sacramento Kings use purple as
their primary color, though the Lakers formerly used the term "Forum Blue", in reference to their old arena The
Forum.
• The National Hockey League's Los Angeles Kings use purple as one of their primary colors.
• In Major League Baseball, purple is one of the primary colors for the Colorado Rockies.
• In the National Football League, the Minnesota Vikings and Baltimore Ravens use purple as main colors.
• The Australian Football League's Fremantle Football Club use purple as one of their primary colors.
• In Association football (soccer) Belgian Eerste Klasse club and former Europa League winner RSC Anderlecht,
Italian Serie A club Fiorentina and Australian A-League Club Perth Glory use purple as one of their primary
colors. Melbourne Storm from Australia's National Rugby League use purple as one of their primary colors.
• In the NCAA, the Kansas State Wildcats, TCU Horned Frogs, Niagara University Purple Eagles and
Northwestern Wildcats feature purple as their primary team color. The University of Washington Huskies, Alcorn
State University Braves, LSU Tigers and James Madison Dukes primary team colors are purple and gold. Royal
Purple is also one of the official colors of East Carolina University. Also in the world of college football, purple is
the primary team color on the University of Evansville Purple Aces.
• Costa Rica's Primera División soccer team Deportivo Saprissa's main color is purple, and their nickname is the
"Monstruo Morado", or "Purple Monster".
Purple 549

Transpersonal psychology
• In 1976, a chart by Timothy Leary and Robert Anton Wilson called The Periodic Table of Energy outlining the
philosophy of Dr. Timothy Leary (The Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness)[39] was given out by the Starflight
Network, a group in Berkeley, California that was founded by Robert Anton Wilson to promulgate Dr. Timothy
Leary's philosophy. The Eighth or Psycho-Atomic Circuit was represented on the chart by the color psychedelic
purple.[40]

Transportation planning
• The MBTA Commuter Rail in Boston is designated with purple markings, and thus is sometimes called the Purple
Line.
• The LACMTA Purple Line is a subway that goes down part of Wilshire Boulevard in Los Angeles that it has been
proposed be extended all the way down Wilshire Boulevard to the Pacific Ocean.
• The Chicago Transit Authority's "L" line to Linden Street is known as the Purple Line.
• The Flushing Local/Express (often called the 7 train) of the New York City Subway is designated by a purple
circle behind the train number. It is the only numbered train in the New York City subway system that does not
share its color with any other train line.
• San Francisco’s light rail service, the Muni Metro, designates the L Taraval light rail line, which travels to the
Parkside neighborhood, with a solid purple disc on which is inscribed the train letter in white.
• The Tokyo Metro Hanzōmon Line is color-coded purple on maps, signage and rolling stock.
• The Purple Line, previously designated as the Bi-County Transitway, is a proposed 16-mile (25 km) transit line to
link the Red, Green and Orange lines of the Washington Metro transportation system, in the Maryland suburbs of
Washington, D.C.

Vexillology
• While in the rest of the world, red represents communism or socialism and purple (or white; yellow in China,
Vietnam, Cambodia, and Thailand) represents monarchism, in Spain it is just the opposite—red represents
monarchism and purple represents the common people. This is why the lowest of the three color bands of the flag
of the Second Spanish Republic was purple. [41]

See also
• List of colors
• Purpure
• Violet (color)

Further reading
• "The perception of color", from Schiffman, H.R. (1990) Sensation and perception: An integrated approach (3rd
edition). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

References
[1] W3C TR CSS3 Color Module, HTML4 color keywords (http:/ / www. w3. org/ TR/ css3-color/ #html4)
[2] web.Forret.com Color Conversion Tool set to color #800080 (Purple): (http:/ / web. forret. com/ tools/ color. asp?RGB=#800080)
[3] Mish, Frederic C., Editor in Chief Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary Springfield, Massachusetts, U.S.A.:1984--Merriam-Webster
Page 957
[4] P. U.P. A Gilbert and Willy Haeberli (2008). Physics in the Arts (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=qSRqXvZ67lQC& pg=PA112&
dq=purple+ violet+ spectral+ non-spectral& lr=& as_brr=3& ei=zAToSJbqD4ScswPputXqBg&
sig=ACfU3U3eNPczxziwystPuiqLUjNSo-hsHg). Academic Press. ISBN 0123741505. .
Purple 550

[5] Graham, Lanier F. (editor) The Rainbow Book Berkeley, California: Shambhala Publications and The Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco
(1976) (Handbook for the Summer 1976 exhibition The Rainbow Art Show which took place primarily at the De Young Museum but also at
other museums) Portfolio of color wheels by famous theoreticians—see Rood color wheel (1879) Page 93
[6] "Online Etymology Dictionary" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=purple). .
[7] Oxford English Dictionary, second edition
[8] web.Forrett.com Color Conversion Tool set to color #8F00FF (Electric Violet): (http:/ / web. forret. com/ tools/ color. asp?RGB=#8F00FF)
[9] http:/ / tx4. us/ moacolor. htm
[10] Louis Bevier Spinney (1911). A Text-book of Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=5zgFAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA573& dq=purple+
violet+ non-spectral& lr=& as_brr=3& ei=Ex4ZSb6UGpK6tQP33_HoDw). Macmillan Co.. .
[11] Charles A. Poynton (2003). Digital video and HDTV (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ra1lcAwgvq4C& pg=RA1-PA221&
dq=purple+ violet+ cie+ line& lr=& as_brr=3& ei=iB4ZSdubHIewswPPiqWfDQ). Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 1558607927. .
[12] John Dakin and Robert G. W. Brown (2006). Handbook of Optoelectronics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=fY98hmhWp58C&
pg=PA381& dq=purple+ violet+ cie+ line& lr=& as_brr=3& ei=iB4ZSdubHIewswPPiqWfDQ#PPA382,M1). CRC Press. ISBN 0750306467.
.
[13] http:/ / www. mmdtkw. org/ VPurple. html
[14] Tyrian Purple in Ancient Rome: (http:/ / www. mmdtkw. org/ VPurple. html)
[15] http:/ / www. einsteindaily. com/
[16] Varichon, Anne Colors: What They Mean and How to Make Them New York:2006 Abrams Page 161
[17] web.Forret.com Color Conversion Tool set to color #BF00FF (Electric Purple): (http:/ / web. forret. com/ tools/ color. asp?RGB=#BF00FF)
[18] http:/ / www. colourlovers. com/ color/ BF00FF/ Electric_Purple
[19] Graham, Lanier F. (editor) The Rainbow Book Berkeley, California:1976 Shambala Publishing and The Fine Arts Museums of San
Francisco (Handbook for the Summer 1976 exhibition The Rainbow Art Show which took place primarily at the De Young Museum but also at
other museums) Portfolio of color wheels by famous theoreticians—see Rood color wheel (1879) Page 93 Purple is halfway between magenta
and violet
[20] http:/ / www. colourlovers. com/ color/ DD00FF/ Psychedelic_Purple
[21] Maerz and Paul A Dictionary of Color New York:1930 McGraw-Hill Page 199; Color Sample of Mulberry: Plate 48 Color Sample E9
[22] http:/ / tx4. us/ nbs/ nbs-p. htm
[23] Maerz and Paul A Dictionary of Color New York:1930 McGraw-Hill Page 201; Color Sample of Pansy Purple: Page 131 Plate 54 Color
Sample L8
[24] http:/ / www. clemson. edu/ campus-life/ campus-services/ creative-services/ visual-guide/ colors. html
[25] Barnett, Lincoln and the editorial staff of Life The World We Live In New York:1955--Simon and Schuster--Page 284
[26] Home page for The Purple Onion: (http:/ / www. purpleonioncomedy. com/ )
[27] Bibelforshcer—The German name for “Jehovah’s Witnesses”: (http:/ / www. cesnur. org/ 2006/ sd_chryssides. htm)
[28] Early Earth Was Purple, Study Suggests: (http:/ / www. livescience. com/ environment/ 070410_purple_earth. html)
[29] Twain, Mark,"The Prince and the Pauper", ISBN 0 14 04.3669 3, Penguin Books, 1997, p.71.
[30] Lyrics and audio recording of the song Purple People Eater: (http:/ / www. shebwooley. com/ ppe. htm)
[31] Purple website for Prince fans: (http:/ / prince. org/ )
[32] Purple Music, Inc (Producers of House Music): (http:/ / www. purplemusic. ch/ index2. html)
[33] Swami Panchadasi The Human Aura: Astral Colors and Thought Forms Des Plaines, Illinois, USA:1912--Yogi Publications Society Page
37
[34] Fire Destroys Home of Tiburon’s ‘Purple Lady’ (http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2009/ 10/ 22/ MNQ91A8OF4.
DTL)—San Francisco Chronicle October 22, 2009
[35] Varichon, Anne Colors:What They Mean and How to Make Them New York:2006 Abrams Page 140 – This information is in the caption of
a color illustration showing an 8th Century manuscript page of the Gospel of Luke written in gold on Tyrian purple parchment.
[36] Berman, Rick and Braga, Brannan (Creators of Star Trek: Enterprise) editors Glass Empires (Three Tales of the Mirror Universe--Age of the
Empress by Karen Ward and Kevin Dilmore [ Story by Mike Sussman ]; Sorrows of Empire by David Mack; The Worst of Both Worlds by
Greg Cox) New York:2007 Pocket Books, a division of Simon & Schuster, Inc. (Trade Paperback) Page 363
[37] Yahoo Gay Pride Avatars: (http:/ / events. yahoo. com/ pride07/ )
[38] San Francisco Frontiers [Biweekly Gay] Newsmagazine Volume 15, Issue 4 June 20, 1996 Gay Pride Issue Pages 38-39 Can You
Remember When? The List --List of Every Gay Bar that Ever Existed in San Francisco
[39] Leary’s 8 Calibre Brain Psychic Magazine April 1976
[40] A black and white copy of the chart may be found at the front of the following book: Leary, Timothy - "Info-Psychology", New Falcon
Publications. ISBN 1-56184-105-6
[41] Legendary “Purple Banner of Castile” or “Commoner’s Banner”: (http:/ / www. crwflags. com/ fotw/ flags/ es!ful. html#pur)
Grey 551

Grey
Grey/Gray

 — Common connotations —

depression, boredom, neutrality, undefinedness, old age, contentment and speed

— Color coordinates —
Hex triplet #808080

sRGB
B (r, g, b) (128, 128, 128)

HSV (h, s, v) (--°, 0%, 50%)

Source [1]
HTML/CSS

B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)

Grey (often spelled gray in the U.S., see spelling differences) describes the colors ranging from black to white.
These, including white and black, are known as achromatic colors or neutral colors. These "new" neutrals have
low colorfulness and chroma.
Complementary colors are defined to mix to grey, either additively or subtractively, and many color models place
complements opposite each-other in a color wheel. To produce grey in RGB displays, the R, G, and B primary light
sources are combined in proportions equal to that of the white point. In four-color printing, greys are produced either
by the black channel, or by an approximately equal combination of CMY primaries. Images which consist wholly of
neutral colors are called monochrome, black-and-white or greyscale.
The first recorded use of grey as a color name in the English language was in AD 700.[2]
Grey 552

In color theory
Most grey pigments have a cool or warm cast to them, as the human eye can detect even a minute amount of
saturation. Yellow, orange, and red create a "warm grey". Green, blue, and violet create a "cool grey".[3] When there
is no cast at all, it is referred to as "neutral grey", "achromatic grey" or simply "grey".

WARM GREY COOL GREY

Mixed with 6% yellow. Mixed with 6% blue.

Two colors are called complementary colors if grey is produced when they are combined(in the light spectrum, but
as in art it produces brown with paints usually). Grey is its own complement. Consequently, grey remains grey when
its color spectrum is inverted, and so has no opposite, or alternately is its own opposite.
Artists sometimes use the two different spellings to distinguish between strict combinations of black and white
versus combinations that have elements of hue.

Web colors
There are several tones of grey available for use with HTML and CSS in word form, while there are 254 true greys
available through Hex triplet. All are spelled with an a: using the e spelling can cause unexpected errors (this
spelling was inherited from the X11 color list), and to this day, Internet Explorer's Trident browser engine does not
recognize "grey" and will render it as green. Another anomaly is that "gray" is in fact much darker than the X11
color marked "darkgray"; this is because of a conflict with the original HTML gray and the X11's "gray", which is
closer to HTML's "silver". The three "slategray" colors are not themselves on the grey scale, but are slightly
saturated towards cyan (green + blue). Note that since there are an even (256, including black and white) number of
unsaturated tones of grey, there are actually two grey tones straddling the midpoint in the 8-bit greyscale. The color
name "gray" has been assigned the lighter of the two shades (128 also known as #808080), due to rounding up. In
browsers that support it, "grey" has the same color as "gray".

HTML Color Name Sample Hex triplet

(rendered by (rendered by hex triplet)

name)

lightgray #D3D3D3

gray #808080

darkgray #A9A9A9

dimgray #696969

lightslategray #778899

slategray #708090

darkslategray #2F4F4F
Grey 553

Color coordinates
RGB
Grey values result when r = g = b, for the color (r, g, b)
CMYK
Grey values are produced by c = m = y = 0, for the color (c, m, y, k). Lightness is adjusted by varying k. In
theory, any mixture where c = m = y is neutral, but in practice such mixtures are often a muddy brown (see
discussion on this topic).
HSL and HSV
Greys result whenever s is 0 or undefined, as is the case when v is 0 or l is 0 or 1

In nature
Birds
• The grey peacock-pheasant is the unofficial national bird of
Myanmar.
Mammals
• The grey wolf is the largest wild member of the Canidae family.
• A grey horse has dark skin and a coat color that is dark at birth and
gradually silvers with age until the hair coat is completely white, but
the skin remains dark.
• The grey whale is a whale that travels between feeding and breeding
Ammonites in a wall in Germany
grounds yearly.
• Grey langurs or Hanuman langurs, the most widespread langur of South Asia, are a group of Old World monkeys
constituting the entirety of the genus Semnopithecus.

In popular culture
Environmentalism
• Greys has been used pejoratively by environmentalists to
describe technophiles as being those who like granite, concrete
and other city materials, as opposed to the term "greens" to
describe those in favor of environmentalism.
Ethics
• In a moral sense grey is either used
• to describe situations that have no clear moral value, or
• positively to balance an all-black or all-white view (for
Grey weather
example, shades of grey represent magnitudes of good and
bad).
Ethnography
• Some Nordic people have grey eyes.
Folklore
• In folklore, grey is often associated with goblin folk of several kinds. Scandinavian folklore often depicts their
gnomes and nisser in grey clothing. This is partly because of their association with dusk, partly because these
races, including elves (see below), often are outside moral standards (black or white).
Grey 554

Gerontology
• The color grey is often associated with aging or the passage of time, likely due in part to the decreased
pigment-production of hair follicles in time, corresponding to the greying of human hair.[4] In this context, grey is
often used synonymously with "elderly", as in "the grey pound" or "grey power" (when referring to the economic
or social influence of the elderly), or as used by groups such as the Gray Panthers.
Journalism
• "The Gray Lady" is the nickname of The New York Times.
Literature
• In J. R. R. Tolkien's works:
• Gandalf is called the Grey Pilgrim.
• The Grey Havens
• The Grey Elves
• Ered Mithrin, the Grey Mountains. Tolkien chose grey from folklore tradition mentioned above.
• The Noldor and the Dúnedain typically have grey eyes.
• Rand al'Thor of Robert Jordan's Wheel of Time is described as having grey eyes.
• In the series The T*Witches, those of magical power are described as having grey eyes.
• In Michael Ende's Momo, the men in grey are malicious spirits who prey on people's time and trick them into
"saving" it.
• In Don DeLillo's 1985 novel White Noise, the inventor of Dylar is at first only referred to as Mr. Gray.
• Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser are two seminal sword-and-sorcery fantasy heroes created by Fritz Leiber.
• The Brenin Llwyd, the eponymous antagonist of The Grey King, by Susan Cooper.
• The Picture of Dorian Gray is a novel by Oscar Wilde
• The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit, by Sloan Wilson, is a 1950s novel and film about the American search for
purpose in a world dominated by business.
• Gray Lensman by E.E. Smith is part of the Lensman series.
Military
• In the American Civil War, Confederate Army uniforms were grey, and the war was sometimes called "The Blue
and the Gray".
• The military of Germany used a green-grey shade called feldgrau from 1907 until 1945. The army of East
Germany used it until 1990.
• Napoleon Bonaparte is often depicted with a grey riding coat.
Music
• A purposely nonsensical line in Paul Simon's song "I Do It For Your Love": "We were married / On a rainy day /
The sky was yellow / And the grass was gray."
• A song from The Kinks Muswell Hillbillies album is titled Here Come the People in Grey.
• An album from the Finnish metal band Sonata Arctica is named The Days of Grays, one of the song on this album
is called The Last Amazing Grays
• A song from Biohazard album Urban Discipline is titled Shades Of Grey and it tells a tale of how not everything
in the world is black & white and that you should perceive the world in different shades of grey.
Mythology
• The goddess Athena was described as having bluish grey (Greek: γλαυκός, glaukós, literally "owl-like") eyes,
hence her epithet γλαυκῶπις, glaukōpis, "owl-eyed".
Nanotechnology
Grey 555

• Grey goo is a hypothetical end of civilization scenario, involving molecular nanotechnology in which
out-of-control self-replicating robots consume all living matter on Earth while building more of themselves (a
scenario known as ecophagy).[5]
Parapsychology
• It has been claimed that those who are suffering from the mental illness of clinical depression have grey auras.[6]
Philosophy
• A concept that is in a grey area is a concept about which one is unsure what category in which to place it.
Poetry
• Poet George Sterling called San Francisco The Cool, Grey City of Love.[7]
Politics
• Martin Bormann was called the grey eminence because, as the executive secretary to Adolf Hitler, he amassed
great power behind the scene, because he was the one who controlled access to the Führer.[8] The phrase
originated as a description of François Leclerc du Tremblay, the French monk who served as advisor to Cardinal
de Richelieu.
• The National Renaissance Party was an American neo-fascist group led by James Hartung Madole. The party was
active from 1949 to 1979. The members of the party were also known as the grey shirts.[9]
• Stalin was known as the "grey blur".
Sexuality
• In the bandana code of the gay leather subculture, wearing a grey bandana means that one is into the sexual fetish
of Bondage (BDSM).[10]
• In gay slang, a grey queen is a gay person who works for the financial services industry (this term originates from
the fact that in the 1950s, people who worked in this profession often wore grey flannel suits).[11]
Sound engineering
• Grey noise is random noise subjected to a psychoacoustic equal loudness curve (such as an inverted A-weighting
curve) over a given range of frequencies, giving the listener the perception that it is equally loud at all
frequencies.
Sports
• Baseball uniforms used for away games are often grey. This came about because in the 19th and early 20th
century, away teams didn't normally have access to laundry facilities on the road, thus stains were not noticeable
on the darker grey uniforms as opposed to the white uniforms worn by the home team.
• Grey is one of the colors used by Georgetown Hoyas and the Phoenix Suns.
• On 13 April 1996, Manchester United wore, for only the fifth time, their (then current) grey away shirts when
playing Southampton at Southampton's ground, The Dell. At the half time break, with Manchester United
unexpectedly trailing 3–0, they changed into another team kit, this time in blue and white. In the second half
Manchester United performed better, although only scoring one goal to end the game 3–1 down. It was claimed
that Manchester United's poor performance in the first half was down to the players having difficulty seeing their
teammates in the grey kit, and that kit was never worn again.[12]
Symbolic language
• In France, to be "grey" (être gris) means to be drunk. Accordingly, to be extremely drunk is to be "black" (être
noir).
• In the U.S., the college slang verb to gray was used around 1900 to mean to get drunk.[13]
Television
• Grey is associated with former British Prime Minister John Major. His puppet on the satirical TV show Spitting
Image was entirely grey, implying that he was incredibly dull.
Grey 556

UFOs
• In popular UFO conspiracy theory and in science-fiction, intelligent alien humanoids, are often referred to as
greys.

See also
• Black-and-white
• Davy's grey
• Grisaille
• Payne's grey
• List of colors

External links
• Three computational biologists’ theory to explain how humans perceive achromatic colors: [14]
• Chart showing a comparison of the achromatic (grey scale) values of the colors on the RYB and RGB color
wheels, respectively (the chart is halfway down the webpage): [15]

References
[1] W3C TR CSS3 Color Module, HTML4 color keywords (http:/ / www. w3. org/ TR/ css3-color/ #html4)
[2] Maerz and Paul A Dictionary of Color New York:1930 McGraw-Hill Page 196
[3] Color Palette (http:/ / www. atmos. washington. edu/ gcg/ SV. man/ sv. 743colpal. html)
[4] Dominique Van Neste and Desmond J. Tobin, "Hair cycle and hair pigmentation: dynamic interactions and changes associated with aging,"
Micron, 35, 3 April 2004, pp 193–200.
[5] Center for Responsible Nanotechnology (June 9, 2004). "Leading nanotech experts put 'grey goo' in perspective" (http:/ / www. crnano. org/
PR-IOP. htm). Press release. . Retrieved 2006-06-17.
[6] Arthur E. Powell The Astral Body and Other Astral Phenomenon Wheaton, Illinois:1927—Theosophical Publishing House, page 12
[7] The Cool, Grey City of Love by George Sterling (http:/ / alangullette. com/ lit/ sterling/ coolgrey. htm)
[8] Martin Bormann—The Grey Eminence (http:/ / hitlernews. cloudworth. com/ death-of-leading-nazis/ death-of-martin-bormann. html)
[9] Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, page 85
[10] Card showing list of bandana colors and their meanings, available at Image Leather, 2199 Market St., San Francisco, CA 94114 and Gay
City USA Hanky Codes (http:/ / www. GayCityUSA. com/ hankycodes. htm)
[11] Rodgers, Bruce Gay Talk (The Queen's Vernacular): A Dictionary of Gay Slang New York:1972 Paragon Books, an imprint of G.P.
Putnam's Sons, page 99
[12] 13.04.96 Manchester United's grey day at The Dell (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ football/ 2006/ apr/ 15/ sport. comment2)
[13] Purdy, Belmont. " More About the Verb 'To Gray' (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ abstract.
html?res=9805E6D61E3DEE32A25751C2A9649D946397D6CF)" in The New York Times, January 22, 1902.
[14] http:/ / compbiol. plosjournals. org/ perlserv/ ?request=get-document& doi=10. 1371/ journal. pcbi. 0030179
[15] http:/ / www. csulb. edu/ ~percept/ kyotocolor. html
 557

Typography

Typography
Typography is the art and technique of arranging type, type design, and modifying type glyphs. Type glyphs are
created and modified using a variety of illustration techniques. The arrangement of type involves the selection of
typefaces, point size, line length, leading (line spacing), adjusting the spaces between groups of letters (tracking) and
adjusting the space between pairs of letters (kerning).[1]
Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphic designers, art directors, comic book
artists, graffiti artists, and clerical workers. Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation.
Digitization opened up typography to new generations of visual designers and lay users.

Etymology
Typography comes from the Greek words τύπος typos "mark, figure" and γράφω grapho "I write".

History
Typography traces its origins to the first punches and dies used to make seals and currency in ancient times. The
typographical principle, that is the creation of a complete text by reusing identical characters, was first realized in the
Phaistos Disc, an enigmatic Minoan print item from Crete, Greece, which dates between 1850 and 1600 BC.[2] [3] [4]
It has been put forward that Roman lead pipe inscriptions were created by movable type printing,[5] but this view has
been recently dismissed by the German typographer Herbert Brekle.[6]
The essential criterion of type identity was met by medieval print artifacts such as the Latin Pruefening Abbey
inscription of 1119 which was created by the same technique as the Phaistos disc.[7] In the northern Italian town of
Cividale, there is a Venetian silver retable from ca. 1200 which had been printed by the means of individual letter
punches.[8] The same printing technique can apparently be found in 10th to 12th century Byzantine staurotheca and
lipsanotheca.[9] Individual letter tiles where the words are formed by assembling single letter tiles in the desired
order were reasonably widespread in medieval Northern Europe.[10]
Modern movable type, along with the mechanical printing press, was invented in mid-15th century Europe by the
German goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg.[11] His type pieces from a lead-based alloy suited printing purposes so well
that the alloy is still used today.[12] Gutenberg developed specialised techniques for casting and combining cheap
copies of letterpunches in the vast quantities required to print multiple copies of texts; this technical breakthrough
became instrumental for the success of the almost instantly starting Printing Revolution.
Typography with movable type was separately invented in 11th-century China. Metal type was first invented in
Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty around 1230. Both hand printing systems, however, were only sporadically used
and discontinued after the introduction of Western lead type and the printing press.[13]
Typography 558

Scope
In contemporary use, the practice and study of typography is very broad, covering all aspects of letter design and
application. These include:
• typesetting and type design
• handwriting and calligraphy
• graffiti
• inscriptional and architectural lettering
• poster design and other large scale lettering such as signage and billboards
• business communications and promotional collateral
• advertising
• wordmarks and typographic logos (logotypes)
• apparel (clothing)
• labels on maps
• vehicle instrument panels
• kinetic typography in motion picture films and television
• as a component of industrial design—type on household appliances, pens and wristwatches, for example
• as a component in modern poetry (see, for example, the poetry of E. E. Cummings)
Since digitization, typography has spread to a wider ranger of applications, appearing on web pages, LCD mobile
phone screens, and hand-held video games. The ubiquity of type has led typographers to coin the phrase "Type is
everywhere".
Traditional typography follows four principles: repetition, contrast, proximity, and alignment.

Text typography
In traditional typography, text is composed to create a readable,
coherent, and visually satisfying whole that works invisibly, without
the awareness of the reader. Even distribution of typeset material, with
a minimum of distractions and anomalies, is aimed at producing clarity
and transparency.
Choice of font(s) is the primary aspect of text typography—prose
fiction, non-fiction, editorial, educational, religious, scientific, spiritual
and commercial writing all have differing characteristics and
requirements of appropriate typefaces and fonts. For historic material
established text typefaces are frequently chosen according to a scheme
of historical genre acquired by a long process of accretion, with
considerable overlap between historical periods.

Contemporary books are more likely to be set with state-of-the-art

seriffed "text romans" or "book romans" with design values echoing
A specimen of roman typefaces by William present-day design arts, which are closely based on traditional models
Caslon such as those of Nicolas Jenson, Francesco Griffo (a punchcutter who
created the model for Aldine typefaces), and Claude Garamond. With
their more specialized requirements, newspapers and magazines rely on compact, tightly fitted seriffed text fonts
specially designed for the task, which offer maximum flexibility, readability and efficient use of page space. Sans
serif text fonts are often used for introductory paragraphs, incidental text and whole short articles. A current fashion
is to pair sans-serif type for headings with a high-performance seriffed font of matching style for the text of an
article.
Typography 559

Typography is modulated by orthography and linguistics, word structures, word frequencies, morphology, phonetic
constructs and linguistic syntax. Typography is also subject to specific cultural conventions. For example, in French
it is customary to insert a non-breaking space before a colon (:) or semicolon (;) in a sentence, while in English it is
not.

Color
In typography color is the overall density of the ink on the page, determined mainly by the type face and size, the
leading, but also by the word spacing and depth of the margins.[14] Text layout, tone or color of set matter, and the
interplay of text with white space of the page and other graphic elements combine to impart a "feel" or "resonance"
to the subject matter. With printed media typographers are also concerned with binding margins, paper selection and
printing methods.

Readability and legibility

Legibility is primarily the concern of the typeface designer, to ensure that each individual character or glyph is
unambiguous and distinguishable from all other characters in the font. Legibility is also in part the concern of the
typographer to select a typeface with appropriate clarity of design for the intended use at the intended size. An
example of a well-known design, Brush Script, contains a number of illegible letters since many of the characters
can be easily misread especially if seen out of textual context.
Readability is primarily the concern of the typographer or information designer. It is the intended result of the
complete process of presentation of textual material in order to communicate meaning as unambiguously as possible.
A reader should be assisted in navigating around the information with ease, by optimal inter-letter, inter-word and
particularly inter-line spacing, coupled with appropriate line length and position on the page, careful editorial
“chunking” and choice of the text architecture of titles, folios, and reference links.
One of the clearest distinctions between the two concepts was
presented by Walter Tracy in his Letters of Credit. These … ‘two
aspects of a type’ … are … ‘fundamental to its effectiveness. Because
the common meaning of “legible” is “readable” there are those – even
some professionally involved in typography – who think that the term
“legibility” is all that is needed in any discussion on the effectiveness of
types. But legibility and readability are separate, though connected
aspects of type. Properly understood … the two terms can help to
describe the character and function of type more precisely than
legibility alone. … In typography we need to draw the definition … of
legibility …to mean the quality of being decipherable and recognisable
– so that we can say, for example, that the lowercase h in a particular
old style italic is not legible in small sizes because its in-turned leg
makes it look like the letter b; or a figure 3 in a classified
Text typeset in Iowan Old Style roman, italics
advertisement is too similar to the 8. … In display sizes legibility
and small caps, optimized at approximately
ceases to be a serious matter; a character which causes uncertainty at 8 10 words per line, typeface sized at 14 points on
point size will be plain enough at 24 point.’[15] 1.4 x leading, with 0.2  points extra tracking.
Extract of an essay by Oscar Wilde The English
Note that the above applies to people with 20/20 vision at appropriate Renaissance of Art ca. 1882.
reading distance and under optimal lighting. The analogy of an
opticians chart, testing for visual acuity and independent of meaning, is useful to indicate the scope of the concept of
legibility.
Typography 560

‘In typography … if the columns of a newspaper or magazine or the pages of a book can be read for many minutes at
a time without strain or difficulty, then we can say the type has good readability. The term describes the quality of
visual comfort – an important requirement in the comprehension of long stretches of text but, paradoxically, not so
important in such things as telephone directories or air-line time-tables, where the reader is not reading continuously
but searching for a single item of information. The difference in the two aspects of visual effectiveness is illustrated
by the familiar argument on the suitability of sans-serif types for text setting. The characters in a particular sans-serif
face may be perfectly legible in themselves, but no one would think of setting a popular novel in it because its
readability is low.’[16] ’
Legibility ‘refers to perception’ and readability ‘refers to comprehension’[16] . Typographers aim to achieve
excellence in both.
"The typeface chosen should be legible. That is, it should be read without effort. Sometimes legibility is simply a
matter of type size. More often however, it is a matter of typeface design. In general typefaces that are true to the
basic letterforms are more legible than typefaces that have been condensed, expanded, embellished, or abstracted.
"However, even a legible typeface can become unreadable through poor setting and placement, just as a less legible
typeface can be made more readable through good design."[17]
Studies of both legibility and readability have examined a wide range of factors including type size and type design.
For example, comparing serif vs. sans-serif type, italic type vs. roman type, line length, line spacing, color contrast,
the design of right-hand edge (for example, justification, straight right hand edge) vs. ranged left, and whether text is
hyphenated.
Legibility research has been published since the late nineteenth century. Although there are often commonalities and
agreement on many topics, others often create poignant areas of conflict and variation of opinion. For example, no
one has provided a conclusive answer to which font, serifed or sans serif, provides the most legibility according to
Alex Poole.[18]
Other topics such as justified vs unjustified type, use of hyphens, and proper fonts for people with reading difficulties
such as Dyslexia, have continued to be subjects of debate. Websites such as hgredbes.com [19], ban comic sans [20],
UK National Literacy Trust [21], and Mark Simsonson Studio [22] have raised debating opinions on the above
subjects and many more each presenting a thorough and well-organized position.
Legibility is usually measured through speed of reading, with comprehension scores used to check for effectiveness
(that is, not a rushed or careless read). For example, Miles Tinker, who published numerous studies from the 1930s
to the 1960s, used a speed of reading test that required participants to spot incongruous words as an effectiveness
filter.
The Readability of Print Unit at the Royal College of Art under Professor Herbert Spencer with Brian Coe and Linda
Reynolds[23] did important work in this area and was one of the centres which revealed the importance of the
saccadic rhythm of eye movement for readability - in particular the ability to take in (i.e. recognise the meaning of
groups of) around three words at once and the physiognomy of the eye which meant that the eye tired, if the line
required more than 3 or 4 of these saccadic jumps. More than this is found to introduce strain and errors in reading
(e.g. Doubling).
These days, legibility research tends to be limited to critical issues, or the testing of specific design solutions (for
example, when new typefaces are developed). Examples of critical issues include typefaces (also called fonts) for
people with visual impairment, and typefaces for highway signs, or for other conditions where legibility may make a
key difference.
Much of the legibility research literature is somewhat atheoretical — various factors were tested individually or in
combination (inevitably so, as the different factors are interdependent), but many tests were carried out in the
absence of a model of reading or visual perception. Some typographers believe that the overall word shape (Bouma)
is very important in readability, and that the theory of parallel letterwise recognition is either wrong, less important,
Typography 561

or not the entire picture.

Studies distinguishing between Bouma recognition and parallel letterwise recognition with regard to how people
actually recognize words when they read, have favored parallel letterwise recognition, which is widely accepted by
cognitive psychologists.
Some commonly agreed findings of legibility research include:
• Text set in lower case is more legible than text set all in upper case (capitals), presumably because lower case
letter structures and word shapes are more distinctive.
• Extenders (ascenders, descenders and other projecting parts) increase salience (prominence).
• Regular upright type (roman type) is found to be more legible than italic type.
• Contrast, without dazzling brightness, has also been found to be important, with black on yellow/cream being
most effective.
• Positive images (e.g. black on white) are easier to read than negative or reversed (e.g. white on black). However
even this commonly accepted practice has some exceptions, for example in some cases of disability. (See UK
National Literacy Trust [21] for their findings in this area.)
• The upper portions of letters play a stronger part than the lower portions in the recognition process.
Readability can also be compromised by letter-spacing, word spacing,
or leading that is too tight or too loose. It can be improved when
generous vertical space separates lines of text, making it easier for the
eye to distinguish one line from the next, or previous line. Poorly
designed fonts and those that are too tightly or loosely fitted can also
result in poor legibility.

Typography is an element of all printed material. Periodical

publications, especially newspapers and magazines, use typographical
elements to achieve an attractive, distinctive appearance, to aid readers
Text typeset using LaTeX digital typesetting
in navigating the publication, and in some cases for dramatic effect. By
software
formulating a style guide, a periodical standardizes on a relatively
small collection of typefaces, each used for specific elements within
the publication, and makes consistent use of type sizes, italic, boldface, large and small capital letters, colors, and
other typographic features. Some publications, such as The Guardian and The Economist, go so far as to commission
a type designer to create bespoke (custom tailored) typefaces for their exclusive use.

Different periodical publications design their publications, including their typography, to achieve a particular tone or
style. For example, USA Today uses a bold, colorful, and comparatively modern style through their use of a variety
of typefaces and colors; type sizes vary widely, and the newspaper's name is placed on a colored background. In
contrast, The New York Times uses a more traditional approach, with fewer colors, less typeface variation, and more
columns.
Especially on the front page of newspapers and on magazine covers, headlines are often set in larger display
typefaces to attract attention, and are placed near the masthead.
Typography 562

Display typography
Display typography is a potent element in graphic design, where there
is less concern for readability and more potential for using type in an
artistic manner. Type is combined with negative space, graphic
elements and pictures, forming relationships and dialog between words
and images.
Color and size of type elements are much more prevalent than in text
typography. Most display typography exploits type at larger sizes,
where the details of letter design are magnified. Color is used for its
emotional effect in conveying the tone and nature of subject matter.
Display typography encompasses:
• posters; book covers;
• typographic logos and wordmarks; billboards;
• packaging and labeling; on-product typography; calligraphy;
• graffiti; inscriptional and architectural lettering;
• poster design and other large scale lettering signage;
• business communications and promotional collateral; advertising;
• wordmarks and typographic logos (logotypes),
• and kinetic typography in motion pictures and television; vending
machine displays; online and computer screen displays.
The wanted poster for the assassins of Abraham Lincoln was printed 19th century John Wilkes Booth wanted poster
printed with wood and metal types
with lead and woodcut type, and incorporates photography.

Advertising
Typography has long been a vital part of promotional material and advertising. Designers often use typography to set
a theme and mood in an advertisement; for example using bold, large text to convey a particular message to the
reader. Type is often used to draw attention to a particular advertisement, combined with efficient use of color,
shapes and images. Today, typography in advertising often reflects a company's brand. Fonts used in advertisements
convey different messages to the reader, classical fonts are for a strong personality, while more modern fonts are for
a cleaner, neutral look. Bold fonts are used for making statements and attracting attention.

Inscriptional and architectural lettering

A print advertisement for the Encyclopædia
Britannica from a 1913 issue of National
Geographic
The history of inscriptional lettering is intimately tied to the history of
writing, the evolution of letterforms and the craft of the hand. The
widespread use of the computer and various etching and sandblasting
techniques today has made the hand carved monument a rarity, and the
number of letter-carvers left in the USA continues to dwindle.
For monumental lettering to be effective it must be considered
carefully in its context. Proportions of letters need to be altered as their
size and distance from the viewer increases. An expert letterer gains
understanding of these nuances through much practice and observation
Typography 563

of their craft. Letters drawn by hand and for a specific project have the possibility of being richly specific and
profoundly beautiful in the hand of a master. Each can also take up to an hour to carve, so it is no wonder that the
automated sandblasting process has become the industry standard.
To create a sandblasted letter, a rubber mat is laser cut from a computer file and glued to the stone. The sand then
bites a coarse groove or channel into the exposed surface. Unfortunately, many of the computer applications that
create these files and interface with the laser cutter do not have many typefaces available, and often have inferior
versions of typefaces that are available. What can now be done in minutes, however, lacks the striking architecture
and geometry of the chisel-cut letter which allows light to play across its distinct interior planes.

See also

Supporting organizations
• ATypI (French: Association Typographique Internationale; International Typographic Association)
• Emil Ruder
• Society of Typographic Aficionados
• The Typophiles
• Type Directors Club
• Typophile (Internet forum)

References
• ASTM International D7298 Standard Test Method of Comparative Legibility by Means of Polarizing Filter
Instrumentation
• Brekle, Herbert E. (1997), "Das typographische Prinzip. Versuch einer Begriffsklärung" [24], Gutenberg-Jahrbuch
72: 58–63
• Brekle, Herbert E. (2005), Die Prüfeninger Weihinschrift von 1119. Eine paläographisch-typographische
Untersuchung (brief summary) [25], Regensburg: Scriptorium Verlag für Kultur und Wissenschaft,
ISBN 3-937527-06-0
• Brekle, Herbert E. (2010), "Herstellungstechniken von Inschriften auf römischen Wasserleitungsrohren aus Blei",
in Hanneforth, Thomas; Fanselow, Gisbert, Language and Logos. Festschrift for Peter Staudacher on his 70th
birthday, Berlin: Akademie Verlag, pp. 1–20
• Ch'on Hye-bong: "Typography in Korea", Koreana, Vol. 7, No. 2 (1993), pp. 10−19
• Bringhurst, Robert (2002). The Elements of Typographic Style (version 2.5). Vancouver: Hartley & Marks. ISBN
0-88179-133-4. Often referred to simply as "Bringhurst", Elements is widely respected as the current authority on
typographic style for Latin typography. (excerpts [26]). Well-paired with Tschichold's The Form of the Book,
below, from the same publisher.
• Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. (1980), The Printing Press as an Agent of Change, Cambridge University Press,
ISBN 0-521-29955-1
• Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1997), The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450-1800, London:
Verso, ISBN 1-85984-108-2
• Heller, Steven and Meggs, Philip B. Texts on Type: Critical Writings on Typography (c) 2001, Allworth Press,
Allworth Communications, New York. ISBN 1-58115-082-2. A compilation of over fifty texts on the history,
practice, and aesthetics of type design and typography.
• Hodge, A. Trevor (1992), Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply, London: Duckworth, ISBN 0-7156-2194-7
• Hupp, Otto (1906), "Die Prüfeninger Weiheinschrift von 1119", Studien aus Kunst und Geschichte, Festschrift für
Friedrich Schneider, Freiburg i. Br.: Herder
Typography 564

• Koch, Walter (1994), Literaturbericht zur mittelalterlichen und neuzeitlichen Epigraphik (1985−1991),
Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Hilfsmittel, 14, München, p. 213, ISBN 978-3886121144
• Lanciani, R.: "Topografia di Roma antica. I commentarii di Frontino intorno le acque e gli acquedotti. Silloge
epigrafica aquaria", in: Memorie della Reale Accademia dei Lincei, Serie III, Volume IV, Classe di Scienze
Morali, Rom 1881 (Reprint: Quasar publishing house, 1975), pp. 215–616
• Lehmann-Haupt, Hellmut (1940), "Englische Holzstempelalphabete des XIII. Jahrhunderts",
Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 93–97
• Lipinsky, Angelo (1986), "La pala argentea del Patriarca Pellegrino nella Collegiata di Cividale e le sue iscrizioni
con caratteri mobili", Ateneo Veneto 24: 75–80
• Man, John (2002), The Gutenberg Revolution: The Story of a Genius and an Invention that Changed the World,
London: Headline Review, ISBN 978-0747245049
• McLuhan, Marshall (1962), The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1st ed.), University of
Toronto Press, ISBN 978-0802060419
• Pace, Pietrantonio (1986), Gli acquedotti di Roma e il Aquaeductu di Frontino (2nd ed.), Rome: Art Studio S.
Eligio
• Tracy, Walter Letters of Credit 1986 Gordon Fraser
• Tschichold, Jan (1991). The Form of the Book: Essays on the Morality of Good Design. Vancouver: Hartley &
Marks. ISBN 978-0881790344. A comprehensive collection of essays on the typographic art. A more classic
companion to Bringhust, above.
• Lexique des règles typographiques en usage à l'Imprimerie nationale, French: Imprimerie nationale, 2002, ISBN
2-7433-0482-0, for French typography.
• Swanson, Gunnar Graphic Design and Reading: explorations of an uneasy relationship (c) 2000, Allworth Press,
Allworth Communications, New York. ISBN 1-58115-063-6. The Crystal Goblet, or Printing Should Be Invisible
Beatrice Warde; Improving the Tool Hrant H. Papazian.
• Alexander Lawson, Anatomy of a Typeface , first published in 1990, devotes entire chapters to the development
and uses of individual or small groupings of typefaces. ISBN 978-0879233334
• White, Alex W. (1999). Type in Use — Effective typography for electronic publishing (version 2.0). W.W.
Norton & Company, Inc. New York. ISBN 0-393-73034-4 (pbk).
• Martínez de Sousa, José, Manual de estilo de la lengua española, 3.ª ed., Gijón: Trea, 2007. For Spanish
typography.
• —, Ortografía y ortotipografía del español actual, 2.ª ed., Gijón: Trea, 2008. For Spanish typography.
• Mestres, Josep M.; Costa, Joan; Oliva, Mireia; Fité, Ricard. Manual d'estil. La redacció i l'edició de textos. 4a ed.,
rev. i ampl. Vic / Barcelona: Eumo / UB / UPF / Rosa Sensat, 2009. For Catalan typography.
• Pujol, J. M., i Solà, Joan: Ortotipografia. Manual de l'author, l'autoeditor i el dissenyador gràfic, 2a ed., rev.
Barcelona: Columna, 2000. For Catalan typography.
• Gill, Eric (2000) [1931]. An Essay on Typography. David R Godine. pp. 188. ISBN 0879239506.

External links
• AIGA typography articles [27] — Articles and interviews relating to typography from AIGA's Voice section.
• Decode Unicode [28] Wiki with all 98,884 Unicode characters, including full text search capability.
• Luc Devroye's typography pages [29] — Large list of typography and font resources
• Type-Culture Academic Resource [30] — Educational resources, including documentary videos about typography.
• Typography from vancouver film school [31] A short 2 minute infographic video explaining what Typography is.
• Examples of incunabula styles in McCune Collection [32]
• Baseline magazine [33] — A magazine for people interested in type, typography, graphic design and art related
themes.
Typography 565

References
[1] Pipes, Alan. Production For Graphic Designers 2nd Edition, Page 40: Prentice Hall Inc 1997
[2] Brekle 1997, pp. 60f.
[3] Schwartz, Benjamin (1959). "The Phaistos disk". Journal of Near Eastern Studies 18 (2): 105–112 (107).
[4] Diamond, Jared. "13: Necessity's Mother: The evolution of technology". Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Society.
ISBN 0-393-03891-2.
[5] Lanciani 1881, p. 416, Pace 1986, p. 78; Hodge 1992, pp. 310f.
[6] Brekle 2010, p. 19
[7] Brekle 2005, pp. 22–25; Brekle 1997, pp. 62f.; Lehmann-Haupt 1940, pp. 96f.; Hupp 1906, pp. 185f. (+ fig.)
[8] Lipinsky 1986, pp. 78–80; Koch 1994, p. 213
[9] Lipinsky 1986, p. 78; Koch 1994, p. 213
[10] Brekle 1997, pp. 61f.; Lehmann-Haupt 1940, p. 97
[11] McLuhan 1962; Eisenstein 1980; Febvre & Martin 1997; Man 2002
[12] Encyclopædia Britannica 2006: "Printing", retrieved November 27, 2006
[13] Ch'on Hye-bong 1993, p. 19
[14] Eckersley, Richard (1994). "Color". Glossary of Typesetting Terms. Chicago guides to writing, editing and publishing. University of
Chicago Press. p. 22. ISBN 9780226183718. OCLC 316234150. "A page is said to have good color if forms an even mass of gray. Squint at
the page, and you will see this."
[15] TRACY 1986.30-31
[16] Tracy 1986.31
[17] Craig, J. and Scala, IK. Designing with Type, the Essential Guide to Typography. 5th ed. p63. Watson Guptil. 2006.
[18] Alexpoole.info (http:/ / www. alexpoole. info/ academic/ literaturereview. html)
[19] http:/ / www. hgrebdes. com
[20] http:/ / bancomicsans. com/ home. html
[21] http:/ / www. literacytrust. org. uk/ Database/ Writing/ writingclearly. html
[22] http:/ / www. ms-studio. com/ articles. html
[23] Legibility of Type, Linda Reynolds 1988 Baseline 10
[24] http:/ / www. typeforum. de/ news_332. htm
[25] http:/ / www. typeforum. de/ news_308. htm
[26] http:/ / www. aaronsw. com/ 2002/ typographicStyle
[27] http:/ / www. aiga. org/ content. cfm/ search?topicAlias=typography
[28] http:/ / www. decodeunicode. org/
[29] http:/ / cg. scs. carleton. ca/ ~luc/ fonts. html
[30] http:/ / www. typeculture. com/ academic_resource/
[31] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=Ki6rcXvUWP0
[32] http:/ / www. mccunecollection. org/ Incunabula%20Styles. html
[33] http:/ / www. baselinemagazine. com/
Typeface 566

Typeface
In typography, a typeface is a set of one or more
fonts, in one or more sizes, designed with
stylistic unity, each comprising a coordinated set
of glyphs. A typeface usually comprises an
alphabet of letters, numerals, and punctuation
marks; it may also include ideograms and
symbols, or consist entirely of them, for
example, mathematical or map-making symbols.
The term typeface is frequently conflated with
font; the two terms had more clearly
differentiated meanings before the advent of
desktop publishing. The distinction between font
and typeface is that a font designates a specific
member of a type family such as roman,
boldface, or italic type, while typeface
designates a consistent visual appearance or style
which can be a "family" or related set of fonts.
For example, a given typeface such as Arial may
include roman, bold, and italic fonts.[1] In the
metal type era, a font also meant a specific point
size, but with digital scalable outline fonts this
distinction is no longer valid, as a single font
may be scaled to any size.
A Specimen of typeset fonts and languages, by William Caslon, letter
founder; from the 1728 Cyclopaedia.
The art and craft of designing typefaces is called
type design. Designers of typefaces are called
type designers, and often typographers. In digital typography, type designers are also known as font developers or
font designers.
The size of typefaces and fonts is traditionally measured in points;[2] point has been defined differently at different
times, but now the most popular is the Desktop Publishing point of 1⁄72 in (0.0139 in/0.35 mm). When specified in
typographic sizes (points, kyus), the height of an em-square, an invisible box which is typically a bit larger than the
distance from the tallest ascender to the lowest descender, is scaled to equal the specified size.[3] For example, when
setting Helvetica at 12 point, the em square defined in the Helvetica font is scaled to 12 points or 1⁄6 in (0.17 in/4.3
mm). Yet no particular element of 12-point Helvetica need measure exactly 12 points.

Frequently measurement in non-typographic units (feet, inches, meters) will be of the cap-height, the height of the
capital letters. Font size is also commonly measured in millimeters (mm) and qs (a quarter of a millimeter, kyu in
romanized Japanese) and inches.
Typeface 567

Terminology
In professional typography, the term typeface is not interchangeable with the word font, which was historically
defined as a given alphabet and its associated characters in a single size. For example, 8-point Caslon Italic was one
font, and 10-point Caslon Italic was another. Historically, fonts came in specific sizes determining the size of
characters, and in quantities of sorts or number of each letter provided. The design of characters in a font took into
account all these factors.
As the range of typeface designs increased and requirements of publishers broadened over the centuries, fonts of
specific weight (blackness or lightness) and stylistic variants (most commonly regular or roman as distinct to italic,
as well as condensed) have led to font families, collections of closely related typeface designs that can include
hundreds of styles. A font family is typically a group of related fonts which vary only in weight, orientation, width,
etc., but not design. For example, Times is a font family, whereas Times Roman, Times Italic and Times Bold are
individual fonts making up the Times family. Font families typically include several fonts, though some, such as
Helvetica, may consist of dozens of fonts.
The first "extended" font families, which included a wide range of widths and weights in the same general style
emerged in the early 1900s, starting with ATF's Cheltenham (1902–1913), with an initial design by Bertram
Grosvenor Goodhue, and many additional faces designed by Morris Fuller Benton.[4] Later examples include Futura,
Lucida, ITC Officina. Some became superfamilies as a result of revival, such as Linotype Syntax, Linotype Univers;
while others have alternate styling designed as compatible replacements of each other, such as Compatil, Generis.
Typeface superfamilies began to emerge when foundries began to include typefaces with significant structural
differences, but some design relationship, under the same general family name. Arguably the first superfamily was
created when Morris Fuller Benton created Clearface Gothic for ATF in 1910, a sans serif companion to the existing
(serifed) Clearface. The superfamily label does not include quite different designs given the same family name for
what would seem to be purely marketing, rather than design, considerations: Caslon Antique, Futura Black and
Futura Display are structurally unrelated to the Caslon and Futura families, respectively, and are generally not
considered part of those families by typographers, despite their names.
Additional or supplemental glyphs intended to match a main typeface have been in use for centuries. In some
formats they have been marketed as separate fonts. In the early 1990s, the Adobe Systems type group introduced the
idea of expert set fonts, which had a standardized set of additional glyphs, including small caps, old style figures, and
additional superior letters, fractions and ligatures not found in the main fonts for the typeface. Supplemental fonts
have also included alternate letters such as swashes, dingbats, and alternate character sets, complementing the
regular fonts under the same family.[5] However, with introduction of font formats such as OpenType, those
supplemental glyphs were merged into the main fonts, relying on specific software capabilities to access the alternate
glyphs.

History
Type foundries have cast fonts in lead alloys from the 1450s until the present, although wood served as the material
for some large fonts called wood type during the 19th century, particularly in the United States. In the 1890s the
mechanization of typesetting allowed automated casting of fonts on the fly as lines of type in the size and length
needed. This was known as continuous casting, and remained profitable and widespread until its demise in the
1970s. The first machine of this type was the Linotype machine, invented by Ottmar Mergenthaler.
During a brief transitional period (c. 1950s – 1990s), photographic technology, known as phototypesetting, utilized
tiny high-resolution images of individual glyphs on a film strip (in the form of a film negative, with the letters as
clear areas on an opaque black background). A high-intensity light source behind the film strip projected the image
of each glyph through an optical system, which focused the desired letter onto the light-sensitive phototypesetting
paper at a specific size and position. This photographic typesetting process permitted optical scaling, allowing
Typeface 568

designers to produce multiple sizes from a single font, although physical constraints on the reproduction system used
still required design changes at different sizes; for example, ink traps and spikes to allow for spread of ink
encountered in the printing stage. Manually operated photocomposition systems using fonts on filmstrips allowed
fine kerning between letters without the physical effort of manual typesetting, and spawned an enlarged type design
industry in the 1960s and 1970s.
The mid-1970s saw all of the major typeface technologies and all their fonts in use: letterpress, continuous casting
machines, phototypositors, computer-controlled phototypesetters, and the earliest digital typesetters—hulking
machines with tiny processors and CRT outputs. From the mid-1980s, as digital typography has grown, users have
almost universally adopted the American spelling font, which nowadays nearly always means a computer file
containing scalable outline letterforms (digital font), in one of several common formats. Some typefaces, such as
Verdana, are designed primarily for use on computer screens.

Digital type
Digital fonts store the image of each character either as a bitmap in a bitmap font, or by mathematical description of
lines and curves in an outline font, also called a vector font. When an outline font is used, a rasterizing routine (in the
application software, operating system or printer) renders the character outlines, interpreting the vector instructions
to decide which pixels should be black and which ones white. Rasterization is straightforward at high resolutions
such as those used by laser printers and in high-end publishing systems. For computer screens, where each individual
pixel can mean the difference between legible and illegible characters, some digital fonts use hinting algorithms to
make readable bitmaps at small sizes.
Digital fonts may also contain data representing the metrics used for composition, including kerning pairs,
component creation data for accented characters, glyph substitution rules for Arabic typography and for connecting
script faces, and for simple everyday ligatures like fl. Common font formats include TrueType, OpenType and
PostScript Type 1, while METAFONT is still used by TeX and its variants. Applications using these font formats,
including the rasterizers, appear in Microsoft and Apple Computer operating systems, Adobe Systems products and
those of several other companies. Digital fonts are created with font editors such as FontForge, Fontlab's TypeTool,
FontLab Studio, Fontographer, or AsiaFont Studio.

Typeface anatomy
Typographers have developed a comprehensive vocabulary for describing the many aspects of typefaces and
typography. Some vocabulary applies only to a subset of all scripts. Serifs, for example, are a purely decorative
characteristic of typefaces used for European scripts, whereas the glyphs used in Arabic or East Asian scripts have
characteristics (such as stroke width) that may be similar in some respects but cannot reasonably be called serifs and
may not be purely decorative.

Serifs
Typeface 569

Sans serif font

Serif font

Serif font with

serifs
highlighted in red

Typefaces can be divided into two main categories: serif and sans serif. Serifs comprise the small features at the end
of strokes within letters. The printing industry refers to typeface without serifs as sans serif (from French sans,
meaning without), or as grotesque (or, in German, grotesk).
Great variety exists among both serif and sans serif typefaces. Both groups contain faces designed for setting large
amounts of body text, and others intended primarily as decorative. The presence or absence of serifs forms is only
one of many factors to consider when choosing a typeface.
Typefaces with serifs are often considered easier to read in long passages than those without. Studies on the matter
are ambiguous, suggesting that most of this effect is due to the greater familiarity of serif typefaces. As a general
rule, printed works such as newspapers and books almost always use serif typefaces, at least for the text body. Web
sites do not have to specify a font and can simply respect the browser settings of the user. But of those web sites that
do specify a font, most use modern sans serif fonts, because it is commonly believed that, in contrast to the case for
printed material, sans serif fonts are easier than serif fonts to read on the low-resolution computer screen.

Proportion
A proportional typeface contains
glyphs of varying widths, while a
monospaced (non-proportional or
fixed-width) typeface uses a single
standard width for all glyphs in the
font.

Most people generally find

proportional typefaces nicer-looking
and easier to read, and thus they appear
more commonly in professionally published printed material. For the same reason, GUI computer applications (such
as word processors and web browsers) typically use proportional fonts. However, many proportional fonts contain
fixed-width (tabular) figures so that columns of numbers stay aligned.

Monospaced typefaces function better for some purposes because their glyphs line up in neat, regular columns. No
glyph is given any more weight than another. Most manually-operated typewriters and text-only computer displays
use monospaced fonts. Most computer programs which have a text-based interface (terminal emulators, for example)
use only monospaced fonts (or add additional spacing to proportional fonts to fit them in monospaced cells) in their
configuration. Monospaced fonts are commonly used by computer programmers for displaying and editing source
code so that certain characters (for example parentheses used to group arithmetic expressions) are easy to see.[6]
Monospaced fonts may also come as a benefit to machines doing automatic recognition of text (cf. Optical Character
Recognition).
ASCII art usually requires a monospaced font for proper viewing, with the exception of Shift JIS art which takes
advantage of the proportional characters in the MS PGothic font.. In a web page, the <tt> </tt>, <code>
</code> or <pre> </pre> HTML tags most commonly specify monospaced fonts. In LaTeX, the verbatim
Typeface 570

environment or the teletype font family (e.g., \texttt{...} or {\ttfamily ...}) uses monospaced fonts
(in TeX, use {\tt ...}).
Any two lines of text with the same number of characters in each line in a monospaced typeface should display as
equal in width, while the same two lines in a proportional typeface may have radically different widths. This occurs
because in a proportional font, glyph widths vary, such that wider glyphs (typically those for characters such as W,
Q, Z, M, D, O, H, and U) use more space, and narrower glyphs (such as those for the characters i, t, l, and 1) use less
space than the average.
In the publishing industry, it was once the case that editors read manuscripts in monospaced fonts (typically Courier)
for ease of editing and word count estimates, and it was considered discourteous to submit a manuscript in a
proportional font. This has become less universal in recent years, such that authors need to check with editors as to
their preference, though monospaced fonts are still the norm.

Font metrics
Most scripts share the notion of a
baseline: an imaginary horizontal line
on which characters rest. In some
scripts, parts of glyphs lie below the
baseline. The descent spans the
distance between the baseline and the
lowest descending glyph in a typeface, The word Sphinx, set in Adobe Caslon Pro to illustrate the concepts of baseline, x-height,
body size, descent and ascent.
and the part of a glyph that descends
below the baseline has the name
descender. Conversely, the ascent spans the distance between the baseline and the top of the glyph that reaches
farthest from the baseline. The ascent and descent may or may not include distance added by accents or diacritical
marks.

In the Latin, Greek and Cyrillic (sometimes collectively referred to as LGC) scripts, one can refer to the distance
from the baseline to the top of regular lowercase glyphs (mean line) as the x-height, and the part of a glyph rising
above the x-height as the ascender. The distance from the baseline to the top of the ascent or a regular uppercase
glyphs (cap line) is also known as the cap height.[7] The height of the ascender can have a dramatic effect on the
readability and appearance of a font. The ratio between the x-height and the ascent or cap height often serves to
characterize typefaces.

Typefaces with the same metrics (i.e., with the same glyph dimensions) are said to be "metric-compatible", that is,
they can be substituted for one another in a document without changing the document's text flow. Several typefaces
have been created to be metric-compatible with widely used proprietary typefaces to allow the editing of documents
set in such typefaces in digital typesetting environments where these typefaces are not available.[8] For instance, the
open source Liberation fonts have been designed as metric-compatible substitutes for widely used Microsoft fonts.
Typeface 571

Types of typefaces
Because an abundance of typefaces have been created over the
centuries, they are commonly categorized according to their
appearance. At the highest level (in the context of Latin-script
fonts), one can differentiate Roman, Blackletter, and Gaelic types.
Roman types are in the most widespread use today, and are
sub-classified as serif, sans serif, ornamental, and script types.
Historically, the first European fonts were blackletter, followed by
Roman serif, then sans serif and then the other types. The use of
Gaelic faces was restricted to the Irish language, though these
form a unique if minority class. Typefaces may be monospaced
regardless of whether they are Roman, Blackletter, or Gaelic.
Symbol typefaces are non-alphabetic. The Cyrillic script comes in
two varieties, Roman type (called гражданкий шрифт graždankij
šrift) and traditional Slavonic type (called славянский шрифт
slavjanskij šrift).

Illustration of different font types and the names of

Roman typefaces specific specimens

Serif typefaces
Serif, or Roman, typefaces are named for the features at the ends of their strokes. Times Roman and Garamond are
common examples of serif typefaces. Serif fonts are probably the most used class in printed materials, including
most books, newspapers and magazines. Serif fonts are often classified into three subcategories: Old Style,
Transitional, and Modern. Old Style typefaces are influenced by early Italian lettering design.[9] Though some
argument exists as to whether Transitional fonts exist as a discrete category among serif fonts, Transitional fonts lie
somewhere between Old Style and Modern style typefaces. Transitional fonts exhibit a marked increase in the
variation of stroke weight and a more horizontal serif compared to Old Style, but not as extreme as Modern. Lastly,
Modern fonts often exhibit a bracketed serif and a substantial difference in weight within the strokes.
Examples of these are Times, New Baskerville, and Bodoni,
respectively.
Roman, italic, and oblique are also terms used to differentiate between
upright and italicized variations of a typeface. The difference between
italic and oblique is that the term italic usually applies to serif faces,
where the letter forms are redesigned.[10] Sample text in Baskerville font

Sans serif typefaces

Sans serif (lit. without serif) designs appeared relatively recently in the history of type design. The evolution of the
sans serif font very likely stemmed from the slab serif font. The earliest slab serif font, Antique, later renamed
Egyptian, designed in 1815 by the English typefounder Vincent Figgins[11] was succeeded one year later by the first
sans serif font, created by William Caslon IV. The evidence of this is clearly shown in the uniform strokes in the
letter forms. Sans serif fonts are commonly but not exclusively used for display typography such as signage,
headings, and other situations demanding legibility above high readability. The text on electronic media offers an
exception to print: most web pages and digitized media are laid out in sans serif typefaces because serifs often
Typeface 572

detract from readability at the low resolution of displays.

A well-known and popular sans serif font is Max Miedinger's Helvetica, popularized for desktop publishing by
inclusion with Apple Computer's LaserWriter laserprinter and having been one of the first readily available digital
typefaces. Arial, popularized by Microsoft, is a widely used sans serif font that is often compared to and substituted
for Helvetica. Other fonts such as Futura, Gill Sans, Univers and Frutiger have also remained popular over many
decades.

Script typefaces
Script typefaces simulate handwriting or calligraphy. They do not lend themselves to quantities of body text, as
people find them harder to read than many serif and sans-serif typefaces; they are typically used for logos or
invitations. Examples include Coronet and Zapfino.

Ornamental typefaces
Ornamental (also known as novelty or sometimes display) typefaces are used exclusively for decorative purposes,
and are not suitable for body text. They have the most distinctive designs of all fonts, and may even incorporate
pictures of objects, animals, etc. into the character designs. They usually have very specific characteristics (e.g.,
evoking the Wild West, Christmas, horror films, etc.) and hence very limited uses. See below for the historical
definition of display typeface.

Mimicry typefaces

A group of decorative typefaces, sometimes called simulation

typefaces, have been designed that represent the characters of the
Roman alphabet but evoke another writing system. This group includes Simulated Hebrew.
typefaces designed to appear as Arabic, Chinese characters, Cyrillic,
Indic scripts, Greek, Hebrew, Kana, or Thai. These are used largely for the purpose of novelty to make something
appear foreign.

Blackletter typefaces
Blackletter fonts, the earliest typefaces used with the invention of the printing press, resemble the blackletter
calligraphy of that time. Many people refer to them as gothic script. Various forms exist including textualis, rotunda,
schwabacher, and fraktur.

Gaelic typefaces
Gaelic fonts were first used for the Irish language in 1571, and were used regularly for Irish until the early 1960s,
though they continue to enjoy use in display type and type for signage, being perceived in Ireland as having cultural
value. Their use was effectively confined to Ireland, though Gaelic typefaces were designed and produced in France,
Belgium, and Italy. Gaelic typefaces make use of insular letterforms, and early fonts made use of a variety of
abbreviations deriving from the manuscript tradition. Early fonts used for the Anglo-Saxon language, also using
insular letterforms, can be classified as Gaelic typefaces, distinct from Roman or Antiqua typefaces.[12] [13] Various
forms exist, including manuscript, traditional, and modern styles, chiefly distinguished as having angular or uncial
features.[14]
Typeface 573

Monospaced typefaces
Monospaced fonts are typefaces in which every glyph is the same width (as opposed to variable-width fonts, where
the w and m are wider than most letters, and the i is narrower). The first monospaced typefaces were designed for
typewriters, which could only move the same distance forward with each letter typed. Their use continued with early
computers, which could only display a single font. Although modern computers can display any desired typeface,
monospaced fonts are still important for computer programming, terminal emulation, and for laying out tabulated
data in plain text documents. Examples of monospaced typefaces are Courier, Prestige Elite, Fixedsys, and Monaco.
There exist Roman, Blackletter, and Gaelic monospaced typefaces.

Symbol typefaces
Symbol, or Dingbat, typefaces consist of symbols (such as decorative bullets, clock faces, railroad timetable
symbols, CD-index, or TV-channel enclosed numbers) rather than normal text characters. Examples include Zapf
Dingbats, Sonata, and Wingdings.

Display type
Display type refers to the use of type at large sizes, perhaps 30 points or larger. Some typefaces are considered useful
solely at display sizes, and hence are known as display faces. For typefaces used across a wide range of sizes, in the
days of metal type, each size was cut individually, or even if pantographically scaled would often have adjustments
made to the design for larger or smaller sizes, making a "display" face have distinct differences.
In metal type, if present in smaller sizes, ink traps (small indentations at the junctions of letter strokes) would be
eliminated at display sizes. In smaller point sizes, these ink traps were intended to fill up when the letterpress was
over-inked, providing some latitude in press operation while maintaining the intended appearance of the type design.
At larger sizes, these ink traps were not necessary, so display faces did not have them. Today's digital typefaces are
most often used for offset lithography, electrophotographic printing or other processes that are not subject to the ink
supply variations of letterpress, so ink traps have largely disappeared from use.
When digital fonts feature a display variation, it is to accommodate other stylistic differences that may benefit type
used at larger point sizes. Such differences, which were standard in metal type, are rare in digital type, outside of the
very high end of type design. They can include: a lower x-height, higher contrast between thick and thin strokes, less
space between letters, and slightly more condensed letter shapes.[15]
Decades into the desktop publishing revolution, few typographers with metal foundry type experience are still
working, and few digital typefaces are optimized specifically for different sizes, so the misuse of the term display
typeface as a synonym for ornamental type has become widespread; properly speaking, ornamental typefaces are a
subcategory of display typefaces.

Texts used to demonstrate typefaces

A sentence that uses all of the alphabet (a pangram), such as "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog", is often
used as a design aesthetic tool to demonstrate the personality of a typeface's characters in a setting (because it
displays all the letters of the alphabet). For extended settings of typefaces graphic designers often use nonsense text
(commonly referred to as greeking), such as lorem ipsum or Latin text such as the beginning of Cicero's In
Catilinam. Greeking is used in typography to determine a typeface's colour, or weight and style, and to demonstrate
an overall typographic aesthetic prior to actual type setting.
Typeface 574

Legal aspects
Under United States law, typeface designs are not subject to copyright. However, novel and non-obvious typeface
designs are subject to protection by design patents. Digital fonts that embody a particular design are often subject to
copyright as computer programs. The names of the typefaces can become trademarked. As a result of these various
means of legal protection, sometimes the same typeface exists in multiple names and implementations.
Some elements of the software engines used to display fonts on computers have software patents associated with
them. In particular, Apple Inc. has patented some of the hinting algorithms for TrueType, requiring open source
alternatives such as FreeType to use different algorithms.
Although typeface design is not subject to copyright in the United States under the 1976 Copyright Act, the United
States District Court for the Northern District of California in Adobe Systems, Inc. and Emigre, Inc. v. Southern
Software, Inc. and King (No. C95-20710 RMW, N.D. Cal. January 30, 1998)[16] found that there was copyright in
the placement of points on a computer font's outline; i.e., because a given outline can be expressed in myriad ways, a
particular selection and placement of points has sufficient originality to qualify for copyright.
Many western countries extend copyright protection to typeface designs. However, this has no impact on protection
in the United States, because all of the major copyright treaties and agreements to which the U.S. is a party (such as
the Berne Convention, the WIPO Copyright Treaty, and TRIPS) operate under the principle of national treatment,
under which a country is obligated to provide no greater or lesser protection to works from other countries than it
provides to domestically produced works.

See also
• ATypI, Association Typographique Internationale • Samples of simulation typefaces
• Calligraphy • Screenfont
• Font family (HTML) • Society of Typographic Aficionados
• Font-management program • Type design
• Fontlab • Type Directors Club
• Intellifont • Type foundry
• List of type designers • Typographic unit
• List of typefaces • Unicode font
• List of typographic features • VOX-ATypI classification
• Samples of display typefaces

External links
• ABC typography [17] - Introduction to the most famous typefaces
• Named parts of a letter: Type Anatomy 1.0 [18]
• Nwalsh.com [19], comp.fonts FAQ

References
[1] Young, Margaret Levine; Kay, David C.; Wagner, Richard (2004). WordPerfect 12 for dummies (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=vEOzH_1x1WQC& pg=PA102& dq=font+ versus+ typeface& lr=& cd=37#v=onepage& q=& f=false). For Dummies. p. 102.
ISBN 9780764578083. .
[2] Graham, Lisa. Basics of Design: Layout & Typography for Beginners. New York: Delmar, 2002: 184. ISBN 0788813622.
[3] Apple's TrueType Reference Manual (http:/ / developer. apple. com/ textfonts/ TTRefMan/ RM01/ Chap1. html#master) Retrieved on
2009-06-21
[4] McGrew, Mac. American Metal Typefaces of the Twentieth Century (second edition). New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll Books, 1993: 85–87. ISBN
0-938768-39-5.
[5] Typophile.com (http:/ / typophile. com/ node/ 40309)
Typeface 575

[6] "Why use monospace fonts in your IDE?" (http:/ / stackoverflow. com/ questions/ 218623/ why-use-monospace-fonts-in-your-ide). .
Retrieved 2009-02-22.
[7] Cullen, Kristin. Layout Workbook: A Real-World Guide to Building Pages in Graphic Design, Jul 2005: 92
[8] "Glossary of Type & Font Terminology" (http:/ / www. ascendercorp. com/ support/ type-glossary/ ). Ascender Corporation. . Retrieved 20
May 2010.
[9] Carter, Day, and Meggs. Typographic Design: Form and Communication. Third Edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, 2002: 34.
[10] Williams, Robin. The Non-Designer's Type Book. Berkeley, CA: Peachpit Press, 1998: 16.
[11] Carter, Day, and Meggs. Typographic Design: Form and Communication. Third Edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, 2002: 35.
[12] Lynam, E. W. 1969. The Irish character in print: 1571–1923. New York: Barnes & Noble. First printed as Oxford University Press offprint
1924 in Transactions of the Bibliographical Society, 4th Series, Vol. IV, No. 4, March 1924.)
[13] McGuinne, Dermot. Irish type design: A history of printing types in the Irish character. Blackrock: Irish Academic Press. ISBN
0-7165-2463-5
[14] Everson, Michael History and classification of Gaelic typefaces (http:/ / www. evertype. com/ celtscript/ fonthist. html), 2000-06-19.
[15] Adobe Systems (http:/ / www. adobe. com/ type/ topics/ opticalsize. html), 2010-05-31.
[16] Adobe Systems, Inc. and Emigre, Inc. v. Southern Software, Inc. and King (No. C95-20710 RMW, N.D. Cal. January 30, 1998) (http:/ / lw.
bna. com/ lw/ 19980303/ 9520710. htm), BNA.com
[17] http:/ / abc. planet-typography. com/
[18] http:/ / typomil. com/ anatomy/ index. html
[19] http:/ / nwalsh. com/ comp. fonts/ FAQ/

Page (paper)
A page is one side of a leaf of paper. It can be used as a measurement
of documenting or recording quantity ("that topic covers twelve
pages").

The page in typography

In a book, the page on the left side is called the verso page and the
page on the right side is called the recto page. The verso and the recto
(the facing pages) together form what is referred to as a spread. Pages in a book

The first page of an English-language book is typically a recto page,

and the reader flips the pages from right to left. In right-to-left languages (Arabic, Hebrew, and Persian, plus Chinese
and Japanese when written vertically), the first page is verso and the reader flips the pages from left to right.
The process of placing the various text and graphical elements on the page in a visually organized way is called page
layout, and the relative lightness or darkness of the page is referred to as its colour.
In book typography, a “typical page” refers to a master design of a page, designed by the graphic designer or the
typographer of a book, that illustrates how similar pages in the same book can achieve a level of visual consistency.
To help maintain the desired consistency, the typical page may employ a grid system.
In a modern book, a page may contain a header and a footer. Pages may or may not be numbered, but most pages
usually are.
The pages appearing before the main text of a book (including the title page, preface, table of contents, etc.) are
collectively called the front matter and those appearing after the main text (appendices, colophon, etc.), the back
matter. Placement of the copyright page varies between different typographic traditions: in English-language books it
belongs to the front matter; however, in Chinese and Japanese, the copyright page is part of the back matter.
In English-language typography, the size of a page is traditionally measured in a unit called the pica.
Page (paper) 576

The page in library science

In library science, the number of pages in a book forms part of its physical description, coded in subfield 300$a in
MARC 21 and in subfield 215$a in UNIMARC. This description consists of the number of pages (or a list of such
numberings separated by commas, if the book contains separately-numbered sections), followed by the abbreviation
“p.” for “page(s)”. The number of pages is written in the same style (Arabic or Roman numerals, uppercase or
lowercase, etc.) as the numbering in each section. Unnumbered pages are not described.
For example,
XI, 2050 p.
describes a book with two sections, where section one contains 11 pages numbered using uppercase Roman
numerals, and section two contains 2050 pages numbered using Arabic numerals; the total number of pages is thus
2061 pages, plus any unnumbered pages.
If the book contains too many separately-numbered sections, too many unnumbered pages, or only unnumbered
pages, the librarian may choose to describe the book as just “1 v.” (one volume) when doing original cataloguing.

The printed page in computing

In word processors and spreadsheets, the process of dividing a document into actual pages of paper is called
pagination. Printing a large page on multiple small pages of paper is sometimes called tiling.
In early computing, computer output typically consists of monospaced text neatly arranged in equal number of
columns and rows on each printed page. Such pages are typically printed using line printers (or, in the case of
personal computers, character (usually dot matrix) printers) that accepts a simple code such as ASCII, and the end of
a printed page can be indicated by a control character called the form feed.
Page printers, printers that print one page at a time, typically accept page description languages. In the PostScript
page description language, the page being described is printed using the “showpage'’ operator.

References
• http://www.loc.gov/marc/bibliographic/ecbdphys.html
• http://www.ifla.org/VI/3/p1996-1/sect.htm
Note (typography) 577

Note (typography)
A note is a string of text placed at the bottom of a page in a book or document or at the end of a text. The note can
provide an author's comments on the main text or citations of a reference work in support of the text, or both. A
footnote is normally flagged by a superscripted number immediately following that portion of the text the note is in
reference to.
The first idea1 for the first footnote on the page, the second idea2 for the second footnote, and so on.
Occasionally a number between brackets or parentheses is used instead, thus: [1]. Typographical devices such as the
asterisk (*) or dagger (†) may also be used to point to footnotes; the traditional order of these symbols is *, †, ‡, §, ‖,
¶.[1] In documents like timetables, many different symbols, as well as letters and numbers, may be used to refer the
reader to particular notes.
Footnotes are notes at the foot of the page while endnotes are collected under a separate heading at the end of a
chapter in a book or a document. Unlike footnotes, endnotes have the advantage of not affecting the image of the
main text, but may cause inconvenience to readers who have to move back and forth between the main text and the
endnotes.
The U.S. Government Printing Office Style Manual devotes over two pages to the topic of footnotes.[2] NASA has
guidance for footnote usage in its historical documents.[3]

Academic usage
Notes are most often used as an alternative to long explanatory notes that can be distracting to readers. Most literary
style guidelines (including the Modern Language Association and the American Psychological Association)
recommend limited use of foot and endnotes. However, publishers often encourage note references in lieu of
parenthetical references. Aside from use as a bibliographic element, notes are used for additional information or
explanatory notes that might be too digressive for the main text.
The MLA (Modern Language Association) requires the superscript numbers in the main text to be placed following
the punctuation in the phrase or clause the note is in reference to. The exception to this rule occurs when you have a
hyphen in a sentence, in which case the superscript would appear before.
Aside from their technical use, authors use notes for a variety of reasons:
• As signposts to direct the reader to information the author has provided or where further useful information is
pertaining to the subject in the main text.
• To attribute to a quote or viewpoint.
• As an alternative to parenthetical references; it is a simpler way to acknowledge information gained from another
source.
• To escape the limitations imposed on the word count of various academic and legal texts which do not take into
account notes. Aggressive use of this strategy can lead the text to be seen as affected by what some people call
"footnote disease".
Note (typography) 578

Literary device
At times, notes have been used for their comical effect, or as a literary device.
• J.G. Ballard's "Notes Towards a Mental Breakdown," is one sentence ("A discharged Broadmoor patient compiles
'Notes Towards a Mental Breakdown,' recalling his wife's murder, his trial and exoneration.") and a series of
elaborate footnotes to each one of the words.
• Mark Z. Danielewski's House of Leaves uses what are arguably some of the most extensive and intricate footnotes
in literature. Throughout the novel, footnotes are used to tell several different narratives outside of the main story.
The physical orientation of the footnotes on the page also works to reflect the twisted feeling of the plot (often
taking up several pages, appearing mirrored from page to page, vertical on either side of the page, or in boxes in
the center of the page, in the middle of the central narrative).
• Flann O'Brien's The Third Policeman utilizes extensive and lengthy footnotes for the discussion of a fictional
philosopher, de Selby. These footnotes span several pages and often overtake the main plotline, and add to the
absurdist tone of the book.
• David Foster Wallace's Infinite Jest includes over 400 endnotes, some over a dozen pages long. Several literary
critics suggested that the book be read with two bookmarks. Wallace uses footnotes in much of his other writing
as well.
• Manuel Puig's Kiss of the Spider Woman (originally published in Spanish as El beso de la mujer araña) also
makes extensive use of footnotes.
• Garrison Keillor's Lake Wobegon Days includes lengthy footnotes and a parallel narrative.
• Mark Dunn's Ibid: A Life is written entirely in endnotes.
• Luis d'Antin van Rooten's Mots d'Heures: Gousses, Rames (the title is in French, but when pronounced, sounds
similar to the English "Mother Goose Rhymes"), in which he is allegedly the editor of a manuscript by the
fictional François Charles Fernand d’Antin, contains copious footnotes purporting to help explain the nonsensical
French text. The point of the book is that each written French poem sounds like an English nursery rhyme.
• Terry Pratchett has made numerous uses within his novels. The footnotes will often set up running jokes for the
rest of the novel.
• Susanna Clarke's Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell uses dozens of footnotes referencing a number of fictional
books including magical scholarship and biographies.
• Jonathan Stroud's The Bartimaeus Trilogy uses footnotes to insert comical remarks and explanations by one of the
protagonists, Bartimaeus.
• Michael Gerber's Barry Trotter parody series used footnotes to expand one-line jokes in the text into
paragraph-long comedic monologues that would otherwise break the flow of the narrative.
• John Green's An Abundance of Katherines uses footnotes in which he says: "[They] can allow you to create a kind
of secret second narrative, which is important if, say, you're writing a book about what a story is and whether
stories are significant."
• Jasper Fforde's Thursday Next series exploits the use of footnotes as a communication device (the footnoterphone)
which allows communication between the main character’s universe and the fictional bookworld.
• Ernest Hemingway's Natural History of the Dead uses a footnote to further satirize the style of a history while
making a sardonic statement about the extinction of "humanists" in modern society.
• Pierre Bayle's Historical and Critical Dictionary follows each brief entry with a footnote (often five or six times
the length of the main text) in which saints, historical figures, and other topics are used as examples for
philosophical digression. The separate footnotes are designed to contradict each other, and only when multiple
footnotes are read together is Bayle's core argument for Fideistic skepticism revealed. This technique was used in
part to evade the harsh censorship of 17th century France.
• Mordecai Richler's novel Barney's Version uses footnotes as a character device that highlights unreliable passages
in the narration. As the editor of his father's autobiography, the narrator's son must correct any of his father's
misstated facts. The frequency of these corrections increases as the father falls victim to both hubris and
Note (typography) 579

Alzheimer's disease. While most of these changes are minor, a few are essential to plot and character
development.
• In Vladimir Nabokov's Pale Fire, the main plot is told through the footnotes of a fictional editor.
• Bartleby y compañía, a novel by Enrique Vila-Matas, is stylized as footnotes to a nonexistent novel.

HTML
HTML, the predominant markup language for web pages, has no mechanism for marking up notes. Despite a number
of different proposals over the years, and repeated pleas from the user base, the working group has been unable to
reach a consensus on it. Because of this, MediaWiki, for example, has had to introduce its own <ref></ref> tag for
citing references in notes, an idea which has since also been implemented for generic use by the Nelson HTML
preprocessor.[4]
Some argue that the hyperlink, being the web's way to refer to another document, eliminates the need for notes. But
from a scholarly perspective this is considered insufficient, if only because it offers no way to cite offline sources.

Opponents
Associate Justice Stephen Breyer of the Supreme Court of the United States is famous in the American legal
community for his writing style, in which he never uses notes. He prefers to keep all citations within the text (which
is permitted in American legal citation).[5] Richard A. Posner has also written against the use of notes in judicial
opinions. Bryan A. Garner, however, advocates using notes instead of inline citations.[6]

See also
• Annotation
• Citation
• Comment
• Nota bene

Further reading
• Grafton, Anthony (1997). The Footnote: A Curious History. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN
0-674-90215-7.
• Zerby, Chuck (2002). The Devil's Details: A History of Footnotes. New York: Simon & Schuster.

References
[1] Robert Bringhurst (2005). The Elements of Typographic Style (version 3.1). Point Roberts, WA: Hartley and Marks. pp 68–69.
[2] "Chapter 15: Footnotes, indexes, contents, and outlines" (http:/ / www. gpoaccess. gov/ stylemanual/ browse. html). U.S. Government
Printing Office Style Manual. . Retrieved January 23, 2010.
[3] "A Guide to Footnotes and Endnotes for NASA History Authors" (http:/ / history. nasa. gov/ footnoteguide. html). NASA History Style Guide.
. Retrieved March 24, 2005.
[4] "Nelson HTML Preprocessor" (http:/ / nelsonhtml. com). . Retrieved 2009-06-09.
[5] "In Justice Breyer's Opinion, A Footnote Has No Place" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.
html?res=990CE1DC163EF93BA15754C0A963958260). The New York Times. 1995-07-28. . Retrieved 2008-04-30.
[6] See Indiana Courts – Footnotes in Legal Opinions (http:/ / indianalawblog. com/ archives/ 2005/ 01/ indiana_courts_99. html)
Braille 580

Braille
Braille
Type Alphabet (non-linear writing)

Spoken languages Several

Creator Louis Braille

Time period 1821 to the present

Parent systems Night writing

• Braille

Unicode range [1]

U+2800 to U+28FF

Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols.

The Braille system is a method that is widely used by blind people

to read and write. Braille was devised in 1821 by Louis Braille, a
blind Frenchman. Each Braille character or cell is made up of six
dot positions, arranged in a rectangle containing two columns of
three dots each. A dot may be raised at any of the six positions to
form sixty-four (26) possible subsets, including the arrangement in
which no dots are raised. For reference purposes, a particular
permutation may be described by naming the positions where dots
are raised, the positions being universally numbered 1 to 3, from
top to bottom, on the left, and 4 to 6, from top to bottom, on the
right. For example, dots 1-3-4 (⠍) would describe a cell with three
dots raised, at the top and bottom in the left column and on top of
the right column, i.e., the letter m. The lines of horizontal Braille
text are separated by a space, much like visible printed text, so that
the dots of one line can be differentiated from the Braille text
above and below. Punctuation is represented by its own unique set
of characters.
Braille code where the word ⠏⠗⠑⠍⠊⠑⠗ (premier, French
The Braille system was based on a method of communication for "first") can be read.

originally developed by Charles Barbier in response to Napoleon's

demand for a code that soldiers could use to communicate silently and without light at night called night writing.
Barbier's system was too complex for soldiers to learn, and was rejected by the military. In 1821 he visited the
National Institute for the Blind in Paris, France, where he met Louis Braille. Braille identified the major failing of
the code, which was that the human finger could not encompass the whole symbol without moving, and so could not
move rapidly from one symbol to another. His modification was to use a 6 dot cell — the Braille system — which
revolutionized written communication for the blind.
Braille 581

The Braille alphabet

Braille can be seen as the world's first binary encoding scheme for representing the characters of a writing system.
The system as originally invented by Braille consists of two parts:
1. A character encoding for mapping characters of the French language to tuples of six bits or dots.
2. A way of representing six-bit characters as raised dots in a Braille cell.
Today different Braille codes (or code pages) are used to map character sets of different languages to the six bit cells.
Different Braille codes are also used for different uses like mathematics and music. However, because the six-dot
Braille cell only offers 63 possible combinations (26 - 1 = 63), of which some are omitted because they feel the same
(having the same dots pattern in a different position, e.g. ⠊ and ⠔), many Braille characters have different meanings
based on their context. Therefore, character mapping is not one-to-one.
In addition to simple encoding, modern Braille transcription uses contractions to increase reading speed. (See: Grade
2 Braille)

Writing Braille
Braille may be produced using a slate and stylus in which each dot is created from the back of the page, writing in
mirror image, by hand, or it may be produced on a Braille typewriter or Perkins Brailler, or produced by a Braille
embosser attached to a computer. It may also be rendered using a refreshable Braille display.
Braille has been extended to an 8-dot code, particularly for use with Braille embossers and refreshable Braille
displays. In 8-dot Braille the additional dots are added at the bottom of the cell, giving a matrix 4 dots high by 2 dots
wide. The additional dots are given the numbers 7 (for the lower-left dot) and 8 (for the lower-right dot). Eight-dot
Braille has the advantages that the case of an individual letter is directly coded in the cell containing the letter and
that all the printable ASCII characters can be represented in a single cell. All 256 (28) possible combination of 8 dots
are encoded by the Unicode standard. Braille with six dots is frequently stored as Braille ASCII.
The first ten letters of the alphabet are formed using only the top four dots (1, 2, 4, and 5). Reminiscent of Greek
numerals, these symbols also represent the digits 1 through 9 and 0[2] (preceded by the symbol [number follows];
[number follows]j also stands for 10, within context)[3] . Adding dot 3 forms the next ten letters, and adding dot 6
forms the last six letters (except w) and the words and, for, of, the, and with. Omitting dot 3 from the letters U-Z and
the five word symbols form nine digraphs (ch, gh, sh, th, wh, ed, er, ou, and ow) and the letter w.

Letters and numbers

A, 1 B, 2 C, 3 D, 4 E, 5 F, 6
Braille 582

G, 7 H, 8 I, 9 J, 10 K, 11 L, 12

M, 13 N, 14 O, 15 P, 16 Q, 17 R, 18

S, 19 T, 20 U, 21 V, 22 W, 23 X, 24

Y, 25 Z, 26
Braille 583

Other symbols

Capital letter follows Number follows Apostrophe Full stop (Period) Comma Semicolon

Exclamation point Opening quotation Closing quotation Bracket Hyphen

mark, question mark mark (Parentheses) *
*

Note:
* The question mark is represented by dots 2-3-6—the same as the opening quotation mark. Therefore the placement
of the dots—before a word or after a word—will determine which symbol it is.
* Opening and closing parentheses are shown with the same symbol. Therefore, the placement context will
determine whether the parentheses is opening or closing.

Grade 2 Braille contractions

The word AND The letters CH The letters SH The letters ST The letters TH

This is just a small sample of some of the contractions that are used in Grade 2 Braille. More information about
Grade 2 Braille is below in the section on Braille transcription.
Braille also includes a number of whole word contractions, for example the word Braille becomes a three cell word
brl.
Braille 584

Unicode rendering table

The Unicode standard encodes 8-dot Braille glyphs according to their binary appearance, rather than following the
alphabetic order of any particular convention. Unicode defines the "Braille Patterns" character block in the hex
codepoint range from 2800 to 28FF.

Literacy
A sighted child who is reading at a basic level should be able to understand common words and answer simple
questions about the information presented.[4] They should also have enough fluency to get through the material in a
timely manner. Over the course of a child's education, these foundations are built upon in order to teach higher levels
of math, science, and comprehension skills.[4] Children who are blind, not only have the educational disadvantage of
not being able to see, they also miss out on the very fundamental parts of early and advanced education if not
provided with the necessary tools.

Braille literacy statistics

In 1960, 50% of legally blind, school-age children were able to read Braille in the U.S.[5] [6] According to the 2007
Annual Report from the American Printing House for the Blind, there are approximately 57,696 legally blind
children in the U.S. Out of those school-age children, only 10% use Braille as their primary reading medium.[7]
There are numerous causes for the decline in Braille usage, including school budget constraints, technology
advancement, and different philosophical views over how blind children should be educated.[8]
A key turning point for Braille literacy was the passage of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, an act of Congress that
moved thousands of children from specialized schools for the blind into mainstream public schools.[6] Because only
a small percentage of public schools could afford to train and hire Braille-qualified teachers, Braille literacy has
declined since the law took effect.[6] Braille literacy rates have improved slightly since the bill was passed, in part
because of pressure from consumers and advocacy groups that has led 27 states to pass legislation mandating that
children who are legally blind be given the opportunity to learn Braille.[8]
In 1998-99 there were approximately 55,200 legally blind children, but only 5,500 of them used Braille as their
primary reading medium.[9] [10] Early Braille education is crucial to literacy for a visually impaired child. A study
conducted in the state of Washington found that people who learned Braille at an early age did just as well, if not
better than their sighted peers in several areas, including vocabulary and comprehension. In the preliminary adult
study, while evaluating the correlation between adult literacy skills and employment, it was found that 44% of the
participants who had learned to read in Braille were unemployed, compared to the 77% unemployment rate of those
who had learned to read using print.[11] Currently, among the estimated 85,000 blind adults in the United States, 90%
of those who are Braille literate are employed. Among adults who do not know Braille, only 33% are employed.[6]
Statistically, history has proven that Braille reading proficiency provides an essential skill set that allows visually
impaired children not only to compete with their sighted peers in a school environment, but also later in life as they
enter the workforce.[8]
Though Braille is thought to be the main way blind people read and write, in Britain (for example) out of the
reported 2 million visually impaired population, it is estimated that only around 15-20 thousand people use Braille.
Younger people are turning to electronic text on computers with screen reader software instead, a more portable
communication method that they can also use with their friends. A debate has started on how to make Braille more
attractive and for more teachers to be available to teach it.
Braille 585

Braille transcription
Although it is possible to transcribe Braille by simply substituting the
equivalent Braille character for its printed equivalent, such a
character-by-character transcription (known as Grade 1 Braille) is used
only by beginners.
Braille characters are much larger than their printed equivalents, and
the standard 11" by 11.5" (28 cm × 30 cm) page has room for only 25
lines of 43 characters. To reduce space and increase reading speed,
virtually all Braille books are transcribed in what is known as Grade 2
Braille, which uses a system of contractions to reduce space and speed
Braille Writer
the process of reading. As with most human linguistic activities, Grade
2 Braille embodies a complex system of customs, styles, and practices.
The Library of Congress's Instruction Manual for Braille Transcribing
[12]
runs to nearly 200 pages. Braille transcription is skilled work, and
Braille transcribers need to pass certification tests.

In English, the system of Grade 2 Braille contractions begins with a set

of 23 words which are contracted to single characters. Thus the word
but is contracted to the single letter b, can to c, do to d, and so on. Even
this simple rule creates issues requiring special cases; for example, d is,
specifically, an abbreviation of the verb do; the noun do representing
the note of the musical scale is a different word, and must be spelled Braille on a box of tablets
out.

Portions of words may be contracted, and many rules govern this

process. For example, the character with dots 2-3-5 (the letter "f"
lowered in the Braille cell) stands for "ff" when used in the middle of a
word. At the beginning of a word, this same character stands for the
word "to" although the character is written in Braille with no space
following it; this contraction was removed in the Unified English
Braille Code. At the end of a word, the same character represents an
exclamation point.
Braille book and the same book in common
One problem that can occur when reading Grade 2 Braille is that some
letters
contractions are closely similar, even when the words are not. One
example compares the contractions "ll", meaning little, and "lr",
meaning letter from Barry Hampshire's "Working with Braille".[13] The braille notation for the letter "r" differs only
by adding one dot to the letter "l". This causes greater confusion between words that are not as similar in normal
print and can hinder the learning process of Grade 2 Braille.

The contraction rules take into account the linguistic structure of the word; thus, contractions are not to be used when
their use would alter the usual Braille form of a base word to which a prefix or suffix has been added. And some
portions of the transcription rules are not fully codified and rely on the judgment of the transcriber. Thus, when the
contraction rules permit the same word in more than one way, preference is given to "the contraction that more
nearly approximates correct pronunciation."
Grade 3 Braille [14] is a system that includes many additional contractions, almost a shorthand; it is not used for
publication, but is used mostly for individuals for their personal convenience.
Braille 586

Braille reading techniques

Since Braille is one of the few writing systems where tactile perception is used, as opposed to visual perception, a
Braille reader must develop new skills. One skill important for Braille readers is the ability to create smooth and
even pressures when running one's fingers along the words. There are many different styles and techniques used for
the understanding and development of Braille, even though a study by B. F. Holland [15] suggests that there is no
specific technique that is superior to any other.
Another study by Lowenfield & Abel [16] shows that Braille could be read "the fastest and best... by students who
read using the index fingers of both hands." Another important reading skill emphasized in this study is to finish
reading the end of a line with the right hand and to find the beginning of the next line with the left hand
simultaneously. One final conclusion drawn by both Lowenfield and Abel is that children have difficulty using both
hands independently where the right hand is the dominant hand. But this hand preference does not correlate to other
activities.

Braille for other scripts

See main articles: Hebrew braille, Japanese braille, Korean braille, Vietnamese braille, Tibetan braille, and
Chinese braille.
There are many extensions of Braille for additional letters with
diacritics, such as ç, ô, é.
When Braille is adapted to languages that do not use the Latin
alphabet, the blocks are generally assigned to the new alphabet
according to how it is transliterated into the Latin alphabet. The
alphabetic order of the national script (and therefore the natural
order of Latin Braille) is disregarded. Such is the case with
Russian, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, and Chinese. In Greek, for
example, gamma is written as Latin g, despite the fact that it has
the alphabetic position of c; Hebrew bet, the second letter of the Braille plate in Duftrosengarten in Rapperswil,
alphabet and cognate with the Latin letter b, is sometimes Switzerland
pronounced /b/ and sometimes /v/, and is written b or v
accordingly; Russian ts is written as c, which is the usual letter for /ts/ in those Slavic languages that use the Latin
alphabet; and Arabic f is written as f, despite being historically p, and occurring in that part of the Arabic alphabet
(between historic o and q). Esperanto letters with circumflexes, ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ and ŝ, are written as those letters without
circumflexes with a filled sixth dot. Therefore the letter ĵ has the same representation as the English w (⠺), to write a
w in Esperanto dot 3 is filled (⠾). The ŭ, used in Esperanto also, is as the u (⠥), but the first dot is moved to the fourth
place (⠬).

Greater differences occur in Chinese Braille. In the case of Mandarin Braille, which is based on Zhuyin rather than
the Latin Pinyin alphabet, the traditional Latin Braille values are used for initial consonants and the simple vowels.
However, on Latin Braille for many of the initial consonants and simple vowels (based on romanizations of a century
ago), but the blocks pull double duty, with different values depending on whether they're placed in syllable-initial or
syllable-final position. For instance, the block for Latin k represents old-style Cantonese k (g in Yale and other
modern romanizations) when initial, but aak when final, while Latin j represents Cantonese initial j but final oei.
At least three adaptations of Braille have completely reassigned the Latin sound values of the blocks: Japanese
Braille, Korean Braille, and Tibetan Braille. In Japanese Braille, alphabetic signs for a consonant and vowel are
combined into a single syllabic block; in Korean Braille, the consonants have different syllable-initial and
syllable-final forms. These modifications made Braille much more compatible with Japanese kana and Korean
hangul but meant that the Latin sound values could not be maintained.
Braille 587

Uses
The current series of Canadian banknotes has a tactile feature consisting of raised dots that indicate the
denomination, allowing bills to be easily identified by visually impaired people. It does not use standard Braille;
rather, the feature uses a system developed in consultation with blind and visually impaired Canadians after research
indicated that not all potential users read Braille.
Mexican bank notes and Indian Rupee notes also have special raised symbols to make them identifiable by the
visually impaired.
In India there are instances where the parliament acts have been published in Braille, such as 'The Right to
Information Act' [17].

Unicode

Braille Patterns
Unicode.org chart [1] (PDF)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

U+280x ⠀ ⠁ ⠂ ⠃ ⠄ ⠅ ⠆ ⠇ ⠈ ⠉ ⠊ ⠋ ⠌ ⠍ ⠎ ⠏
U+281x ⠐ ⠑ ⠒ ⠓ ⠔ ⠕ ⠖ ⠗ ⠘ ⠙ ⠚ ⠛ ⠜ ⠝ ⠞ ⠟
U+282x ⠠ ⠡ ⠢ ⠣ ⠤ ⠥ ⠦ ⠧ ⠨ ⠩ ⠪ ⠫ ⠬ ⠭ ⠮ ⠯
U+283x ⠰ ⠱ ⠲ ⠳ ⠴ ⠵ ⠶ ⠷ ⠸ ⠹ ⠺ ⠻ ⠼ ⠽ ⠾ ⠿
U+284x ⡀ ⡁ ⡂ ⡃ ⡄ ⡅ ⡆ ⡇ ⡈ ⡉ ⡊ ⡋ ⡌ ⡍ ⡎ ⡏
U+285x ⡐ ⡑ ⡒ ⡓ ⡔ ⡕ ⡖ ⡗ ⡘ ⡙ ⡚ ⡛ ⡜ ⡝ ⡞ ⡟
U+286x ⡠ ⡡ ⡢ ⡣ ⡤ ⡥ ⡦ ⡧ ⡨ ⡩ ⡪ ⡫ ⡬ ⡭ ⡮ ⡯
U+287x ⡰ ⡱ ⡲ ⡳ ⡴ ⡵ ⡶ ⡷ ⡸ ⡹ ⡺ ⡻ ⡼ ⡽ ⡾ ⡿
U+288x ⢀ ⢁ ⢂ ⢃ ⢄ ⢅ ⢆ ⢇ ⢈ ⢉ ⢊ ⢋ ⢌ ⢍ ⢎ ⢏
U+289x ⢐ ⢑ ⢒ ⢓ ⢔ ⢕ ⢖ ⢗ ⢘ ⢙ ⢚ ⢛ ⢜ ⢝ ⢞ ⢟
U+28Ax ⢠ ⢡ ⢢ ⢣ ⢤ ⢥ ⢦ ⢧ ⢨ ⢩ ⢪ ⢫ ⢬ ⢭ ⢮ ⢯
U+28Bx ⢰ ⢱ ⢲ ⢳ ⢴ ⢵ ⢶ ⢷ ⢸ ⢹ ⢺ ⢻ ⢼ ⢽ ⢾ ⢿
U+28Cx ⣀ ⣁ ⣂ ⣃ ⣄ ⣅ ⣆ ⣇ ⣈ ⣉ ⣊ ⣋ ⣌ ⣍ ⣎ ⣏
U+28Dx ⣐ ⣑ ⣒ ⣓ ⣔ ⣕ ⣖ ⣗ ⣘ ⣙ ⣚ ⣛ ⣜ ⣝ ⣞ ⣟
U+28Ex ⣠ ⣡ ⣢ ⣣ ⣤ ⣥ ⣦ ⣧ ⣨ ⣩ ⣪ ⣫ ⣬ ⣭ ⣮ ⣯
U+28Fx ⣰ ⣱ ⣲ ⣳ ⣴ ⣵ ⣶ ⣷ ⣸ ⣹ ⣺ ⣻ ⣼ ⣽ ⣾ ⣿
Braille 588

See also
• Sign language
• Thérèse-Adèle Husson

External links

Organizations
• Association Valentin Haüy [18]
• Braille Authority of North America [19]
• Braille - American Foundation for the Blind [20]
• National Braille Week [21]
• Scottish Braille Press [22]
• Royal National Institute For The Blind [23]
• Perkins School for the Blind [24]
• National Braille Press [25] - offers a free Braille alphabet card [26]
• Alternate Text Production Center [27]
• Accessible Media Center [28]
• National Braille Association, Inc. [29]
• Royal Blind School. [30]
• Braille Institute of America [31]
• Comité Internacional ProCiegos, IAP - México [32]
• Esha - People for the Blind [33]

Libraries
• The National Library for the Blind [34]
• Libraries Australia [35] - catalog of Braille in 800+ Australian libraries
• Washington Talking Book & Braille Library [36] - serving residents of the State of Washington, USA
• Braille Institute: Online Public Access Catalog [37]

Learning
• Learn Braille on the Internet For Free [38]
• Braille Bug - an educational site for kids, from the American Foundation for the Blind [39]
• BRL: Braille Through Remote Learning [40]
• On-line Braille Course of University of São Paulo [41]
• Online Braille Generator [42]
• A Braille alphabet card [26]
• Learn Braille online [43], change own text to Braille, Braille Writer Simulator and more
• Braille Challenge competition for blind students in North America [44]
• English Braille, American Edition 1994, 2002 revision. (The official standard from the Braille Authority of North
America) [45]
• Instruction manual for Braille Transcribing (New 2009 Edition) from the Library of Congress Braille
Transcription and Certification Program [46]
Braille 589

History
• Proceedings of “Braille 1809-2009: Writing with six dots and its future” [47], international conference held at the
Headquarters of UNESCO (Paris) from 5 to 8 January 2009
• Celebrating 200 Years of Braille [48]
• Happy Birthday Louis! [49] RNIB celebrates the bicentenary of the birth of Louis Braille
• Louis Braille Online Museum [50] -- An all-new illustrated exhibit traces the history of braille and the life of this
remarkable inventor.
• How Braille Began [51] -- a detailed history of Braille's origins and the people who supported and opposed the
system.
• Robert B. Irwin's As I Saw It [52], 1955, gives a history of the "War of the Dots" that ultimately led to the adoption
of the English form of the Braille literary code in the United States and the demise of American Braille and New
York Point, its main competitors.
• Making a Newspaper For Sightless Readers: By means of raised dots and lines embossed on manila paper, news
of the world is conveyed to the fingertips of the blind [53] Popular Science( monthly, January 1919, page 24-25,
Scanned by Google Books )
• Historically Famous People who were Blind or Visually Impaired [54]

Documents
• English Braille: American Edition [55]
• Library of Congress Instructional Manual for Braille Transcribing [12]
• Details on Braille cell representation [56]
• Unified (English) Braille Code [57] (including information specific to British Braille)
• Braille code for Russian [58] and transliteration of Cyrillic

Legal
• India-Right to Information Act in Braille [17]
• US copyright exemption for Braille [59]

Language specific resources

• Devanagari to (Bharati) Braille Converter [60] Download or use online.
• Bharati Braille for Indian Languages [61]
• Braille Without Borders - Braille for Tibetans [62]
• Greek Braille System [63]

Computer resources
• Braille for various scripts [64]
• Free Braille fonts [65]
• Free Unicode Braille TTF font (supports all Braille scripts) [66]
• Free Unicode fonts which include Braille [67]
• Free Converter from Russian and English to Braille [68]
Braille 590

References
[1] http:/ / www. unicode. org/ charts/ PDF/ U2800. pdf
[2] Shampa Bose (contact) (1999-2010), "About Braille: A Brief History" (http:/ / www. canadianbrailleauthority. ca/ en/ about_braille. php),
Canadian Braille Authority website, , retrieved 2010-8-12
[3] Linda Perry, Martha Pamperin, Vileen Shah and Susan Fisher (2009), "Braille Numbers" (http:/ / www. hadley. edu/ resources_list_detail.
asp?resourceid=12), Hadley School for the Blind website, , retrieved 2010-8-12
[4] Dr. Grover (Russ) Whitehurst, Research: Evidence Based Education Science and the Challenge of Learning to Read (http:/ / www.
childrenofthecode. org/ ), , retrieved 2009-04-20
[5] American Foundation for the Blind: Programs and Policy Research, "Estimated Number of Adult Braille Readers in the United States" (http:/
/ www. braille. org/ papers/ jvib0696/ vb960329. htm), International Braille Research Center (IBRC), , retrieved 2009-04-15
[6] Ranalli, Ralph (2008-01-05), "A Boost for Braille" (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ local/ articles/ 2008/ 01/ 05/ a_boost_for_braille/ ), The
Boston Globe, , retrieved 2009-04-17
[7] American Printing House for the Blind (2008), "Facts and Figures on Americans with Vision Loss" (http:/ / www. afb. org/ Section.
asp?SectionID=15& DocumentID=4398), American Foundation for the Blind, , retrieved 2009-04-16
[8] Riles, Ruby, "The Impact of Braille Reading Skills on Employment, Income, Education, and Reading Habits" (http:/ / www. braille. org/
papers/ jvib0696/ vb960311. htm), Braille Research Center, , retrieved 2009-04-15
[9] American Printing House for the Blind (A.P.H.) (1999), APH maintains an annual register of legally blind persons in educational settings
below the college level (http:/ / www. aph. org), , retrieved 2009-04-15
[10] Ebnet, Matthew (2001-06-30), "Braille Challenge Gives Young Blind Students a Chance to Shine" (http:/ / articles. latimes. com/ 2001/ jun/
30/ local/ me-16960), Los Angeles Times, , retrieved 2009-04-15
[11] Riles Ph.D., Ruby (2004), "Research Study: Early Braille Education Vital" (http:/ / www. nfb. org/ Images/ nfb/ Publications/ fr/ fr14/
fr04se22. htm), Future Reflections, , retrieved 2009-04-15
[12] http:/ / loc. gov/ nls/ bds/ manual/
[13] Hampshire, Barry. Working with Braille. Paris: Unesco P, 1981.
[14] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050329073830/ http:/ www. geocities. com/ jyyne_2000/ grade3. htm
[15] B.F. Holland, 'Speed and Pressure Factors in Braille Reading', Teachers Forum, Vol. 7, September 1934 p. 13-17
[16] B. Lowenfield and G. L. Abel, Methods of Teaching Braille Reading Efficiency of Children in Lower Senior Classes. Birmingham, Research
Centre for the Education of the Visually Handicapped, 1977
[17] http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2006/ 07/ 04/ stories/ 2006070402351200. htm
[18] http:/ / www. avh. asso. fr/ rubrics/ association/ association. php?langue=eng&
[19] http:/ / www. brailleauthority. org/
[20] http:/ / www. afb. org/ braille. asp
[21] http:/ / www. nationalbrailleweek. org
[22] http:/ / www. royalblind. org/ scottishbraillepress/
[23] http:/ / www. rnib. org. uk
[24] http:/ / www. perkins. org/
[25] http:/ / www. nbp. org/
[26] http:/ / www. nbp. org/ ic/ nbp/ braille/ index. html?id=PZoXeJDm
[27] http:/ / www. atpc. net/
[28] http:/ / www. techadapt. com/
[29] http:/ / www. nationalbraille. org/
[30] http:/ / www. royalblind. org/
[31] http:/ / www. brailleinstitute. org/
[32] http:/ / www. prociegos. com
[33] http:/ / www. braillecards. org/
[34] http:/ / www. nlb-online. org
[35] http:/ / librariesaustralia. nla. gov. au
[36] http:/ / www. wtbbl. org
[37] http:/ / www. brailleinstitute. org/ braille_institute_library_online_catalog%20
[38] http:/ / www. amdsupport. ca/ articles/ 26/ 1/ Learn-Braille-on-the-Internet-for-Free/ Page1. html
[39] http:/ / www. afb. org/ braillebug/
[40] http:/ / www. brl. org
[41] http:/ / www. braillevirtual. fe. usp. br
[42] http:/ / byronknoll. com/ braille. html
[43] http:/ / www. fakoo. info/ braille-learn. html
[44] http:/ / www. braillechallenge. org/
[45] http:/ / www. loc. gov/ nls/ bds/ bana/ bana_entire. pdf
[46] http:/ / www. nfb. org/ images/ nfb/ documents/ pdf/ NLS%205th%20ED-Electronic%20Version. pdf
Braille 591

[47] http:/ / www. avh. asso. fr/ rubriques/ infos_braille/ bicentenaire_louis_braille. php
[48] http:/ / www. afb. org/ louisbraille
[49] http:/ / www. rnib. org. uk/ livingwithsightloss/ readingwriting/ braille/ louis_braille_bicentenary/ Pages/ louis_braille_bicentenary. aspx
[50] http:/ / www. afb. org/ louisbraillemuseum
[51] http:/ / www. brailler. com/ braillehx. htm
[52] http:/ / www. nyise. org/ blind/ irwin2. htm
[53] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=HykDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA24
[54] http:/ / www. brailleworks. com/ Resources/ FamousPeoplewithVisualImpairments. aspx
[55] http:/ / www. brl. org/ ebae/
[56] http:/ / www. tiresias. org/ publications/ reports/ braille_cell. htm
[57] http:/ / www. iceb. org/ ubc. html
[58] http:/ / www. russki-mat. net/ trans. htm
[59] http:/ / www. copyright. gov/ title17/ 92chap1. html#121
[60] http:/ / technical-hindi. googlegroups. com/ web/ Devanagari+ to+ Braille+ Converter_09.
htm?gda=cxGsfFgAAACQH9vJztoMqnBOz3Z4MVUz0HzqkX8_wdNvbcLzcXyV47tzrA_6Z_miS0nQSD8N0HzkMzkuOxkybZf7UDv4b3n2QSUx-b5VnCskJ7i
gsc=OJ3s_AsAAADDaHByRKepG5F7qVWj8Ktk
[61] http:/ / acharya. iitm. ac. in/ disabilities/ bh_brl. php
[62] http:/ / www. braillewithoutborders. org/ ENGLISH/ index. html
[63] http:/ / access. uoa. gr/ Unit%20Instructions%20Files/ Greek%20Braille%20System. pdf
[64] http:/ / homepages. cwi. nl/ ~dik/ english/ codes/ braille. html
[65] http:/ / www. tsbvi. edu/ Education/ fonts. html
[66] http:/ / yudit. org/ download/ fonts/ UBraille/ UBraille. ttf
[67] http:/ / www. wazu. jp/ gallery/ Fonts_Braille. html
[68] http:/ / braille. ru/ english/
Courier (font) 592

Courier (font)

Category Monospaced

Classification Slab serif

Designer(s) Howard "Bud"

Kettler

Courier is a monospaced slab serif typeface designed to resemble the output from a strike-on typewriter. The
typeface was designed by Howard "Bud" Kettler in 1955. The design of the original Courier typeface was
commissioned in the 1950s by IBM for use in typewriters, but they did not secure legal exclusivity to the typeface
and it soon became a standard font used throughout the typewriter industry. As a monospaced font, it has recently
found renewed use in the electronic world in situations where columns of characters must be consistently aligned. It
has also become an industry standard for all screenplays to be written in 12 point Courier or a close variant.
The font was later redrawn by Adrian Frutiger for the IBM Selectric Composer series of electric typewriters.
12 point Courier New was also the U.S. State Department's standard typeface until January 2004, when it was
replaced with 14 point Times New Roman. Reasons for the change included the desire for a more "modern" and
"legible" font.[1] [2] [3]
Kettler was once quoted about how the name was chosen. The font was nearly released with the name "Messenger."
After giving it some thought, Kettler said, "A letter can be just an ordinary messenger, or it can be the courier, which
radiates dignity, prestige, and stability."[2]

Variants

Courier New
Courier New is a version of Courier introduced with Windows 3.1, which also included raster Courier fonts. The font
family comprises Courier New, Courier New Bold, Courier New Italic, Courier New Bold Italic. Courier New
features higher line space than Courier. Punctuation marks are reworked to make the dots and commas heavier.
Version 2.76 or later includes Hebrew and Arabic glyphs, with most of Arabic added on non-italic fonts. The styling
of Arabic glyphs is similar to those found in Times New Roman, but are adjusted to be monospaced.
Courier New has been updated to version 5.00; which includes over 3100 glyphs, covering over 2700 characters per
font.
Although the fonts are produced by Monotype (who also own the Courier trademark and the Courier New
copyrights), only Ascender Corporation sells the fonts commercially. The Ascender fonts have 'WGL' at the end of
the font name, and cover only the WGL characters. Courier New has no Ogham characters.
Courier New is used as default font for monospace/modern generic font family in MS Windows (since Windows
3.1). Courier is used as default font for monospace/modern generic font family in Mac OS X.
Courier (font) 593

Code page variants

Courier New Baltic, Courier New CE, Courier New Cyr, Courier New Greek, Courier New Tur are aliases created in
the FontSubstitutes section of WIN.INI by Windows. These entries all point to the master font. When an alias font
is specified, the font's character map contains a different character set from the master font and the other alias fonts.

Courier Standard
Courier Standard, Courier Standard Bold, Courier Standard Bold Italic, Courier Standard Italic are fonts distributed
with Adobe Reader 6, as a replacement for the PostScript Courier fonts. The stroke terminators are flat instead of
round. It contains code pages 1252, Windows OEM Character Set. The font is Hinted and Smoothed for all point
sizes. It contains OpenType layout tables aalt, dlig, frac, ordn, sups for Default Language in Latin script; dlig for
TUR language in Latin script. Each font contains 374 glyphs.

Free alternatives
There are some free metric-compatible fonts used as Courier alternatives or for Courier font substitution:
• URW++ produced a version of Courier called Nimbus Mono L in 1984, and eventually released under the GPL
and AFPL (as Type 1 font for Ghostscript) in 1996[4] [5] [6] . It is one of the Ghostscript fonts, a free alternatives to
35 basic PostScript fonts (which include Courier). It is available in major free and open source operating systems.
• Liberation Mono is metrically equivalent font to Courier New developed by Ascender Corp. and published by
Red Hat in 2007 under the GPL license with some exceptions.[7] It is used in some GNU/Linux distributions as
default font replacement for Courier New.[8]
• FreeMono, a free font descending from URW++ Nimbus Mono L, which in turn descends from Courier.[9] [10] It
is one of free fonts developed in GNU FreeFont project, first published in 2002. It is used in some free software
as Courier replacement or for Courier font substitution.

Applications

In Latin 1 text
Courier is commonly used in ASCII art because it is a monospaced font and is available almost universally.
"Solid-style" ASCII art uses the darkness/lightness of each character to portray an object, which can be quantified in
pixels (here in pt. 12):

a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z

21 25 18 25 24 19 28 24 14 15 25 16 30 21 20 27 27 18 21 17 19 17 25 20 21 21

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

25 29 21 26 29 25 27 31 18 19 28 20 36 24 20 25 28 30 28 24 27 22 30 26 23 24

` 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 - = ~ ! @ # $ % ^ & * ( ) _ +

2 16 19 20 23 23 23 16 26 23 24 6 12 9 9 36 30 26 20 7 24 21 13 13 9 13

0152

[ ] \ ; ' , . / { } | : " < > ?

17 17 8 11 4 7 4 8 16 16 13 8 8 9 9 13
Courier (font) 594

In programming
Courier New is used extensively in programming. For example, online forums, such as phpBB, SMF, and vBulletin,
will use Courier New for <code> blocks; on Microsoft Windows it is a default monospaced font for a variety of
applications, such as Notepad, Visual Studio (although the Consolas font family is provided as an alternative)[11] .

See also
• Core fonts for the Web
• Monospaced font
• Proportional font
• Sentence spacing

References
[1] US bans time-honoured typeface (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ news/ stories/ 2004/ 01/ 30/ 1034726. htm)
[2] Goodbye to the Courier font? (http:/ / www. slate. com/ id/ 2095809/ ) - Tom Vanderbilt, Slate.com, 20 February 2004.
[3] Paul Shaw (2004-03-10). "State Department bans Courier New 12, except for treaties" (http:/ / www. aiga. org/ content. cfm/
state-department-bans-courier-new-12-except-for-treaties). . Retrieved 2010-04-15.
[4] Finally! Good-quality free (GPL) basic-35 PostScript Type 1 fonts. (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20021023155414/ http:/ / www.
geocrawler. com/ archives/ 3/ 378/ 1996/ 5/ 0/ 2064811/ ), archived from the original (http:/ / www. geocrawler. com/ archives/ 3/ 378/ 1996/
5/ 0/ 2064811/ ) on 2002-10-23, , retrieved 2010-05-06
[5] (TXT) Finally! Good-quality free (GPL) basic-35 PostScript Type 1 fonts. (http:/ / www. tug. org/ fonts/ deutsch-urw. txt), , retrieved
2010-05-06
[6] "Fonts and TeX" (http:/ / www. tug. org/ fonts/ ). 2009-12-19. . Retrieved 2010-05-06.
[7] License.txt - LICENSE AGREEMENT AND LIMITED PRODUCT WARRANTY, LIBERATION FONT SOFTWARE (https:/ / fedorahosted.
org/ liberation-fonts/ browser/ master/ License. txt), , retrieved 2010-01-15
[8] Mandriva Linux 2008 Release Tour (http:/ / wiki. mandriva. com/ en/ Releases/ Mandriva/ 2008. 0/ What's_New#Liberation_font_set), ,
retrieved 2010-04-04, "integrated into Mandriva Linux 2008"
[9] "GNU FreeFont - Why do we need free outline UCS fonts?" (http:/ / www. gnu. org/ software/ freefont/ articles/ Why_Free_Fonts. html).
2009-10-04. . Retrieved 2010-07-02.
[10] "GNU FreeFont - Design notes" (http:/ / www. gnu. org/ software/ freefont/ design-notes. html). 2009-10-04. . Retrieved 2010-07-02.
[11] (http:/ / msmvps. com/ blogs/ cdistilled/ archive/ 2006/ 05/ 27/ 97221. aspx), Microsoft Visual Studio - alternative to Courier New font

• Macmillan, Neil. An A–Z of Type Designers. Yale University Press: 2006. ISBN 0-300-11151-7.

External links
• Courier New font information (http://www.microsoft.com/typography/fonts/font.aspx?FID=10&
FNAME=Courier New) (Microsoft typography)
• Downloadable version of Courier New (http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/corefonts/courie32.
exe?download) (Core fonts for the Web)
• Designer of Courier: the Bud Kettler Page (http://web.archive.org/web/20021016124908/http://www.
graphos.org/courier.html)
• Courier designer dies, aged 80 (http://www.microsoft.com/typography/links/news.aspx?NID=985)
• Typeart history: Courier (http://www.typeart.com/history.asp?FID=43)
• Digital Media Typography, layout and concept (http://pktweb.com/drnn1076/mdm/courier-final-doc.pdf)
covers history of courier and Kettler
Times Roman 595

Times Roman

Category Serif

Classification Transitional
PANOSE:
2263545234

Designer(s) Timothy Ketcher

Victor Lardent

Commissioned by The Times

Foundry Monotype

Date released 1931

Times New Roman is a serif typeface commissioned

by the British newspaper The Times in 1931, designed
by Stanley Morison and Victor Lardent at the English
branch of Monotype.[1] It was commissioned after
Stanley Morison had written an article criticizing The
Times for being badly printed and typographically
behind the times.[2] The font was supervised by
Morison and drawn by Victor Lardent, an artist from
the advertising department of The Times. Morison used
an older font named Plantin as the basis for his design,
but made revisions for legibility and economy of space.
As the old type used by the newspaper had been called
Times Old Roman, Morison's revision became Times
New Roman and made its debut in the 3 October 1932
issue of The Times newspaper.[3] After one year, the
design was released for commercial sale. The Times
stayed with Times New Roman for 40 years, but new
production techniques and the format change from
broadsheet to tabloid in 2004 have caused the Size and spacing comparisons of the Georgia and Times New Roman
newspaper to switch font five times since 1972. typefaces.
However, all the new fonts have been variants of the
original New Roman font.

Some experts believe that the design was based on an earlier original work of William Starling Burgess.[4] This
theory remains controversial.[5]
Times Roman 596

Because of its ubiquity, the typeface has been influential in the subsequent development of a number of serif
typefaces both before and after the start of the digital-font era. One notable example is Georgia, shown below on the
right, which has very similar stroke shapes to Times New Roman but wider serifs.
Although no longer used by The Times, Times New Roman is still widely used in book typography, particularly in
mass-market paperbacks in the United States. Especially due to its adoption in Microsoft products, it has become one
of the most ubiquitous typefaces in history.

Times 4-line Mathematics Series 569

This is a variant designed for printing mathematical formulae, using the 4‑line system for mathematics developed by
Monotype in 1957. Developed from Times New Roman Series 327, it contained many new glyphs that were drawn
to reduce the need for kerning and enable, where appropriate, the reuse of matrices for both superior and inferior
characters. Greek characters, operators, and other mathematical symbols previously cut for other series were added
to Series 569 and redrawn to harmonize with its overall design. New matrices were also made for oversized fence
characters (brackets, braces, parentheses, etc.) in sizes up to 72 point. The italic glyphs have a reduced slant of 12
degrees to minimize the need for kerning. The family includes Greek, fraktur, and script alphabets; alternate versions
of many glyphs; numerous versions with attached accent marks or maths symbols; and a vast selection of maths
symbols. Originally between 700 and 800 different matrices were prepared for the initial release, but by 1971 this
number had grown to over 8,000, with up to 5 new matrices still being added each week.

Monotype/Linotype retail versions

Times New Roman

This family includes Times New Roman (roman, bold), Times New Roman Medium (roman, bold), Times New
Roman Semi Bold (roman, bold), Times New Roman Bold (roman, bold), Times New Roman Extra Bold, Times
New Roman PS (roman, bold, italics), Times New Roman Condensed (roman, bold, italic), Times New Roman
Small Text (roman, bold, italic), Times New Seven (roman, bold, italics).

Times New Roman WGL

It includes fonts in WGL character sets, and only sold in TrueType format. It includes Times New Roman regular,
bold, italic, bold italic.

Times New Roman World

It is a version based on Windows Vista fonts. It includes fonts in WGL character sets, Hebrew, Arabic characters.
Similar to Helvetica World, Arabic in italic fonts are in roman positions.

Variants

Times Roman and Times New Roman

Times Roman and, and its licenses like Adobe and Apple, is the font family used by Linotype. Times New Roman,
and its licenses like Miscrosoft, is licensed from Monotype. Linotype classifies Times Roman as the upright
(Roman) font of the Times family.
Linotype received registration status for Times Roman in 1945. In the 1980s, there was an attempt by unknown
entrepreneurs to seek Rupert Murdoch, who owned The Times, the right to use the Times Roman name; separately, a
legal action was also initiated to clarify the right of Monotype to use the name in the US despite Linotype's
registration. As a result of legal action, Linotype and its licensees continue to use the name Times Roman, while
Times Roman 597

Monotype and its licensees use the name Times New Roman.[6]
Although Times and Times New Roman are variations on a theme from the Times family, various differences
developed between the versions marketed by Linotype and Monotype when the master fonts were transferred from
metal to photo and digital media. For example, Linotype has slanted serifs on the capital S, while Monotype's are
vertical, and the addition of a serif on the number 5 [7] in Linotype's that is absent in Monotype's. Most of these
differences are invisible in body text at normal reading distances, or 10pts at 300 dpi. (Vivid differences between the
two versions do occur in the lowercase z in the italic weight and in the percent sign in all weights.) Subtle
competition grew between the two foundries, as the proportions and details as well as the width metrics for their
version of Times grew apart.[8]
Microsoft's version of Times New Roman licensed from Monotype matches the widths from the Adobe/Linotype
version (a PostScript core font by Linotype). It has the lighter capitals that were originally developed for printing
German (where all nouns begin with a capital letter). Versions of Times New Roman from Monotype exist which
vary from the Linotype metrics (i.e. not the same as the version for Microsoft).

Others
• Times Ten is a version of Times by Linotype, specially designed for
smaller text (12 point and below). It features wider characters and
stronger hairlines.
• Times Eighteen is the headline version of Times by Linotype, ideal
for point sizes of 18 and larger. The characters are subtly condensed and the hairlines are finer.
• URW++ produced a version of Times New Roman called Nimbus Roman in 1982. Nimbus Roman No9 L,
URW's PostScript variant, was released under the GNU General Public License in 1996[9] [10] , and available in
major free and open source operating systems.
• FreeSerif, a free font descending from URW++ Nimbus Roman No9 L, which in turn descends from Times.[11]
[12]
It is one of free (GPL) fonts developed in GNU FreeFont project, first published in 2002. It is used in some
free software as Times Roman replacement or for Times Roman font substitution.
• Liberation Serif is metrically equivalent font to Times New Roman developed by Ascender Corp. and published
by Red Hat in 2007 under the GPL license with some exceptions.[13] It is used in some GNU/Linux distributions
as default font replacement for Times New Roman.[14]
• CG Times is a variant of Times family made by Compugraphic Corporation foundry.
• Pelham is a version of Times Roman by DTP Types of Britain, which also cut an infant version with single-story
versions of the letters a and g.
• Times Europa Office is an update to Times Europa, designed by Akira Kobayashi (released 2006). It contains
tabulated numbers, mathematical signs, and currency symbols. Each character has the same advanced width in all
the fonts in the family. In addition, cap heights and x-heights are the same.[15]

Other typefaces used by The Times

The Times newspaper has commissioned various alternatives to Times New Roman:
• Times Europa was designed by Walter Tracy in 1972 for The Times, as a sturdier alternative to the Times font
family, designed for the demands of faster printing presses and cheaper paper. The typeface features more open
counter spaces.
• Times Roman replaced Times Europa on 30 August 1982.[16]
• Times Millennium was made in 1991,[17] drawn by Gunnlaugur Briem on the instructions of Aurobind Patel,
composing manager of News International.
• Times Classic first appeared in 2001.[18] Designed as an economical face by the British type team of Dave Farey
and Richard Dawson, it took advantage of the new PC-based publishing system at the newspaper, while obviating
Times Roman 598

the production shortcomings of its predecessor Times Millennium. The new typeface included 120 letters per
font. Initially the family comprised ten fonts, but a condensed version was added in 2004.
• Times Modern was unveiled on 20 November 2006, as the successor of Times Classic.[16] Designed for
improving legibility in smaller font sizes, it uses 45-degree angled bracket serifs. The font was published by
Elsner + Flake as EF Times Modern. The font was designed by Research Studios, led by Ben Preston, Deputy
Editor of The Times, in partnership with Neville Brody, former art director of The Face, and lead designer on
Actuel, City Limits and Arena magazines. The design team included Ben Preston, David Driver, Mike Prowse,
Chris Davalle, Kathleen Wyatt Research Studios: Neville Brody, Jon Hill, Luke Prowse.[19]

Uses
• Microsoft has distributed Times New Roman with every copy of Microsoft Windows since version 3.1, and the
typeface is used as the default in many applications for MS Windows, especially word processors and Web
browsers.
• Linotype's Times Roman is the default Apple Mac OS X font for serif/roman generic font family. Monotype's
Times New Roman is installed by default in latest versions of Mac OS X (e.g. 10.4).[20]
• In 2004, the United States Department of State announced that as of 1 February 2004, all US diplomatic
documents would use 14-point Times New Roman instead of the previous 12-point Courier New.[21] [22]
• Researchers in 2008 found that satirical readings of text printed in Times New Roman were perceived as more
funny and angry than those printed in Arial. [23]

William Starling Burgess

In 1994, the printing historian Mike Parker published evidence that the design of Times New Roman was based on a
1904 design of William Starling Burgess.[4] This theory remains controversial.[5] The Times Online web site credits
the design to "Stanley Morrison, Victor Lardent and perhaps Starling Burgess".[24]

See also
• Arial
• Core fonts for the Web
• Helvetica
• Liberation fonts
• List of typefaces
• MathTime
• Unicode fonts
• Verdana

References
[1] Loxley, Simon (2006). Type: the secret history of letters. I. B. Tauris & Co. Ltd. pp. 130–131. ISBN 1 84511 028 5.
[2] Carter, H. G. (2004). ‘Morison, Stanley Arthur (1889–1967)’. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,. rev. David McKitterick. Oxford
University Press,.
[3] TYPOlis: Times New Roman (http:/ / www. typolis. de/ version1/ engl/ ftimes. htm)
[4] Parker, Mike (1994). "W. Starling Burgess, Type Designer?". Printing History 31/32: 52–108.
[5] Alas, Joel (2009-08-01). "The history of the Times New Roman typeface" (http:/ / www. ft. com/ cms/ s/ 2/
a2fa033e-7ca1-11de-a7bf-00144feabdc0. html). Financial Times. . Retrieved 2009-08-26.
[6] Times (New) Roman and its part in the Development of Scalable Fount Technology (http:/ / www. truetype-typography. com/ articles/ times.
htm)
[7] http:/ / www. creativepro. com/ blog/ typetalk-times-roman-vs-times-new-roman
[8] http:/ / www. truetype-typography. com/ articles/ times. htm
Times Roman 599

[9] (TXT) Finally! Good-quality free (GPL) basic-35 PostScript Type 1 fonts. (http:/ / www. tug. org/ fonts/ deutsch-urw. txt), , retrieved
2010-05-06
[10] (TAR.GZ) ghostscript-fonts-std-4.0.tar.gz - GhostScript 4.0 standard fonts - AFPL license (http:/ / mirror. cs. wisc. edu/ pub/ mirrors/ ghost/
aladdin/ fonts/ ghostscript-fonts-std-4. 0. tar. gz), 1996-06-28, , retrieved 2010-05-06
[11] "GNU FreeFont - Why do we need free outline UCS fonts?" (http:/ / www. gnu. org/ software/ freefont/ articles/ Why_Free_Fonts. html).
2009-10-04. . Retrieved 2010-07-02.
[12] "GNU FreeFont - Design notes" (http:/ / www. gnu. org/ software/ freefont/ design-notes. html). 2009-10-04. . Retrieved 2010-07-02.
[13] "License.txt - LICENSE AGREEMENT AND LIMITED PRODUCT WARRANTY, LIBERATION FONT SOFTWARE" (https:/ /
fedorahosted. org/ liberation-fonts/ browser/ master/ License. txt). . Retrieved 2010-01-15
[14] "Mandriva Linux 2008 Release Tour" (http:/ / wiki. mandriva. com/ en/ Releases/ Mandriva/ 2008. 0/ What's_New#Liberation_font_set). .
Retrieved 2010-04-04. "integrated into Mandriva Linux 2008"
[15] Times Europa Office Font Family (http:/ / www. linotype. com/ en/ 137439/ timeseuropaoffice-family. html)
[16] After 221 years, the world’s leading newspaper shows off a fresh face (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ article/ 0,,682-2457539,00. html)
[17] Times change of typeface for modern era (http:/ / www. fontriver. com/ article/ times_change_of_typeface_for_modern_era/ )
[18] Typography of News Bigger, faster, better (http:/ / www. fontshop. com/ features/ fontmag/ 002/ 02_news/ )
[19] Neville Brody's Research Studios Creates New Font and Design Changes for The Times as Compact Format Continues to Attract Loyal
Readership (http:/ / www. prnewswire. co. uk/ cgi/ news/ release?id=184449)
[20] "Mac OS X 10.4: Fonts list" (http:/ / support. apple. com/ kb/ HT1538). 2008-04-08. . Retrieved 2010-05-27.
[21] "5 FAH-1 H-620 Preparing Diplomatic Notes" (http:/ / www. state. gov/ documents/ organization/ 89306. pdf) (PDF). U.S. Department of
State Foreign Affairs Handbook. U.S. Department of State. 2007-08-01. . Retrieved 2008-04-18.
[22] "5 FAH-1 Change Transmittal CH-10" (http:/ / foia. state. gov/ masterdocs/ 05fah01/ 05fah01tl0010. pdf) (PDF). U.S. Department of State
Foreign Affairs Handbook. U.S. Department of State. 2005-01-19. . Retrieved 2008-04-18.
[23] Juni S; Gross JS (February 2008). "Emotional and persuasive perception of fonts." (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 18459353).
pp. 35-42. .
[24] "FAQ: infrequently asked questions" (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ comment/ letters/ feedback/ article1185820. ece). Times Online.
2007-01-25. . Retrieved 2009-08-26.

• Lawson, Alexander S., Anatomy of a Typeface. Godine: 1990. ISBN 978-0879233334.

• Macmillan, Neil. An A–Z of Type Designers. Yale University Press: 2006. ISBN 0-300-11151-7.

External links
• Type trading card: Times New Roman/Albertus (http://www.fonts.com/AboutFonts/Articles/
TypeTradingCards/Times+New+Roman+and+Albertus.htm) (Monotype)
• Times New Roman (http://www.linotype.com/en/1540/timesnewroman-family.html) (Linotype purchase
page)
• Goodbye to the Courier font? (http://www.slate.com/id/2095809/) – Tom Vanderbilt, Slate.com, 20 February
2004.
• A conversation with Times Modern designer Luke Prowse (http://www.visualeditors.com/jackson/2006/11/
a-conversation-with-time-modern-designer-luke-prowse/)
Bookman (typeface) 600

Bookman (typeface)

Category Serif

Classification Old Style

Designer(s) Alexander Phemister

Chauncey H. Griffith
Ed Benguiat

Foundry Bruce Type Foundry

American Type
Founders
Lanston Monotype

Design based on Old Style Antique

Bookman or Bookman Old Style is a serif typeface derived from Old Style Antique designed by Alexander
Phemister in 1858 for Miller and Richard foundry.[1] Several American foundries copied the design, including the
Bruce Type Foundry, and issued it under various names. In 1901, Bruce refitted their design, made a few other
improvements, and rechristened it Bartlett Oldstyle. When Bruce was taken over by ATF shortly thereafter, they
changed the name to Bookman Oldstyle.
Bookman was designed as an alternative to Caslon, with straighter serifs, making it more suitable for book and
display applications. It maintains its legibility at small sizes, and can be used successfully for headlines and in
advertising. In 1936, Chauncey H. Griffith of the American Linotype foundry developed a revival.

ITC Bookman
ITC Bookman is a revival designed by Ed Benguiat in 1975, for the International Typeface Corporation. Benguiat
developed a full family of four weights plus complementary cursive designs. Benguiat also drew a suite of swash and
alternate characters for each of the members of the family. This version adds a large x-height and moderate stroke
contrast to improve legibility.
Fonts for swash and alternate characters were eventually released in OpenType versions of the fonts[2] , or separately
as ITC Bookman Swash.
ITC Bookman Light, Light Italic, Demi, Demi Italic became part of Adobe PostScript 3 Font Set.
It is also called 'Revival 711' by Bitstream, and 'BM' by Itek.
Bookman (typeface) 601

Monotype version
Monotype Bookman Old Style, marketed as Bookman Old Style, was designed by Ong Chong Wah. It is based on
earlier Lanston Monotype and ATF models. The italic was redrawn following the style of the Old style Antique
italics of Miller and Richard, but also incorporates the italic features from ITC Bookman. Though the face's title
includes the word 'Old Style,' the near vertical stress of the face places it more in the transitional classification. This
version include support of Cyrillic, Greek, extended Latin characters.
It was bundled with Microsoft Office products since version 4.3, and in TrueType Font Pack. Retail version of the
font was released in 2005 via Linotype.

See also
• Aharoni
• Andalus
• Angsana New
• Book Antiqua

Jukebox Bookman
It is a revival of the original Bookman family by Alexander C. Phemister and Chauncey H. Griffith, designed by
Jason Walcott and published by Veer.
This family includes 6 fonts, with complementary italic, and 2 swash designs for each of the roman and italic fonts.

External links
• Typowiki:Bookman [3]
• Microsoft Typography page [4]
• Bookman Old Style Font Family - by Ong Chong Wah [5]
• MyFonts: Bookman [6]
• Re: Type factoids [7]
• ITC Bookman/ITC Tabula [8]
• ITC Bookman by Adobe Font Family - by Edward Benguiat [9]
• Bookman JF [10]
• TeX Gyre Bonum [11] variant based on URW bookman L

References
[1] Neil Macmillan (2006). An A-Z of type designers (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=jxV4qEolEo8C). Yale University Press. p. 146.
ISBN 0300111517. . Retrieved 2009-08-21.
[2] What's Hot From ITC: January 2006 (http:/ / www. itcfonts. com/ Fonts/ NewFonts/ 2006/ Jan2006. htm)
[3] http:/ / typophile. com/ wiki/ Bookman
[4] http:/ / www. microsoft. com/ typography/ fonts/ font. aspx?FID=26
[5] http:/ / www. linotype. com/ en/ 146738/ bookmanoldstyle-family. html
[6] http:/ / www. myfonts. com/ fonts/ bitstream/ bookman/ familytree. html
[7] https:/ / listserv. heanet. ie/ cgi-bin/ wa?A2=TYPO-L;pgLASg;20000522075703-0400
[8] http:/ / www. fonts. com/ aboutfonts/ articles/ typetradingcards/ itc+ bookman+ itc+ tabula. htm
[9] http:/ / www. linotype. com/ en/ 594/ itcbookmanbyadobe-family. html
[10] http:/ / www. jawarts. com/ Bookman. htm
[11] http:/ / www. gust. org. pl/ projects/ e-foundry/ tex-gyre/ bonum
 602

People

Beethoven
Ludwig van Beethoven (pronounced /ˈluːdvɪɡ
vɑːn ˈbeɪtoʊvən/ (U.S.) or English
pronunciation: /ˈlʊdvɪɡ væn ˈbeɪt.həʊvən/ (UK);
German: [ˈluːtvɪç fan ˈbeːt.hoːfn̩]  ( listen); baptised
[1]
17 December 1770 – 26 March 1827) was a
German composer and pianist. He is considered to
have been the most crucial figure in the transitional
period between the Classical and Romantic eras in
Western classical music, and remains one of the
most famous and influential composers of all time.

Born in Bonn, then the capital of the Electorate of

Cologne and a part of the Holy Roman Empire of
the German Nation in present-day Germany, he
moved to Vienna in his early twenties and settled
there, studying with Joseph Haydn and quickly
gaining a reputation as a virtuoso pianist. His
hearing began to deteriorate in the late 1790s, yet
he continued to compose, conduct, and perform,
even after becoming completely deaf.

A portrait by Joseph Karl Stieler, 1820

Biography

Background and early life

Prince-Elector's Palace (Kurfürstliches Schloss)
in Bonn, where the Beethoven family had been
active since the 1730s
Beethoven was the grandson of a musician of Flemish origin named
Lodewijk van Beethoven (1712–1773).[2] Beethoven was named after
his grandfather, as Lodewijk is the Dutch cognate of Ludwig.
Beethoven's grandfather was employed as a bass singer at the court of
the Elector of Cologne, rising to become Kapellmeister (music
director). He had one son, Johann van Beethoven (1740–1792), who
worked as a tenor in the same musical establishment, also giving
lessons on piano and violin to supplement his income.[2] Johann
Beethoven 603

married Maria Magdalena Keverich in 1767; she was the daughter of Johann
Heinrich Keverich, who had been the head chef at the court of the
Archbishopric of Trier.[3]
Beethoven was born of this marriage in Bonn; he was baptized in a Roman
Catholic service on 17 December 1770, and was probably born the previous
day, 16 December.[4] Children of that era were usually baptized the day after
birth, and it is known that Beethoven's family and his teacher Johann
Albrechtsberger celebrated his birthday on 16 December. While this evidence
supports the case for 16 December 1770 as Beethoven's date of birth, it
cannot be stated with certainty, as there is no documentary evidence of it
(only his baptismal record survives).[5] [6] Of the seven children born to
Johann van Beethoven, only the second-born, Ludwig, and two younger
brothers survived infancy. Caspar Anton Carl was born on 8 April 1774, and
Nikolaus Johann, the youngest, was born on 2 October 1776.[7]

Beethoven's first music teacher was his father. A traditional belief concerning
Johann van Beethoven is that he was a harsh instructor, and that the child
Beethoven, "made to stand at the keyboard, was often in tears".[2] However,
the New Grove indicates that there is no solid documentation to support it,
and asserts that "speculation and myth-making have both been productive."[2]
Beethoven had other local teachers as well: the court organist Gilles van den
Eeden (d. 1782), Tobias Friedrich Pfeiffer (a family friend, who taught
Beethoven piano), and a relative, Franz Rovantini (violin and viola).[2] His House of birth, Bonn, Bonngasse 20,
now the Beethoven-Haus museum
musical talent manifested itself early. Johann, aware of Leopold Mozart's
successes in this area (with son Wolfgang and daughter Nannerl), attempted
to exploit his son as a child prodigy, claiming that Beethoven was six (he was seven) on the posters for Beethoven's
first public performance in March 1778.[8]

Some time after 1779, Beethoven began his studies with his most important teacher in Bonn, Christian Gottlob
Neefe, who was appointed the Court's Organist in that year.[9] Neefe taught Beethoven composition, and by March
1783 had helped him write his first published composition: a set of keyboard variations (WoO 63).[7] Beethoven
soon began working with Neefe as assistant organist, first on an unpaid basis (1781), and then as paid employee
(1784) of the court chapel conducted by the Kapellmeister Andrea Luchesi. His first three piano sonatas, named
"Kurfürst" ("Elector") for their dedication to the Elector Maximilian Frederick, were published in 1783. Maximilian
Frederick, who died in 1784, not long after Beethoven's appointment as assistant organist, had noticed Beethoven's
talent early, and had subsidized and encouraged the young Beethoven's musical studies.[10]
Beethoven 604

Maximilian Frederick's successor as the Elector of Bonn was Maximilian

Franz, the youngest son of Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, and he brought
notable changes to Bonn. Echoing changes made in Vienna by his brother
Joseph, he introduced reforms based on Enlightenment philosophy, with
increased support for education and the arts. The teenage Beethoven was
almost certainly influenced by these changes. He may also have been strongly
influenced at this time by ideas prominent in freemasonry, as Neefe and
others around Beethoven were members of the local chapter of the Order of
the Illuminati.[11]

In March 1787 Beethoven traveled to Vienna (it is unknown at whose

expense) for the first time, apparently in the hope of studying with Wolfgang
A portrait of the 13-year-old Beethoven Mozart. The details of their relationship are uncertain, including whether or
by an unknown Bonn master (c. 1783) not they actually met.[12] After just two weeks there Beethoven learned that
his mother was severely ill, and he was forced to return home. His mother
died shortly thereafter, and the father lapsed deeper into alcoholism. As a result, Beethoven became responsible for
the care of his two younger brothers, and he spent the next five years in Bonn.[13]

Beethoven was introduced to a number of people who became important in his life in these years. Franz Wegeler, a
young medical student, introduced him to the von Breuning family (one of whose daughters Wegeler eventually
married). Beethoven was often at the von Breuning household, where he was exposed to German and classical
literature, and where he also gave piano instruction to some of the children. The von Breuning family environment
was also less stressful than his own, which was increasingly dominated by his father's strict control and descent into
alcoholism.[14] It is also in these years that Beethoven came to the attention of Count Ferdinand von Waldstein, who
became a lifelong friend and financial supporter.[15]
In 1789 he obtained a legal order by which half of his father's salary was paid directly to him for support of the
family.[16] He also contributed further to the family's income by playing viola in the court orchestra. This
familiarized Beethoven with a variety of operas, including three of Mozart's operas performed at court in this period.
He also befriended Anton Reicha, a flautist and violinist of about his own age who was the conductor's nephew.[17]

Establishing his career in Vienna

With the Elector's help, Beethoven moved to Vienna in 1792.[18] He was
probably first introduced to Joseph Haydn in late 1790, when the latter was
traveling to London and stopped in Bonn around Christmas time.[19] They
met in Bonn on Haydn's return trip from London to Vienna in July 1792, and
it is likely that arrangements were made at that time for Beethoven to study
with the old master.[20] In the intervening years, Beethoven composed a
significant number of works (none were published at the time, and most are
now listed as works without opus) that demonstrated a growing range and
maturity of style. Musicologists have identified a theme similar to those of his
third symphony in a set of variations written in 1791.[21] Beethoven left Bonn
for Vienna in November 1792, amid rumors of war spilling out of France, and
Portrait of Beethoven as a young man by
learned shortly after his arrival that his father had died.[22] [23] Count
Carl Traugott Riedel (1769–1832)
Waldstein in his farewell note to Beethoven wrote: "Through uninterrupted
diligence you will receive Mozart's spirit through Haydn's hands."[23]
Beethoven responded to the widespread feeling that he was a successor to the recently deceased Mozart over the next
few years by studying that master's work and writing works with a distinctly Mozartean flavor.[24]
Beethoven 605

Beethoven did not immediately set out to establish himself as a composer, but rather devoted himself to study and to
playing the piano. Working under Haydn's direction,[25] he sought to master counterpoint. He also took violin lessons
from Ignaz Schuppanzigh.[26] Early in this period, he also began receiving occasional instruction from Antonio
Salieri, primarily in Italian vocal composition style; this relationship persisted until at least 1802, and possibly
1809.[27] With Haydn's departure for England in 1794, Beethoven was expected by the Elector to return home. He
chose instead to remain in Vienna, continuing his instruction in counterpoint with Johann Albrechtsberger and other
teachers. Although his stipend from the Elector expired, a number of Viennese noblemen had already recognized his
ability and offered him financial support, among them Prince Joseph Franz Lobkowitz, Prince Karl Lichnowsky, and
Baron Gottfried van Swieten.[28]
By 1793, Beethoven established a reputation as an improviser in the salons of the nobility, often playing the preludes
and fugues of J. S. Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier.[29] His friend Nikolaus Simrock had also begun publishing his
compositions; the first are believed to be a set of variations (WoO 66).[30] Beethoven spent much of 1794
composing. By 1793, he had established a reputation in Vienna as a piano virtuoso, but he apparently withheld works
from publication so that their publication in 1795 would have greater impact.[28] Beethoven's first public
performance in Vienna was in March 1795, a concert in which he debuted a piano concerto. It is uncertain whether
this was the First or Second, as documentary evidence is unclear, and both concertos were in a similar state of
near-completion (neither was completed or published for several years).[31] [32] Shortly after this performance, he
arranged for the publication of the first of his compositions to which he assigned an opus number, the piano trios of
Opus 1. These works were dedicated to his patron Prince Lichnowsky,[31] and were a financial success; Beethoven's
profits were nearly sufficient to cover his living expenses for a year.[33]

Musical maturity
Between 1798 and 1802 Beethoven tackled what he considered the pinnacles
of composition: the string quartet and the symphony. With the composition of
his first six string quartets (Op. 18) between 1798 and 1800 (written on
commission for, and dedicated to, Prince Lobkowitz), and their publication in
1801, along with premieres of the First and Second Symphonies in 1800 and
1802, Beethoven was justifiably considered one of the most important of a
generation of young composers following after Haydn and Mozart. He
continued to write in other forms, turning out widely known piano sonatas
like the "Pathétique" sonata (Op. 13), which Cooper describes as
"surpass[ing] any of his previous compositions, in strength of character, depth
of emotion, level of originality, and ingenuity of motivic and tonal
Beethoven in 1803, painted by Christian manipulation".[34] He also completed his Septet (Op. 20) in 1799, which was
Horneman
one of his most popular works during his lifetime.

For the premiere of his First Symphony, Beethoven hired the Burgtheater on 2 April 1800, and staged an extensive
program of music, including works by Haydn and Mozart, as well as the Septet, the First Symphony, and one of his
piano concertos (the latter three works all then unpublished). The concert, which the Allgemeine musikalische
Zeitung described as "the most interesting concert in a long time", was not without difficulties; among other
criticisms was that "the players did not bother to pay any attention to the soloist".[35]
While Mozart and Haydn were undeniable influences (for example, Beethoven's quintet for piano and winds is said
to bear a strong resemblance to Mozart's work for the same configuration, albeit with his own distinctive
touches),[36] other composers like Muzio Clementi were also stylistic influences. Beethoven's melodies, musical
development, use of modulation and texture, and characterization of emotion all set him apart from his influences,
and heightened the impact some of his early works made when they were first published.[37] By the end of 1800
Beethoven and his music were already much in demand from patrons and publishers.[38]
Beethoven 606

In May of 1799, Beethoven gave piano lessons to the daughters of Hungarian

Countess Anna Brunsvik. While this round of lessons lasted less than one
month, Beethoven formed a relationship with the older daughter Josephine
that has been the subject of speculation ever since. Shortly after these lessons
she married Count Josef Deym, and Beethoven was a regular visitor at their
house, giving lessons and playing at parties. While her marriage was by all
accounts unhappy, the couple had four children, and her relationship with
Beethoven did not intensify until after Deym died in 1804.[39]

Beethoven had few other students. From 1801 to 1805, he tutored Ferdinand
Ries, who went on to become a composer and later wrote Beethoven
remembered, a book about their encounters. The young Carl Czerny studied
with Beethoven from 1801 to 1803. Czerny went on to become a renowned Ludwig van Beethoven: detail of an 1804
portrait by W. J. Mähler. The complete
music teacher himself, taking on Franz Liszt as one of his students, and also
painting depicts Beethoven with a
gave the Vienna premiere of Beethoven's fifth piano concerto (the "Emperor") lyre-guitar
in 1812.

Beethoven's compositions between 1800 and 1802 were dominated by two works, although he continued to produce
smaller works, including the Moonlight Sonata. In the spring of 1801 he completed The Creatures of Prometheus, a
ballet. The work was such a success that it received numerous performances in 1801 and 1802, and Beethoven
rushed to publish a piano arrangement to capitalize on its early popularity.[40] In the spring of 1802 he completed the
Second Symphony, intended for performance at a concert that was eventually cancelled. The symphony received its
premiere at a subscription concert in April 1803 at the Theater an der Wien, where Beethoven had been appointed as
composer in residence. In addition to the Second Symphony, the concert also featured the First Symphony, the Third
Piano Concerto, and the oratorio Christ on the Mount of Olives. While reviews were mixed, the concert was a
financial success; Beethoven was able to charge three times the cost of a typical concert ticket.[41]

Beethoven's business dealings with publishers also began to improve in 1802 when his brother Carl, who had
previously assisted him more casually, began to assume a larger role in the management of his affairs. In addition to
negotiating higher prices for recently composed works, Carl also began selling some of Beethoven's earlier
unpublished works, and encouraged Beethoven (against the latter's preference) to also make arrangements and
transcriptions of his more popular works for other instrument combinations. Beethoven acceded to these requests, as
he could not prevent publishers from hiring others to do similar arrangements of his works.[42]

Loss of hearing
Around 1796, Beethoven began to lose his hearing.[43] He suffered a severe form of tinnitus, a "ringing" in his ears
that made it hard for him to perceive and appreciate music; he also avoided conversation. The cause of Beethoven's
deafness is unknown, but it has variously been attributed to syphilis, lead poisoning, typhus, auto-immune disorder
(such as systemic lupus erythematosus), and even his habit of immersing his head in cold water to stay awake. The
explanation, from the autopsy of the time, is that he had a "distended inner ear" which developed lesions over time.
Because of the high levels of lead found in samples of Beethoven's hair, that hypothesis has been extensively
analyzed. While the likelihood of lead poisoning is very high, the deafness associated with it seldom takes the form
that Beethoven exhibited.
Beethoven 607

As early as 1801, Beethoven wrote to friends describing his symptoms and

the difficulties they caused in both professional and social settings (although
it is likely some of his close friends were already aware of the problems).[44]
Beethoven, on the advice of his doctor, lived in the small Austrian town of
Heiligenstadt, just outside Vienna, from April to October 1802 in an attempt
to come to terms with his condition. There he wrote his Heiligenstadt
Testament, which records his resolution to continue living for and through his
art.[45] Over time, his hearing loss became profound: there is a well-attested
story that, at the end of the premiere of his Ninth Symphony, he had to be
turned around to see the tumultuous applause of the audience; hearing
nothing, he wept.[46] Beethoven's hearing loss did not prevent his composing
music, but it made playing at concerts—a lucrative source of
Beethoven in 1815 income—increasingly difficult. After a failed attempt in 1811 to perform his
own Piano Concerto No. 5 (the "Emperor"), which was premiered by his
student Carl Czerny, he never performed in public again.

A large collection of Beethoven's hearing aids such as a special ear horn can be viewed at the Beethoven House
Museum in Bonn, Germany. Despite his obvious distress, Carl Czerny remarked that Beethoven could still hear
speech and music normally until 1812.[47] By 1814 however, Beethoven was almost totally deaf, and when a group
of visitors saw him play a loud arpeggio of thundering bass notes at his piano remarking, "Ist es nicht schön?" (Is it
not beautiful?), they felt deep sympathy considering his courage and sense of humor.[48]
As a result of Beethoven's hearing loss, a unique historical record has been preserved: his conversation books. Used
primarily in the last ten or so years of his life, his friends wrote in these books so that he could know what they were
saying, and he then responded either orally or in the book. The books contain discussions about music and other
issues, and give insights into his thinking; they are a source for investigation into how he felt his music should be
performed, and also his perception of his relationship to art. Unfortunately, 264 out of a total of 400 conversation
books were destroyed (and others were altered) after Beethoven's death by Anton Schindler, in his attempt to paint
an idealized picture of the composer.[49]

Patronage
While Beethoven earned income from publication of his works and from public
performances, he also depended on the generosity of patrons for income, for whom he
gave private performances and copies of works they commissioned for an exclusive
period prior to their publication. Some of his early patrons, including Prince
Lobkowitz and Prince Lichnowsky, gave him annual stipends in addition to
commissioning works and purchasing published works.
Perhaps Beethoven's most important aristocratic patron was Archduke Rudolph, the
youngest son of Emperor Leopold II, who in 1803 or 1804 began to study piano and
composition with Beethoven. The cleric (Cardinal-Priest) and the composer became
friends, and their meetings continued until 1824. Beethoven dedicated 14
compositions to Rudolph, including the Archduke Trio (1811) and his great Missa Beethoven's patron, Archduke
Solemnis (1823). Rudolph, in turn, dedicated one of his own compositions to Rudolph
Beethoven. The letters Beethoven wrote to Rudolph are today kept at the Gesellschaft
der Musikfreunde in Vienna.

In the Autumn of 1808, after having been rejected for a position at the royal theatre, Beethoven received an offer
from Napoleon's brother Jérôme Bonaparte, then king of Westphalia, for a well-paid position as Kapellmeister at the
Beethoven 608

court in Cassel. To persuade him to stay in Vienna, the Archduke Rudolph, Prince Kinsky and Prince Lobkowitz,
after receiving representations from the composer's friends, pledged to pay Beethoven a pension of 4000 florins a
year. Only Archduke Rudolph paid his share of the pension on the agreed date. Kinsky, immediately called to duty
as an officer, did not contribute and soon died after falling from his horse. Lobkowitz stopped paying in September
1811. No successors came forward to continue the patronage, and Beethoven relied mostly on selling composition
rights and a small pension after 1815. The effects of these financial arrangements were undermined to some extent
by war with France, which caused significant inflation when the government printed money to fund its war efforts.

The Middle period

Beethoven's return to Vienna from Heiligenstadt was marked by a change in
musical style, now recognized as the start of his "Middle" or "Heroic" period.
According to Carl Czerny, Beethoven said, "I am not satisfied with the work I
have done so far. From now on I intend to take a new way".[50] The first
major work of this new way was the Third Symphony in E flat, known as the
"Eroica". While other composers had written symphonies with implied
programs, or stories, this work was longer and larger in scope than any
previously written symphony. When it premiered in early 1805 it received a
mixed reception, with some listeners objecting to its length or failing to
understand its structure, while others viewed it as another masterpiece.[51]

Beethoven composed highly ambitious works throughout the Middle period,

often heroic in tone, that extended the scope of the classical musical language
Beethoven had inherited from Haydn and Mozart. The Middle period work
includes the Third through Eighth Symphonies, the string quartets 7–11, the
"Waldstein" and "Appassionata" piano sonatas, Christ on the Mount of
Olives, the opera Fidelio, the Violin Concerto and many other compositions.
During this time Beethoven earned his living from the sale and performance
of his work, and from the continuing support of wealthy patrons. His position
at the Theater an der Wien was terminated when the theater changed
management in early 1804, and he was forced to move temporarily to the Beethoven Monument in Bonn,
suburbs of Vienna with his friend Stephan von Breuning. This slowed work Muensterplatz

on Fidelio, his largest work to date, for a time. It was delayed again by the
Austrian censor, and finally premiered in November 1805 to houses that were nearly empty because of the French
occupation of the city. In addition to being a financial failure, this version of Fidelio was also a critical failure, and
Beethoven began revising it.[52]

The string quartets composed during the Middle period are Op. 59 no 1, Op 59 no 2, Op 59 no 3 (The Razumowski
quartets), Op. 74 (the Harp) and Op 95. Beethoven's publisher said that the world was not ready for the middle
quartets. The slow movement of Op. 59 no 2 has been described as the closest Beethoven got to heaven. Even
Beethoven said that the Op. 95 quartet was not suitable for public performance.
The work of the Middle period established Beethoven's reputation as a great composer. In a review from 1810, he
was enshrined by E. T. A. Hoffmann as one of the three great "Romantic" composers; Hoffman called Beethoven's
Fifth Symphony "one of the most important works of the age". A particular trauma for Beethoven occurred during
this period in May 1809, when the attacking forces of Napoleon bombarded Vienna. According to Ferdinand Ries,
Beethoven, very worried that the noise would destroy what remained of his hearing, hid in the basement of his
brother's house, covering his ears with pillows.[53] He was composing the "Emperor" Concerto at the time.
Beethoven 609

Personal and family difficulties

Beethoven was introduced to Giulietta Guicciardi in about 1800 through the Brunsvik family. His mutual
love-relationship with Guicciardi is mentioned in a November 1801 letter to his boyhood friend, Franz Wegeler.
Beethoven dedicated to Giulietta his Sonata No. 14, popularly known as the "Moonlight" Sonata. Marriage plans
were thwarted by Giulietta's father and perhaps Beethoven's common lineage. In 1803 she married Count Wenzel
Robert von Gallenberg (1783–1839), himself an amateur composer.
Beethoven's relationship with Josephine Deym notably deepened after the death of her first husband in 1804. There
is some evidence that Beethoven may have proposed to her, at least informally. While the relationship was
apparently reciprocated, she, with some regret, turned him down, and their relationship effectively ended in 1807.
She cited her "duty", an apparent reference to the fact that she was born of nobility and he was a commoner.[54] It is
also likely that he considered proposing (whether he actually did or not is unknown) to Therese Malfatti, the
dedicatee of "Für Elise" in 1810; his common status may also have interfered with those plans.
In the spring of 1811 Beethoven became seriously ill, suffering headaches and bad
fevers. On the advice of his doctor, he spent six weeks in the Bohemian spa town of
Teplitz. The following winter, which was dominated by work on the Seventh
symphony, he was again ill, and decided to spend the summer of 1812 at Teplitz. It is
likely that he was at Teplitz when he wrote three love letters to an "Immortal
Beloved".[55] While the identity of the intended recipient is an ongoing subject of
debate, the most likely candidate, according to what is known about people's
movements and the contents of the letters, is Antonie Brentano, a married woman
with whom he had begun a friendship in 1810.[56] [57] Beethoven traveled to Karlsbad
in late July, where he stayed in the same guesthouse as the Brentanos. After traveling
Life mask made in 1812
with them for a time, he returned to Teplitz, where after another bout of gastric illness,
he left for Linz to visit his brother Johann.[58]

Beethoven's visit to his brother was made in an attempt to end the latter's immoral cohabitation with Therese
Obermayer, a woman who already had an illegitimate child. He was unable to convince Johann to end the
relationship, so he appealed to the local civic and religious authorities. The end result of Beethoven's meddling was
that Johann and Therese married on 9 November.[58]
In early 1813 Beethoven apparently went through a difficult emotional period, and his
compositional output dropped for a time. Historians have suggested a variety of
causes, including his lack of success at romance. His personal appearance, which had
generally been neat, degraded, as did his manners in public, especially when dining.
Some of his (married) desired romantic partners had children (leading to assertions
among historians of Beethoven's possible paternity), and his brother Carl was
seriously ill. Beethoven took care of his brother and his family, an expense that he
claimed left him penniless. He was unable to obtain a date for a concert in the spring
of 1813, which, if successful, would have provided him with significant funds.
Beethoven in 1814. Portrait by
Beethoven was finally motivated to begin significant composition again in June 1813, Louis-René Létronne.
when news arrived of the defeat of one of Napoleon's armies at Vitoria, Spain, by a
coalition of forces under the Duke of Wellington. This news stimulated him to write the battle symphony known as
Wellington's Victory. It was premiered on 8 December at a charity concert for victims of the war along with his
Seventh Symphony. The work was a popular hit, likely because of its programmatic style which was entertaining and
easy to understand. It received repeat performances at concerts Beethoven staged in January and February 1814.
Beethoven's renewed popularity led to demands for a revival of Fidelio, which, in its third revised version, was also
Beethoven 610

well-received when it opened in July. That summer he also composed a piano sonata for the first time in five years
(No. 27, Opus 90). This work was in a markedly more Romantic style than his earlier sonatas. He was also one of
many composers who produced music in a patriotic vein to entertain the many heads of state and diplomats that
came to the Congress of Vienna that began in November 1814. His output of songs included his only song cycle,
"An die ferne Geliebte", and the extraordinarily expressive, but almost incoherent, "An die Hoffnung" (Opus 94).

Custody struggle and illness

Between 1815 and 1817 Beethoven's output dropped again. Part of this Beethoven attributed to a lengthy illness (he
called it an "inflammatory fever") that afflicted him for more than a year, starting in October 1816.[59] Biographers
have speculated on a variety of other reasons that also contributed to the decline in creative output, including the
difficulties in the personal lives of his would-be paramours and the harsh censorship policies of the Austrian
government. The illness and death of his brother Carl from consumption likely also played a role.
Carl had been ill for some time, and Beethoven spent a small fortune in 1815
on his care. When he finally died on 15 November 1815, Beethoven
immediately became embroiled in a protracted legal dispute with Carl's wife
Johanna over custody of their son Karl, then nine years old. Beethoven, who
considered Johanna an unfit parent because of her morals (she had an
illegitimate child by a different father before marrying Carl, and had been
convicted of theft) and financial management, had successfully applied to
Carl to have himself named sole guardian of the boy; but a late codicil to
Carl's will gave him and Johanna joint guardianship. While Beethoven was
successful at having his nephew removed from her custody in February 1816,
the case was not fully resolved until 1820, and he was frequently preoccupied
by the demands of the litigation and seeing to the welfare of the boy, whom
he first placed in a private school. The custody fight brought out the very
worst aspects of Beethoven's character; in the lengthy court cases Beethoven
Beethoven in 1818 by August Klöber
stopped at nothing to ensure that he achieved this goal, and even stopped
composing for long periods.

The Austrian court system had one court for the nobility, The R&I Landrechte, and another for commoners, The
Civil Court of the Magistrate. Beethoven disguised the fact that the Dutch "van" in his name did not denote nobility
as does the German "von",[60] and his case was tried in the Landrechte. Owing to his influence with the court,
Beethoven felt assured of a favorable outcome. Beethoven was awarded sole guardianship. While giving evidence to
the Landrechte, however, Beethoven inadvertently[60] admitted that he was not nobly born. The case was transferred
to the Magistracy on 18 December 1818, where he lost sole guardianship.

Beethoven appealed, and regained custody of Karl. Johanna's appeal for justice to the Emperor was not successful:
the Emperor "washed his hands of the matter". Beethoven stopped at nothing to blacken her name, as can be read in
surviving court papers. During the years of custody that followed, Beethoven attempted to ensure that Karl lived to
the highest of moral standards. His overbearing manner and frequent interference in his nephew's life, especially as
he grew into a young man, apparently drove Karl to attempt suicide on 31 July 1826 by shooting himself in the head.
He survived, and was brought to his mother's house, where he recuperated. He and Beethoven reconciled, but Karl
was insistent on joining the army, and last saw Beethoven in early 1827.
The only major works Beethoven produced during this time were two cello sonatas, a piano sonata, and collections
of folk song settings. He began sketches for the Ninth Symphony in 1817.
Beethoven 611

Late works
Beethoven began a renewed study of older music, including works by J. S. Bach and Handel, that were then being
published in the first attempts at complete editions. He composed the Consecration of the House Overture, which
was the first work to attempt to incorporate his new influences. But it is when he returned to the keyboard to
compose his first new piano sonatas in almost a decade, that a new style, now called his "late period", emerged. The
works of the late period are commonly held to include the last five piano sonatas and the Diabelli Variations, the last
two sonatas for cello and piano, the late quartets (see below), and two works for very large forces: the Missa
Solemnis and the Ninth Symphony.
By early 1818 Beethoven's health had improved, and his nephew had moved
in with him in January. On the downside, his hearing had deteriorated to the
point that conversation became difficult, necessitating the use of conversation
books. His household management had also improved somewhat; Nanette
Streicher, who had assisted in his care during his illness, continued to provide
some support, and he finally found a decent cook.[61] His musical output in
1818 was still somewhat reduced, with song collections and the
Hammerklavier Sonata his only notable compositions, although he continued
to work on sketches for two symphonies (that eventually coalesced into the
enormous Ninth Symphony). In 1819 he was again preoccupied by the legal
processes around Karl, and began work on the Diabelli Variations and the
Missa Solemnis.
Beethoven in 1823; copy of a destroyed
For the next few years he continued to work on the Missa, composing piano portrait by Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller

sonatas and bagatelles to satisfy the demands of publishers and the need for
income, and completing the Diabelli Variations. He was ill again for an extended time in 1821, and completed the
Missa in 1823, three years after its original due date. He also opened discussions with his publishers over the
possibility of producing a complete edition of his works, an idea that was arguably not fully realized until 1971.
Beethoven's brother Johann began to take a hand in his business affairs around this time, much in the way Carl had
earlier, locating older unpublished works to offer for publication and offering the Missa to multiple publishers with
the goal of getting a higher price for it.
Two commissions in 1822 improved Beethoven's financial prospects. The Philharmonic Society of London offered a
commission for a symphony, and Prince Nikolay Golitsin of St. Petersburg offered to pay Beethoven's price for three
string quartets. The first of these spurred Beethoven to finish the Ninth Symphony, which was premiered, along with
the Missa Solemnis, on 7 May 1824, to great acclaim at the Kärntnertortheater. The Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung
gushed "inexhaustible genius had shown us a new world", and Carl Czerny wrote that his symphony "breathes such a
fresh, lively, indeed youthful spirit [...] so much power, innovation, and beauty as ever [came] from the head of this
original man, although he certainly sometimes led the old wigs to shake their heads."[62] Unlike his earlier concerts,
Beethoven made little money on this one, as the expenses of mounting it were significantly higher.[62] A second
concert on 24 May, in which the producer guaranteed Beethoven a minimum fee, was poorly attended; nephew Karl
noted that "many people have already gone into the country".[63] It was Beethoven's last public concert.[63]
Beethoven then turned to writing the string quartets for Golitsin. This series of quartets, known as the "Late
Quartets", went far beyond what either musicians or audiences were ready for at that time. One musician commented
that "we know there is something there, but we do not know what it is." Composer Louis Spohr called them
"indecipherable, uncorrected horrors", though that opinion has changed considerably from the time of their first
bewildered reception. They continued (and continue) to inspire musicians and composers, from Richard Wagner to
Béla Bartók, for their unique forms and ideas. Of the late quartets, Beethoven's favorite was the Fourteenth Quartet,
op. 131 in C# minor, upon hearing which Schubert is said to have remarked, "After this, what is left for us to write?"
Beethoven 612

Beethoven wrote the last quartets amidst failing health. In April 1825 he was bedridden, and remained ill for about a
month. The illness—or more precisely, his recovery from it—is remembered for having given rise to the deeply felt
slow movement of the Fifteenth Quartet, which Beethoven called "Holy song of thanks ('Heiliger dankgesang') to the
divinity, from one made well". He went on to complete the (misnumbered) Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Sixteenth
Quartets. The last work completed by Beethoven was the substitute final movement of the Thirteenth Quartet,
deemed necessary to replace the difficult Große Fuge. Shortly thereafter, in December 1826, illness struck again,
with episodes of vomiting and diarrhea that nearly ended his life.

Illness and death

Beethoven was bedridden for most of his remaining months, and many
friends came to visit. He died on Monday, 26 March 1827, during a
thunderstorm. His friend Anselm Hüttenbrenner, who was present at the time,
claimed that there was a peal of thunder at the moment of death. An autopsy
revealed significant liver damage, which may have been due to heavy alcohol
consumption.[64]

Unlike Mozart, who was buried anonymously in a communal grave (such

being the custom at the time), 20,000 Viennese citizens lined the streets for
Beethoven's funeral on Thursday, 29 March 1827. Franz Schubert, who died
the following year and was buried next to Beethoven, was one of the
torchbearers. After a Requiem Mass at the church of the Holy Trinity
(Dreifaltigkeitskirche), Beethoven was buried in the Währing cemetery,
north-west of Vienna. His remains were exhumed for study in 1862, and
Beethoven's death mask by Joseph
moved in 1888 to Vienna's Zentralfriedhof.[64]
Dannhauser
There is dispute about the cause of Beethoven's death; alcoholic cirrhosis,
syphilis, infectious hepatitis, lead poisoning, sarcoidosis and Whipple's
disease have all been proposed.[65] Friends and visitors before and after his
death clipped locks of his hair, some of which have been preserved and
subjected to additional analysis, as have skull fragments removed during the
1862 exhumation.[66] Some of these analyses have led to controversial
assertions that Beethoven was accidentally poisoned to death by excessive
doses of lead-based treatments administered under instruction from his
doctor.[67] [68] [69]

Character
Beethoven's personal life was troubled by his encroaching deafness, which
led him to contemplate suicide (documented in his Heiligenstadt Testament).
Beethoven's grave site, Vienna Beethoven was often irascible and may have suffered from bipolar
Zentralfriedhof disorder[70] and irritability brought on by chronic abdominal pain (beginning
in his twenties) that has been attributed to possible lead poisoning.[71]
Nevertheless, he had a close and devoted circle of friends all his life, thought to have been attracted by his strength
of personality. Toward the end of his life, Beethoven's friends competed in their efforts to help him cope with his
incapacities.[72]

Sources show Beethoven's disdain for authority, and for social rank. He stopped performing at the piano if the
audience chatted amongst themselves, or afforded him less than their full attention. At soirées, he refused to perform
if suddenly called upon to do so. Eventually, after many confrontations, the Archduke Rudolph decreed that the
Beethoven 613

usual rules of court etiquette did not apply to Beethoven.[72]

Religious views
Beethoven was attracted to the ideals of the Enlightenment. In 1804, when Napoleon's imperial ambitions became
clear, Beethoven took hold of the title-page of his Third Symphony and scratched the name Bonaparte out so
violently that he made a hole in the paper. He later changed the work's title to "Sinfonia Eroica, composta per
festeggiare il sovvenire d'un grand'uom" ("Heroic Symphony, composed to celebrate the memory of a great man"),
and he rededicated it to his patron, Prince Joseph Franz von Lobkowitz, at whose palace it was first performed.
The fourth movement of his Ninth Symphony features an elaborate choral setting of Schiller's Ode An die Freude
("Ode to Joy"), an optimistic hymn championing the brotherhood of humanity.
Scholars disagree about Beethoven's religious beliefs, and about the role they played in his work. It has been
asserted, but not proven, that Beethoven was a Freemason.[73]

Music
Beethoven is acknowledged as one of the giants of classical music;
occasionally he is referred to as one of the "three Bs" (along with Bach and
Brahms) who epitomize that tradition. He was also a pivotal figure in the
transition from 18th century musical classicism to 19th century romanticism,
and his influence on subsequent generations of composers was profound.[72]

Overview
Beethoven composed in several musical genres, and for a variety of
instrument combinations. His works for symphony orchestra include nine
symphonies (the Ninth Symphony includes a chorus), and about a dozen
pieces of "occasional" music. He wrote seven concerti for one or more
soloists and orchestra, as well as four shorter works that include soloists
accompanied by orchestra. His only opera is Fidelio; other vocal works with
A bust based upon Beethoven's life mask
orchestral accompaniment include two masses and a number of shorter works.

His large body of compositions for piano includes 32 piano sonatas and
numerous shorter pieces, including arrangements of some of his other works. Works with piano accompaniment
include 10 violin sonatas, 5 cello sonatas, and a sonata for French horn, as well as numerous lieder.
Beethoven also wrote a significant quantity of chamber music. In addition to 16 string quartets, he wrote five works
for string quintet, seven for piano trio, five for string trio, and more than a dozen works for a variety of combinations
of wind instruments.

The three periods

Beethoven's compositional career is usually divided into Early, Middle, and Late periods.[72] In this scheme, his
early period is taken to last until about 1802, the middle period from about 1803 to about 1814, and the late period
from about 1815.
In his Early period, Beethoven's work was strongly influenced by his predecessors Haydn and Mozart. He also
explored new directions and gradually expanded the scope and ambition of his work. Some important pieces from
the Early period are the first and second symphonies, the set of six string quartets Opus 18, the first two piano
concertos, and the first dozen or so piano sonatas, including the famous Pathétique sonata, Op. 13.
Beethoven 614

His Middle (Heroic) period began shortly after Beethoven's personal crisis brought on by his recognition of
encroaching deafness. It includes large-scale works that express heroism and struggle. Middle-period works include
six symphonies (Nos. 3–8), the last three piano concertos, the Triple Concerto and violin concerto, five string
quartets (Nos. 7–11), several piano sonatas (including the Moonlight, Waldstein and Appassionata sonatas), the
Kreutzer violin sonata and Beethoven's only opera, Fidelio.
Beethoven's Late period began around 1815. Works from this period are characterized by their intellectual depth,
their formal innovations, and their intense, highly personal expression. The String Quartet, Op. 131 has seven linked
movements, and the Ninth Symphony adds choral forces to the orchestra in the last movement.[72] Other
compositions from this period include the Missa Solemnis, the last five string quartets (including the massive Große
Fuge) and the last five piano sonatas.

Beethoven on screen
Eroica is a 1949 Austrian film depicting life and works of Beethoven (Ewald Balser), which also entered into the
1949 Cannes Film Festival.[74] The film is directed by Walter Kolm-Veltée, produced by Guido Bagier with Walter
Kolm-Veltée and written by Walter Kolm-Veltée with Franz Tassié.[75]
In 1962, Walt Disney produced a made-for-television and extremely fictionalized life of Beethoven entitled The
Magnificent Rebel. The film was given a two-part premiere on the Walt Disney anthology television series and
released to theatres in Europe. It starred Karlheinz Böhm as Beethoven.
In 1994 a film about Beethoven (Gary Oldman) titled Immortal Beloved was written and directed by Bernard Rose.
The story follows Beethoven's secretary and first biographer, Anton Schindler (portrayed by Jeroen Krabbé), as he
attempts to ascertain the true identity of the Unsterbliche Geliebte (Immortal Beloved) addressed in three letters
found in the late composer's private papers. Schindler journeys throughout the Austrian Empire, interviewing women
who might be potential candidates, as well as through Beethoven's own tumultuous life. Filming took place in the
Czech cities of Prague and Kromeriz and the Zentralfriedhof in Vienna, Austria, between 23 May and 29 July 1994.
In 2003 a BBC/Opus Arte film Eroica was released, with Ian Hart as Beethoven and the Orchestre Révolutionnaire
et Romantique conducted by Sir John Eliot Gardiner performing the Eroica Symphony in its entirety. The subject of
the film is the first performance of the Eroica Symphony in 1804 at the palace of Prince Lobkowitz (played by Jack
Davenport).[76] In a 2005 three-part BBC miniseries, Beethoven was played by Paul Rhys.[77]
A movie titled Copying Beethoven was released in 2006, starring Ed Harris as Beethoven. This film was a
fictionalized account of Beethoven's last days, and his struggle to produce his Ninth Symphony before he died.

See also
• Egmont

Sources
• Clive, Peter (2001). Beethoven and His World: A Biographical Dictionary. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-816672-9.
• Cooper, Barry (2008). Beethoven. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 9780195313314.
• Cross, Milton; Ewen, David (1953). The Milton Cross New Encyclopedia of the Great Composers and Their
Music. Garden City, NJ: Doubleday. OCLC 17791083.
• Landon, H C Robbins; Göllerich; August (1970). Beethoven: a documentary study. Macmillan. OCLC 87180.
• Lockwood, Lewis (2005). Beethoven: The Music And The Life. W. W. Norton. ISBN 9780393326383.
• Sachs, Harvey, The Ninth: Beethoven and the World in 1824, London, Faber, 2010. ISBN 9780571221455
• Solomon, Maynard (2001). Beethoven (2nd revised ed.). Schirmer Books. ISBN 0-8256-7268-6.
Beethoven 615

• Stanley, Glenn (ed) (2000). The Cambridge Companion to Beethoven. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-58074-9.
• Thayer, A. W.; Krehbiel, Henry Edward (ed, trans); Deiters, Hermann; Riemann, Hugo (1921). The Life of
Ludwig Van Beethoven, Vol 1 [78]. The Beethoven Association. OCLC 422583.
• Kerman, Joseph; Tyson, Alan; Burnham, Scott G. "Ludvig van Beethoven", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy
(accessed 29 November 2006), grovemusic.com [79] (subscription access).

Further reading
• Albrecht, Theodore, and Elaine Schwensen, "More Than Just Peanuts: Evidence for December 16 as Beethoven's
birthday." The Beethoven Newsletter 3 (1988): 49, 60–63.
• Bohle, Bruce, and Robert Sabin. The International Cyclopedia of Music and Musicians. London: J.M.Dent &
Sons LTD, 1975. ISBN 0-460-04235-1.
• Davies, Peter J. The Character of a Genius: Beethoven in Perspective. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002.
ISBN 0-313-31913-8.
• Davies, Peter J. Beethoven in Person: His Deafness, Illnesses, and Death. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press,
2001. ISBN 0-313-31587-6.
• DeNora, Tia. "Beethoven and the Construction of Genius: Musical Politics in Vienna, 1792–1803." Berkeley,
California: University of California Press, 1995. ISBN 0-520-21158-8.
• Geck, Martin. Beethoven. Translated by Anthea Bell. London: Haus, 2003. ISBN 1-904341-03-9 (h), ISBN
1-904341-00-4 (p).
• Hatten, Robert S (1994). Musical Meaning in Beethoven. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
ISBN 0-253-32742-3.
• Kornyei, Alexius. Beethoven in Martonvasar. Verlag, 1960. OCLC Number: 27056305
• Kropfinger, Klaus. Beethoven. Verlage Bärenreiter/Metzler, 2001. ISBN 3-7618-1621-9.
• Martin, Russell. Beethoven's Hair. New York: Broadway Books, 2000. ISBN 978-0767903509
• Meredith, William. "The History of Beethoven's Skull Fragments." The Beethoven Journal 20 (2005): 3-46.
• Morris, Edmund. Beethoven: The Universal Composer. New York: Atlas Books / HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN
0-06-075974-7.
• Rosen, Charles. The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven. (Expanded ed.) New York: W. W. Norton, 1998.
ISBN 0-393-04020-8 (hc); ISBN 0-393-31712-9 (pb).
• Solomon, Maynard. Late Beethoven: Music, Thought, Imagination. Berkeley: University of California Press,
2003. ISBN 0-520-23746-3.
• Thayer, A. W., rev and ed. Elliot Forbes. Thayer's Life of Beethoven. (2 vols.) Princeton: Princeton University
Press. ISBN 0-691-09103-X
• Sullivan, J. W. N., Beethoven: His Spiritual Development New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1927

External links
• Beethoven-Haus Bonn [80]. Official website of Beethoven-Haus in Bonn, Germany. Links to extensive studio and
digital archive, library holdings, the Beethoven-Haus Museum (including "internet exhibitions" and "virtual
visits"), the Beethoven-Archiv research center, and information on Beethoven publications of interest to the
specialist and general reader. Extensive collection of Beethoven's compositions and written documents, with
sound samples and a digital reconstruction of his last house in Vienna.
• The Ira F. Brilliant Center for Beethoven Studies [81], The Beethoven Gateway [82] (San José State University)
Beethoven 616

Digitized, scanned material (books, sheetmusic)

• "Beethoven" Titles [83]; Beethoven as author [84] from archive.org
• "Beethoven" Titles [85]; Beethoven as author [86] from books.google.com
• Digital Archives [87] from Beethoven-Haus Bonn
• "Beethoven" titles [88] from Gallica

Sheetmusic (scores)
• Works by Beethoven [89] Beethoven-Haus Bonn
• Beethoven's 9th symphony [90] from Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin
• "Beethoven" Titles [91] from the Munich Digitisation Centre (MDZ)
• "Beethoven" Titles [92] from the University of Rochester
• Free scores by Beethoven in the International Music Score Library Project
• Free sheet music [93] from Kreusch-sheet-music.net
• Free scores by Beethoven in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki)
• Works by Ludwig van Beethoven [94] at Project Gutenberg
• Free scores [95] by Ludwig van Beethoven in the Werner Icking Music Archive (WIMA)
• Beethoven scores [96] from Mutopia Project

Historical recordings
• Beethoven - recordings with audio available [97];   Beethoven - recordings (incl. without avail. audio) [98];  
Information on sound files [99] (CHARM)
• Beethoven cylinder recordings [100], from the Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project at the University of
California, Santa Barbara Library
• Recordings [101] at archive.org

General reference
• Mad About Beethoven [102] by British television and radio announcer John Suchet
• Beethoven: The Immortal [103]. Introduction and detailed account of the composer's life. Articles include his
deafness, demeanor, daily routine, medical history, final days, and letters.
• Raptus Association for Music Appreciation site on Beethoven [104]
• All About Ludwig van Beethoven [105]
• Listings of live performances at Bachtrack [106]

Specific topics
• Beethoven's last apartment in Vienna [107], digitally reconstructed 2004, on Multimedia CD-ROM edited by
Beethoven-Haus Bonn
Authority control: PND: 118508288 [108] | LCCN: n79107741 [109] | VIAF: 32182557 [110]

References
[1] Beethoven was baptised on 17 December. His date of birth was often, in the past, given as 16 December, however this is not known with
certainty; his family celebrated his birthday on that date, but there is no documentary evidence that his birth was actually on 16 December.
[2] Grove Online, section 1
[3] Thayer, Vol 1, p. 49
[4] Thorne, J. O. & Collocott, T.C., ed (1986). Chambers Biographical Dictionary. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. p. 114.
ISBN 0550180222.
[5] Thayer, Vol 1, p. 53
[6] This is discussed in depth in Solomon, chapter 1.
Beethoven 617

[7] Stanley, p. 7
[8] Thayer, Vol 1, p. 59
[9] Thayer, Vol 1, p. 67
[10] Thayer, Vol 1, pp. 71–74
[11] Cooper (2008), p. 15
[12] Cooper (2008), p. 23
[13] Cooper (2008), p. 24
[14] Cooper (2008), p. 16
[15] Thayer, Vol 1, p. 102
[16] Thayer, Vol 1, p. 104
[17] Thayer, Vol 1, pp. 105–109
[18] Thayer, Vol 1, p. 124
[19] Cooper (2008), p. 35
[20] Cooper (2008), p. 41
[21] Cooper (2008), pp. 35–41
[22] Thayer, Vol 1, p. 148
[23] Cooper (2008), p. 42
[24] Cooper (2008), p. 43
[25] Grove Online, section 3
[26] Cooper (2008), pp. 47,54
[27] Thayer, Vol 1, p. 161
[28] Cooper (2008), p. 53
[29] Cross (1953), p. 59
[30] Cooper (2008), p. 46
[31] Cooper (2008), p. 59
[32] Lockwood (2005), p. 144
[33] Cooper (2008), p. 56
[34] Cooper (2008), p. 82
[35] Cooper (2008), p. 90
[36] Cooper (2008), p. 66
[37] Cooper (2008), p. 58
[38] Cooper (2008), p. 97
[39] Cooper (2008), p. 80
[40] Cooper (2008), pp. 98–103
[41] Cooper (2008), pp. 112–127
[42] Cooper (2008), pp. 112–115
[43] Grove Online, section 5
[44] Cooper (2008), p. 108
[45] Cooper (2008), p. 120
[46] White, Felix (1 April 1927). "Some Tributes to Beethoven in English Verse". The Musical Times 68 (1010).
[47] Ealy, George Thomas (Spring 1994). "Of Ear Trumpets and a Resonance Plate: Early Hearing Aids and Beethoven's Hearing Perception"
(http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 746569). 19th-Century Music 17 (3): 262–273. doi:10.1525/ncm.1994.17.3.02a00050. .
[48] Solomon (2001)
[49] Clive, p. 239
[50] Cooper (2008), p. 131
[51] Cooper (2008), p. 148
[52] Cooper (2008), p. 150
[53] Cooper (2008), p. 185
[54] Cooper (2008), pp. 146,168
[55] Beethoven's Immortal Beloved Letters (http:/ / www. all-about-beethoven. com/ immortalbeloved. html)
[56] Oakley Beahrs, Virginia: The Immortal Beloved Riddle Reconsidered, Musical Times, Vol. 129, No. 1740 (Feb., 1988), pp. 64-70
[57] Cooper (2008), pp. 194, 208–210. Cooper cites Solomon among other sources, and provides compelling evidence that it was neither
Josephine Deym nor Marie Erdödy.
[58] Cooper (2008), p. 212
[59] Cooper (2008), p. 254
[60] On 18 December 1818, The Landrechte, the Austrian court for the nobility, handed over the whole matter of guardianship to the
Stadtmagistrat, the court for commoners " It .... appears from the statement of Ludwig van Beethoven, as the accompanying copy of the court
minutes of 11 December of this year shows, that he is unable to prove nobility: hence the matter of guardianship is transferred to an honorable
magistrate" Landrechte of the Magisterial tribunal.
Beethoven 618

[61] Cooper (2008), p 260

[62] Cooper (2008), p. 317
[63] Cooper (2008), p. 318
[64] Cooper (2008), p. 349
[65] Mai, F.M. (1 October 2006). "Beethoven's terminal illness and death" (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ sites/ entrez?db=pubmed&
cmd=DetailsSearch& term=Beethoven's+ terminal+ illness+ and+ death& log$=activity). J R Coll Physicians Edinb. 36(3): 258–263. .
[66] Meredith, William (Spring & Summer 2005). "The History of Beethoven's Skull Fragments" (http:/ / www2. sjsu. edu/ beethoven/ skull/
skullstory. pdf). The Beethoven Journal 20 (1 & 2): 2–3. . Retrieved 27 March 2009.
[67] Jahn, George (28 August 2007). "Pathologist: Doctor Killed Beethoven" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/
2007/ 08/ 28/ AR2007082800980_pf. html). The Washington Post. . Retrieved 29 December 2008.
[68] Eisinger, Josef (1 January 2008). "The lead in Beethoven's hair". Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry 90: 1–5.
[69] Lorenz, Michael: 'Commentary on Wawruch’s Report: Biographies of Andreas Wawruch and Johann Seibert, Schindler’s Responses to
Wawruch’s Report, and Beethoven’s Medical Condition and Alcohol Consumption', The Beethoven Journal, Winter 2007, Vol. 22, No 2, (San
Jose: The Ira Brilliant Center for Beethoven Studies, 2007), 92-100.
[70] Beethoven bipolar? http:/ / www. gazette. uottawa. ca/ article_e_1529. html
[71] Cold Case in Vienna: Who Killed Beethoven? (http:/ / www. cbsnews. com/ stories/ 2007/ 08/ 29/ world/ main3216201.
shtml?source=RSSattr=SciTech_3216201) — CBS News
[72] Grove Online
[73] Ludwig van Beethoven — Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon (http:/ / freemasonry. bcy. ca/ biography/ beethoven_l/
beethoven_l. html)
[74] "Festival de Cannes: Eroica" (http:/ / www. festival-cannes. com/ en/ archives/ ficheFilm/ id/ 4138/ year/ 1949. html). festival-cannes.com. .
Retrieved 9 January 2009.
[75] Eroica (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0041335/ ) at the Internet Movie Database
[76] Eroica (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0369400/ ) at the Internet Movie Database
[77] Beethoven (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0944317/ ) at the Internet Movie Database
[78] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=VQw5AAAAIAAJ
[79] http:/ / www. grovemusic. com/
[80] http:/ / www. beethoven-haus-bonn. de/ sixcms/ detail. php/ / portal_en
[81] http:/ / www. sjsu. edu/ beethoven/ collections/ collections. html
[82] http:/ / www. sjsu. edu/ beethoven/ bbd/ bgateway. html
[83] http:/ / www. archive. org/ search. php?query=Beethoven%20AND%20mediatype%3Atexts
[84] http:/ / www. archive. org/ search. php?query=creator%3A(Beethoven)%20AND%20mediatype%3A(Texts)
[85] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?as_q=& num=10& lr=& as_brr=3& btnG=Google+ Search& as_epq=& as_oq=& as_eq=& as_brr=3&
as_pt=ALLTYPES& lr=& as_vt=Beethoven+ |+ + Beethovens& as_auth=& as_pub=& as_sub=& as_drrb_is=b& as_minm_is=0&
as_miny_is=1700& as_maxm_is=0& as_maxy_is=1940& as_isbn=& as_issn=
[86] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?lr=& as_brr=3& q=inauthor%3ABeethoven& btnG=Search+ Books& as_drrb_is=b& as_minm_is=0&
as_miny_is=1700& as_maxm_is=0& as_maxy_is=1930
[87] http:/ / www. beethoven-haus-bonn. de/ sixcms/ detail. php?template=startseite_digitales_archiv_en
[88] http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ Search?q=Beethoven& p=1& lang=en& ArianeWireRechercheHaut=palette
[89] http:/ / www. beethoven-haus-bonn. de/ sixcms/ detail. php?id=1510& template=einstieg_digitales_archiv_en&
_mid=Works%20by%20Ludwig%20van%20Beethoven
[90] http:/ / beethoven. staatsbibliothek-berlin. de/ index. html
[91] http:/ / www. digital-collections. de/ index. html?c=autoren_index& l=en& ab=Beethoven%2C+ Ludwig+ van
[92] https:/ / urresearch. rochester. edu/ viewContributorPage. action?personNameId=685
[93] http:/ / kreusch-sheet-music. net/ eng/ index. php?search_type=quick& show_box=true& search=true& page=search& order=op&
query=Beethovenhttp:/ / kreusch-sheet-music. net/ eng/ index. php?search_type=quick& show_box=true& search=true& page=search&
order=op& query=Beethoven
[94] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ author/ Ludwig_van_Beethoven
[95] http:/ / icking-music-archive. org/ ByComposer/ Beethoven. php
[96] http:/ / www. mutopiaproject. org/ cgibin/ make-table. cgi?Composer=BeethovenLv
[97] http:/ / www. charm. kcl. ac. uk/ discography/ search/ search_advanced?operatorSel_0=and& parameterSel_0=composer&
parameterTxt_0=beethoven& parameterKeyTxt_0=Beethoven& soundClipChk=on
[98] http:/ / www. charm. kcl. ac. uk/ discography/ search/ search_advanced?operatorSel_0=and& parameterSel_0=composer&
parameterTxt_0=beethoven& parameterKeyTxt_0=Beethoven
[99] http:/ / www. charm. rhul. ac. uk/ sound/ sound. html
[100] http:/ / cylinders. library. ucsb. edu/ search. php?query=Beethoven& queryType=%40attr+ 1%3D1
[101] http:/ / www. archive. org/ search.
php?query=Beethoven%20AND%20(date%3A%5b1850%20TO%201945%5d%20OR%20collection%3A(78rpm)%20OR%20mediatype%3A(78rpm)%20OR%20
[102] http:/ / www. madaboutbeethoven. com/
Beethoven 619

[103] http:/ / lucare. com/ immortal

[104] http:/ / www. raptusassociation. org/
[105] http:/ / www. all-about-beethoven. com
[106] http:/ / www. bachtrack. com/ find-a-concert/ What/ composer=12-Beethoven
[107] http:/ / www. marcus-frings. de/ beethoven/ index-en. htm
[108] http:/ / d-nb. info/ gnd/ 118508288
[109] http:/ / errol. oclc. org/ laf/ n79107741. html
[110] http:/ / viaf. org/ viaf/ 32182557
Harold Bloom 620

Harold Bloom
Harold Bloom
Born July 11, 1930
New York City

Occupation literary and cultural critic

Literary movement Romanticism, Aestheticism

Notable work(s) The Western Canon, The Anxiety of Influence

Harold Bloom (born July 11, 1930) is an American writer and literary critic, currently Sterling Professor of the
Humanities at Yale University.[1] He is known for his defense of 19th-century Romantic poets, his construction of
unique but controversial theories of poetic influence, and for advocating an aesthetic approach to literature against
feminist, Marxist, New Historicist, poststructuralist (deconstructive and semiotic) literary criticism. Bloom is a 1985
recipient of a MacArthur Fellowship.

Early life

Early life and education

Harold Bloom, son of William and Paula Bloom, was born in New York City and lived in the South Bronx at 1410
Grand Concourse. He grew up in a Yiddish-speaking household and learned Yiddish and literary Hebrew before
learning English.
Bloom has frequently recounted that his attachment to poetry began when, at the age of ten, he discovered Hart
Crane's book White Buildings at the Fordham Library in the Bronx. It was at this time that he read the Poems and
Prophecies of William Blake. "I saw the Oxford English Dictionary there for the first time," he said many years
later. "I remember being so touched by the enormous availability of large and complex dictionaries and
concordances. I remember ransacking them."[2] He says that he knew "by age eleven or twelve that all I really liked
to do was read poetry and discuss it." At sixteen he read Moby-Dick. The first Shakespeare he read outside of school
coursework was Macbeth. For nearly twenty years he reread Charles Dickens' The Pickwick Papers every year.
He entered Cornell University in 1947 on scholarship (as one of 65 people in the Bronx that year to win a
scholarship from the State Department of Education). At Cornell he found a mentor in M. H. Abrams, a leading
scholar of Romanticism and the founding and general editor of The Norton Anthology of English Literature. He
earned a B.A. in 1952, and spent a year at Pembroke College, Cambridge, in 1953/4. He then went to Yale
University, receiving his Ph.D. in 1955 and has worked as a member of the Yale faculty since that time. In 1959, he
married Jeanne Gould; they have two sons, Daniel Jacob and David Moses.

Early career
Bloom credits Northrop Frye as his nearest precursor. He told Imre Salusinszky in 1986: "In terms of my own
theorizations... the precursor proper has to be Northrop Frye. I purchased and read Fearful Symmetry a week or two
after it had come out and reached the bookstore in Ithaca, New York. It ravished my heart away. I have tried to find
an alternative father in Mr. Kenneth Burke, who is a charming fellow and a very powerful critic, but I don't come
from Burke, I come out of Frye."[3] However, he also admits an indebtedness, especially in his later period, to earlier
critics such as William Hazlitt, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Walter Pater, A.C. Bradley, and Samuel Johnson, whom he
acknowledges as "unmatched by any critic in any nation before or after him".
Harold Bloom 621

Bloom began his career by defending the reputations of the High Romantic poets of the early nineteenth century
against neo-Christian critics influenced by such writers as T. S. Eliot, who became a recurring intellectual foil. He
had a contentious approach: his first book, Shelley's Myth-making, charged many contemporary critics with sheer
carelessness in their reading of Shelley. After a personal crisis in the late sixties, Bloom became deeply interested in
Emerson, Sigmund Freud, and the ancient mystic traditions of Gnosticism, Kabbalah, and Hermeticism. He would
later come to describe himself to interviewer D. Leybman in the Paris Review as a "Jewish gnostic," explaining "I
am using Gnostic in a very broad way. I am nothing if not Jewish... I really am a product of Yiddish culture. But I
can't understand a Yahweh, or a God, who could be all-powerful and all knowing and would allow the Nazi death
camps and schizophrenia." Influenced by his reading, he began a series of books that focused on the way in which
poets struggled to create their own individual poetic visions without being overcome by the influence of the previous
poets who inspired them to write. The first of these books, Yeats, a magisterial examination of the poet, challenged
the conventional critical view of his poetic career. In the introduction to this volume, Bloom set out the basic
principles of his new approach to criticism: "Poetic influence, as I conceive it, is a variety of melancholy or the
[Freudian] anxiety-principle." A new poet becomes inspired to write because he has read and admired the poetry of
previous poets; but this admiration turns into resentment when the new poet discovers that these poets whom he
idolized have already said everything he wishes to say. The poet becomes disappointed because he "cannot be Adam
early in the morning. There have been too many Adams, and they have named everything."
In order to evade this psychological obstacle, the new poet must convince himself that previous poets have gone
wrong somewhere and failed in their vision, thus leaving open the possibility that he may have something to add to
the tradition after all. The new poet's love for his heroes turns into antagonism towards them: "Initial love for the
precursor's poetry is transformed rapidly enough into revisionary strife, without which individuation is not
possible."[4] The book that followed Yeats, The Anxiety of Influence, which Bloom had started writing in 1967, drew
upon the example of Walter Jackson Bate's The Burden of the Past and The English Poet and recast Bate's
historicized account of the despair felt by seventeenth- and eighteenth-century poets about their ability to match the
achievements of their predecessors in systematic psychoanalytic form. Bloom attempted to trace the psychological
process by which a poet broke free from his precursors to achieve his own poetic vision. He drew a sharp distinction
between "strong poets" who perform "strong misreadings" of their precursors, and "weak poets" who simply repeat
the ideas of their precursors as though following a kind of doctrine. He described this process in terms of a sequence
of "revisionary ratios," through which each strong poet passes in the course of his career. A Map of Misreading
picked up where The Anxiety of Influence left off, making several adjustments to Bloom's system of revisionary
ratios. Kabbalah and Criticism attempted to invoke the esoteric interpretive system of the Lurianic Kabbalah, as
explicated by scholar Gershom Scholem, as an alternate system of mapping the path of poetic influence. Figures of
Capable Imagination collected odd pieces Bloom had written in the process of composing his 'influence' books. He
capped off this period of intense creativity with another monograph, a full-length study of Wallace Stevens, with
whom he identified more than any other poet at this stage of his career, as he told an interviewer in the early 1980s.
Bloom's fascination with the fantasy novel A Voyage to Arcturus by David Lindsay led him to take a brief break
from criticism in order to compose a sequel to Lindsay's novel. This novel, The Flight to Lucifer, remains Bloom's
only work of fiction. Though reviews were very positive, he soon disowned this book. As he himself admitted, the
author's self-conscious theoretical interest in the nature of fantasy literature weighed it down too heavily. He has said
that he would remove every copy of the book from every library if he could.
Harold Bloom 622

Later career
Bloom continued to write about influence theory throughout the seventies and eighties, and he has written little since
that does not invoke his ideas about influence. Acknowledging that his early output often tends toward the abstruse,
he has turned to more accessible criticism aimed at a general readership in his later work, beginning with The Book
of J (for which he wrote the introduction and commentary) in 1990. In The Book of J, he and David Rosenberg (who
translated the Biblical texts) portrayed one of the posited ancient documents that formed the basis of the first five
books of the bible (see documentary hypothesis) as the work of a great literary artist who had no intention of
composing a dogmatically religious work. They further envisaged this anonymous writer as a woman attached to the
court of the successors of the Israelite kings David and Solomon — a piece of speculation which drew much
attention. Later, Bloom said that the speculations didn't go far enough, and perhaps he should have identified J with
the Biblical Bathsheba.
In The American Religion, Bloom surveyed the major varieties of Protestant and post-Protestant religious faiths that
originated in the United States and argued that, in terms of their psychological hold on their adherents, most shared
more in common with gnosticism than with historical Christianity. The exception was the Jehovah's Witnesses,
which Bloom regards as non-Gnostic. He has elsewhere predicted that the Mormon and Pentecostal strains of
American Christianity will overtake mainstream Protestant divisions in popularity in the next few decades. In Jesus
and Yahweh: The Names Divine (2004), he revisits some of the territory he covered in The Book of J in discussing
the significance of Yahweh and Jesus of Nazareth as literary characters, while casting a critical eye on historical
approaches and asserting the fundamental incompatibility of Christianity and Judaism.
From 1988 to 2004, Bloom served as Berg Professor of English at New York University while maintaining his
Sterling Professorship at Yale and continuing to teach there.
In 1994, Bloom published The Western Canon, a survey of major literary works of post-Roman Europe, focusing on
26 works he considered sublime and representative (of their nations[5] and of the Western canon[6] ). Besides
analyses of the canon's various representative works, the major concern of the volume is reclaiming literature from
those he refers to as the "School of resentment", the mostly academic critics who espouse a social purpose in
reading. Bloom believes that the goals of reading must be solitary aesthetic pleasure and self-insight rather than the
"forces of resentments'" goal of improvement of one's society, which he casts as an absurd aim, writing: "The idea
that you benefit the insulted and injured by reading someone of their own origins rather than reading Shakespeare is
one of the oddest illusions ever promoted by or in our schools." His position is that politics have no place in literary
criticism: a feminist or Marxist reading of Hamlet would tell us something about feminism and Marxism, he says,
but probably nothing about Hamlet itself.
In addition to the amount of influence one writer has had on later writers, Bloom introduces the concept of
"canonical strangeness" as a benchmark of a literary work's merit. The Western Canon also included a list — which
aroused more widespread interest than anything else in the volume — of all the Western works from antiquity to the
present that Bloom considered either permanent members of the canon of literary classics, or (among more recent
works) candidates for that status. Bloom has said that he made list off the top of his head at his editor's request, and
that he does not stand by it. The notoriety surrounding The Western Canon turned Bloom into something of a
celebrity.

Work on Shakespeare
Bloom has a deep appreciation for Shakespeare[7] and considers him to be the supreme center of the Western
Canon.[8] The first edition of The Anxiety of Influence almost completely avoided Shakespeare, whom Bloom
considered, at the time, barely touched by the psychological drama of anxiety. The second edition, published in
1997, adds a long preface that mostly expounds on Shakespeare's agon with his contemporary Christopher Marlowe,
who set the stage for him by breaking free of ecclesiastical and moralizing overtones, as well as his other influences,
Ovid and Chaucer.
Harold Bloom 623

In his 1998 survey, Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human, Bloom provides an analysis of each of Shakespeare's
38 plays, "twenty-four of which are masterpieces." Written as a companion to the general reader and theatergoer,
Bloom declares that bardolatry "ought to be even more a secular religion than it already is." He also contends in the
work (as in the title) that Shakespeare "invented" humanity, in that he prescribed the now-common practice
"overhearing" ourselves, which drives our changes. The two paragons of his theory are Sir John Falstaff of Henry IV
and Hamlet, whom Bloom sees as representing self-satisfaction and self-loathing, respectively. Throughout
Shakespeare, characters from disparate plays are imagined alongside and interacting with each other; this has been
decried by numerous contemporary academics and critics as hearkening back to the out of fashion character criticism
of A.C. Bradley and others, who happen to gather explicit praise in the book. As in The Western Canon, Bloom
cheerfully attacks what he calls the "School of Resentment" for its failure to live up to the challenge of Shakespeare's
universality and instead balkanizing the study of literature through various multicultural and historicist departments.
Asserting Shakespeare's singular popularity throughout the world, Bloom proclaims him as the only multicultural
author, and rather than the "social energies" historicists ascribe Shakespeare's authorship to, Bloom pronounces his
modern academic foes — and indeed, all of society — to be "a parody of Shakespearian energies."

Influence
Bloom's theory of poetic influence regards the development of Western literature as a process of borrowing and
misreading. Writers find their creative inspiration in previous writers and begin by imitating those writers; in order to
develop a poetic voice of their own, however, they must make their own work different from that of their precursors.
As a result, Bloom argues, authors of real power must inevitably "misread" their precursors' works in order to make
room for fresh imaginings.
Observers often identified Bloom with deconstruction in the past, but he himself never admitted to sharing more than
a few ideas with the deconstructionists. He told Robert Moynihan in 1983, "What I think I have in common with the
school of deconstruction is the mode of negative thinking or negative awareness, in the technical, philosophical
sense of the negative, but which comes to me through negative theology.... There is no escape, there is simply the
given, and there is nothing that we can do."
Bloom's association with the Western canon has provoked a substantial interest in his opinion concerning the relative
importance of contemporary writers. In the late 1980s, Bloom told an interviewer: "Probably the most powerful
living Western writer is Samuel Beckett. He's certainly the most authentic."[9]
After Beckett's death in 1989, Bloom has pointed towards other authors as the new main figures of the Western
literary canon.
Concerning British writers: "Geoffrey Hill is the strongest British poet now active", and "no other contemporary
British novelist seems to me to be of Iris Murdoch's eminence". Since Murdoch's death, Bloom has expressed
admiration for novelists such as Peter Ackroyd, Will Self, John Banville, and A. S. Byatt.
In his 2003 book, Genius: A Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative Minds, he named the late Portuguese
writer and Nobel Prize winner José Saramago as "the most gifted novelist alive in the world today", and as "one of
the last titans of an expiring literary genre".
Of American novelists, he declared in 2003 that "there are four living American novelists I know of who are still at
work and who deserve our praise". He claimed that "they write the Style of our Age, each has composed canonical
works," and he identified them as Thomas Pynchon, Philip Roth, Cormac McCarthy and Don DeLillo. He named
their strongest works as, respectively, Gravity's Rainbow and Mason & Dixon, American Pastoral and Sabbath's
Theater, Blood Meridian and Underworld. He has also praised fantasy writer John Crowley as these writers' equal,
reserving particular praise for his novel Little, Big.
In Kabbalah and Criticism (1975), Bloom identified Robert Penn Warren, James Merrill, John Ashbery, and
Elizabeth Bishop as the most important living American poets. By the 1990s, he regularly named A.R. Ammons
along with Ashbery and Merrill, and he has lately come to identify Henri Cole as the crucial American poet of the
Harold Bloom 624

generation following those three. He has expressed great admiration for the Canadian poet Anne Carson, particularly
her verse novel Autobiography of Red. Bloom also lists Jay Wright as one of only a handful of major living poets.
Bloom's introduction to Modern Critical Interpretations: Thomas Pynchon (1987) features his canon of the
"twentieth-century American Sublime", the greatest works of American art produced in the 20th century. playwright
Tony Kushner sees Bloom as an important influence on his work; his play Angels in America is the last work listed
in the appendices of The Western Canon.

Controversy
In the early 21st century, Bloom has often found himself at the center of literary controversy, leveling attacks at
popular writers such as Adrienne Rich, Maya Angelou,[10] Stephen King,[11] and J. K. Rowling.[12] In the pages of
the Paris Review, he criticized the populist-leaning poetry slam, saying, "It is the death of art."[13] When Doris
Lessing was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, he bemoaned the "pure political correctness" of this award to an
author of "fourth-rate science fiction"[14]
In a February 2004 article in New York Magazine, "The Silent Treatment," Naomi Wolf accused Bloom, her former
professor, of having "sexually encroached" on her when she was a Yale undergraduate, by touching her thigh.
Although she acknowledged that what she alleged Bloom to have done was not harassment, either legally or
emotionally, she claimed to have harbored this secret for 21 years.[15] Bloom denied the accusations.[16]

Selected bibliography

Books
• Shelley's Mythmaking. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959.
• The Visionary Company: A Reading of English Romantic Poetry. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1961. Rev. and
enlarged ed. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1971.
• Blake's Apocalypse: A Study in Poetic Argument. Anchor Books: New York: Doubleday and Co., 1963.
• Yeats. New York: Oxford University Press, 1970. ISBN 0-19-501603-3
• The Anxiety of Influence: A Theory of Poetry. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973; 2d ed., 1997. ISBN
0-19-511221-0
• A Map of Misreading. New York: Oxford University Press, 1975.
• Kabbalah and Criticism. New York : Seabury Press, 1975. ISBN 0-8264-0242-9
• The Ringers in the Tower: Studies in Romantic Tradition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971.
• Poetry and Repression: Revisionism from Blake to Stevens. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976.
• Figures of Capable Imagination. New York: Seabury Press, 1976.
• Wallace Stevens: The Poems of our Climate. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1977.
• Deconstruction and Criticism. New York: Seabury Press, 1980.
• The Flight to Lucifer: Gnostic Fantasy. New York: Vintage Books, 1980. ISBN 0-394-74323-7
• Agon: Towards a Theory of Revisionism. New York : Oxford University Press, 1982.
• The Breaking of the Vessels. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.
• Ruin the Sacred Truths: Poetry and Belief from the Bible to the Present. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Press, 1989.
• The Book of J: Translated from the Hebrew by David Rosenberg; Interpreted by Harold Bloom. New York:
Grove Press, 1990 ISBN 0-8021-4191-9
• The American Religion: The Emergence of the Post-Christian Nation; Touchstone Books; ISBN 0-671-86737-7
(1992; August 1993)
• The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1994.
• Omens of Millennium: The Gnosis of Angels, Dreams, and Resurrection. New York: Riverhead Books, 1996.
Harold Bloom 625

• Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human. New York: 1998. ISBN 1-57322-751-X
• How to Read and Why. New York: 2000. ISBN 0-684-85906-8
• Stories and Poems for Extremely Intelligent Children of All Ages. New York: 2001.
• El futur de la imaginació (The Future of the Imagination). Barcelona: Anagrama / Empúries, 2002. ISBN
84-7596-927-5
• Genius: A Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative Minds. New York: 2003. ISBN 0-446-52717-3
• Hamlet: Poem Unlimited. New York: 2003.
• The Best Poems of the English Language: From Chaucer Through Frost. New York: 2004. ISBN 0-06-054041-9
• Where Shall Wisdom Be Found? New York: 2004. ISBN 1-57322-284-4
• Jesus and Yahweh: The Names Divine 2005. ISBN 1-57322-322-0
• American Religious Poems: An Anthology By Harold Bloom 2006. ISBN 1-931082-74-X
• Anatomy of Influence Yale University Press, 2011. [17]

Articles
• On Extended Wings; Wallace Stevens' Longer Poems. By Helen Hennessy Vendler, (review), New York Times,
October 5, 1969.
• Poets' meeting in the heyday of their youth; A Single Summer With Lord Byron, New York Times, February 15,
1970.
• An angel's spirit in a decaying (and active) body, New York Times, November 22, 1970.
• The Use of Poetry, New York Times, November 12, 1975.
• Northrop Frye exalting the designs of romance; The Secular Scripture, New York Times, April 18, 1976.
• On Solitude in America, New York Times, August 4, 1977.
• The Critic/Poet, New York Times, February 5, 1978.
• A Fusion of Traditions; Rosenberg, New York Times, July 22, 1979.
• Straight Forth Out of Self, New York Times, June 22, 1980.
• The Heavy Burden of the Past; Poets, New York Times, January 4, 1981.
• The Pictures of the Poet; The Painting and Drawings of William Blake, By Martin Butlin. Vol. I, Text. Vol. II,
Plates, (Review) New York Times, January 3, 1982.
• A Novelist's Bible; The Story of the Stories, The Chosen People and Its God. By Dan Jacobson, (Review) New
York Times, October 17, 1982.
• Isaac Bashevis Singer's Jeremiad; The Penitent, By Isaac Bashevis Singer, (Review) New York Times,
September 25, 1983.
• Domestic Derangements; A Late Divorce, By A. B. Yehoshua Translated by Hillel Halkin, (Review) New York
Times, February 19, 1984.
• War Within the Walls; In the Freud Archives, By Janet Malcolm, (Review) New York Times, May 27, 1984.
• His Long Ordeal by Laughter; Zuckerman Bound, A Trilogy and Epilogue. By Philip Roth, (Review) New York
Times, May 19, 1985.
• A Comedy of Worldly Salvation; The Good Apprentice, By Iris Murdoch, (Review) New York Times, January 12,
1986.
• Freud, the Greatest Modern Writer (Review) New York Times, March 23, 1986.
• Passionate Beholder of America in Trouble; Look Homeward, A Life of Thomas Wolfe. By David Herbert
Donald, (Review) New York Times, February 8, 1987.
• The Book of the Father; The Messiah of Stockholm, By Cynthia Ozick, (Review) New York Times, March 22,
1987.
• Still Haunted by Covenant; The Penguin Book of Modern Yiddish Verse, Edited by Irving Howe, Ruth R. Wisse
and Khone Shmeruk; American Yiddish Poetry, A Bilingual Anthology. Edited by Benjamin and Barbara
Harshav; Selected Poems of Yankev Glatshteyn, Edited and translated by Richard J. Fein, (Reviews) New York
Harold Bloom 626

Times, January 31, 1988.

• New Heyday of Gnostic Heresies, New York Times, April 26, 1992.
• A Jew Among the Cossacks; The first English translation of Isaac Babel's journal about his service with the
Russian cavalry. 1920 Diary, By Isaac Babel, (Review) New York Times, June 4, 1995.
• Kaddish; By Leon Wieseltier, (Review) New York Times, October 4, 1998.
• View; On First Looking Into Gates's Crichton, New York Times, June 4, 2000.
• What Ho, Malvolio!'; The election, as Shakespeare might have seen it, New York Times, December 6, 2000.
• Macbush, (play) Vanity Fair, April, 2004.
• "The Lost Jewish Culture [18]" The New York Review of Books 54/11 (28 June 2007) : 44-47 [reviews The Dreams
of the Poem: Hebrew Poetry from Muslim and Christian Spain, 950-1492, translated, edited, and with an
introduction by Peter Cole]
• "The Glories of Yiddish [19]" The New York Review of Books 55/17 (6 November 2008) [reviews History of the
Yiddish Language, by Max Weinreich, edited by Paul Glasser, translated from the Yiddish by Shlomo Noble with
the assistance of Joshua A. Fishman]
• "Yahweh Meets R. Crumb", The New York Review of Books, 56/19 (3 December 2009) [reviews The Book of
Genesis, illustrated by R. Crumb]

See also
• List of thinkers influenced by deconstruction
• School of resentment

References
• Bloom, Harold. The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages (1994) Harcourt Brace & Company.

Further reading
• Allen, Graham, Harold Bloom: Poetics of Conflict, Harvester Wheatsheaf (New York, NY), 1994.
• Contemporary Literary Criticism, Volume 24, Gale (Detroit), 1983.
• De Bolla, Peter, Harold Bloom: Toward Historical Rhetorics, Routledge (New York, NY), 1988.
• Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 67: Modern American Critics since 1955, Gale, 1988.
• Fite, David, Harold Bloom: The Rhetoric of Romantic Vision, University of Massachusetts Press (Amherst), 1985.
• Moynihan, Robert, A Recent Imagining: Interviews with Harold Bloom, Geoffrey Hartman, J. Hillis Miller, Paul
De Man, Archon, 1986.
• Saurberg, Lars Ole, Versions of the Past—Visions of the Future: The Canonical in the Criticism of T. S. Eliot, F.
R. Leavis, Northrop Frye, and Harold Bloom, St. Martin's Press (New York, NY), 1997.
• Scherr, Barry J., D. H. Lawrence's Response to Plato: A Bloomian Interpretation, P. Lang (New York, NY),
1995.
• Sellars, Roy (ed.), and Graham Allen (ed.). The Salt Companion to Harold Bloom. Cambridge: Salt, 2007. More
info [20].
• Interview with Bloom on NPR [21], regarding his book Jesus and Yahweh: The Names Divine
• Interview with Bloom [22] on The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, regarding his book How to Read and Why (2000).
• God and Harold at Yale [23], an essay from the Claremont Review on Bloom and his book, "Jesus and Yahweh"
• Breakfast with Brontosaurus [24], an October 26, 2004 interview by Ieva Lesinska.
• Radio interview with Christopher Lydon [25], Harvard Law Weblogs [26], September 3, 2003.
• Interview with Jennie Rothenberg [27], The Atlantic, July 16, 2003.
• The sage of Concord [28], a May 24, 2003 Guardian Unlimited article on Ralph Waldo Emerson by Bloom.
• Excerpts from various Bloom interviews [29], The Stanford Presidential Lecture Series [30].
Harold Bloom 627

• Dumbing down American readers [31], Harold Bloom, Boston Globe, September 24, 2003.
• Can 35 Million Book Buyers Be Wrong? Yes. [32]. Harold Bloom, Wall Street Journal, July 11, 2000. His famous
criticism of the Harry Potter series.
• Out of Panic, Self-Reliance. [33] The New York Times, Opinion on R.W. Emerson. October 12, 2008.
• List of Bloom's contributions [34] to The New York Review of Books

References
[1] Department of English | Yale University (http:/ / www. yale. edu/ english/ profiles/ bloom_h. html)
[2] Collins, Glenn (January 16, 2006). "New Bronx Library Meets Old Need" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 01/ 16/ nyregion/ 16library.
html). The New York Times. . Retrieved May 4, 2010.
[3] "On His Own Intellectual Roots" (http:/ / prelectur. stanford. edu/ lecturers/ bloom/ interviews. html#roots)
[4] Map of Misreading p. 10
[5] Bloom 1994, pg. 2
[6] Bloom 1994, pg. 11
[7] Bloom 1994, pp. 2-3
[8] Bloom 1994, pp. 24-5
[9] "Candidates for Survival: A talk with Harold Bloom" Boston Review February, 1989 (http:/ / www. bostonreview. net/ BR11. 1/ bloom. html)
[10] "Miss Maya Angelou cannot write her way out of a paper bag!" Kenton Robinson, "Foe To Those Who Would Shape Literature To Their
Own End Dissent In Bloom" Hartford Courant Oct 4, 1994 E.1
[11] "Dumbing Down American Readers" (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ globe/ editorial_opinion/ oped/ articles/ 2003/ 09/ 24/
dumbing_down_american_readers/ )
[12] "Can 35 Million Book Buyers Be Wrong? Yes" (http:/ / wrt-brooke. syr. edu/ courses/ 205. 03/ bloom. html)
[13] "Poetry Slam" (http:/ / languageisavirus. com/ poetry-guide/ slam_poetry. html)
[14] Associated Press. "U.K.’s Lessing wins Nobel Prize in literature: Swedish Academy notes author for ‘skepticism, fire and visionary power’"
MSNBC.com Oct. 11, 2007 (http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 12784353/ )
[15] "The Silent Treatment" New York Magazine, Feb. 23, 2004. (http:/ / nymag. com/ nymetro/ news/ features/ n_9932/ )
[16] "Naomi Wolf and Harold Bloom: The Meanness of the Righteous" (http:/ / www. ethicsscoreboard. com/ list/ wolf. html)
[17] http:/ / yalepress. yale. edu/ book. asp?isbn=0300167601
[18] http:/ / www. nybooks. com/ articles/ 20338
[19] http:/ / www. nybooks. com/ articles/ 22020
[20] http:/ / www. saltpublishing. com/ books/ scp/ 9781876857202. htm
[21] http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/ story/ story. php?storyId=5048309
[22] http:/ / www. pbs. org/ newshour/ conversation/ july-dec00/ bloom_8-29. html
[23] http:/ / www. claremont. org/ writings/ crb/ spring2006/ balint. html
[24] http:/ / www. eurozine. com/ articles/ 2005-10-07-bloom-en. html
[25] http:/ / blogs. law. harvard. edu/ lydon/ 2003/ 09/ 03
[26] http:/ / blogs. law. harvard. edu
[27] http:/ / www. theatlantic. com/ unbound/ interviews/ int2003-07-16. htm
[28] http:/ / books. guardian. co. uk/ review/ story/ 0,12084,962070,00. html
[29] http:/ / prelectur. stanford. edu/ lecturers/ bloom/ interviews. html
[30] http:/ / prelectur. stanford. edu/ home. html
[31] http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ globe/ editorial_opinion/ oped/ articles/ 2003/ 09/ 24/ dumbing_down_american_readers/
[32] http:/ / wrt-brooke. syr. edu/ courses/ 205. 03/ bloom. html
[33] http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 10/ 12/ opinion/ 12bloom. html
[34] http:/ / www. nybooks. com/ authors/ 1343
Jorge Luis Borges 628

Jorge Luis Borges

Jorge Luis Borges

Borges in 1951, by Grete Stern

Born Jorge Francisco Isidoro Luis Borges

Acevedo
24 August 1899
Buenos Aires, Argentina

Died 14 June 1986 (aged 86)

Geneva, Switzerland

Occupation Writer, poet, critic, librarian

Language Spanish

Jorge Francisco Isidoro Luis Borges Acevedo (August 24, 1899 – June 14, 1986), best known as Jorge Luis
Borges (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈxorxe ˈlwiz ˈβorxes]), was an Argentine writer, essayist, and poet born in Buenos
Aires. In 1914 his family moved to Switzerland where he attended school and traveled to Spain. On his return to
Argentina in 1921, Borges began publishing his poems and essays in surrealist literary journals. He also worked as a
librarian and public lecturer. In 1955 he was appointed director of the National Public Library (Biblioteca Nacional)
and professor of Literature at the University of Buenos Aires. In 1961 he came to international attention when he
received the first International Publishers' Prize, the Prix Formentor. His work was translated and published widely
in the United States and in Europe. Borges himself was fluent in several languages. He died in Geneva, Switzerland,
in 1986.
His work embraces the "chaos that rules the world and the character of unreality in all literature."[1] His most famous
books, Ficciones (1944) and The Aleph (1949), are compilations of short stories interconnected by common themes
such as dreams, labyrinths, libraries, fictional writers, religion and God. His works have contributed to the genre of
magical realism, a genre that reacted against the realism/naturalism of the nineteenth century.[2] [3] [4] Scholars have
suggested that Borges's progressive blindness helped him to create innovative literary symbols through imagination.
Borges commented "poets, like the blind, can see in the dark".[5] Borges wrote: "When I think of what I've lost, I ask,
'Who knows themselves better than the blind?' - for every thought becomes a tool." [6] The poems of his late period
dialogue with such cultural figures as Spinoza, Luís de Camões, and Virgil.
Jorge Luis Borges 629

His international fame was consolidated in the 1960s, aided by the "Latin American Boom" and the success of
Gabriel García Márquez's Cien Años de Soledad (One Hundred Years of Solitude).[2] Writer and essayist J. M.
Coetzee said of him: "He, more than anyone, renovated the language of fiction and thus opened the way to a
remarkable generation of Spanish American novelists."[7]

Life and career

Early life and education

Jorge Luis Borges was born to an educated middle-class family. They were in comfortable circumstances, but were
not wealthy enough to live in downtown Buenos Aires, they resided in Palermo, then a poorer suburb of the city.
Borges's mother, Leonor Acevedo Suárez, came from a traditional Uruguayan family of "pure" criollo, (Spanish)
descent. Her family had been much involved in the European settling of South America and she spoke often of their
heroic actions. [8] Borges's 1929 book Cuaderno San Martín includes the poem "Isidoro Acevedo," commemorating
his grandfather, Isidoro de Acevedo Laprida, a soldier of the Buenos Aires Army. A descendant of the Argentine
lawyer and politician Francisco Narciso de Laprida, Acevedo fought in the battles of Cepeda in 1859, Pavón in 1861,
and Los Corrales in 1880. Isidoro de Acevedo Laprida died of pulmonary congestion in the house where his
grandson Jorge Luis Borges was born. Borges grew up hearing about the faded family glory.
On the other side, Borges's father, Jorge Guillermo Borges Haslam, was part Spanish, part Portuguese, and half
English, also the son of a colonel. Haslam, whose mother was English, grew up speaking English at home, and took
his own family frequently to Europe. England and English pervaded the family home.[9] Haslam was a lawyer and
psychology teacher who harboured literary aspirations. Borges said his father "tried to become a writer and failed in
the attempt." He wrote, "as most of my people had been soldiers and I knew I would never be, I felt ashamed, quite
early, to be a bookish kind of person and not a man of action." [10]
Borges was taught at home until he age of 11, bilingual, reading Shakespeare in English at the age of twelve. [11] The
family lived in a large house with an English library of over one thousand volumes; Borges would later remark that
"if I were asked to name the chief event in my life, I should say my father's library".[12] His father gave up practicing
law due to the failing eyesight that would eventually afflict his son. In 1914 the family moved to Geneva,
Switzerland and spent the next decade in Europe. [13] Haslam Borges was treated by a Geneva eye specialist, while
his son and daughter Norah attended school, where Borges junior learned French. He read Carlyle in English, and
began to read philosophy in German. In 1917, when he was 18, he met Maurice Abramowicz and began a literary
friendship that would last the rest of his life. [14] He received his baccalauréat from the Collège de Genève in 1918.
The Borges family decided that, due to political unrest in Argentina, they would remain in Switzerland during the
war, staying until 1921. After World War I, the family spent three years living in various cities: Lugano, Barcelona,
Majorca, Seville, and Madrid. [15]
At that time Borges discovered the writing of Arthur Schopenhauer and Gustav Meyrink's The Golem (1915) which
became influential to his work. In Spain, Borges fell in with and became a member of the avant-garde,
anti-Modernist Ultraist literary movement, inspired by Apollinaire and Marinetti, close to the Imagists. His first
poem, "Hymn to the Sea", written in the style of Walt Whitman, was published in the magazine Grecia.[16] While in
Spain, he met noted Spanish writers, including Rafael Cansinos Assens and Ramón Gómez de la Serna.
Jorge Luis Borges 630

Early writing career

In 1921, Borges returned with his family to Buenos Aires. He had little
formal education, no qualifications and few friends. He wrote to a
friend that Buenos Aires was now "overrun by arrivistes, by correct
youths lacking any mental equipment, and decorative young ladies".
[17]
He brought with him the doctrine of Ultraism and launched his
career, publishing surreal poems and essays in literary journals. In
1930, Nestor Ibarra called Borges the "Great Apostle of Criollismo",
celebrating Latin American regionalism.[18] Borges published his first
published collection of poetry, Fervor de Buenos Aires in 1923 and
contributed to the avant-garde review Martín Fierro. Borges
co-founded the journals Prisma, a broadsheet distributed largely by
pasting copies to walls in Buenos Aires, and Proa. Later in life, Borges Jorge Luis Borges in 1940s, photograph taken
regretted some of these early publications, and attempted to purchase from "Historia de la Literatura Argentina Vol II"
(1968)
all known copies to ensure their destruction.[19]

By the mid-1930s, he began to explore existential questions and fiction. He also worked in a style that Ana María
Barrenechea has called "irreality." Many other Latin American writers, such as Juan Rulfo, Juan José Arreola, and
Alejo Carpentier, were also investigated these themes, influenced by the phenomenology of Husserl and Heidegger
and the existentialism of Jean-Paul Sartre. From the first issue, Borges was a regular contributor to Sur (South),
founded in 1931 by Victoria Ocampo. It was then Argentina's most important literary journal and helped Borges find
is fame.[20] Ocampo introduced Borges to Adolfo Bioy Casares, another well-known figure of Argentine literature,
who was to become a frequent collaborator and close friend. Together they wrote a number of works, some under the
nom de plume H. Bustos Domecq, including a parody detective series and fantasy stories. During these years a
family friend Macedonio Fernández became a major influence on Borges. The two would preside over discussions in
cafés, country retreats, or Fernández' tiny apartment in the Balvanera district.
In 1933, Borges gained an editorial appointment at the literary supplement of the newspaper Crítica, where he first
published the pieces later collected as the Historia universal de la infamia (A Universal History of Infamy, 1936). [21]
The book included two types of writing. The first lay somewhere between non-fictional essays and short stories,
using fictional techniques to tell essentially true stories. The second consisted of literary forgeries, which Borges
initially passed off as translations of passages from famous but seldom-read works. In the following years, he served
as a literary adviser for the publishing house Emecé Editores and wrote weekly columns for El Hogar, which
appeared from 1936 to 1939. In 1938, Borges found work as first assistant at the Buenos Aires Municipal Library in
Miguel Cané, a working class area. There were so few books, that cataloguing more than one hundred books per day,
he was told, would leave little to do for the other staff and so look bad. The task took him about an hour and day and
rest of his time he spent in the basement of the library, writing articles, short stories and translations. [22]
Jorge Luis Borges 631

Later career
Borges's father died in 1938, a tragedy for the writer, as father and son
were very close. On Christmas Eve that year, Borges suffered a severe
head wound; during treatment, he nearly died of septicemia. While
recovering from the accident, Borges began playing with a new style of
writing, for which he would become famous. His first story written
after his accident, "Pierre Menard, Author of The Quixote" came in
May 1939, examining the father-son relationship and the nature of
authorship.

His first collection of short stories, El jardín de senderos que se

bifurcan (The Garden of Forking Paths), appeared in 1941, composed
mostly of works previously published in Sur. [23] The title story
Borges in 1976.
concerns a Chinese professor in England, Dr. Yu Tsun, who spies for
Germany during World War I, in an attempt to prove to the authorities
that an Asian person is able to obtain the information that they seek. A combination of book and maze, it can be read
in many ways. Through it, Borges arguably invented the hypertext novel and went on to describe a theory of the
universe based upon the structure of such a novel.[24] [25] Eight stories over sixty pages, the book was generally well
received, but El jardín de senderos que se bifurcan failed to garner for him the literary prizes many in his circle
expected.[26] [27] Victoria Ocampo dedicated a large portion of the July 1941 issue of Sur to a "Reparation for
Borges". Numerous leading writers and critics from Argentina and throughout the Spanish-speaking world
contributed writings to the "reparation" project.

With his vision beginning to fade in his early thirties and unable to support himself as a writer, Borges began a new
career as a public lecturer. [28] [29] [30] Borges became an increasingly public figure, obtaining appointments as
President of the Argentine Society of Writers, and as Professor of English and American Literature at the Argentine
Association of English Culture. His short story "Emma Zunz" was made into a film (under the name of Días de odio
(Days of Hate), directed in 1954 by the Argentine director Leopoldo Torre Nilsson).[31] Around this time, Borges
also began writing screenplays.
By the late -1950s, he had become completely blind, as had one of his best known predecessors, Paul Groussac, for
whom Borges wrote an obituary. [32] Neither the coincidence nor the irony of his blindness as a writer escaped
Borges:

Nadie rebaje a lágrima o reproche
esta declaración de la maestría
de Dios, que con magnífica ironía
me dio a la vez los libros y la
noche.
Let neither tear nor reproach besmirch
this declaration of the mastery
of God who, with magnificent irony,
granted me both the gift of books and the night.

The following year Borges was awarded the National Prize for Literature from the University of Cuyo, and the first
of many honorary doctorates. From 1956 to 1970, Borges also held a position as a professor of literature at the
University of Buenos Aires, while frequently holding temporary appointments at other universities. As his eyesight
deteriorated, Borges relied increasingly on his mother's help. When he was not able to read and write anymore (he
never learned to read Braille), his mother, to whom he had always been close, became his personal secretary. When
Perón returned from exile and was re-elected president in 1973, Borges immediately resigned as director of the
National Library.
Jorge Luis Borges 632

International renown
Eight of Borges's poems appear in the 1943 anthology of Spanish American Poets by H. R. Hays.[33] [34] "The
Garden of Forking Paths", one of the first Borges stories to be translated into English, appeared in the August 1948
issue of Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine, translated by Anthony Boucher.[35] Though several other Borges
translations appeared in literary magazines and anthologies during the 1950s, his international fame dates from the
early 1960s.[36] In 1961 he received the first International Publishers' Prize, the Prix Formentor, which he shared
with Samuel Beckett. While Beckett had garnered a distinguished reputation in Europe and America, Borges was
still largely unknown and untranslated in the English-speaking world and the prize stirred interest in his work. The
Italian government named Borges Commendatore and the University of Texas at Austin appointed him for one year
to the Tinker Chair. This led to his first lecture tour in the United States. In 1962 two major anthologies of Borges's
writings were published in English by New York presses: Ficciones and Labyrinths. In that year, Borges began
lecture tours of Europe. In 1980 he was awarded the Balzan Prize (for Philology, Linguistics and literary Criticism)
and the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca; numerous other honors were to accumulate over the years, such as the French
Legion of Honour in 1983, the Cervantes Prize, and a Special Edgar Allan Poe Award from the Mystery Writers of
America, "for distinguished contribution to the mystery genre".[37]
In 1967, Borges began a five-year period of collaboration with the American translator Norman Thomas di
Giovanni, through whom he became better known in the English-speaking world. He also continued to publish
books, among them El libro de los seres imaginarios (The Book of Imaginary Beings, (1967, co-written with
Margarita Guerrero), El informe de Brodie (Dr. Brodie's Report, 1970), and El libro de arena (The Book of Sand,
1975). He also lectured prolifically. Many of these lectures were anthologized in volumes such as Siete noches
(Seven Nights) and Nueve ensayos dantescos (Nine Dantesque Essays).

Later personal life

In 1967 Borges married the recently widowed Elsa Astete Millán.
Friends believed that his mother, who was 90 and anticipating her own
death, wanted to find someone to care for her blind son. The marriage
lasted less than three years. After a legal separation, Borges moved
back in with his mother, with whom he lived until her death at age
99.[38] Thereafter, he lived alone in the small flat he had shared with
her, cared for by Fanny, their housekeeper of many decades.[39] From
1975 until the time of his death, Borges traveled internationally. He
was often accompanied in these travels by his personal assistant María
Quotation by Borges at Buenos Aires Madrid
Kodama, an Argentine woman of Japanese and German ancestry. In
Metro station: "It smacks of fiction that Buenos
April 1986, a few months before his death, he married her via an Aires was ever founded. I judge her to be as
attorney in Paraguay. eternal as the sea and the wind."

Jorge Luis Borges died of liver cancer in 1986 in Geneva and was
buried there in the Cimetière des Rois. After years of legal wrangling about the legality of the marriage, Kodama, as
sole inheritor of a significant annual income, gained control over his works. Her administration of his estate was
denounced by the French publisher Gallimard, by Le Nouvel Observateur, and by intellectuals such as Beatriz Sarlo,
as an obstacle to the serious reading of Borges's works.[40] Under Kodama, the Borges estate rescinded all publishing
rights for existing collections of his work in English, including the translations by Norman Thomas di Giovanni, in
which Borges himself cooperated, and from which di Giovanni received fifty percent of the royalties. The estate
commissioned new translations by Andrew Hurley.[41]
Jorge Luis Borges 633

Political opinions

Anti-Communism
In an interview with Richard Burgin during the late 1960s, Borges stated that his opposition to Marxism and
Communism was absorbed in his childhood. "Well, I have been brought up to think that the individual should be
strong and the State should be weak. I couldn't be enthusiastic about theories where the State is more important than
the individual."[42] After the overthrow by a military coup of the democratically elected second term of Peron in
1955, Borges supported efforts to purge Argentina's Government of Peronists and dismantle the former President's
welfare state. He was enraged that the Communist Party of Argentina opposed these measures and sharply criticized
them in lectures and in print. Borges' opposition to the Party in this matter ultimately led to a permanent rift with his
longtime lover, Argentine Communist Estella Canto. In later years, Borges frequently expressed contempt for
Communists within the Latin American intelligentsia. In an interview with Burgin, Borges referred to Chilean Pablo
Neruda as, "a very fine poet, but a, "very mean man" for unconditionally supporting the Soviet Union and
demonizing the United States.[43] During the 1970s, Borges' expressed support for Argentina's military junta, but was
scandalized by the mass killings of suspected Communists during the Dirty War.

Opposition to Peronism
When President Juan Domingo Perón began transforming Argentina into a populist regime, in 1946, with the
assistance of his wife Evita, the spoils system was the rule of the day, as ideological critics of the new order were
dismissed from government jobs. During this period, Borges was informed that he was being "promoted" from his
position at the Miguel Cané Library to a post as inspector of poultry and rabbits at the Buenos Aires municipal
market. Upon demanding to know the reason, Borges was told, "Well, you were on the side of the Allies, what do
you expect?"[44] The following day, Borges resigned from Government service in response to an insult he would
never forget, or forgive.
Peron's treatment of Borges became a cause célèbre for the Argentine intelligentsia. The Argentine Society of
Writers (SADE) held a formal dinner in his honour. At the dinner, a speech was read which Borges had written for
the occasion. It said,
"Dictatorships breed oppression, dictatorships breed servility, dictatorships breed cruelty; more
loathsome still is the fact that they breed idiocy. Bellboys babbling orders, portraits of caudillos,
prearranged cheers or insults, walls covered with names, unanimous ceremonies, mere discipline
usurping the place of clear thinking... Fighting these sad monotonies is one of the duties of a writer.
Need I remind readers of Martín Fierro or Don Segundo that individualism is an old Argentine
virtue."[45]
In the aftermath, Borges found himself much in demand as a lecturer and one of the intellectual leaders of the
Argentine opposition. In 1951 he was asked by Anti-Peronist friends to run for president of SADE. Borges, then
suffering from depression caused by a failed romance, reluctantly accepted. He later recalled that he would awake
every morning and remember that Peron was President and feel deeply depressed and ashamed. Peron's government
had seized control of the Argentine mass media and regarded SADE with indifference. Borges later recalled,
however, "Many distinguished men of letters did not dare set foot inside its doors."[46] Meanwhile, SADE became an
increasing refuge for critics of the regime. SADE official Luisa Mercedes Levinson noted, "We would gather every
week to tell the latest jokes about the ruling couple and even dared to sing the songs of the French Resistance, as
well as 'La Marseillaise'."[47]
After Evita's death on July 26, 1952, Borges received a visit from two policemen, who ordered him to put up two
portraits of the ruling couple on the premises of SADE. Borges told them he would do nothing of the sort and that it
was a ridiculous demand. He was told he would face the consequences."[48] The regime placed Borges under 24-hour
surveillance and sent policemen to sit in on his lectures; in September it ordered SADE to be permanently closed
Jorge Luis Borges 634

down. Like much of the Argentine opposition to Peron, SADE had become marginalized due to persecution by the
State and very few active members remained. Borges later came to believe that the Peronistas had manipulated his
appointment in order to destroy his influence over Argentine writers and intellectuals.
In 1955, after General Pedro Eugenio Aramburu's military coup, named the "Revolución Libertadora", forced Peron
into exile, the military dictatorship appointed Borges as the Director of the National Library.[49] However, Peron's
fall did not in any way alter Borges's feelings towards Peron. In an interview with Richard Burgin in 1967, he said
"Peron was a humbug, and he knew it, and everybody knew it. But Peron could be very cruel. I mean, he had people
tortured, killed. And his wife was a common prostitute."[50]
When Peron returned from exile in 1973 and regained the Presidency, Borges was enraged. In a 1975 interview for
National Geographic, he said "Damn, the snobs are back in the saddle. If their posters and slogans again defile the
city, I'll be glad I've lost my sight. Well, they can't humilate me as they did before my books sold well."[51] After
being accused of being unforgiving, Borges quipped, "I resented Peron's making Argentina look ridiculous to the
world... as in 1951, when he announced control over thermonuclear fusion, which still hasn't happened anywhere but
in the sun and the stars. For a time, Argentinians hesitated to wear bandaids for fear friends would ask, 'Did the
Atomic Bomb go off in your hand?' A shame, because Argentina really has world class scientists."[52]
After Borges' death in 1986, the Peronist Partido Justicialista declined to send a delegate to the writer's memorial
service in Buenos Aires. A spokesman for the Party stated that this was in reaction to, "certain declarations he had
made about the country." [53] One Peronist declared that Borges had made statements about Evita Peron which were,
"unacceptable." Later, at the City Council of Buenos Aires, a storm raged when Peronist politicians decided to give
only conditional support for a condolence on the writer's death. [54]
Jorge Luis Borges 635

Works
Wardrip-Fruin and Montfort argue that Borges
"may have been the most important figure in
Spanish-language literature since Cervantes. But
whatever his particular literary rank, he was
clearly of tremendous influence, writing intricate
poems, short stories, and essays that instantiated
concepts of dizzying power." [55]

In addition to short stories for which he is most

noted, Borges also wrote poetry, essays,
screenplays, literary criticism, and edited
numerous anthologies. His longest work of
fiction was a 14 page story, "The Congress", first
published in 1971. [56] He was a prominent
translator of English-, French- and
German-language literature into Spanish,
including works in Old English and Norse. His
late-onset blindness strongly influenced his later
writing. Paramount among his intellectual
interests are elements of mythology,
mathematics, theology, integrating these through
literature, sometimes playfully, sometimes with
great seriousness.
Borges in L'Hôtel, Paris
Borges composed poetry throughout his life. As
his eyesight waned (it came and went, with a
struggle between advancing age and advances in eye surgery), he increasingly focused on writing poetry, since he
could memorize an entire work in progress. His poems embrace the same wide range of interests as his fiction, along
with issues that emerge in his critical works and translations, and from more personal musings. For example, his
interest idealism is reflected in the fictional world of Tlön in "Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius", in his essay "A New
Refutation of Time", "On Exactitude in Science", and in his poem "Things". Similarly, a common thread runs
through his story "The Circular Ruins" and his poem "El Golem" ("The Golem").

Borges was a notable translator. His first publication, for a Buenos Aires newspaper, was a translation of Oscar
Wilde's story The Happy Prince into Spanish when he was nine.[57] At the end of his life he produced a
Spanish-language version of the Prose Edda. He also translated (while simultaneously subtly transforming) the
works of, among others, Edgar Allan Poe, Kafka, Hesse, Kipling, Gide, Whitman and Woolf. [58] Borges wrote on
the art of translation, holding that a translation may improve upon the original, may even be unfaithful to it, and that
alternative and potentially contradictory renderings of the same work can be equally valid. Borges also employed the
devices of literary forgery and the review of an imaginary work, both forms of modern pseudo-epigrapha.

Hoaxes and forgeries

Borges's best-known set of literary forgeries date from his early work as a translator and literary critic with a regular
column in the Argentine magazine El Hogar. Along with publishing numerous legitimate translations, he also
published original works, for example, in the style of Emanuel Swedenborg[59] or One Thousand and One Nights,
originally claiming them to be translations of works he had chanced upon. In another case, he added three short,
falsely attributed pieces into his otherwise legitimate and carefully researched anthology El matrero.[59] Several of
Jorge Luis Borges 636

these are gathered in the A Universal History of Infamy.

At times he wrote reviews of nonexistent work, by some other person. The key example of this is "Pierre Menard,
Author of the Quixote", which imagines a twentieth-century Frenchman who tries to write Miguel de Cervantes' Don
Quixote verbatim, not by having memorized Cervantes' work, but as an "original" narrative of his own invention.
Initially the Frenchman tries to immerse himself in sixteenth-century Spain, but dismisses the method as too easy,
instead trying to reach Don Quixote through his own experiences. He finally manages to (re)create "the ninth and
thirty-eighth chapters of the first part of Don Quixote and a fragment of chapter twenty-two." Borges's "review" of
the work of the fictional Menard uses tongue-in-cheek comparisons to explore the resonances which Don Quixote
has picked up over the centuries since it was written. He discusses how much "richer" Menard's work is than that of
Cervantes, (even though the actual text is exactly the same).
While Borges was the great popularizer of the review of an imaginary work, Borges developed the idea from
Thomas Carlyle's Sartor Resartus, a book-length review of a non-existent German transcendentalist work, and the
biography of its equally non-existent author. In This Craft of Verse, Borges says that in 1916 in Geneva "[I]
discovered, and was overwhelmed by, Thomas Carlyle. I read Sartor Resartus, and I can recall many of its pages; I
know them by heart." [60] In the introduction to his first published volume of fiction, The Garden of Forking Paths,
Borges remarks, "It is a laborious madness and an impoverishing one, the madness of composing vast books, setting
out in five hundred pages an idea that can be perfectly related orally in five minutes. The better way to go about it is
to pretend that those books already exist, and offer a summary, a commentary on them." He then cites both Sartor
Resartus and Samuel Butler's The Fair Haven, remarking, however, that "those works suffer under the imperfection
that they themselves are books, and not a whit less tautological than the others. A more reasonable, more inept, and
more lazy man, I have chosen to write notes on imaginary books." [61]

Criticism of Borges' work

Borges's change in style from criollismo to a more cosmopolitan style brought him much criticism from journals
such as Contorno, a left-of-center, Sartre-influenced publication founded by the Viñas brothers (Ismael & David),
Noé Jitrik, Adolfo Prieto, and other intellectuals. Contorno "met with wide approval among the youth [...] for taking
the older writers of the country to task on account of [their] presumed inauthenticity and their legacy of formal
experimentation at the expense of responsibility and seriousness in the face of society's problems".[62]
Borges and Eduardo Mallea were criticized for being "doctors of technique"; their writing presumably "lacked
substance due to their lack of interaction with the reality [...] that they inhabited", an existential critique of their
refusal to embrace existence and reality in their artwork. [63]

Nobel Prize omission

Borges was never awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, something which continually distressed the writer.[64] He
was one of several distinguished authors who never received the honour.[65] Borges commented "Not granting me
the Nobel Prize has become a Scandinavian tradition; since I was born they have not been granting it to me." [66]
Some observers speculated that Borges did not receive the award because of his conservative political views; or
more specifically, because he had accepted an honour from dictator Augusto Pinochet.[67] [68]
Jorge Luis Borges 637

Influences, collaborations, and themes

Fact, fantasy and non-linearity

Many of Borges's most popular stories concern the nature of time,
infinity, mirrors, labyrinths, reality, and identity. Williamson
writes,"His basic contention was that fiction did not depend on the
illusion of reality; what mattered ultimately was an author’s ability to
generate 'poetic faith' in his reader." [69] His stories often have
Special two-Argentine pesos coin featuring
fantastical themes, such as "The Library of Babel" containing every
Borges, 1999
possible 410-page text, a man who forgets nothing he experiences
("Funes, the Memorious"), an artifact through which the user can see
everything in the universe ("The Aleph"), and a year of time standing still, given to a man standing before a firing
squad ("The Secret Miracle"). Borges also told more and less realistic stories of South American life, of folk heroes,
streetfighters, soldiers, gauchos, detectives, historical figures. He mixed the real and the fantastic: fact with fiction.
His interest in compounding fantasy, philosophy, and the art of translation are evident in articles such as "The
Translators of The Thousand and One Nights", while The Book of Imaginary Beings is a thoroughly (and obscurely)
researched bestiary of mythical creatures. [70] In the preface, Borges wrote, "There is a kind of lazy pleasure in
useless and out-of-the-way erudition." [71] Borges's interest in fantasy was shared by Adolfo Bioy Casares, with
whom Borges coauthored several collections of tales between 1942 and 1967, often under different pseudonyms
including H. Bustos Domecq. Often, especially early in his career, the mixture of fact and fantasy, crossed the line
into the realm of hoax or literary forgery. [59]

Due to the success of "The Garden of Forking Paths" (1941), the term "Borgesian" came to reflect a quality of
narrative non-linearity. [72] This title story presents the idea of forking paths through networks of time, none of
which is the same, all of which are equal. Borges uses the recurring image of "a labyrinth that folds back upon itself
in infinite regression" so we "become aware of all the possible choices we might make." [73] The "forking paths"
have "branches" to represent these choices that ultimately lead to different endings. Borges saw man's search for
meaning in a seemingly infinite universe as fruitless and instead uses the maze as a riddle for time, not space. [74]

Multiculturalism
Borges's work maintained a universal perspective that reflected a multi-ethnic Argentina, exposure from an early age
to his father's substantial collection of world literature, and lifelong travel experience. At the time of Argentine
independence in 1816, the population was predominantly criollo, (of Spanish ancestry). The Argentine Declaration
of Independence in 1816, led to waves of immigration from Europe and Asia and in the following decades and the
Argentine national identity diversified. [75] Borges therefore was writing in a heavily mutli-cultural and strongly
European literary context, and worked immersed in Spanish, English, French, German, Italian, Anglo-Saxon and Old
Norse literature. He also read translations of Near Eastern and Far Eastern works. Borges's writing is also steeped by
influences and informed by scholarship of Christianity, Buddhism, Islam, and Judaism, including mainline religious
figures, heretics, and mystics. Heretical forms of Christianity, for example, make a dominant appearance in the short
story "Three Versions of Judas". The curious inversion of mainstream Christian concepts of redemption in the story,
is characteristic of Borges' approach to theology in his literature.
He described himself, saying "I am not sure that I exist, actually. I am all the writers that I have read, all the people
that I have met, all the women that I have loved; all the cities that I have visited, all my ancestors." [66] As a young
man, he visited the frontier pampas where the boundaries of Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil blurred. He lived and
studied in Switzerland and Spain as a young student, travelling Europe. As Borges matured, he traveled through
Argentina as a lecturer and, internationally, as a visiting professor; he continued to tour the world as he grew older,
Jorge Luis Borges 638

ending his life in Geneva where he had been a boy. Drawing on influences of many times and places, Borges's work
belittled nationalism and racism. [76] Portraits of diverse coexisting cultures characteristic of the Argentina, are
especially pronounced in Six Problems for Don Isidoro Parodi (co-authored with Adolfo Bioy Casares) and "Death
and the Compass", which may or may not be set in Buenos Aires. Borges wrote that he considered Mexican essayist
Alfonso Reyes "the best prose-writer in the Spanish language of any time." [77]

Argentine culture
Borges focused on universal themes, but also composed a substantial body of literature on themes from Argentine
folklore and history . Borges's first book, the poetry collection Fervor de Buenos Aires (Passion for Buenos Aires),
appeared in 1923. Borges's writings on things Argentine, include Argentine culture ("History of the Tango";
"Inscriptions on Horse Wagons"), folklore ("Juan Muraña", "Night of the Gifts"), literature ("The Argentine Writer
and Tradition", "Almafuerte"; "Evaristo Carriego") and national concerns ("Celebration of The Monster", "Hurry,
Hurry", "The Mountebank", "Pedro Salvadores"). Ultra-nationalists, however, continued to question his Argentine
identity. [78]
Borges's interest in Argentine themes reflects, in part, the inspiration of his family tree. Borges had an English
paternal grandmother who, around 1870, married the criollo Francisco Borges, a man with a military command and a
historic role in the civil wars in what is now Argentina and Uruguay. Spurred by pride in his family's heritage,
Borges often used those civil wars as settings in fiction and quasi-fiction (for example, "The Life of Tadeo Isidoro
Cruz," "The Dead Man," "Avelino Arredondo") as well as poetry ("General Quiroga Rides to His Death in a
Carriage"). Borges's maternal great-grandfather, Manuel Isidoro Suárez , was another military hero, whom Borges
immortalized in the poem "A Page to Commemorate Colonel Suárez, Victor at Junín." The city of Coronel Suárez in
the south of Buenos Aires Province is named after him.
His non-fiction explores many of the themes found in his fiction. Essays such as "The History of the Tango" or his
writings on the epic poem Martín Fierro explore specifically Argentine themes, such as the identity of the Argentine
people and of various Argentine subcultures. The varying genealogies of characters, settings, and themes in his
stories, such as "La muerte y la brújula", used Argentine models without pandering to his readers or framing
Argentine culture as 'exotic'. [79] In his essay "El escritor argentino y la tradición", Borges notes that the very absence
of camels in the Qur'an was proof enough that it was an Arabian work. He suggested that only someone trying to
write an "Arab" work would purposefully include a camel. [80] He uses this example to illustrate how his dialogue
with universal existential concerns was just as Argentine as writing about gauchos and tangos (subjects he himself
used).

Martín Fierro and Argentine tradition

Borges contributed to a few avant garde publications in the early 1920s, including one called Martín Fierro, named
after the major work of 19th century Argentine literature, Martín Fierro, a gauchesque poem by José Hernández,
published in two parts, in 1872 and 1880. Initially, along with other young writers of his generation, Borges rallied
around the fictional Martín Fierro as the symbol of a characteristic Argentine sensibility, not tied to European values.
As Borges matured, he came to a more nuanced attitude toward the poem. Hernández's central character, Martín
Fierro, is a gaucho, a free, poor, pampas-dweller, who is illegally drafted to serve at a border fort to defend against
the Indians; he ultimately deserts and becomes a gaucho matrero, the Argentine equivalent of a North American
western outlaw. Borges's 1953 book of essays on the poem, El "Martín Fierro", separates his great admiration for the
aesthetic virtues of the work from his rather mixed opinion of the moral virtues of its protagonist. He uses the
occasion to tweak the noses of arch-nationalist interpreters of the poem, but disdains those (such as Eleuterio
Tiscornia) whom he sees as failing to understand its specifically Argentine character.
In "The Argentine Writer and Tradition", Borges celebrates how Hernández expresses that character in the crucial
scene in which Martín Fierro and El Moreno compete by improvising songs about universal themes such as time,
Jorge Luis Borges 639

night, and the sea. The scene clearly reflects the real-world gaucho tradition of payadas, improvised musical
dialogues on philosophical themes — as distinct from the type of slang that Hernández uses in the main body of
Martín Fierro. Borges points out that therefore, Hernández evidently knew the difference between actual gaucho
tradition of composing poetry on universal themes, versus the "gauchesque" fashion among Buenos Aires literati.
Borges goes on to deny the possibility that Argentine literature could distinguish itself by making reference to "local
color", nor does it need to remain true to the heritage of the literature of Spain, nor to define itself as a rejection of
the literature of its colonial founders, nor follow in the footsteps of European literature. He asserts that Argentine
writers need to be free to define Argentine literature anew, writing about Argentina and the world from the point of
view of someone who has inherited the whole of world literature.
Borges uses Martín Fierro and El Moreno's competition as a theme once again in "El Fin" ("The End"), a story that
first appeared in his short story collection Artificios (1944). "El Fin" is a sort of mini-sequel or conclusion to Martín
Fierro. In his prologue to Artificios, Borges says of "El Fin," "Everything in the story is implicit in a famous book
[Martín Fierro] and I have been the first to decipher it, or at least, to declare it."

Modernism and Existentialism

Borges lived through most of the 20th century, and was rooted in the Modernist pre-dominant in its early years. He
was especially influenced by Symbolism.[81] Like contemporary novelists Vladimir Nabokov and the older James
Joyce, he combined an interest in his native culture with broader perspectives. He also shared their multilingualism
and their inventiveness with language (they, like Borges, were both also buried in Switzerland). However, while
Nabokov and Joyce tended toward progressively larger works as they grew older, Borges remained a miniaturist.
Borges's work progressed away from what he referred to as "the baroque," while Joyce's and Nabokov's moved
towards it: his later style is far more transparent and naturalistic than his earlier works. Borges represented the
humanist view of media that stressed the social aspect of art driven by emotion. If art represented the tool, then
Borges were more interested about how the tool could be used to relate to people. [82]
Existentialism saw its apogee during the years of Borges's greatest artistic production. It has been argued that his
choice of topics largely ignored existentialism's central tenets. Critic Paul de Man notes, "Whatever Borges's
existential anxieties may be, they have little in common with Sartre's robustly prosaic view of literature, with the
earnestness of Camus' moralism, or with the weighty profundity of German existential thought. Rather, they are the
consistent expansion of a purely poetic consciousness to its furthest limits."[83]

Political influences
As a political conservative, Borges "was repulsed by Marxism in theory and practice. Abhorring sentimentality, he
rejected the politics and poetics of cultural identity that held sway in Latin America for so long." [84] As a
universalist, his interest in world literature reflected an attitude that was also incongruent with the Perónist Populist
nationalism. That government's confiscation of Borges's job at the Miguel Cané Library fueled his skepticism of
government. He labeled himself a Spencerian anarchist in the introduction to Atlas.
In 1934, extreme Argentine nationalists, sympathetic to the growing Nazi ideology of the time, asserted Borges was
secretly Jewish, and by implication, not a full Argentine. Borges responded with the essay "Yo Judío" ("I, a Jew"), a
reference to the old "Yo, Argentino" ("I, an Argentine"), a phrase used during nationalistic beatings of Argentine
Jews to make it clear to approaching attackers that one was a "true" Argentine, and not a Jew. [85] In the essay he
notes, that he would be proud to be a Jew, with a backhanded reminder that any "pure" Castilian might be likely to
have Jewish ancestry from a millennium ago.[86]
Jorge Luis Borges 640

Mathematics
A book by Argentine mathematician and writer, Guillermo Martínez, was published in 2003, collecting the transcript
of a series of talks given by him in the MALBA auditorium, concerning how Borges used concepts from
mathematics in his work. Martínez believes that Borges had at the very least a superficial knowledge of set theory
and several other topics, as he seems to handle them with great elegance in his stories; an example of this would be
Borges' "The Book of Sand", which always has a page in between the others, thus making it infinite, and its pages
infinitely thin; this being a very clear nod to Cantor's set theory.

Sexuality
There has been discussion of Borges's attitudes towards sex and women. It is undeniable that, with a few notable
exceptions, women are almost entirely absent from the majority of his fictional output.[87] For instance, the plot of
La Intrusa was based on a true story of two friends, but Borges made their fictional counterparts brothers, excluding
the possibility of a homosexual relationship.[88] Borges dismissed these suggestions.
There are, however, instances in Borges's writings of heterosexual love and attraction. The story "Ulrikke" from The
Book of Sand tells a romantic tale of heterosexual desire, love, trust and sex. The protagonist of "El muerto" clearly
relishes and lusts after the "splendid, contemptuous, red-haired woman" of Azevedo Bandeira.[89] Later he "sleeps
with the woman with shining hair".[90] "El muerto" ("The Dead Man") contains two separate examples of definitive
gaucho heterosexual lust.

Other themes
• Immortality (The Immortal)
• Infinity (The Aleph)
• Religion and Spirituality (Averroes's Search, The Writing of the God)
• Heresy (The Theologians)
• Time (The Secret Miracle)
• Mirrors (Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius)
• Randomness (The Lottery in Babylon)
• Labyrinths (The Two Kings and the Two Labyrinths, The House of Asterion, The Immortal, The Garden of
Forking Paths)
• Destiny/Freedom (The Garden of Forking Paths, Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote, Theme of the Traitor and
the Hero)
• Pampas and Gauchos (Funes the Memorious, The South)
• Madness (The Zahir)
• Philosophy

Legacy
The 1970 film Performance, directed by Donald Cammell and Nic Roeg starring Mick Jagger and James Fox, is
replete with Borgesian references. A photograph of Borges is briefly displayed during a montage sequence, a mirror
is destroyed when shot with a gun, and the character played by Mick Jagger mentions the magicians of Orbis Tertius
and also reads aloud a short passage from the short story "El sur."
In the film Alphaville by Jean-Luc Godard, there are several instances where Borges texts are said, notably by Alpha
60 (the computer that rules Alphaville) in its final moments.
Umberto Eco's The Name of the Rose alludes to Borges in several ways. The blind librarian Jorge di Burgos is based
on Borges. The maze-like structure of the library reflects that of The Library of Babel (La Biblioteca de Babel) while
the multiple-murder plot recalls that of Death and the Compass (La muerte y la brújula).
Jorge Luis Borges 641

Recently, Jorge Luis Borges appeared as fictional character in a short-story where Borges’s identity is stolen by a
rooster. The fiction is called The Rooster who Pretended to Be Jorge Luis Borges (El gallo que fingió ser Jorge Luis
Borges), written by Jaime Perales Contreras. The short-story was finalist of XXVI Jara Carrillo Award celebrated in
Murcia, Spain in April 2010.[91]

Further reading
• Agheana, Ion (1988). The Meaning of Experience in the Prose of Jorge Luis Borges. Frankfurt Am Main: P.
Lang. ISBN 0820405957.
• Agheana, Ion (1984). The Prose of Jorge Luis Borges. Frankfurt Am Main: P. Lang. ISBN 0820401307.
• Aizenberg, Edna (1984). The Aleph Weaver: Biblical, Kabbalistic and Judaic Elements in Borges. Potomac:
Scripta Humanistica. ISBN 0916379124.
• Aizenberg, Edna (1990). Borges and His Successors. Columbia: University of Missouri Press.
ISBN 082620712X.
• Alazraki, Jaime (1988). Borges and the Kabbalah. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521306841.
• Alazraki, Jaime (1987). Critical Essays on Jorge Luis Borges. Boston: G.K. Hall. ISBN 0816188297.
• Balderston, Daniel (1993). Out of Context. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 0822313162.
• Barnstone, Willis (1993). With Borges on an Ordinary Evening in Buenos Aires. Urbana: University of Illinois
Press. ISBN 0252018885.
• Bell-Villada, Gene (1981). Borges and His Fiction. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
ISBN 080781458X.
• Bioy Casares, Adolfo (2006). Borges. City: Destino Ediciones. ISBN 9789507320859.
• Bloom, Harold (1986). Jorge Luis Borges. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 0877547211.
• Burgin, Richard (1969) Conversations with Jorge Luis Borges. Holt Rhinehart Winston
• De Behar, Block (2003). Borges, the Passion of an Endless Quotation. Albany: State University of New York
Press. ISBN 1417520205.
• Di Giovanni, Norman Thomas (1995). The Borges Tradition. London: Constable in association with the
Anglo-Argentine Society. ISBN 0094738408.
• Di Giovanni, Norman Thomas (2003). The Lesson of the Master. London: Continuum. ISBN 0826461107.
• Dunham, Lowell (1971). The Cardinal Points of Borges. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
ISBN 0806109831.
• Fishburn, Evelyn (2002). Borges and Europe Revisited. City: Univ of London. ISBN 1900039214.
• Frisch, Mark (2004). You Might Be Able to Get There from Here. Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press.
ISBN 0838640443.
• Kristal, Efraín (2002). Invisible Work. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 0585408033.
• Lindstrom, Naomi (1990). Jorge Luis Borges. Boston: Twayne Publishers. ISBN 080578327X.
• Manguel, Alberto (2006). With Borges. City: Telegram. ISBN 9781846590054.
• Manovich, Lev, New Media from Borges to HTML, 2003 [92]
• McMurray, George (1980). Jorge Luis Borges. New York: Ungar. ISBN 0804426082.
• Molloy, Sylvia (1994). Signs of Borges. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 0822314061.
• Murray, Janet H., Inventing the Medium, 2003 [93]
• Núñez-Faraco, Humberto (2006). Borges and Dante. Frankfurt Am Main: P. Lang. ISBN 9783039105113.
• Racz, Gregary (2003). Jorge Luis Borges (1899-1986) as Writer and Social Critic. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen
Press. ISBN 0773469044.
• Rodríguez, Monegal (1978). Jorge Luis Borges. New York: Dutton. ISBN 0525137483.
• Rodríguez-Luis, Julio (1991). The Contemporary Praxis of the Fantastic. New York: Garland.
ISBN 0815301014.
• Sarlo, Beatriz (2007). Jorge Luis Borges: a Writer on the Edge. London: Verso. ISBN 9781844675883.
Jorge Luis Borges 642

• Shaw, Donald (1992). Borges' Narrative Strategy. Liverpool: Francis Cairns. ISBN 0905205847.
• Stabb, Martin (1991). Borges Revisited. Boston: Twayne Publishers. ISBN 080578263X.
• Sturrock, John (1977). Paper Tigers. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0198157460.
• Todorov, Tzvetan (1970). Introduction à la littérature fantastique. Paris: Seuil.
• Toro, Alfonso (1999). Jorge Luis Borges. Frankfurt Am Main: Vervuert. ISBN 3893542175.
• Volek, Emil (1984). "Aquiles y la Tortuga: Arte, imaginación y realidad según Borges". In: Cuatro claves para la
modernidad. Analisis semiótico de textos hispánicos.. Madri.
• Waisman, Sergio (2005). Borges and Translation. Lewisburg Pa.: Bucknell University Press. ISBN 0838755925.
• Williamson, Edwin (2004). Borges: A Life. New York: Viking. ISBN 0670885797.
• Wilson, Jason (2006). Jorge Luis Borges. London: Reaktion Books. ISBN 9781861892867.
• Woscoboinik, Julio (1998). The Secret of Borges. Washington: University Press of America. ISBN 0761812385.
• Yates, Donald (1985). Jorge Luis Borges, Life, Work, and Criticism. Baltimore: York Press. ISBN 0919966470.

Documentaries
• Montes-Bradley, Eduardo (Director). (1999). Harto The Borges. [Feature Documentary]. USA: Patagonia Film
Group, US.
• Willicher, Ricardo (Documentary). Borges para millones. Argentina.

External links
• A set of English translations of Borges short stories and poems [94]
• Fundación San Telmo's Jorge Luis Borges Collection. (Spanish) [95]
• The Norton Lectures, delivered at Harvard University in the fall of 1967, by Borges [96]
• An essay from Borgesland by Susana Medina "Hallucinating Spaces" [97]
• 02/14/08 Interview with Borges at the University of Buenos Aires from Habitus: A Diaspora Journal (in English)
[98]

• BBC Radio 4: In Our Time. Historical Discussion on Borges life and work. [99]
• Multiple resources and archive. Borges Center, University of Pittsburgh [100]
• Slate.com revisionist essay by Clive James "Borges' Bad Politics" [101]
• The Friends of Jorge Luis Borges Worldwide Society & Associates [102]

References
[1] Jozef, Bella. "Borges: linguagem e metalinguagem". In: O espaço reconquistado. Petrópolis, RJ: Vozes, 1974, p.43.
[2] (Portuguese) Masina, Lea. (2001) "Murilo Rubião, o mágico do conto". In: O pirotécnico Zacarias e outros contos escolhidos. Porto
Alegre: L & PM, p5.
[3] (Portuguese)__, "O maravilhoso no Novo Mundo: ecologia e discurso", (1992) Ecologia e discurso. Rio de Janeiro, Tempo Brasileiro p.
115-129.
[4] Theo L. D’Haen (1995) "Magical Realism and Postmodernism: Descentering Priviledged Centers", in: Louis P. Zamora and Wendy B. Faris,
Magical Realism: Theory, History and Community. Duhan and London, Duke University Press p. 191-208.
[5] From the song "Choro Bandido" ("Crying Bandit", literally) by Chico Buarque and Edu Lobo quoted in Ferriera, Eliane Fernanda C. "O (In)
visível imaginado em Borges". In: Pedro Pires Bessa (ed.). Riqueza Cultural Ibero-Americana. Campus de Divinópolis-UEMG, 1996, p.
313-314. In short, Borges's blindness led him to favour poetry and shorter narratives over novels.
[6] Borges, Jorge Luis. (1994) Siete Noches. Obras Completas, vol. III. Buenos Aires: Emecé
[7] Coetzee, J.M. "Borges's Dark Mirror", New York Review of Books, Volume 45, Number 16 · October 22, 1998
[12] Borges, Jorge Luis, "Autobiographical Notes", The New Yorker, 19 September 1970.
[16] Wilson, Jason (2006). Jorge Luis Borges. Reaktion Books. p. 37. ISBN 1861892861.
[18] Borges Center, University of Pittsburg (http:/ / www. borges. pitt. edu/ english. php). Accessed 2010-08-16
[19] Borges: Other Inquisitions 1937-1952. Full introduction by James Irby. University of Texas ISBN 9780292760028 (http:/ / www. utexas.
edu/ utpress/ excerpts/ exboroth. html) Accessed 2010-08-16
[20] Ivonne Bordelois, "The Sur Magazine" Villa Ocampo Website (http:/ / www. villaocampo. org/ ing/ historico/ cultura_1. htm)
Jorge Luis Borges 643

[24] Bolter, Jay David; Joyce, Michael (1987). "Hypertext and Creative Writing" (http:/ / portal. acm. org/ citation. cfm?id=317431). . ACM.
pp. 41–50. .
[25] Moulthrop, Stuart (1991). "Reading From the Map: Metonymy and Metaphor in the Fiction of 'Forking Paths'". in Delany, Paul; Landow,
George P.. Hypermedia and Literary Studies. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: The MIT Press.
[26] "Borges, Jorge Luis (Vol.32)" (http:/ / www. enotes. com/ poetry-criticism/ borges-jorge-luis). enotes. . Retrieved 2008-12-03.
[27] Wardrip-Fruin, Noah & Montfort, Nick (2003). The New Media Reader. MIT Press.
[28] "His was a particular kind of blindness, grown on him gradually since the age of thirty and settled in for good after his fifty-eighth birthday."
From , Alberto Manguel (2006) With Borges, London:Telegram Books p 15-16.
[29] , Alberto Manguel (2006) With Borges, London:Telegram Books p 15-16.
[30] Woodall, J: The Man in Mirror of the Book, A Life of Luis Borges, (1996) Hodder and Stoughton pxxx.
[31] "Days of Hate" (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0046947/ ). Imdb. . Retrieved 2008-12-04.
[33] H. R. Hays, ed. (1943) 12 Spanish American Poets. New Haven: Yale University Press p118-139.
[34] The Borges poems in H. R. Hays, ed. (1943) 12 Spanish American Poets are "A Patio," "Butcher Shop," "Benares," "The Recoleta," "A
Day's Run," "General Quiroga Rides to Death in a Carriage," "July Avenue," and "Natural Flow of Memory."
[35] Index to Science Fiction Anthologies and Collections (http:/ / contento. best. vwh. net/ s35. htm).
[36] Borges, Jorge Luis (1998) Collected Fictions Viking Penguin. Translation and notes by Andrew Hurley. Editorial note p 517.
[37] Mystery Writers of America. Edgar Award Database (http:/ / mysterywriters. org/ edgarsDB/ edgarDB. php). Retrieved 24 September 2007.
[38] Norman Thomas Di Giovanni, The Lessons of the Master
[39] "Fanny", El Señor Borges
[40] (Spanish) Octavi Martí, Kodama frente a Borges, El País (Madrid), Edición Impresa, 16 August 2006. Abstract online (http:/ / www.
elpais. es/ articulo/ revista/ agosto/ Kodama/ frente/ Borges/ elpporcul/ 20060816elpepirdv_1/ Tes); full text accessible online by subscription
only.
[41] Richard Flanagan, "Writing with Borges", [[The Age (http:/ / www. theage. com. au/ articles/ 2003/ 07/ 12/ 1057783281684. html)]
(Australia), 12 July 2003.] Accessed 2010-08-16
[42] Burgin (1968). P104.
[43] Burgin (1968) p95-6
[44] Williamson (2004) p292
[45] Williamson (2004) p295
[46] Williamson (2004) p313
[48] Williamson (2004) p320.
[49] (Spanish) Jorge Luis Borges. Galería de Directores, Biblioteca Nacional (Argentina). (http:/ / www. bibnal. edu. ar/ paginas/ galeriadirec.
htm#borges), Retrieved 23 December 2006.
[50] Burgin (1969) p121
[51] National Geographic, March 1975. p303.
[53] Williamson (2004) p491
[55] Wardrip-Fruin, Noah, and Nick Montfort, ed. (2003). The New Media Reader. Cambridge: The MIT Press, p29. ISBN 0262232278
[57] Kristal, Efraín (2002). Invisible Work. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press. p. 37. ISBN 0826514081.
[58] Notable translations also include work by Melville, Faulkner, Sir Thomas Browne, and G. K. Chesterton.
[59] His imitations of Swedenborg and others were originally passed off as translations, in his literary column in Crítica. "El Teólogo" was
originally published with the note "Lo anterior...es obra de Manuel Swedenborg, eminente ingeniero y hombre de ciencia, que durante 27 años
estuvo en comercio lúcido y familiar con el otro mundo." ("The preceding [...] is the work of Emanuel Swedenborg, eminent engineer and man
of science, who during 27 years was in lucid and familiar commerce with the other world.") Bibliografía cronológica de la obra de Jorge Luis
Borges (http:/ / www. uiowa. edu/ borges/ louis/ 1934. htm) ("Chronological bibliography of the work of Jorge Luis Borges"), Borges Center,
University of Iowa. Retrieved 7 November 2006.
[60] Borges This Craft of Verse (p104)
[61] Borges Collected Fictions, p67
[62] Katra, William H. (1988) Contorno: Literary Engagement in Post-Perónist Argentina. Teaneck, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson UP p56-7
[64] "Don’t abandon me" Tóibín, Colm London Review of Books 2006-05-11. (http:/ / www. lrb. co. uk/ v28/ n09/ toib01_. html) Retrieved
2009-04-19
[65] Feldman, Burton (2000) The Nobel Prize: a History of Genius, Controversy and Prestige, Arcade Publishing p57
[66] Guardian profile. "Jorge Luis Borges" 22 July 2008 (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ books/ 2008/ jun/ 10/ jorgeluisborges). Accessed
2010-08-15
[67] "Briton Wins the Nobel Literature Prize." James M. Markham. The New York Times 7 October 1983 (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1983/ 10/
07/ books/ 83nobel. html). Accessed 2010-08-15
[68] Feldman, Burton (2000) The Nobel Prize: a History of Genius, Controversy and Prestige, Arcade Publishing p81
[71] Borges, Luis Borges (1979) The Book of Imaginary Beings Penguin Books Australia p.11 ISBN 0525475389
[72] Non-linarity was key to the development of digital media. See Murray, Janet H. "Inventing the Medium" The New Media Reader.
Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003
[73] Murray, Janet H. "Inventing the Medium" The New Media Reader. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003.
Jorge Luis Borges 644

[77] Borges Siete Noches, p156

[80] Takolander, Maria (2007) Catching butterflies: bringing magical realism to ground Peter Lang Pub Inc pp.55-60 ISBN 3039111930
[81] Britton, R (July 1979). "History, Myth, and Archetype in Borges's View of Argentina" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 3726707). The Modern
Language Review (Modern Humanities Research Association) 74 (3): 607–616. doi:10.2307/3726707. .
[83] de Man, Paul. "A Modern Master", Jorge Luis Borges, Ed. Harold Bloom, New York: Chelsea House Pub., 1986. p.22.
[84] New york Times Article. Paid Subscription only (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ books/ 97/ 08/ 31/ reviews/ 970831. 31gonz01. html)
[85] De Costa, René (2000) Humor in Borges (Humor in Life & Letters). Wayne State University Press p49 ISBN 0814328881
[87] The Queer Use of Communal Women in Borges's "El muerto" and "La intrusa"], paper presented at XIX Latin American Studies
Association (LASA) Congress held in Washington DC in September, 1995.
[88] Keller, Gary; Karen S. Van Hooft (1976). "Jorge Luis Borges's `La intrusa:' The Awakening of Love and Consciousness/The Sacrifice of
Love and Consciousness.". in Eds. Lisa E. Davis and Isabel C. Tarán. The Analysis of Hispanic Texts: Current Trends in Methodology.
Bilingual P. pp. 300–319.
[89] Hurley, Andrew 1988) Jorge Luis Borges: Collected Fictions. New York: Penguin p197.
[90] Hurley, Andrew 1988) Jorge Luis Borges: Collected Fictions. New York: Penguin p200
[91] Jaime Perales Contreras: “The Rooster who Pretended to be Jorge Luis Borges”. Americas Magazine: Organization of American States,
Washington D.C, (first two pages of the short story), June 2010. page 48
[92] http:/ / www. newmediareader. com/ book_samples/ nmr-intro-manovich-excerpt. pdf
[93] http:/ / www. newmediareader. com/ book_samples/ nmr-intro-murray-excerpt. pdf
[94] http:/ / anagrammatically. com/ category/ borges/
[95] http:/ / www. fst. com. ar
[96] http:/ / www. hup. harvard. edu/ catalog. php?recid=23874
[97] http:/ / www. susanamedina. net/ modules/ articles/ article. php?id=28
[98] http:/ / habitusmag. com/ 2008/ 02/ 231/ a-conversation-with-jorge-luis-borges/
[99] http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ radio4/ history/ inourtime/ inourtime_20070104. shtml
[100] http:/ / www. borges. pitt. edu/ english. php
[101] http:/ / www. slate. com/ id/ 2159221/
[102] http:/ / amigos-de-borges. net/ site/ english/ main/
Ken Burns 645

Ken Burns
Ken Burns

Ken Burns, September 2007

Born Kenneth Lauren Burns
July 29, 1953
Brooklyn, New York City, U.S.

Years active 1981 – present

Spouse(s) Julie Deborah Brown

(2003-present)
Amy Stechler Burns (1982-1993)

Kenneth Lauren "Ken" Burns (born July 29, 1953) is an American director and producer of documentary films
known for his style of making use of archival footage and photographs. Among his most notable productions are The
Civil War (1990), Baseball (1994), Jazz (2001), The War (2007), and The National Parks: America's Best Idea
(2009).
Burns's documentaries have been nominated for two Academy Awards (Brooklyn Bridge in 1982 and The Statue of
Liberty in 1986) and have won seven Emmy Awards, mostly from The Civil War and Baseball.

Personal life
Burns was born in Brooklyn, New York, the son of Lyla (née Tupper), a homemaker, and Robert Kyle Burns, an
anthropology professor.[1] Burns's brother, Ric Burns, is also a noted documentary filmmaker. Burns graduated from
Pioneer High School in Ann Arbor, Michigan in 1971. He earned his Bachelor of Arts degree from Hampshire
College in Amherst, Massachusetts in 1975, and went on to be one of the co-founders of Florentine Films.[2] The
recipient of more than 20 honorary degrees, Burns is a sought-after public speaker, appearing at colleges, civic
organizations and business groups throughout the country. He resides in Walpole, New Hampshire with his wife,
Julie.
Burns is a longtime supporter of the Democratic Party, with almost $40,000 in political donations.[3] In 2008, the
Democratic National Committee chose Burns to produce the introductory video for Senator Edward Kennedy's
August 2008 speech to the Democratic National Convention.[4]
Ken Burns 646

Career
Burns has served as chief cinematographer on many of his documentaries, thus playing a crucial role in shaping the
overall looks of the works. A key visual trait is the photographing of live-action material (such as old houses, or
battlefield locations) during the low sunlight of dawn or dusk. As a result, much of the original filmed material in a
typical Ken Burns documentary contains a distinctive orange ethereal coloring.
Burns is also a frequent user of simple musical leitmotiffs. For example, his acclaimed The Civil War features a
distinctive violin melody throughout ("Ashokan Farewell" by Jay Ungar). In a review of Burns's work, the online
journal Salon.com noted "One of the most memorable things about The Civil War was its haunting, repeated violin
melody, whose thin, yearning notes seemed somehow to sum up all the pathos of that great struggle."[5]
In a common technique among makers of documentaries on subjects where principally still material is available,
Burns often gives life to still photographs by slowly zooming in on subjects of interest and panning from one subject
to another. For example, in a photograph of a baseball team, he might slowly pan across the faces of the players and
come to rest on the player the narrator is discussing.
This effect, present in many professional and home software applications, was affectionately named "The Ken Burns
Effect" in Apple Inc.'s iPhoto and iMovie (Both for Mac and iPhone) software applications. It also figures in the
6th-generation iPod interface in the cover art of the main menu.
Of Burns's many film series, The Civil War is generally considered to be his masterpiece. It is narrated by Pulitzer
Prize-winning author David McCullough, with Burns serving as director, producer, co-writer, chief cinematographer,
music director and executive producer. The series has been honored with more than 40 major film and television
awards, including two Emmy Awards, two Grammy Awards, the Producer of the Year Award from the Producers
Guild of America, a People's Choice Award, a Peabody Award, a duPont-Columbia Award, a D.W. Griffith Award,
and the $50,000 Lincoln Prize, among dozens of others. The nine episodes explore the Civil War through personal
stories and photos. During the creation of the movie Burns filmed thousands of archived photographs. The Civil War
has been seen by more than 40 million people.
The War, 15 hours in length and seven years in the making, tells the story of the Second World War from the
personal perspective of the men and women from four geographically distributed American towns: Waterbury, CT;
Mobile, AL; Sacramento, CA; and Luverne, MN. Airing in the fall of 2007, it was the most watched series in the last
ten years on PBS. 117 PBS stations across the nation participated in some form of community outreach (local
documentaries, screenings, workshops, etc.) and nearly 30,000 educator guides went to every high school in the
country.
The National Parks: America's Best Idea was a 2009 documentary initially broadcast on PBS that explored the
history of America's national parks, along with in-depth views of the people who helped create and influence the
parks and park policies.[6] Like his previous most prominent films, The National Parks was very well received.[7]

Filmography
• Brooklyn Bridge (1981)
• The Shakers: Hands to Work, Hearts to God (1984)
• The Statue of Liberty (1985)
• Huey Long (1985)
• The Congress (1988)
• Thomas Hart Benton (1988)
• The Civil War (1990)
• Empire of the Air: The Men Who Made Radio (1991)
• Baseball (1994, 2010)
• Thomas Jefferson (1997)
Ken Burns 647

• Lewis & Clark: The Journey of the Corps of Discovery (1997)

• Frank Lloyd Wright (1998)
• Not For Ourselves Alone: Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony (1999)
• Jazz (2001)
• Mark Twain (2001)
• Horatio's Drive: America's First Road Trip (2003)
• Unforgivable Blackness: The Rise and Fall of Jack Johnson (2005)
• The War (2007)
• The National Parks: America's Best Idea (2009)
• Baseball: The Tenth Inning (2010)
• Prohibition (2011)[8]
• The Dust Bowl (scheduled for 2012)[9]
Under Burns's name only
• The West (1996) (Executive Producer, Directed by Stephen Ives)
Short Films
• William Segal (Biography) (1992)
• Vezelay (1996)
• In the Marketplace (2000)
Film Roles
• Gettysburg (1993) - Hancock's staff officer

Culture references
Ken Burns's prolific output (especially its documentary length and exhaustive nature) has often been subject to satire
in popular media.
• An episode of the 1990s HBO sketch comedy series "Mr. Show" featured a video mockumentary entitled "The
Civil War: The Reenactments", a parody of Burns's The Civil War.
• In an episode of The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius where Jimmy and his friends travel to Egypt, his
classmates are watching a "97 hour-long documentary about Egypt by Ken Burns."
• In The Simpsons episode "Pray Anything", Homer inadvertently watches a documentary by, about, and named for
Ken Burns due to his inability to find his television remote. In the Episode The Color Yellow, it is implied that
Burns and his brother Ric are related to Montgomery Burns.
• Mystery Science Theater 3000 Episode 0805 The Thing That Couldn't Die segment four: Crow T. Robot produces
a Civil War documentary, at once elaborate and hastily thrown together. Reminded that Ken Burns has already
made a Civil War documentary, he states: "Oh, but was it about the Civil War?"[10]
• In the season 3 of 8 Simple Rules episode "The Sleepover", a TV commercial is heard advertising "Ken Burns on
Ken Burns, a nine-disc set."
Ken Burns 648

External links
• Blue Ridge Country [11] - Ken Burns: The Interview with Blue Ridge County Magazine
• Florentine Films [12] - Ken Burns's production company
• Ken Burns [13] at Allmovie
• Ken Burns [14] at the Internet Movie Database
• Write TV Public Television Interview with Ken Burns [15]
• Ken Burns [16] at MyNorthwest.com [17]
• Ken Burns [18] on PBS
• Downloadable 15-minute interview with Ken Burns from Wisconsin Public Television [19] Ken Burns talks about
his passion for filmmaking, his upcoming project "The War," and the controversies surrounding it.
• Ken Burns bibliography [20]
• Ken Burns Archive of American Television Interview [21]
• Speaking Profile [22] Ken Burns's profile and lecture topics on the Random House Speakers Bureau [23]

References
[1] http:/ / www. filmreference. com/ film/ 76/ Ken-Burns. html
[2] Hal Erickson. "Ken Burns biography" (http:/ / movies2. nytimes. com/ gst/ movies/ filmography. html?p_id=83608& inline=nyt-per).
Allmovie. . Retrieved 2007-06-09.
[3] http:/ / www. newsmeat. com/ celebrity_political_donations/ Ken_Burns. php
[4] M.E. Sprengelmeyer. "Filmmaker Ken Burns behind documentary tribute to Sen. Ted Kennedy" (http:/ / www. rockymountainnews. com/
news/ 2008/ aug/ 24/ filmmaker-ken-burns-behind-documentary-tribute-sen/ ). Rocky Mountain News. . Retrieved 2009-08-26.
[5] "Shame and Glory" (http:/ / www. salon. com/ weekly/ west2960909. html). .
[6] "Ken Burns: The Interview" (http:/ / www. blueridgecountry. com/ blogs/ ken-burns-civil-war-national-parks. html). .
[7] The National Parks: America's Best Idea at Metacritic.com (http:/ / www. metacritic. com/ tv/ shows/ nationalparks?q=National Parks)
[8] http:/ / www. florentinefilms. com/ ffpages/ FFIntro-frameset. html
[9] http:/ / www. oeta. tv/ engage/ 472-ken-burns-seeking-dustbowl-stories. html
[10] Chaplin, Paul . "Episode 805- The Thing that Couldn't Die" (http:/ / www. mst3kinfo. com/ aceg/ 8/ 805/ ep805. html)
[11] http:/ / blueridgecountry. com/ blogs/ ken-burns-civil-war-national-parks. html
[12] http:/ / www. florentinefilms. com
[13] http:/ / www. allmovie. com/ artist/ 83608
[14] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0122741/
[15] http:/ / writetv. org
[16] http:/ / www. mynorthwest. com/ ?nid=11& sid=158046
[17] http:/ / www. mynorthwest. com/ ?nid=1
[18] http:/ / www. pbs. org/ kenburns/
[19] http:/ / www. wpt. org/ blog/ 2007/ 03/ wpt-be-more-tuned-in-podcast-filmmaker. html
[20] http:/ / www. lib. berkeley. edu/ MRC/ documentarybib. html#burns
[21] http:/ / www. emmytvlegends. org/ interviews/ people/ ken-burns
[22] http:/ / www. rhspeakers. com/ speaker. php?sid=79& sna=Ken+ Burns
[23] http:/ / www. rhspeakers. com
Kevin Carter 649

Kevin Carter
Kevin Carter (September 13, 1960 in Johannesburg – July 27, 1994) was an award-winning South African
photojournalist and member of the Bang-Bang Club.

Early work
Carter had started to work as weekend sports photographer in 1983. In 1984 he moved on to work for the
Johannesburg Star, bent on exposing the brutality of apartheid.
Carter was the first to photograph a public execution by "necklacing" in South Africa in the mid-1980s.[1] The victim
was Maki Skosana who had been accused of having a relationship with a police officer.[1] He later spoke of the
images; "I was appalled at what they were doing. I was appalled at what I was doing. But then people started talking
about those pictures... then I felt that maybe my actions hadn't been at all bad. Being a witness to something this
horrible wasn't necessarily such a bad thing to do."[2]

Prize-winning photograph in Sudan

In March 1993 Carter made a trip to Sudan. The sound of soft, high-pitched whimpering near the village of Ayod
attracted Carter to an emaciated Sudanese toddler. The girl had stopped to rest while struggling to a feeding center,
whereupon a vulture had landed nearby. He said that he waited about 20 minutes, hoping that the vulture would
spread its wings. It didn't. Carter snapped the haunting photograph and chased the vulture away.[3] However, he
came under criticism for just photographing — and not helping — the little girl:
The St. Petersburg Times in Florida said this of Carter: "The man adjusting his lens to take just the right frame
of her suffering, might just as well be a predator, another vulture on the scene."[4]
The photograph was sold to The New York Times where it appeared for the first time on March 26, 1993. Practically
overnight hundreds of people contacted the newspaper to ask whether the child had survived, leading the newspaper
to run a special editor's note saying the girl had enough strength to walk away from the vulture, but that her ultimate
fate was unknown.
On April 2, 1994 Nancy Buirski, a foreign New York Times picture editor, phoned Carter to inform him he had won
the most coveted prize for photojournalism. Carter was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Feature Photography on May
23, 1994 at Columbia University's Low Memorial Library.

Death
On 27 July 1994 Carter drove to the Braamfontein Spruit river, near the Field and Study Centre, an area where he
used to play as a child, and took his own life by taping one end of a hose to his pickup truck’s exhaust pipe and
running the other end to the passenger-side window. He died of carbon monoxide poisoning at the age of 33.
Portions of Carter's suicide note read:
"I am depressed ... without phone ... money for rent ... money for child support ... money for debts ... money!!!
... I am haunted by the vivid memories of killings and corpses and anger and pain ... of starving or wounded
children, of trigger-happy madmen, often police, of killer executioners...I have gone to join Ken [recently
deceased colleague Ken Oosterbroek] if I am that lucky."[5]
Kevin Carter 650

Cultural references
• A documentary entitled "The Death of Kevin Carter: Casualty of the Bang Bang Club" was nominated for an
Academy Award in 2006.
• The Welsh band Manic Street Preachers recorded a song about him on their 1996 album Everything Must Go.
• There is a song 'Kevin Carter' on the 1996 album of Martin Simpson and Jessica Ruby Simpson, Band of Angels,
which is a mainly factual, minimalist, and informative ballad.
• Poets and Madmen by heavy metal band Savatage is a loose concept-album based on a fictitious investigation of
his legacy.
• Mark Danielewski's novel House of Leaves attributes a prize-winning photograph, based on that of Carter, to the
novel's protagonist, Will Navidson. Within the confines of the novel, the starving Sudanese child is named Delial
by Navidson. The story describes a photo similar to Carter's Pulitzer Prize-winning image, with footnotes directly
referring to Carter and his suicide.
• Masha Hamilton's 2004 novel The Distance Between Us mentions Kevin Carter and is dedicated to "Kevin Carter
and journalists everywhere who put their bodies and their souls on the line to cover war."
• Chilean born visual artist Alfredo Jaar presented the story of Kevin Carter and his Pullitzer Prize-winning
photograph in the work The Sound of Silence, a cinematic video installation presented in his Politics of the Image
exhibition at the South London Gallery in 2008. The narration goes on to tell about the life of the photograph after
the death of its author.
• In 2009, he was played by Taylor Kitsch in the film version of The Bang Bang Club.

References
[1] Marinovich, Greg; Silva Joao (2000). The Bang-Bang Club Snapshots from a Hidden War. William Heinemann. pp. 38-39.
ISBN 0434007331.
[2] First draft by Tim Porter: Covering war in a free society (http:/ / www. timporter. com/ firstdraft/ archives/ 000071. html)
[3] TIME Domestic (September 12, 1994), Volume 144, No. 11, "The Life and Death of Kevin Carter" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/
article/ 0,9171,981431,00. html) by Scott MacLeod, Johannesburg. Retrieved February 19, 2006.
[4] The life and death of Kevin Carter (http:/ / www. thisisyesterday. com/ ints/ KCarter. html): "Visiting Sudan, a little-known photographer
took a picture that made the world weep. What happened afterward is a tragedy of another sort."
[5] Photographer haunted by horror of his work (http:/ / flatrock. org. nz/ topics/ odds_and_oddities/ ultimate_in_unfair. htm)

• "The Death of Kevin Carter: Casualty of the Bang Bang Club" HBO documentary. August 17, 2006,
• "The boy who became a postcard" (Ehagakini Sareta Shōnen). Akio Fujiwara 2005. ISBN 4-08-781338-X

External links
• Pulitzer Prize-winning photo of the girl in Sudan (http://www.nytimes.com/imagepages/2009/04/15/arts/
15jaar_CA0.ready.html)
Ann Danielewski 651

Ann Danielewski
Poe

Annie Danielewski at EdgeFest in Dayton, Ohio, 1996 (photo by Kent Hagan)

Background information

Birth name Anne Decatur Danielewski

Born March 23, 1968

Origin New York City, U.S.

Genres Alternative rock

Occupations Musician, songwriter

Instruments Vocals, Guitar

Years active 1995–present

Labels Atlantic Records

Anne "Annie" Decatur Danielewski (born March 23, 1968), professionally known as Poe, is an American singer
and songwriter.[1] [2] She first hit the modern rock charts in the mid-1990s. Poe is the daughter of Polish film director
Tad Danielewski and his second wife, Priscilla Machold. She is the sister of author Mark Z. Danielewski. Poe's
musical style is a blend of folk, rock and electronica elements backing intimate lyrical compositions. Poe was signed
to Atlantic Records from 1995–2001. She is currently on her label RePoezessed Records [3].

History
Poe grew up in Provo, Utah, where her father was a professor at Brigham Young University. She eventually began
pursuing her undergraduate studies at Princeton University where she organized her first band. Her first album,
Hello, was released in 1995. Her debut single, "Angry Johnny", got much radio and MTV airplay.
Occupied by extensive small club tours, she was unable to produce a second album until 2000's Haunted. Poe
included her late father on Haunted after discovering cassette tapes containing his voice. Listening to them the first
time proved so difficult that she was hesitant to use them in her music. "I took these tapes home and I couldn't listen
to them," Poe explains. "It was too hard, so I kept finding ways to avoid it. They were sitting on my coffee table next
to a boombox."[4] The album also dovetails with themes and concepts from her brother Mark's postmodern novel
House of Leaves; the CD and the book were released simultaneously. Poe and Mark toured together across America
at Borders Books and Music locations in support of the album and the novel.
A remix of the song, "Hey Pretty", featured Mark reading a passage from the novel. It was released on one of the
Haunted singles and became a radio hit. Hey Pretty was also the theme to a short-lived MTV soap opera Spyder
Games. The show usually ended with bits of the risque video or a picture of the single's cover. In 10 Things I Hate
About You the character of Kat has the Poe ball on her schoolbook.
Ann Danielewski 652

Poe started a campaign which she referred to as the "Re-POE-Session", an attempt to gain control of her master
recordings from her former record label, Atlantic Records, because they refused to re-release her albums although
she was still under contract. Her dedicated fan base, "The Angry Psychos", supported her fight by passing a "Poe
Ball" around the country to show their support. In 2004, both albums were re-released on CD by FEI/Sheridan
Square Records, and in downloadable form on various online music stores.
According to statements on her official forum, Poe has (or had) started work on a third album, but details are sketchy
and several years have passed since the first announcement. Her most recent work includes collaborations with Rhys
Fulber's solo project, Conjure One. She has had a part in the writing and singing of five songs on Conjure One's
albums: "Center of the Sun" and "Make a Wish" on the self-titled first album and "Endless Dream," "One Word" and
"Extraordinary Way" on Extraordinary Ways. She is credited as Jane on this later album.
Poe appeared in the movie Gossip performing the song "My Lips are Sealed" (a cover of The Go-Go's' "Our Lips
Are Sealed"), and as a CGI character, Mary Magdalene/Plague, in the PlayStation game Apocalypse. Apocalypse also
featured an alternate version of her song "Control", later released on Haunted.
Poe provides the voice of "Single Mother" in the movie musical "Repo! The Genetic Opera", along with other
voices. In November 2007 Poe began collecting MP3 recordings of dream accounts on her website, Repoezessed. [5]
The Song "Haunted" appears in the Xbox 360 game Alan Wake released in May of 2010.

See also
• List of number-one dance hits (United States)
• List of artists who reached number one on the US Dance chart
• Conjure One
• Mononymous persons

Discography

Albums
• Hello (1995) Gold
• Haunted (2000)

Singles
• "Trigger Happy Jack (Drive by a Go-Go)" (1995) (#27 Modern Rock)
• "Angry Johnny" (1995) (#7 Modern Rock hit)
• "Hello" (1996) (#13 Modern Rock, #1 Dance hit)
• "Today" (Promo 1998)
• "Rise and Shine" Charity Single (1998)
• "Control" (Promo 1998)
• "Walk the Walk" (Promo, 2000)
• "Hey Pretty" Drive-by 2001 remix (Promo, 2001) (#13 Modern Rock, #30 Adult Top 40)
• "Wild" (Promo, 2001)
Ann Danielewski 653

Unreleased/compilation
• "Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer" (1996) originally on KROQ's Kevin & Bean's Christmastime In The LBC
and then re-released in 1997 on The Best of Kevin and Bean: A Family Christmas in Your Ass.
• "A Rose is a Rose" on the various artist album, Lounge-a-palooza (1997)
• "I Cain't Say No" (an Oklahoma! showtune cover) on the Welcome to Woop Woop Soundtrack (1998)
• "Padre Fear" (1995) Non-LP Track. Found on the CD single of Trigger Happy Jack (Drive By A Go-Go)
• "Which Way to the Top?" (additional vocals) on Fastball's All the Pain Money Can Buy (1998)
• "Strange Wind" on the Anywhere But Here Soundtrack (1999)
• "My Lips are Sealed" (cover) on the Gossip soundtrack (1999)
• "Center of the Sun" and "Make a Wish" with Conjure One (2002)
• "Endless Dream," "One Word," and "Extraordinary Way" with Conjure One (credited as "Jane") (2005)

References
[1] Poe (http:/ / www. allmusic. com/ cg/ amg. dll?p=amg& sql=11:dvfexq8gldae) at Allmusic
[2] Poe discography (http:/ / www. rollingstone. com/ artists/ poe/ discography), Rolling Stone
[3] http:/ / www. repoezessed. com
[4] Baltin, Steve. "The Haunting Return of Poe" (http:/ / www. rollingstone. com/ artists/ poe/ articles/ story/ 5922844/
the_haunting_return_of_poe), Rolling Stone, November 2, 2000
[5] http:/ / www. repoezessed. com/

External links
• Official Poe Website (http://www.repoezessed.com/)
• POE.ORG ::: Fan Website (http://www.poe.org/)

Jacques Derrida

Full name Jacques Derrida

Born 15 July 1930

El Biar (Algiers), then French Algeria

Died 8 October 2004 (aged 74)

Paris, France

Era 20th-century philosophy

Region Western Philosophy

School Deconstruction, Continental Philosophy, Phenomenology

Main interests Philosophy of language · Literary theory · Ethics · Ontology

Notable ideas Deconstruction · Différance · Phallogocentrism · Metaphysics of presence

Jacques Derrida 654

Jacques Derrida (French pronunciation: [ʒak dɛʁida]) (15 July 1930 – 8 October 2004) was a French philosopher born
in Algeria. He developed the critical technique known as deconstruction, and his work has been associated both with
post-structuralism and postmodern philosophy.[3] [4] His prolific output of more than 40 published books, together
with essays and public speaking, has had a significant impact upon the humanities,[5] particularly on literary theory
and continental philosophy. His best known assertion with regard to his methodology is that "there is no
outside-the-text."[3] [6]
Derrida was always uncomfortable with the popularity of the term "deconstruction" and the corresponding tendency
to reduce his philosophical work to that particular label. In spite of his reservations, deconstruction has become
associated with the attempt to expose and undermine the oppositions and paradoxes on which particular texts,
philosophical and otherwise, are founded.[7] He frequently called such paradoxes "binary oppositions." Derrida's
strategy involved explicating the historical roots of philosophical ideas, questioning the so-called "metaphysics of
presence" that he sees as having dominated philosophy since the ancient Greeks, careful textual analysis, and
attempting to undermine and subvert the paradoxes themselves.[8]
Derrida's work has had implications across many fields, including literature, architecture (in the form of
deconstructivism), sociology, and cultural studies. Particularly in his later writings, he frequently addressed ethical
and political themes, and his work influenced various activist and other political movements.[9] His widespread
influence made him a well-known cultural figure, while his approach to philosophy and the purported difficulty of
his work also made him a figure of some controversy.[10] [11] His work has been seen as a challenge to the
unquestioned assumptions of the Western philosophical tradition and Western culture as a whole.[7] [12]

Life

Early life and education

Derrida was born on 15 July 1930, in El Biar (Algiers), then French Algeria, into a Sephardic Jewish family that
became French in 1870 when the Crémieux Decree granted full French citizenship (Pied-Noir) to the indigenous
Jews of French colonial Algeria.[13] He was the third of five children. His parents, Aimé Derrida and Georgette
Sultana Esther Safar,[14] [15] named him Jackie, though he would later adopt a more "correct" version of his first
name when he moved to Paris.[16] His youth was spent in El-Biar, Algeria.
On the first day of the school year in 1942, Derrida was expelled from his lycée by French administrators
implementing anti-Semitic quotas set by the Vichy government. He secretly skipped school for a year rather than
attend the Jewish lycée formed by displaced teachers and students. At this time, as well as taking part in numerous
football competitions (he dreamed of becoming a professional player), Derrida read works of philosophers and
writers such as Rousseau, Camus, Nietzsche, and Gide. He began to think seriously about philosophy around 1948
and 1949. He became a boarding student at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris, which he did not enjoy. Derrida failed
his entrance examination twice before finally being admitted to the École Normale Supérieure at the end of the
1951–52 school year.
On his first day at the École Normale Supérieure, Derrida met Louis Althusser, with whom he became friends. After
visiting the Husserl Archive in Leuven, Belgium, he completed his philosophy agrégation on Edmund Husserl.
Derrida received a grant for studies at Harvard University, and in June 1957 married the psychoanalyst Marguerite
Aucouturier in Boston. During the Algerian War of Independence, Derrida asked to teach soldiers' children in lieu of
military service, teaching French and English from 1957 to 1959.
Jacques Derrida 655

Career
Following the war Derrida began a long association with the Tel Quel group of literary and philosophical theorists.
At the same time, from 1960 to 1964, Derrida taught philosophy at the Sorbonne, and from 1964 to 1984 at the École
Normale Supérieure. His wife Marguerite gave birth to their first child, Pierre, in 1963. Beginning with his 1966
lecture at Johns Hopkins University, "Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences" [17], his
work assumed international prominence. A second son, Jean, was born in 1967. In the same year, Derrida published
his first three books—Writing and Difference, Speech and Phenomena, and Of Grammatology—which would make
his name.
He completed his Thèse d'État in 1980; the work was subsequently published in English translation as "The Time of
a Thesis: Punctuations." In 1983 Derrida collaborated with Ken McMullen on the film Ghost Dance. Derrida appears
in the film as himself and also contributed to the script.
Derrida travelled widely and held a series of visiting and permanent positions. His visiting positions in the United
States were not in Philosophy departments, despite Derrida's efforts to affiliate with Philosophy departments. Derrida
was director of studies at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in Paris. With François Châtelet and
others he in 1983 co-founded the Collège international de philosophie (CIPH), an institution intended to provide a
location for philosophical research which could not be carried out elsewhere in the academy. He was elected as its
first president.
In 1986 Derrida became Professor of the Humanities at the University of California, Irvine. UCI and the Derrida
family are currently involved in a legal dispute regarding exactly what materials constitute his archive, part of which
was informally bequeathed to the university.[18] He was a regular visiting professor at several other major American
and European universities, including Johns Hopkins University, Yale University, New York University, Stony Brook
University, The New School for Social Research, and European Graduate School.
In 2002, Derrida appeared in a documentary about himself and his work, entitled Derrida.

Recognition and criticism

He was awarded honorary doctorates by Cambridge University, Columbia University, The New School for Social
Research, the University of Essex, University of Leuven, Williams College and University of Silesia.
Derrida has often been criticized by academics, such as the analytic philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine.[19] In
1992, a number of analytical philosophers from Cambridge University tried to stop the granting of the degree,[20] but
were outnumbered when it was put to a vote.[21] Derrida suggested in an interview that part of the reason for the
violent attacks on his work, was that it questioned and modified "the rules of the dominant discourse, it tries to
politicize and democratize education and the university scene."[12] [22]
Derrida was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Although his membership in Class IV,
Section 1 (Philosophy and Religious Studies) was rejected; he was subsequently elected to Class IV, Section 3
(Literary Criticism, including Philology.) He received the 2001 Adorno-Preis from the University of Frankfurt.
Jacques Derrida 656

Death
In 2003, Derrida was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer, which reduced his speaking and travelling engagements. He
died in a hospital in Paris on the evening of 8 October 2004.[23]

Work

Introduction
Derrida's work centered on challenging unquestioned assumptions of the Western philosophical tradition and also
more broadly to Western culture as a whole.[7] By questioning the fundamental norms and premises of the dominant
discourses, and trying to modify them, he attempted to democratize the university scene and to politicize it.[12] This
would attract, during (and since) the American 1980s culture wars, the anger of politically conservative and
right-wing intellectuals who were trying to defend the tradition.[5] [7] [12] [24] Derrida called his challenge to the
assumptions of Western culture as "deconstruction".[7]

The Phenomenology vs Structuralism debate

In the early 1960s, Derrida began speaking and writing publicly, and also addressed the most topical debates at the
time. One of these was the "Phenomenology vs Structuralism" debate. At this time the French intellectual scene was
experiencing an increasing rift between what could broadly speaking be called "phenomenological" and "structural"
approaches to understanding individual and collective life. For those with a more phenomenological bent, the goal
was to understand experience by comprehending and describing its genesis, the process of its emergence from an
origin or event. For the structuralists, this was a false problem, and the "depth" of experience could in fact only be an
effect of structures which are not themselves experiential.
It is in this context that Derrida in 1959 asked the question: Must not structure have a genesis, and must not the
origin, the point of genesis, be already structured, in order to be the genesis of something?[25] In other words, every
structural or "synchronic" phenomenon has a history, and the structure cannot be understood without understanding
its genesis.[26] At the same time, in order that there be movement, or potential, the origin cannot be some pure unity
or simplicity, but must already be articulated—complex—such that from it a "diachronic" process can emerge. This
originary complexity must not be understood as an original positing, but more like a default of origin, which Derrida
refers to as iterability, inscription, or textuality.[27] It is this thought of originary complexity that sets Derrida's work
in motion, and from which all of its terms are derived, including "deconstruction".[28]
Derrida's method consisted in demonstrating the forms and varieties of this originary complexity, and their multiple
consequences in many fields. He achieved this by conducting thorough, careful, sensitive, and yet transformational
readings of philosophical and literary texts, to determine what aspects of those texts run counter to their apparent
systematicity (structural unity) or intended sense (authorial genesis). By demonstrating the aporias and ellipses of
thought, Derrida hoped to show the infinitely subtle ways in which this originary complexity, which by definition
cannot ever be completely known, works its structuring and destructuring effects.[29]

Early works
At the very beginning of his philosophical career Derrida was concerned to elaborate a critique of the limits of
phenomenology. His first lengthy academic manuscript, written as a dissertation for his diplôme d'études supérieures
and submitted in 1954, concerned the work of Edmund Husserl.[30] In 1962 he published Edmund Husserl's Origin
of Geometry: An Introduction, which contained his own translation of Husserl's essay. Many elements of Derrida's
thought were already present in this work. In the interviews collected in Positions (1972), Derrida said: "In this essay
the problematic of writing was already in place as such, bound to the irreducible structure of 'deferral' in its
relationships to consciousness, presence, science, history and the history of science, the disappearance or delay of the
origin, etc. [...] this essay can be read as the other side (recto or verso, as you wish) of Speech and Phenomena."[31]
Jacques Derrida 657

Derrida first received major attention outside France with his lecture, "Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of
the Human Sciences," delivered at Johns Hopkins University in 1966 (and subsequently included in Writing and
Difference). The conference at which this paper was delivered was concerned with structuralism, then at the peak of
its influence in France, but only beginning to gain attention in the United States. Derrida differed from other
participants by his lack of explicit commitment to structuralism, having already been critical of the movement. He
praised the accomplishments of structuralism but also maintained reservations about its internal limitations, thus
leading to the notion that his thought was a form of post-structuralism. Near the beginning of the essay, Derrida
argued:
(...) the entire history of the concept of structure, before the rupture of which we are speaking, must be thought
of as a series of substitutions of centre for centre, as a linked chain of determinations of the centre.
Successively, and in a regulated fashion, the centre receives different forms or names. The history of
metaphysics, like the history of the West, is the history of these metaphors and metonymies. Its matrix [...] is
the determination of Being as presence in all senses of this word. It could be shown that all the names related
to fundamentals, to principles, or to the centre have always designated an invariable presence – eidos, archē,
telos, energeia, ousia (essence, existence, substance, subject), alētheia, transcendentality, consciousness, God,
man, and so forth.
– "Structure, Sign and Play" in Writing and Difference, p. 353.
The effect of Derrida's paper was such that by the time the conference proceedings were published in 1970, the title
of the collection had become The Structuralist Controversy. The conference was also where he met Paul de Man,
who would be a close friend and source of great controversy, as well as where he first met the French psychoanalyst
Jacques Lacan, with whose work Derrida enjoyed a mixed relationship.

1967–1972
Derrida's interests traversed disciplinary boundaries, and his knowledge of a wide array of diverse material was
reflected in the three collections of work published in 1967: Speech and Phenomena, Of Grammatology and Writing
and Difference.[32] These three books contained readings of the work of many philosophers and authors, including
Husserl, linguist Saussure, Heidegger, Rousseau, Lévinas, Hegel, Foucault, Bataille, Descartes, anthropologist
Lévi-Strauss, paleontologist Leroi-Gourhan, psychoanalyst Freud, and writers such as Jabès and Artaud. Derrida
frequently acknowledged his debt to Husserl and Heidegger, and stated that without them he would have not said a
single word.[33] [34] Among the questions asked in these essays are "What is 'meaning', what are its historical
relationships to what is purportedly identified under the rubric 'voice' as a value of presence, presence of the object,
presence of meaning to consciousness, self-presence in so called living speech and in self-consciousness?"[32] In
another essay in Writing and Difference entitled "Violence and Metaphysics: An Essay on the Thought of Emmanuel
Levinas", the roots of another major theme in Derrida's thought emerges: the Other as opposed to the Same[35]
“Deconstructive analysis deprives the present of its prestige and exposes it to something tout autre, "wholly other,"
beyond what is foreseeable from the present, beyond the horizon of the "same"."[36]
This collection of three books published in 1967 elaborated Derrida's theoretical framework. Derrida attempts to
approach the very heart of the Western intellectual tradition, characterizing this tradition as "a search for a
transcendental being that serves as the origin or guarantor of meaning". The attempt to "ground the meaning relations
constitutive of the world in an instance that itself lies outside all relationality" was referred to by Heidegger as
logocentrism, and Derrida argues that the philosophical enterprise is essentially logocentric,[37] and that this is a
paradigm inherited from Judaism and Hellenism.[38] He in turn describes logocentrism as phallocratic, patriarchal
and masculinist.[38] [39]
Derrida contributed to "the understanding of certain deeply hidden philosophical presuppositions and prejudices in
Western culture",[38] arguing that the whole philosophical tradition rests on arbitrary dichotomous categories (such
as sacred/profane, signifier/signified, mind/body), and that any text contains implicit hierarchies, "by which an order
Jacques Derrida 658

is imposed on reality and by which a subtle repression is exercised, as these hierarchies exclude, subordinate, and
hide the various potential meanings."[37] Derrida refers to his procedure for uncovering and unsettling these
dichotomies as deconstruction of Western culture.
The next five years of lectures and essay-length work were gathered into two 1972 collections, Dissemination and
Margins of Philosophy, and in the same year a collection of interviews, entitled Positions, was also published.

1972–1980
Starting in 1972, Derrida produced on average more than a book per year. Derrida continued to produce important
works, such as Glas and The Post-Card: From Socrates to Freud and Beyond.
A sequence of encounters with analytical philosophy is collected in Limited, Inc. Derrida wrote "Signature Event
Context," an essay on J. L. Austin, in the early 1970s; following an aggressive critique of this text by John Searle,
Derrida wrote a long (and no less aggressive) defense of his earlier argument.
Derrida received increasing attention in the United States after 1972, where he was a regular visiting professor and
lecturer at several major American universities. In the 1980s, during the American culture wars, conservatives
started a dispute over Derrida's influence and legacy upon American intellectuals,[7] and claimed that he influenced
American literary critics and theorists more than academic philosophers.[37] [40]

Of Spirit
On 14 March 1987, Derrida presented at the CIPH conference titled "Heidegger: Open Questions" a lecture which
was published in October 1987 as Of Spirit: Heidegger and the Question. It follows the shifting role of Geist (spirit)
through Heidegger's work, noting that, in 1927, "spirit" was one of the philosophical terms that Heidegger set his
sights on dismantling. But with his Nazi political engagement in 1933, Heidegger came out as a champion of the
"German Spirit," and only withdrew from an exalting interpretation of the term in 1952. Derrida's book reconnects in
a number of respects with his long engagement of Heidegger (such as "The Ends of Man" in Margins of Philosophy
and the essays marked under the heading Geschlecht). Derrida reconsiders three other fundamental and recurring
elements of Heideggerian philosophy: the distinction between human and animal, technology, and the privilege of
questioning as the essence of philosophy.
Of Spirit is an important contribution to the long debate on Heidegger's Nazism and appeared at the same time as the
French publication of a book by a previously unknown Chilean writer, Victor Farías, who charged that Heidegger's
philosophy amounted to a wholehearted endorsement of the Nazi Sturmabteilung (SA) faction. Derrida responded to
Farías in an interview, "Heidegger, the Philosopher's Hell" and a subsequent article, "Comment donner raison? How
to Concede, with Reasons?" He called Farías a weak reader of Heidegger's thought, adding that much of the evidence
Farías and his supporters touted as new had long been known within the philosophical community.
But Of Spirit was also one of Derrida's first publications on the relationship between philosophy and nationalism, on
which he had been teaching in the mid-1980s. This strand of questions would become increasingly important in his
later work.
Jacques Derrida 659

1990s: political and ethical themes

Some have argued that Derrida's work took a "political turn" in the 1990s. Texts cited as evidence of such a turn
include Force of Law (1990), as well as Specters of Marx (1994) and Politics of Friendship (1994). Others, however,
including Derrida himself, have argued that much of the philosophical work done in his "political turn" can be dated
to earlier essays.
Those who argue Derrida engaged in an "ethical turn" refer to works such as The Gift of Death as evidence that he
began more directly applying deconstruction to the relationship between ethics and religion. In this work, Derrida
interprets passages from the Bible, particularly on Abraham and the Sacrifice of Isaac,[41] [42] and from Søren
Kierkegaard's Fear and Trembling. Derrida's contemporary readings of Emmanuel Lévinas, Walter Benjamin, Carl
Schmitt, Jan Patočka, on themes such as law, justice, responsibility, and friendship, had a significant impact on fields
beyond philosophy. Derrida delivered a eulogy at Lévinas' funeral, later published as Adieu à Emmanuel Lévinas, an
appreciation and exploration of Levinas's moral philosophy.
Derrida continued to produce readings of literature, writing extensively on Maurice Blanchot, Paul Celan, and others.

Criticisms of Derrida's work

A broad overview of the history of Derrida's reception, covering the period until the publication of Specters of Marx
(1994), is given in The Reception of Derrida: Translation and Transformation (2006). His work is criticized for his
alleged misuse of scientific terms and concepts in Higher Superstition: the academic left and its quarrels with
science (1998). Christopher Wise in his book Derrida, Africa, and the Middle East (2009) places Derrida's work in
the historical context of his North African origins, an argument first briefly made by Robert J.C. Young in White
Mythologies: Writing History and the West (1990) and extended in his Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction
(2001) where Young surveys the writings of numerous theorists and situates the whole framework of Derrida's
thinking in relation to the impact of growing up in the colonial conditions of French Algeria.

Lack of philosophical clarity

Though Derrida addressed the American Philosophical Association on several occasions and was highly regarded by
contemporary philosophers Richard Rorty, Alexander Nehamas,[43] and Stanley Cavell, his work has been regarded
by other analytic philosophers, such as John Searle and Willard Van Orman Quine, as pseudophilosophy or
sophistry. Searle, a frequent critic of Derrida dating back to their exchange on speech act theory in Limited Inc
(where Derrida strongly accused Searle of intentionally misreading and misrepresenting him), exemplified this view
in his comments on deconstruction in the New York Review of Books, 2 February 1984,[44] for example:
...anyone who reads deconstructive texts with an open mind is likely to be struck by the same phenomena that
initially surprised me: the low level of philosophical argumentation, the deliberate obscurantism of the prose,
the wildly exaggerated claims, and the constant striving to give the appearance of profundity by making claims
that seem paradoxical, but under analysis often turn out to be silly or trivial.
In 1983, Searle gossiped in the large circulation The New York Review of Books, that in a private conversation
Michel Foucault called Derrida's prose style as "terrorist obscurantism"; Searle full account, including an
unsure/grammatically incorrect French quote, was: [45] [46]
Michel Foucault once characterized Derrida's prose style to me as "obscurantisme terroriste." The text is
written so obscurely that you can't figure out exactly what the thesis is (hence "obscurantisme") and when one
criticizes it, the author says, "Vous m'avez mal compris; vous êtes idiot' (hence "terroriste")
Foucault has often been closely associated with Derrida. Some commentators have found the term 'terrorist' ironic
considering Derrida's later preoccupation with terrorism.
A controversy surrounding Derrida's work in philosophy and as a philosopher arose when the University of
Cambridge awarded him an honorary doctorate, despite opposition from some of members of its philosophy faculty
Jacques Derrida 660

and a letter of protest signed by eighteen professors from other institutions, including Willard Van Orman Quine,
David Armstrong, Ruth Barcan Marcus, and René Thom. In their letter they claimed that Derrida's work "does not
meet accepted standards of clarity and rigor" and described Derrida's philosophy as being composed of "tricks and
gimmicks similar to those of the Dadaists." The letter concluded that:
"... where coherent assertions are being made at all, these are either false or trivial. Academic status based on
what seems to us to be little more than semi-intelligible attacks upon the values of reason, truth, and
scholarship is not, we submit, sufficient grounds for the awarding of an honorary degree in a distinguished
university."[20]

Intentional obfuscation
Noam Chomsky has expressed the view that Derrida uses "pretentious rhetoric" to obscure the simplicity of his
ideas.[47] He groups Derrida within a broader category of the Parisian intellectual community which he criticized for,
in his view, acting as an élite power structure for the well-educated through "difficult writing" and obscurantism.[47]
Chomsky has indicated that he may simply be incapable of understanding Derrida, but that he doubts the
possibility.[47]
Emir Rodríguez Monegal alleged that many of Derrida's ideas were recycled from the work of Borges (from essays
and tales such as "La fruición literaria" (1928), "Elementos de preceptiva" (1933), "Pierre Menard" (1939), "Tlön"
(1940), "Kafka y sus precursores" (1951)[48] ), opening his article with:[49]
I've always found it difficult to read Derrida. Not so much for the density of his thought and the heavy,
redundant, and repetitive style in which it is developed, but for an entirely circumstantial reason. Educated in
Borges's thought from the age of fifteen, I must admit that many of Derrida's novelties struck me as being
rather tautological. I could not understand why he took so long in arriving at the same luminous perspectives
which Borges had opened up years earlier. His famed "deconstruction" impressed me for its technical
precision and the infinite seduction of its textual sleights-of-hand, but it was all too familiar to me: I had
experienced it in Borges avant la lettre.
– Emir Rodríguez Monegal, from "Borges and Derrida. Apothecaries" (translation of "Borges y Derrida:
boticarios", 1985), in Borges and His Successors. The Borgian Impact on Literature and the Arts., 1990, p.
128
Critical obituaries of Derrida were published in The New York Times,[50] The Economist[51] and The Independent.[52]
Some of these obituaries were criticised by academics supportive of Derrida; other obituaries were less critical. The
magazine The Nation responded to the NYT obituary saying that "even though American papers had scorned and
trivialized Derrida before, the tone seemed particularly caustic for an obituary of an internationally acclaimed
philosopher who had profoundly influenced two generations of American humanities scholars."[5] [7] An example of
Derrida's putatively obfuscationist style was a "murky explanation" of his philosophy in a 1993 paper he presented at
the Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law, in New York, which began: "Needless to say, one more time,
deconstruction, if there is such a thing, takes place as the experience of the impossible."
In Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity, Richard Rorty argues that Derrida (especially in his book, The Post Card:
From Socrates to Freud and Beyond) purposefully uses words that cannot be defined (e.g. Différance), and uses
previously definable words in contexts diverse enough to make understanding impossible, so that the reader will
never be able to contextualize Derrida's literary self. Rorty, however, argues that this intentional obfuscation is
philosophically grounded. In garbling his message Derrida is attempting to escape the naiive, positive metaphysical
projects of his predecessors.[53]
Jacques Derrida 661

Charges of nihilism
Some critics[54] charge that the deconstructive project is "nihilistic". They claim that Derrida's writing attempts to
undermine the ethical and intellectual norms vital to Academe, if not Western civilization itself. Derrida is accused
of effectively denying the possibility of knowledge and meaning, creating a blend of extreme skepticism and
solipsism, which these critics believe harmful.
Derrida, however, felt that deconstruction was enlivening, productive, and affirmative, and that it does not
"undermine" norms but rather places them within contexts that reveal their developmental and affective features.
Derrida often said that "his interests lie in provoking not an anti-Enlightenment but a new Enlightenment".[55] To
provoke this new Enlightenment he had to question the axioms and certainties of the Enlightenment itself.
Perhaps most persistent among these critics is Richard Wolin, who has argued that Derrida's work, as well as that of
Derrida's major inspirations (e.g., Bataille, Blanchot, Lévinas, Heidegger, Nietzsche), leads to a corrosive nihilism.
For example, Wolin argues that the "deconstructive gesture of overturning and reinscription ends up by threatening
to efface many of the essential differences between Nazism and non-Nazism".[56] When Wolin published a Derrida
interview on Heidegger in the first edition of The Heidegger Controversy, Derrida argued that the interview was an
intentionally malicious mistranslation, which was "demonstrably execrable" and "weak, simplistic, and compulsively
aggressive". As French law requires the consent of an author to translations and this consent was not given, Derrida
insisted that the interview not appear in any subsequent editions or reprints. Columbia University Press subsequently
refused to offer reprints or new editions. Later editions of The Heidegger Controversy by MIT Press also omitted the
Derrida interview. The matter achieved public exposure owing to a friendly review of Wolin's book by Thomas
Sheehan that appeared in the New York Review of Books, in which Sheehan characterised Derrida's protests as an
imposition of censorship. It was followed by an exchange of letters.[57] Derrida in turn responded, in somewhat
acerbic fashion, to Sheehan and Wolin, in "The Work of Intellectuals and the Press (The Bad Example: How the
New York Review of Books and Company do Business)," which was published in the book Points... (1995; see the
footnote about ISBN 0-226-14314-7, here) (see also the [1992] French Version Points de suspension: entretiens
(ISBN 0-8047-2488-1) there).
Twentyfour academics, belonging from the most different schools and groups and are oftern in disagreement with
each other and with deconstruction, signed a letter addressed to the New York Review of Books, in which they
expressed their indignation for the magazine behaviour and the behaviour of Sheenan and Wolin.[58]

Politics
Derrida engaged with many political issues, movements, and debates:
• He was initially supportive of Parisian student protesters during the May 1968 protests, but later withdrew.
• He registered his objections to the Vietnam War in delivering "The Ends of Man" in the United States.
• In 1981 Derrida, on the prompting of Roger Scruton and others, founded the French Jan Hus association with
structuralist historian Jean-Pierre Vernant. Its purpose was to aid dissident or persecuted Czech intellectuals.
Derrida became vice-president.[59]
• In late 1981 he was arrested by the Czechoslovakian government upon leaving a conference in Prague that lacked
government authorization, and charged with the "production and trafficking of drugs", which he claimed were
planted as he visited Kafka's grave. He was released (or "expelled" as the Czechoslovakian government put it)
after the interventions of the Mitterrand government, and the assistance of Michel Foucault, returning to Paris on
1 January 1982.[60]
• He was active in cultural activities against the Apartheid government of South Africa and on behalf of Nelson
Mandela beginning in 1983.
• He met with Palestinian intellectuals during a 1988 visit to Jerusalem. He was active in the collective "89 for
equality", which campaigned for the right of foreigners to vote in local elections.
Jacques Derrida 662

• He protested against the death penalty, dedicating his seminar in his last years to the production of a
non-utilitarian argument for its abolition, and was active in the campaign to free Mumia Abu-Jamal.
• Derrida was not known to have participated in any conventional electoral political party until 1995, when he
joined a committee in support of Lionel Jospin's Socialist candidacy, although he expressed misgivings about
such organizations going back to Communist organizational efforts while he was a student at ENS.
• In the 2002 French presidential election he refused to vote in the run-off between far right leader Jean-Marie Le
Pen and Jacques Chirac, citing a lack of acceptable choices.
• While supportive of the American government in the wake of the terrorist attacks of 9/11, he opposed the 2003
invasion of Iraq (see Rogues and his contribution to Philosophy in a Time of Terror with Giovanna Borradori and
Jürgen Habermas).
Beyond these explicit political interventions, however, Derrida was engaged in rethinking politics and the political
itself, within and beyond philosophy. Derrida insisted that a distinct political undertone had pervaded his texts from
the very beginning of his career. Nevertheless, the attempt to understand the political implications of notions of
responsibility, reason of state, the other, decision, sovereignty, Europe, friendship, difference, faith, and so on,
became much more marked from the early 1990s on. By 2000, theorizing "democracy to come," and thinking the
limitations of existing democracies, had become important concerns.

Influences on Derrida
Although Derrida has sometimes been characterized has belonging to a certain Continental philosophy tradition, as
opposed to its ancestral antagonist the Analytic philosophy tradition, during the Derrida-Searle dispute he wrote:[1]
I sometimes felt, paradoxically, closer to Austin [prominent analytic philosopher] than to a certain
Continental tradition from which Searle, on the contrary, has inherited numerous gestures and a logic I
try to deconstruct. I now have to add this: it is often because "Searle" ignores this tradition or pretends to
take no account of it that he rests blindly imprisoned in it, repeating its most problematic gestures,
falling short of the most elementary critical questions , not to mention the deconstructive ones. It is
because in appearance at least "I" am more of a historian that "I" am a less passive, more attentive and
more "deconstructive" heir of that so-called tradition. And hence, perhaps again paradoxically, more
foreign to that tradition. I put quotation marks around "Searle" and "I" to mark that beyond these
indexes, I am aiming at tendencies, types, styles, or situations rather than at persons.
Other influences upon Derrida are Plato, Søren Kierkegaard, Alexandre Kojève, Maurice Blanchot, Antonin Artaud,
Martin Heidegger, Roland Barthes, Georges Bataille, Edmund Husserl, Emmanuel Lévinas, Friedrich Nietzsche,
Ferdinand de Saussure, Sigmund Freud, Karl Marx, Claude Lévi-Strauss, James Joyce, Stéphane Mallarmé and J.L.
Austin[1] [2] .

Derrida and his peers

Derrida's philosophical friends, allies, and students included Paul de Man, Jean-François Lyotard, Michel Foucault,
Louis Althusser, Emmanuel Levinas, Maurice Blanchot, Gilles Deleuze, Jean-Luc Nancy, Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe,
Sarah Kofman, Hélène Cixous, Bernard Stiegler, Alexander García Düttmann, Joseph Cohen, Geoffrey Bennington,
Jean-Luc Marion, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Raphael Zagury-Orly, Jacques Ehrmann, Avital Ronell, Samuel
Weber, and Simon Critchley.
Jacques Derrida 663

Nancy and Lacoue-Labarthe

Jean-Luc Nancy and Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe were among Derrida's first students in France and went on to become
well-known and important philosophers in their own right. Despite their considerable differences of subject, and
often also of method, they continued their close interaction with each other and with Derrida, from the early 1970s.
Derrida wrote on both of them, including a long book on Nancy: Le Toucher, Jean-Luc Nancy (On
Touching—Jean-Luc Nancy, 2005).

Paul de Man
Derrida's most prominent friendship in intellectual life was with Paul de Man, which began with their meeting at
Johns Hopkins University and continued until de Man's death in 1983. De Man provided a somewhat different
approach to deconstruction, and his readings of literary and philosophical texts were crucial in the training of a
generation of readers.
Shortly after de Man's death, Derrida authored a book Memoires: pour Paul de Man and in 1988 wrote an article in
the journal Critical Inquiry called "Like the Sound of the Sea Deep Within a Shell: Paul de Man's War". The memoir
became cause for controversy, because shortly before Derrida published his piece, it had been discovered by the
Belgian literary critic Ortwin de Graef that long before his academic career in the US, de Man had written almost
two hundred essays in a pro-Nazi newspaper during the German occupation of Belgium, including several that were
explicitly antisemitic.
Derrida complicated the notion that it is possible to simply read de Man's later scholarship through the prism of these
earlier political essays. Rather, any claims about de Man's work should be understood in relation to the entire body of
his scholarship. Critics of Derrida have argued that he minimizes the antisemitic character of de Man's writing. Some
critics have found Derrida's treatment of this issue surprising, given that, for example, Derrida also spoke out against
antisemitism and, in the 1960s, broke with the Heidegger disciple Jean Beaufret over a phrase of Beaufret's that
Derrida (and, after him, Maurice Blanchot) interpreted as antisemitic.

Derrida's translators
Geoffrey Bennington, Avital Ronell and Samuel Weber belong to a group of Derrida translators. Many of these are
esteemed thinkers in their own right, with whom Derrida worked in a collaborative arrangement, allowing his
prolific output to be translated into English in a timely fashion.
Having started as a student of de Man, Gayatri Spivak took on the translation of Of Grammatology early in her
career and has since revised it into a second edition. Alan Bass was responsible for several early translations;
Bennington and Peggy Kamuf have continued to produce translations of his work for nearly twenty years. In recent
years, a number of translations have appeared by Michael Naas (also a Derrida scholar) and Pascale-Anne Brault.
Bennington, Brault, Kamuf, Naas, Elizabeth Rottenberg, and David Wills are currently engaged in translating
Derrida's previously unpublished seminars, which span from 1959 to 2003.[61] The Beast and the Sovereign, Volume
I, which presents Derrida's seminar from 2001 to 2002, has appeared in English translation; further volumes
currently projected for the series include The Beast and the Sovereign, Volume II (2002–2003), Death Penalty,
Volume I (1999–2000), Death Penalty, Volume II (2000–2001), Perjury and Pardon, Volume I (1997–1998), and
Perjury and Pardon, Volume II (1998–1999).[62]
With Bennington, Derrida undertook the challenge published as Jacques Derrida, an arrangement in which
Bennington attempted to provide a systematic explication of Derrida's work (called the "Derridabase") using the top
two-thirds of every page, while Derrida was given the finished copy of every Bennington chapter and the bottom
third of every page in which to show how deconstruction exceeded Bennington's account (this was called the
"Circumfession"). Derrida seems to have viewed Bennington in particular as a kind of rabbinical explicator, noting at
the end of the "Applied Derrida" conference, held at the University of Luton in 1995 that: "everything has been said
Jacques Derrida 664

and, as usual, Geoff Bennington has said everything before I have even opened my mouth. I have the challenge of
trying to be unpredictable after him, which is impossible... so I'll try to pretend to be unpredictable after Geoff. Once
again."[63]

Relationships and mourning

Derrida's relationship with many of his contemporaries was marked by disagreements and rifts. For example,
Derrida's criticism of Foucault in the essay "Cogito and the History of Madness" (from Writing and Difference), first
given as a lecture which Foucault attended, caused a rift between the two men that was never fully mended.[64] In an
appendix added to the 1972 edition of his History of Madness, Foucault disputed Derrida's interpretation of his work,
and accused Derrida of practicing "a historically well-determined little pedagogy [...] which teaches the student that
there is nothing outside the text [...]. A pedagogy which inversely gives to the voice of the masters that infinite
sovereignty that allows it indefinitely to re-say the text."[65] Others, like Emmanuel Levinas and Maurice Blanchot,
found in his critical engagement with their work an invitation for further discussion.
Whatever the outcome of these discussions, Derrida was often left in the unappealing position of too often having the
opportunity for the last word, as he outlived many of his peers. Death and mourning are foundational to the analysis
which led Derrida to his understanding of inheritance, interpretation, and responsibility. Beginning with "The Deaths
of Roland Barthes" in 1981, Derrida produced a series of texts on mourning and memory occasioned by the loss of
his friends and colleagues, many of them new engagements with their work. Memoires for Paul de Man, a
book-length lecture series presented first at Yale and then at Irvine as Derrida's Wellek Lecture, followed in 1986,
with a revision in 1989 that included "Like the Sound of the Sea Deep Within a Shell: Paul de Man's War".
Ultimately fourteen essays were collected into The Work of Mourning, which was expanded in the French edition
Chaque fois unique, la fin du monde (literally, The end of the world, unique each time) to include essays dedicated to
Gérard Granel and Maurice Blanchot.

See also
• Deconstruction-and-religion
• Différance
• List of thinkers influenced by deconstruction
• Sous rature
• Stanley Rosen

References (works cited)

• Derrida (1967) interview with Henri Ronse, republished in Positions (English edition by Chicago & London:
University of Chicago Press, 1981).
• Derrida (1971) interview with Guy Scarpetta, republished in Positions (English edition by Chicago & London:
University of Chicago Press, 1981).
• Derrida (1988) Afterword: Toward An Ethic of Discussion, published in the English translation of Limited Inc.
• Derrida (1990) Once Again from the Top: Of the Right to Philospphy, interview with Robert Maggiori for
Libération, November 15, 1990, republished in Points (1995).
• Derrida (1992) Derrida's interview in The Cambridge Review 113, October 1992. Reprinted in Points...:
Interviews, 1974-1994 Stanford University Press (1995) and retitled as Honoris Causa: "This is also extremely
funny," pp. 399–421. Excerpt [66].
• Mackey (1984) with a reply by Searle. An Exchange on Deconstruction [67], in New York Review of Books, 2
February 1984
• Searle (1983) The Word Turned Upside Down [68], in The New York Review of Books October 1983
Jacques Derrida 665

• Searle (2000) Reality Principles: An Interview with John R. Searle [69] Reason.com February 2000 issue, accessed
online on 30-08-2010

Further reading - Bibliography

Selected translations of works by Derrida

• “Speech and Phenomena” and Other Essays on Husserl’s Theory of Signs, trans. David B. Allison (Evanston:
Northwestern University Press, 1973).
• Of Grammatology, trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (Baltimore & London: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1976) (hardcover: ISBN 0-8018-1841-9, paperback: ISBN 0-8018-1879-6, corrected edition: ISBN
0-8018-5830-5).[70]
• Writing and Difference, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978) ISBN 978-0-226-14329-3.
• Spurs: Nietzsche's Styles, trans. Barbara Harlow (Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press, 1979, ISBN
978-0-226-14333-0).
• The Archeology of the Frivolous: Reading Condillac, trans. John P. Leavey, Jr. (Lincoln & London: University of
Nebraska Press, 1980).
• Dissemination, trans. Barbara Johnson (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981, ISBN 978-0-226-14334-7).
• Positions, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981, ISBN 978-0-226-14331-6) [Paris,
Minuit, 1972].
• Margins of Philosophy, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1982, ISBN 978-0-226-14326-2).
• Signsponge, trans. Richard Rand (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984).
• The Ear of the Other, trans. Peggy Kamuf (Lincoln & London: University of Nebraska Press, 1985).
• Glas, trans. John P. Leavey, Jr. & Richard Rand (Lincoln & London: University of Nebraska Press, 1986).
• Memoires for Paul de Man (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986; revised edn., 1989).
• The Post Card: From Socrates to Freud and Beyond, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago & London: University of
Chicago Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-226-14322-4).
• The Truth in Painting, trans. Geoffrey Bennington & Ian McLeod (Chicago & London: Chicago University Press,
1987, ISBN 978-0-226-14324-8).
• Limited Inc (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1988).
• Edmund Husserl's Origin of Geometry: An Introduction, trans. John P. Leavey, Jr. (Lincoln & London: University
of Nebraska Press, 1989).
• Of Spirit: Heidegger and the Question, trans. Geoffrey Bennington & Rachel Bowlby (Chicago & London:
University of Chicago Press, 1989, ISBN 978-0-226-14319-4).
• Cinders, trans. Ned Lukacher (Lincoln & London: University of Nebraska Press, 1991).
• Acts of Literature (New York & London: Routledge, 1992).
• Given Time: I. Counterfeit Money, trans. Peggy Kamuf (Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press, 1992,
ISBN 978-0-226-14314-9).
• The Other Heading: Reflections on Today's Europe, trans. Pascale-Anne Brault & Michael B. Naas (Bloomington
& Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1992).
• Aporias, trans. Thomas Dutoit (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).
• Jacques Derrida, co-author & trans. Geoffrey Bennington (Chicago & London: Chicago University Press, 1993,
ISBN 978-0-226-04262-6).
• Memoirs of the Blind: The Self-Portrait and Other Ruins, trans. Pascale-Anne Brault & Michael Naas (Chicago &
London: University of Chicago Press, 1993, ISBN 978-0-226-14308-8).
• Specters of Marx: The State of the Debt, the Work of Mourning, and the New International, trans. Peggy Kamuf
(New York & London: Routledge, 1994).
Jacques Derrida 666

• Archive Fever: A Freudian Impression, trans. Eric Prenowitz (Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press,
1995, ISBN 978-0-226-14367-5).
• The Gift of Death, trans. David Wills (Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press, 1995, ISBN
978-0-226-14306-4 ).
• On the Name, trans. David Wood, John P. Leavey, Jr., & Ian McLeod (Stanford: Stanford University Press,
1995).
• Points...: Interviews 1974-1994, trans. Peggy Kamuf and others, (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995) (see
also the footnote about ISBN 0-226-14314-7, here) (see also the [1992] French Version Points de suspension:
entretiens (ISBN 0-8047-2488-1) there).
• Chora L Works, with Peter Eisenman (New York: Monacelli, 1997).
• Politics of Friendship, trans. George Collins (London & New York: Verso, 1997).
• Monolingualism of the Other; or, The Prosthesis of Origin, trans. Patrick Mensah (Stanford: Stanford University
Press, 1998).
• Resistances of Psychoanalysis, trans. Peggy Kamuf, Pascale-Anne Brault and Michael Naas (Stanford: Stanford
University Press, 1998).
• The Secret Art of Antonin Artaud, with Paule Thévenin, trans. Mary Ann Caws (Cambridge, Mass., & London:
MIT Press, 1998).
• Adieu: To Emmanuel Levinas, trans. Pascale-Anne Brault & Michael Naas (Stanford: Stanford University Press,
1999).
• Rights of Inspection, trans. David Wills (New York: Monacelli, 1999).
• Demeure: Fiction and Testimony, with Maurice Blanchot, The Instant of My Death, trans. Elizabeth Rottenberg
(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000).
• Of Hospitality, trans. Rachel Bowlby (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000).
• Deconstruction Engaged: The Sydney Seminars (Sydney: Power Publications, 2001).
• On Cosmopolitanism and Forgiveness, trans. Mark Dooley & Michael Hughes (London & New York: Routledge,
2001).
• A Taste for the Secret, with Maurizio Ferraris, trans. Giacomo Donis (Cambridge: Polity, 2001).
• The Work of Mourning, trans. Pascale-Anne Brault & Michael Naas (Chicago & London: Chicago University
Press, 2001, ISBN 978-0-226-14281-4).
• Acts of Religion (New York & London: Routledge, 2002).
• Echographies of Television: Filmed Interviews, with Bernard Stiegler, trans. Jennifer Bajorek (Cambridge: Polity,
2002).
• Ethics, Institutions, and the Right to Philosophy, trans Peter Pericles Trifonas (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield,
2002).
• Negotiations: Interventions and Interviews, 1971–2001, trans. Elizabeth Rottenberg (Stanford: Stanford
University Press, 2002).
• Who's Afraid of Philosophy?: Right to Philosophy 1, trans. Jan Plug (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002).
• Without Alibi, trans. Peggy Kamuf (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002).
• Philosophy in a Time of Terror: Dialogues with Jürgen Habermas and Jacques Derrida, with Jürgen Habermas
(Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0-226-06666-0).
• The Problem of Genesis in Husserl's Philosophy, trans. Marian Hobson (Chicago & London: Chicago University
Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0-226-14315-6).
• Counterpath, with Catherine Malabou, trans. David Wills (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004).
• Eyes of the University: Right to Philosophy 2, trans. Jan Plug (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004).
• For What Tomorrow...: A Dialogue, with Elisabeth Roudinesco, trans. Jeff Fort (Stanford: Stanford University
Press, 2004).
Jacques Derrida 667

• Rogues: Two Essays on Reason, trans. Pascale-Anne Brault & Michael Naas (Stanford: Stanford University Press,
2004).
• On Touching—Jean-Luc Nancy, trans. Christine Irizarry (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005).
• Paper Machine, trans. Rachel Bowlby (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005).
• Sovereignties in Question: The Poetics of Paul Celan, trans. Thomas Dutoit (New York: Fordham University
Press, 2005).
• H. C. for Life: That Is to Say..., trans. Laurent Milesi & Stefan Herbrechter (Stanford: Stanford University Press,
2006).
• Geneses, Genealogies, Genres, And Genius: The Secrets of the Archive, trans. Beverly Bie Brahic (New York:
Columbia University Press, 2006).
• Learning to Live Finally: The Last Interview, with Jean Birnbaum, trans. Pascale-Anne Brault & Michael Naas
(Melville House, 2007).
• Psyche: Inventions of the Other, Volume I (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007).
• Psyche: Inventions of the Other, Volume II (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2008).
• The Animal That Therefore I Am, trans. David Wills (New York: Fordham University Press, 2008).
• The Beast and the Sovereign, Volume I, trans. Geoffrey Bennington (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009,
ISBN 978-0-226-14428-3).
• Copy, Archive, Signature: A Conversation on Photography, ed. and trans. Gerhard Richter (Stanford: Stanford
University Press, 2010).
• Athens, Still Remains: The Photographs of Jean-François Bonhomme, trans. Michael Naas (New York: Fordham
University Press, 2010), forthcoming.

Works on Derrida
Introductory works
• Culler, Jonathan (1975) Structuralist Poetics.
• Culler, Jonathan (1983) On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism.
• Descombes, Vincent (1980) Modern French Philosophy.
• Deutscher, Penelope (2006) How to Read Derrida (ISBN 978-0-393-32879-0).
• Jameson, Fredric (1972) The Prison-House of Language.
• Leitch, Vincent B. (1983) Deconstructive Criticism: An Advanced Introduction.
• Lentricchia, Frank (1980) After the New Criticism.
• Norris, Christopher (1982) Deconstruction: Theory and Practice.
• Thomas, Michael (2006) The Reception of Derrida: Translation and Transformation.
• Wise, Christopher (2009) Derrida, Africa, and the Middle East.
Other works
• Agamben, Giorgio. "Pardes: The Writing of Potentiality," in Giorgio Agamben, Potentialities: Collected Essays
in Philosophy, ed. and trans. Daniel Heller-Roazen, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2005. 205-19.
• Beardsworth, Richard, Derrida and the Political (ISBN 0-415-10967-1).
• Bennington, Geoffrey, Legislations (ISBN 0-86091-668-5).
• Bennington, Geoffrey, Interrupting Derrida (ISBN 0-415-22427-6).
• Caputo, John D., The Prayers and Tears of Jacques Derrida.
• Caputo, John D. (ed.) Deconstruction in a Nutshell: A Conversation with Jacques Derrida.
• Coward, H.G. (ed) Derrida and Negative theology, SUNY 1992. ISBN 0-7914-0964-3
• de Man, Paul, "The Rhetoric of Blindness: Jacques Derrida's Reading of Rousseau," in Paul de Man, Blindness
and Insight: Essays in the Rhetoric of Contemporary Criticism, second edition, Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press, 1983. 102-41.
Jacques Derrida 668

• Foucault, Michel, "My Body, This Paper, This Fire," in Michel Foucault, History of Madness, ed. Jean Khalfa,
trans. Jonathan Murphy and Jean Khalfa, London: Routledge, 2006. 550-74.
• Gasché, Rodolphe, Inventions of Difference: On Jacques Derrida.
• Gasché, Rodolphe, The Tain of the Mirror.
• Habermas, Jürgen, "Beyond a Temporalized Philosophy of Origins: Jacques Derrida's Critique of
Phonocentrism," in Jürgen Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures, trans.
Frederick G. Lawrence, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990. 161-84.
• Magliola, Robert, Derrida on the Mend, Lafayette: Purdue UP, 1984; 1986; rpt. 2000 (ISBN 0-911198-69-5).
(Initiated what has become a very active area of study in Buddhology and comparative philosophy, the
comparison of Derridean deconstruction and Buddhist philosophy, especially Madhyamikan and Zen Buddhist
philosophy.)
• Magliola, Robert, On Deconstructing Life-Worlds: Buddhism, Christianity, Culture, Atlanta: Scholars P,
American Academy of Religion, 1997; Oxford: Oxford UP, 2000 (ISBN 0-7885-0296-4). (Further develops
comparison of Derridean thought and Buddhism.)
• Marder, Michael, The Event of the Thing: Derrida's Post-Deconstructive Realism [71], Toronto: Toronto UP,
2009. (ISBN 0-8020-9892-4)
• Miller, J. Hillis, For Derrida, New York: Fordham University Press, 2009.
• Mouffe, Chantal (ed.), Deconstruction and Pragmatism, with essays by Simon Critchley, Ernesto Laclau, Richard
Rorty, and Derrida.
• Norris, Christopher, Derrida (ISBN 0-674-19823-9).
• Park, Jin Y., ed., Buddhisms and Deconstructions, Lanham: Rowland and Littlefield, 2006 (ISBN
978-0-7425-3418-6; ISBN 0-7425-3418-9). (Several of the collected papers specifically treat Derrida and
Buddhist thought.)
• Rapaport, Herman, Later Derrida (ISBN 0-415-94269-1).
• Rorty, Richard, "From Ironist Theory to Private Allusions: Derrida," in Richard Rorty, Contingency, Irony, and
Solidarity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. 121-37.
• Roudinesco, Elisabeth, Philosophy in Turbulent Times: Canguilhem, Sartre, Foucault, Althusser, Deleuze,
Derrida, Columbia University Press, New York, 2008.
• Sallis, John (ed.), Deconstruction and Philosophy, with essays by Rodolphe Gasché, John D. Caputo, Robert
Bernasconi, David Wood, and Derrida.
• Sallis, John (2009). The Verge of Philosophy. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226734316.
• Smith, James K. A., Jacques Derrida: Live Theory.
• Sprinker, Michael, ed. Ghostly Demarcations: A Symposium on Jacques Derrida's Specters of Marx, London and
New York: Verso, 1999; rpt. 2008. (Includes Derrida's reply, "Marx & Sons.")
• Stiegler, Bernard, "Derrida and Technology: Fidelity at the Limits of Deconstruction and the Prosthesis of Faith,"
in Tom Cohen (ed.), Jacques Derrida and the Humanities (ISBN 0-521-62565-3).
• Wood, David (ed.), Derrida: A Critical Reader.
Jacques Derrida 669

External links

Archival collections
• Guide to the Jacques Derrida Papers. [72] Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine,
California.
• Guide to the Saffa Fathy Video Recordings of Jacques Derrida Lectures. [73] Special Collections and Archives,
The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.

Online texts and excerpts

• Excerpt from Of Grammatology [70]
• Excerpt from Archive Fever [74]
• "Speech and writing according to Hegel" [75]
• Excerpt from "Spectres of Marx" [76]
• Excerpt from "Différance" [77]
• "Letter to a Japanese Friend" [78]
• "Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences" [79]
• Excerpt from "Signature, Event, Context" [80]
• Excerpt from "Plato's Pharmacy" [81]
• Excerpt from "Psyche" [82]
[83]
• (French) La Différance
[84]
• (French) Signature, Événement, Context
[85]
• (French) Béliers
[86]
• (French) Fichus

Interviews
• "9/11 and Global Terrorism: A Dialogue with Jacques Derrida," excerpt from Philosophy in a Time of Terror —
Dialogues with Jürgen Habermas and Jacques Derrida by Giovanna Borradori [87]
• "Excuse me, but I never said exactly so" [88]
• Interview with Nikhil Padgaonkar [89]
• Interview with Michael Ben-Naftali, Shoah Resource Center [90]
• (French) Interview with Jean Birnbaum [91]
• (French) Interview with Didier Éribon [92]
• (French) Interview with Jean-Luc Nancy [93]
• (French) Derrida: Artaud et ses doubles. Interview with Jean-Michel Olivier [94]
• (French) Interview with Robert Maggiori [95]
Jacques Derrida 670

About
• Derrida's Garden [96] by Eleanor Morgan in Fillip
• Jacques Derrida [97] Faculty profile at European Graduate School Biography, bibliography, photos and video
lectures
• Entry by Leonard Lawlor in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy [98]
• Entry by Jack Reynolds in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy [99]
• All Derrida in French and Spanish [100]
• Passings: Taking Derrida Seriously [101]
• Jacques Derrida, Stanford Presidential Lectures in the Humanities and Arts [102]
• Jacques Derrida, Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory [103]
• Jacques Derrida as a Philosopher of Education, Encyclopaedia of Philosophy of Education [104]
• Jacques Derrida on Rhetoric and Composition: A Conversation, JAC [105]
• Derrida's Specters of Marx and The Recognition of Pointless Identity [106]
• Site Jacques Derrida in French [107]
• Nietzsche y Jacques Derrida, la voluntad de ilusión y la metafora blanca, by Adolfo Vasquez Rocca [108]
• Derrida and Dua by Ali Altaf Mian [109]
• German Law Journal Special Issue on Jacques Derrida [110]
• Blair, Jonathan. "Context, Event, Politics: Recovering the Political in the Work of Jacques Derrida " [111]. TELOS
141 (Winter 2007). New York: Telos Press [112]
• "Derrida the DVD [113]," by Said Shirazi

Media
• New York University. New York Remembers Derrida [114] New York University. Video. January 21, 2005
• Mitchell Stephens. Deconstructing Jacques Derrida [115] Los Angeles Times Magazine. July 21, 1991
• Mitchell Stephens. Jacques Derrida and Deconstruction [116] New York Times Magazine. January 23, 1994
• Facsimile of Theodor W. Adorno Prize for Prof. Dr. Jacques Derrida. [117] Frankfurt am Main (Germany),
September 22, 2001
• Jacques Derrida in Memoriam [118]
• Carole Dely. Jacques Derrida : The perchance of a Coming of the Otherwoman. The Deconstruction of
Phallogocentrism from Duel to Duo [119] Sens Public International Web Journal (tr. Wilson Baldridge) 2006
• Alexandra de Hoop Scheffer. Philosophy in a Time of Terror : Dialogues with Jürgen Habermas and Jacques
Derrida [120] Sens Public International Web Journal. 2007
• Scritti Politti A song on the album Songs to Remember August 1982

References
[1] Derrida (1988) Afterword, pp.130-1
[2] Krantz, Susan What’s the Real Difference between Analytic and Continental Philosophy? (http:/ / www. anselmphilosophy. com/ read/
?p=261)
[3] Jacques Derrida Dies; Deconstructionist Philosopher (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ articles/ A21050-2004Oct9. html),
accessed 2 August 2007.
[4] Lawrence Kritzman (ed.) The Columbia History of Twentieth-Century French Thought (New York: Columbia, 2006), p. 92-93; Vincent B.
Leitch Postmodernism: Local Effects, Global Flows, SUNY Series in Postmodern Culture (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,
1996), p .27.
[5] Jonathan Culler (2008) Why deconstruction still matters: A conversation with Jonathan Culler (http:/ / www. news. cornell. edu/ stories/
Jan08/ JonathanCuller. html), interviewed by Paul Sawyer for The Cornell Chronicle, Jan. 24, 2008
[6] Lawrence Kritzman (ed.) The Columbia History of Twentieth-Century French Thought (New York: Columbia, 2006), p. 500.
[7] Ross Benjamin Hostile Obituary for Derrida (http:/ / www. thenation. com/ doc/ 20041213/ benjamin), The Nation, November 24, 2004
[8] "Derrida, Jacques" (http:/ / www. iep. utm. edu/ derrida/ ). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 12 January 2010. Accessed 11 August 2010.
Jacques Derrida 671

[9] Jonathan Kandell, " Jacques Derrida, Abstruse Theorist, Dies at 74," (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2004/ 10/ 10/ obituaries/ 10derrida.
html?pagewanted=1& _r=1) The New York Times, October 10, 2004
[10] Derrida. Dir. Kirby Dick and Amy Ziering Kofman. Zeitgeist Films, 2002.
[11] "Jacques Derrida" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ derrida/ ). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 22 November 2006. Accessed 11
August 2010.
[12] Derrida (1992) Cambridge Review, pp. 409-413
[13] "I took part in the extraordinary transformation of the Algerian Jews; my great-grandparents were by language, custom, etc., still identified
with Arabic culture. After the Cremieux Decree (1870), at the end of the 19th c., the following generation became bourgeois", Jacques
Derrida The Last Interview (http:/ / www. studiovisit. net/ SV. Derrida. pdf), may 2003
[14] Geoffrey Bennington, Jacques Derrida, University of Chicago Press, 1999
[15] "Safar surname : occupational name from Arabic saffar which means worker in copper or brass", The Safar surname (http:/ / www.
ancestry. com/ facts/ Safar-family-history-uk. ashx)"
[16] Obituary in The Guardian (http:/ / books. guardian. co. uk/ obituaries/ story/ 0,11617,1324460,00. html), accessed 2 August 2007.
[17] http:/ / hydra. humanities. uci. edu/ derrida/ sign-play. html
[18] "The Chronicle of Higher Education", 20 July 2007 (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071109090936/ http:/ / today. uci. edu/ news/
uciinthenews_070716. asp), accessed 1 August 2007.
[19] J.E. D'Ulisse Derrida (1930-2004) (http:/ / www. newpartisan. com/ home/ derrida-1930-2004. html), New Partisan 12.24.2004 Quote:
"Academic conservatives attack Derrida for his position on objectivity ... W.V.O. Quine ... his status as a good Republican"
[20] Barry Smith et al. Open letter against Derrida receiving an honorary doctorate from Cambridge University (http:/ / courses. nus. edu. sg/
course/ elljwp/ againstdsdegree. htm) , The Times (London), Saturday 9 May 1992
[21] John Rawlings (1999) Presidential Lectures: Jacques Derrida: Introduction (http:/ / prelectur. stanford. edu/ lecturers/ derrida/ ) at Stanford
University
[22] Derrida (1990) Once Again from the Top, p.332
[23] Deconstruction icon Derrida dies (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ europe/ 3729844. stm), accessed 2 August 2007.
[24] Derrida (1988) Afterword, p.147
[25] Jacques Derrida, "'Genesis' and 'Structure' and Phenomenology," in Writing and Difference (London: Routledge, 1978), paper originally
delivered in 1959 at Cerisy-la-Salle, and originally published in Gandillac, Goldmann & Piaget (eds.), Genèse et structure (The Hague:
Morton, 1964), p. 167:

All these formulations have been possible thanks to the initial distinction between different irreducible types of
genesis and structure: worldly genesis and transcendental genesis, empirical structure, eidetic structure, and
transcendental structure. To ask oneself the following historico-semantic question: "What does the notion of
genesis in general, on whose basis the Husserlian diffraction could come forth and be understood, mean, and
what has it always meant? What does the notion of structure in general, on whose basis Husserl operates and
operates distinctions between empirical, eidetic, and transcendental dimensions mean, and what has it always
meant throughout its displacements? And what is the historico-semantic relationship between genesis and
structure in general?" is not only simply to ask a prior linguistic question. It is to ask the question about the
unity of the historical ground on whose basis a transcendental reduction is possible and is motivated by itself.
It is to ask the question about the unity of the world from which transcendental freedom releases itself, in order
to make the origin of this unity appear.
[26] If in 1959 Derrida was addressing this question of genesis and structure to Husserl, that is, to phenomenology, then in "Structure, Sign, and
Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences" (also in Writing and Difference, and see below), he addresses these same questions to
Lévi-Strauss and the structuralists. This is clear from the very first line of the paper (p. 278):

Perhaps something has occurred in the history of the concept of structure that could be called an "event," if this
loaded word did not entail a meaning which it is precisely the function of structural—or structuralist—thought
to reduce or to suspect.
Between these two papers is staked Derrida's philosophical ground, if not indeed his step beyond or outside
philosophy.
[27] Derrida (1971), Scarpetta interview, quote from pp.77-8:

If the alterity of the other is posed, that is, only posed, does it not amount to the same, for example in the form
of the "constituted object" or of the "informed product" invested with meaning, etc.? From this point of view, I
would even say that the alterity of the other inscribes in this relationship that which in no case can be "posed."
Inscription, as I would define it in this respect, is not a simple position: it is rather that by means of which
every position is of itself confounded (différance): inscription, mark, text and not only thesis or
Jacques Derrida 672

theme-inscription of the thesis.

On the phrase "default of origin" as applied to Derrida's work, cf., Bernard Stiegler, "Derrida and Technology:
Fidelity at the Limits of Deconstruction and the Prosthesis of Faith," in Tom Cohen (ed.) Jacques Derrida and the
Humanities (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001). Stiegler understands Derrida's thinking of
textuality and inscription in terms of a thinking of originary technicity, and in this context speaks of "the originary
default of origin that arche-writing constitutes" (p. 239). See also Stiegler, Technics and Time, 1: The Fault of
Epimetheus (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998).
[28] It is opposed to the concept of original purity, which destabilises the thought of both "genesis" and "structure", cf., Rodolphe Gasché, The
Tain of the Mirror (Cambridge, Massachusetts, & London: Harvard University Press, 1986), p. 146:

It is an opening that is structural, or the structurality of an opening. Yet each of these concepts excludes the
other. It is thus as little a structure as it is an opening; it is as little static as it is genetic, as little structural as it
is historical. It can be understood neither from a genetic nor from a structuralist and taxonomic point of view,
nor from a combination of both points of view.
And note that this complexity of the origin is thus not only spatial but temporal, which is why différance is a matter
not only of difference but of delay or deferral. One way in which this question is raised in relation to Husserl is thus
the question of the possibility of a phenomenology of history, which Derrida raises in Edmund Husserl's Origin of
Geometry: An Introduction (1962).
[29] Cf., Rodolphe Gasché, "Infrastructures and Systematicity," in John Sallis (ed.), Deconstruction and Philosophy (Chicago & London:
University of Chicago Press, 1987), pp. 3–4:

One of the more persistent misunderstandings that has thus far forestalled a productive debate with Derrida's
philosophical thought is the assumption, shared by many philosophers as well as literary critics, that within
that thought just anything is possible. Derrida's philosophy is more often than not construed as a license for
arbitrary free play in flagrant disregard of all established rules of argumentation, traditional requirements of
thought, and ethical standards binding upon the interpretative community. Undoubtedly, some of the works of
Derrida may not have been entirely innocent in this respect, and may have contributed, however obliquely, to
fostering to some extent that very misconception. But deconstruction which for many has come to designate
the content and style of Derrida's thinking, reveals to even a superficial examination, a well-ordered procedure,
a step-by-step type of argumentation based on an acute awareness of level-distinctions, a marked thoroughness
and regularity. [...] Deconstruction must be understood, we contend, as the attempt to "account," in a certain
manner, for a heterogeneous variety or manifold of nonlogical contradictions and discursive equalities of all
sorts that continues to haunt and fissure even the successful development of philosophical arguments and their
systematic exposition.
[30] The dissertation was eventually published in 1990 with the title Le problème de la genèse dans la philosophie de Husserl. English
translation: The Problem of Genesis in Husserl's Philosophy (2003).
[31] Derrida (1967) interview with Henri Ronse, p.5
[32] Derrida (1967) interview with Henri Ronse, pp.4-5 quote: "[Speech and Phenomena] is perhaps the essay which I like most. Doubtless I
could have bound it as a long note to one or the other of the other two works. Of Grammatology refers to it and economizes its development.
But in a classical philosophical architecture, Speech... would come first: in it is posed, at a point which appears juridically decisive for reasons
that I cannot explain here, the question of the privilege of the voice and of phonetic writing in their relationship to the entire history of the
West, such as this history can be represented by the history of metaphysics and metaphysics in its most modern, critical and vigilant form:
Husserl's transcendental phenomenology."
[33] Derrida (1967) interview with Henri Ronse, p.8
[34] On the influence of Heidegger, Derrida claims in his "Letter to a Japanese Friend" (Derrida and différance, eds. Robert Bernasconi and
David Wood) that the word "déconstruction" was his attempt both to translate and re-appropriate for his own ends the Heideggerian terms
Destruktion and Abbau, via a word from the French language, the varied senses of which seemed consistent with his requirements. This
relationship with the Heideggerian term was chosen over the Nietzschean term "demolition," as Derrida shared Heidegger's interest in
renovating philosophy.
[35] Derrida, J. Violence and Metaphysics: An Essay on the Thought of Emmanuel Levinas,Writing and Difference. Chicago: University of
Chicago. 97-192.
[36] Caputo,John D. "Deconstruction in a Nutshell. A conversation with Jacques Derrida." New York: Fordham University Press, 1997. Page 42
Jacques Derrida 673

[37] Lamont '87, pp. 590, 602-606 (Lamont, Michele How to Become a Dominant French Philosopher: The Case of Jacques Derrida (http:/ /
www. billtron. org/ node/ 658). (http:/ / links. jstor. org/ sici?sici=0002-9602(198711)93:3<584:HTBADF>2. 0. CO;2-S) American Journal of
Sociology, Vol. 93, No. 3 [Nov., 1987])
[38] Wayne A. Borody (http:/ / www. nipissingu. ca/ faculty/ wayneb/ ) (1998) pp. 3, 5 Figuring the Phallogocentric Argument with Respect to
the Classical Greek Philosophical Tradition (http:/ / kenstange. com/ nebula/ feat013/ feat013. html) Nebula: A Netzine of the Arts and
Science (http:/ / kenstange. com/ nebula/ ), Vol. 13 (pp. 1-27).
[39] Hélène Cixous, Catherine Clément [1975] La jeune née
[40] Sven Ove Hansson Philosophical Schools (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060718054747/ http:/ / www. infra. kth. se/ phil/ theoria/
editorial721. htm) - Editorial From Theoria vol. 72, Part 1 (2006).
[41] Jack Reynolds, Jonathan Roffe (2004) Understanding Derrida (http:/ / books. google. it/ books?id=D7jq50nVzGAC) p.49
[42] Gift of Death, pp. 57-72
[43] "Truth and Consequences: How to Understand Jacques Derrida," The New Republic 197:14 (5 October 1987)
[44] Mackey and Searle (1984)
[45] Searle (1983) and (2000)
[46] Derrida (1988) Afterword, in Limited Inc. page 158, footnote 12
[47] Chomsky, Noam (1995). "Rationality/Science" (http:/ / www. chomsky. info/ articles/ 1995----02. htm). Z Papers Special Issue. . "I
therefore read the papers with some hope that they would help me "transcend" these limitations, or perhaps suggest an entirely different
course. I'm afraid I was disappointed. Admittedly, that may be my own limitation. Quite regularly, "my eyes glaze over" when I read
polysyllabic discourse on the themes of poststructuralism and postmodernism; what I understand is largely truism or error, but that is only a
fraction of the total word count.".
[48] Rodríguez Monegal, Emir (1955). "Borges: Teoría y práctica: Vanidad de la crítica literaria" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/
20070527144227/ http:/ / www. archivodeprensa. edu. uy/ r_monegal/ bibliografia/ prensa/ artpren/ numero/ num_271. htm) (in Spanish).
Emir Rodríguez Monegal website. Archivo de Prensa.edu.uy. pp. (from Número 27, December 1955, p. 125–157). Archived from the original
(http:/ / www. archivodeprensa. edu. uy/ r_monegal/ bibliografia/ prensa/ artpren/ numero/ num_271. htm) on 2007-05-27. .
[49] Rodríguez Monegal, Emir (1985). "Borges y Derrida: boticarios" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071017012431/ http:/ / www.
archivodeprensa. edu. uy/ r_monegal/ bibliografia/ criticas/ crit_06. htm) (in Spanish). Emir Rodríguez Monegal website. Archivo de
Prensa.edu.uy. pp. (from Montevideo: Maldoror 21, 1985, p. 123–132). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. archivodeprensa. edu. uy/
r_monegal/ bibliografia/ criticas/ crit_06. htm) on 2007-10-17. . On p. 123:

Siempre me ha resultado difícil leer a Derrida. No tanto por la densidad de su pensamiento y el estilo moroso,
redundante, repetitivo en que éste aparece desarrollado, sino por una causa completamente circunstancial.
Educado en el pensamiento de Borges desde los quince años, muchas de las novedades de Derrida me han
parecido algo tautológicas. No podía entender cómo tardaba tanto en llegar a las luminosas perspectivas que
Borges había abierto hacía ya tantos años. La famosa "desconstrucción" me impresionaba por su rigor técnico
y la infinita seducción de su espejo textual pero me era familiar: la había practicado en Borges avant la lettre.
[50] Kandell, Jonathan. Jacques Derrida, Abstruse Theorist, Dies at 74 (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2004/ 10/ 10/ obituaries/ 10derrida.
html?ex=1255147200& en=bc84f1b2c5f092c5& ei=5090& partner=rssuserland)", October 10, 2004
[51] The Economist. Obituary: Jacques Derrida, French intellectual, (http:/ / www. economist. com/ displaystory. cfm?story_id=3308320) Oct
21st 2004
[52] The Independent (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ opinion/ commentators/ johann-hari/ why-i-wont-be-mourning-derrida-543574. html)
[53] Rorty, Richard. Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. ISBN 0-521-36781-6. Ch. 6: "From
ironist theory to private allusions: Derrida"
[54] Carlo Ginzburg, The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller, trans. Anne Tedeschi (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press), xviii. ISBN 978-0-8018-4387-7
[55] Caputo,John D. "Deconstruction in a Nutshell. A conversation with Jacques Derrida." New York: Fordham University Press, 1997. Page 54
[56] Richard Wolin, Preface to the MIT press edition: Note on a missing text. In R. Wolin(Ed.) The Heidegger Controversy: A Critical Reader.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 1993, p xiii. ISBN 0-262-73101-0
[57] (http:/ / www. nybooks. com/ articles/ 2658), (http:/ / www. nybooks. com/ articles/ 2591)
[58] Points, p.434
[59] Powell, Jason. Jacques Derrida: A Biography. London: Continuum, 2006. p. 151
[60] Jacques Derrida, "'To Do Justice to Freud': The History of Madness in the Age of Psychoanalysis," Resistances of Psychoanalysis (Stanford:
Stanford University Press, 1998) pp. 70-71.
[61] http:/ / derridaseminars. org/ team. html
[62] http:/ / derridaseminars. org/ volumes. html
[63] http:/ / hydra. humanities. uci. edu/ Derrida/ applied. html
[64] Powell, Jason E., Jacques Derrida: A Biography (London and New York: Continuum, 2006), pp. 34-5.
[65] Foucault, Michel, History of Madness, ed. Jean Khalfa, trans. Jonathan Murphy and Jean Khalfa (London: Routledge, 2006), p. 573.
[66] http:/ / prelectur. stanford. edu/ lecturers/ derrida/ interviews. html#cambridge
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[67] http:/ / www. nybooks. com/ articles/ archives/ 1984/ feb/ 02/ an-exchange-on-deconstruction/
[68] http:/ / www. nybooks. com/ articles/ archives/ 1983/ oct/ 27/ the-word-turned-upside-down/
[69] http:/ / www. reason. com/ news/ show/ 27599. html
[70] http:/ / www. marxists. org/ reference/ subject/ philosophy/ works/ fr/ derrida. htm
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[74] http:/ / www. hydra. umn. edu/ derrida/ arch. html
[75] http:/ / www. hydra. umn. edu/ derrida/ hegel. html
[76] http:/ / www. hydra. umn. edu/ derrida/ spectres. html
[77] http:/ / www. hydra. umn. edu/ derrida/ diff. html
[78] http:/ / www. hydra. umn. edu/ derrida/ letter. html
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[80] http:/ / www. hydra. umn. edu/ derrida/ sec. html
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[83] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071011134536/ http:/ / jacquesderrida. com. ar/ frances/ differance. htm
[84] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071011133918/ http:/ / jacquesderrida. com. ar/ frances/ signature. htm
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[86] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071011133448/ http:/ / jacquesderrida. com. ar/ frances/ benjamin_adorno. htm
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Federico Fellini 675

Federico Fellini
Federico Fellini

Born January 20, 1920

Rimini, Italy

Died October 31, 1993 (aged 73)

Rome, Italy

Occupation Film director

Years active 1945–1992

Spouse(s) Giulietta Masina (1943–1993) (his death)

Federico Fellini, Cavaliere di Gran Croce OMRI[1] (January 20, 1920 – October 31, 1993) was an Italian film
director. Known for a distinct style that blends fantasy and baroque images, he is considered one of the most
influential and widely revered filmmakers of the 20th century.[2]

Early life and education

Rimini (1920–1938)
Fellini was born on January 20, 1920 to middle-class parents in Rimini, then a small town on the Adriatic Sea. His
father, Urbano Fellini (1894–1956), born to a family of Romagnol peasants and small landholders from Gambettola,
moved to Rome in 1915 as a baker apprenticed to the Pantanella pasta factory. His mother, Ida Barbiani
(1896–1984), came from a bourgeois Catholic family of Roman merchants. Despite her family’s vehement
disapproval, she eloped with Urbano in 1917 to live at his parents' home in Gambettola.[3] A civil marriage followed
in 1918 with the religious ceremony held at Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome a year later. The couple settled in Rimini
where Urbano became a traveling salesman and wholesale vendor. Fellini had two siblings: Riccardo (1921–1991), a
documentary director for RAI Television, and Maria Maddalena (m. Fabbri; 1929–2002).
In 1924, Fellini started primary school with the Sisters of Vincenzo in Rimini, attending the Carlo Tonni public
school two years later. An attentive student, he spent his leisure time drawing, staging puppet shows, and reading Il
corriere dei piccoli, the popular children’s magazine that reproduced traditional American cartoons by Winsor
McCay, George McManus and Frederick Burr Opper. McCay’s Little Nemo had a direct influence on City of Women
while Opper’s Happy Hooligan was the visual inspiration for Gelsomina in La strada.[4] In 1926, he discovered the
world of Grand Guignol, the circus with Pierino the Clown, and the movies. Guido Brignone’s Maciste all’Inferno
(1926), the first film he saw, would mark him in ways linked to Dante and the cinema throughout his entire career.[5]
Enrolled at the Ginnasio Giulio Cesare in 1929, he made friends with Luigi ‘Titta’ Benzi, later a prominent Rimini
lawyer and the model for young Titta in Amarcord (1973). In Mussolini’s Italy, Fellini and Riccardo became
members of the Avanguardista, the compulsory Fascist youth group for males. He visited Rome with his parents for
the first time in 1933, the year of the maiden voyage of the SS Rex, the transatlantic ocean liner referenced in
Amarcord. The sea creature found on the beach at the end of La Dolce Vita (1960) has its basis in a giant fish
Federico Fellini 676

marooned on a Rimini beach during a storm in 1934. Although Fellini adapted key events from his childhood and
adolescence in films such as I Vitelloni (1953), 8½ (1963), and Amarcord (1973), he insisted that such
autobiographical memories were inventions: "It is not memory that dominates my films. To say that my films are
autobiographical is an overly facile liquidation, a hasty classification. It seems to me that I have invented almost
everything: childhood, character, nostalgias, dreams, memories, for the pleasure of being able to recount them."[6]
In 1937, Fellini opened Febo, a portrait shop in Rimini with the painter Demos Bonini. His first humorous article
appeared in the "Postcards to Our Readers" section of Rimini’s Domenica del Corriere. Deciding on a career as a
caricaturist and gag writer, Fellini travelled to Florence in 1938 where he published his first cartoon in the weekly
420. Failing his military culture exam, he graduated from high school in July 1938 after doubling the exam.

Rome (1939)
In September 1939, he enrolled in law school at the University of Rome to please his parents although biographer
Hollis Alpert reports that "there is no record of his ever having attended a class".[7] Installed in a family pensione, he
met another lifelong friend, the painter Rinaldo Geleng. Desperately poor, they unsuccessfully joined forces to draw
sketches of restaurant and café patrons. Fellini eventually found work as a cub reporter on the dailies Il Piccolo and
Il Popolo di Roma but quit after a short stint, bored by the local court news assignments.
Four months after publishing his first article in Marc’Aurelio, the highly influential biweekly humour magazine, he
joined the editorial board, achieving success with a regular column titled Will You Listen to What I Have to Say?[8]
Described as “the determining moment in Fellini’s life”,[9] he enjoyed steady employment between 1939 and 1942,
interacting with writers, gagmen, and scriptwriters that eventually led to opportunities in show business and cinema.
Among his collaborators on the magazine’s editorial board were the future director Ettore Scola, Marxist theorist and
scriptwriter Cesare Zavattini, and Bernardino Zapponi, a future Fellini screenwriter. Conducting interviews for
CineMagazzino also proved congenial: when asked to interview Aldo Fabrizi, Italy’s most popular variety performer,
their immediate personal rapport led to professional collaboration. Specializing in humorous monologues, Fabrizi
commissioned material from his young protegé.[10]

Career and later life

Early screenplays (1940-43)

Retained on business in Rimini, Urbano sent wife and family to Rome in 1940 to share an apartment with his son.
Fellini and Ruggero Maccari, also on the staff of Marc’Aurelio, began writing radio sketches and gags for films. Not
yet twenty and with Fabrizi’s help, Fellini obtained his first screen credit as a comedy writer on Mario Mattoli’s Il
pirata sono io (The Pirate's Dream). Progressing rapidly to numerous collaborations on films at Cinecittà, his circle
of professional acquaintances widened to include novelist Vitaliano Brancati and scriptwriter Piero Tellini. In the
wake of Mussolini’s declaration of war against France and England on June 10, 1940, he discovered Kafka’s The
Metamorphosis, Gogol, John Steinbeck and William Faulkner along with French films by Marcel Carné, René Clair,
and Julien Duvivier.[11] In 1941 he published Il mio amico Pasqualino, a 74-page booklet in ten chapters describing
the absurd adventures of Pasqualino, an alter ego.[12]
Writing for radio while attempting to avoid the draft, Fellini met his future wife Giulietta Masina in a studio office at
EIAR (Italian Radio Broadcast Corporation) in autumn 1942. Well-paid as the voice of Pallina in Fellini's radio
serial, Cico and Pallina, Masina was also known for her musical-comedy broadcasts which cheered an audience
depressed by the war.[13] In November 1942, Fellini was sent to Libya, occupied by Fascist Italy, to work on the
screenplay of I cavalieri del deserto (Knights of the Desert, 1942), directed by Osvaldo Valenti and Gino Talamo.
Fellini welcomed the assignment as it allowed him "to secure another extension on his draft order".[14] Responsible
for emergency re-writing, he also directed the film's first scenes. When Tripoli fell under siege by British forces, he
and his colleagues made a narrow escape by boarding a German military plane flying to Sicily. His African
Federico Fellini 677

adventure, later published in Marc’Aurelio as "The First Flight", marked “the emergence of a new Fellini, no longer
just a screenwriter, working and sketching at his desk, but a filmmaker out in the field”.[15]
The apolitical Fellini was finally freed of the draft when an Allied air raid over Bologna destroyed his medical
records. Fellini and Giulietta hid in her aunt’s apartment until Mussolini's fall on July 25, 1943. After dating for nine
months, the couple were married on October 30, 1943. Several months later, Masina fell down the stairs and suffered
a miscarriage. She gave birth to a son, Pierfederico, on March 22, 1944 but the child died of encephalitis three weeks
later. The tragedy had enduring emotional and artistic repercussions.[16]

Neorealist apprenticeship (1944–1949)

After the Allied liberation of Rome on June 4, 1944, Fellini and Enrico De Seta opened the Funny Face Shop where
they survived the postwar recession drawing caricatures of American soldiers. He became involved with Italian
Neorealism when Roberto Rossellini, at work on Stories of Yesteryear (later Rome, Open City), met Fellini in his
shop proposing he contribute gags and dialogue for the script . Aware of Fellini’s reputation as Aldo Fabrizi’s
“creative muse”,[17] Rossellini also requested he try to convince the actor to play the role of Father Giuseppe
Morosini, the parish priest executed by the SS on April 4, 1944.
In 1947, Fellini and Sergio Amidei received an Oscar nomination for the screenplay of Rome, Open City.
Working as both screenwriter and assistant director on Rossellini’s Paisà (Paisan) in 1946, Fellini was entrusted to
film the Sicilian scenes in Maiori. In February 1948, he was introduced to Marcello Mastroianni, then a young
theatre actor appearing in a play with Giulietta Masina.[18] Establishing a close working relationship with Alberto
Lattuada, Fellini co-wrote the director’s Senza pietà (Without Pity) and Il mulino del Po (The Mill on the Po). Fellini
also worked with Rossellini on the anthology film L'Amore (1948), co-writing the screenplay and in one segment
titled, "The Miracle", acting opposite Anna Magnani. To play the role of a vagabond rogue mistaken by Magnani for
a saint, Fellini had to bleach his black hair blond.

Early films (1950-53)

In 1950 Fellini co-produced and co-directed with Alberto Lattuada, Variety Lights (Luci del varietà), his first feature
film. A backstage comedy set among the world of small-time travelling performers, it featured Giulietta Masina and
Lattuada’s wife, Carla del Poggio. Its release to poor reviews and limited distribution proved disastrous for all
concerned. The production company went bankrupt, leaving both Fellini and Lattuada with debts to pay for over a
decade.[19] In February 1950, Paisà received an Oscar nomination for the screenplay by Rossellini, Sergio Amidei,
and Fellini.
After travelling to Paris for a script conference with Rossellini on Europa '51, Fellini began production on The White
Sheik in September 1951, his first solo-directed feature. Starring Alberto Sordi in the title role, the film is a revised
version of a treatment first written by Michelangelo Antonioni in 1949 and based on the fotoromanzi, the
photographed cartoon strip romances popular in Italy at the time. Producer Carlo Ponti commissioned Fellini and
Tullio Pinelli to write the script but Antonioni rejected the story they developed. With Ennio Flaiano, they re-worked
the material into a light-hearted satire about newlywed couple Ivan and Wanda Cavalli (Leopoldo Trieste, Brunello
Bovo) in Rome to visit the Pope. Ivan’s prissy mask of respectability is soon demolished by his wife’s obsession with
the White Sheik. Highlighting the music of Nino Rota, the film was selected at Cannes (among the films in
competition was Orson Welles’s Othello) and then retracted. Screened at the 13th Venice Film Festival, it was razzed
by critics in “the atmosphere of a soccer match”.[20] One reviewer declared that Fellini had “not the slightest aptitude
for cinema direction”.
In 1953, I Vitelloni found favour with the critics and public. Winning the Silver Lion Award in Venice, it secured
Fellini’s first international distributor.
Federico Fellini 678

Beyond neorealism (1954-60)

Fellini directed La strada based on a script completed in 1952 with Pinelli and Flaiano. During the last three weeks
of shooting, Fellini experienced the first signs of severe clinical depression.[21] Aided by his wife, he undertook a
brief period of therapy with Freudian psychoanalyst Emilio Servadio.[21]
Fellini cast American actor Broderick Crawford to interpret the role of an aging swindler in Il Bidone. Based partly
on stories told to him by a petty thief during production of La strada, Fellini developed the script into a con man’s
slow descent towards a solitary death. To incarnate the role’s “intense, tragic face”, Fellini’s first choice had been
Humphrey Bogart[22] but after learning of the actor’s lung cancer, chose Crawford after seeing his face on the
theatrical poster of All the King’s Men (1949). The film shoot was wrought with difficulties stemming from
Crawford’s alcoholism.[23] Savaged by critics at the 16th Venice Film Festival, the film did miserable box office and
did not receive international distribution until 1964.
During the autumn, Fellini researched and developed a treatment based on a film adaptation of Mario Tobino’s
novel, The Free Women of Magliano. Located in a mental institution for women, financial backers considered the
subject had no potential and the project was abandoned.
While preparing Nights of Cabiria in spring 1956, Fellini learned of his father’s death by cardiac arrest at the age of
62. Produced by Dino De Laurentiis and starring Giulietta Masina, the film took its inspiration from news reports of
a woman’s decapitated head retrieved in a lake and stories by Wanda, a shantytown prostitute Fellini met on the set
of Il Bidone.[24] Pier Paolo Pasolini was hired to translate Flaiano and Pinelli’s dialogue into Roman dialect and to
supervise researches in the vice-afflicted suburbs of Rome. The movie won an Academy Award as Best Foreign
Film and brought Masina the Best Actress Award at Cannes for her performance.
With Pinelli, he developed Journey with Anita for Sophia Loren and Gregory Peck. An “invention born out of
intimate truth”, the script was based on Fellini's return to Rimini with a mistress to attend his father's funeral.[25] Due
to Loren’s unavailability, the project was shelved and resurrected twenty-five years later as Lovers and Liars (1981),
a comedy directed by Mario Monicelli with Goldie Hawn and Giancarlo Giannini. For Eduardo De Filippo, he
co-wrote the script of Fortunella, tailoring the lead role to accommodate Masina’s particular sensibility.
The Hollywood on the Tiber phenomenon of 1958 in which American studios profited from the cheap studio labour
available in Rome provided the backdrop for photojournalists to steal shots of celebrities on the via Veneto.[26] The
scandal provoked by Turkish dancer Haish Nana’s improvised striptease at a nightclub captured Fellini’s
imagination: he decided to end his latest script-in-progress, Moraldo in the City, with an all-night “orgy” at a seaside
villa. Pierluigi Praturlon’s photos of Anita Ekberg wading fully dressed in the Trevi Fountain provided further
inspiration for Fellini and his scriptwriters. Changing the title of the screenplay to La Dolce Vita, Fellini soon
clashed with his producer on casting: the director insisted on the relatively unknown Mastroianni while De
Laurentiis wanted Paul Newman as a hedge on his investment. Reaching an impasse, De Laurentiis sold the rights to
publishing mogul Angelo Rizzoli. Shooting began on March 16, 1959 with Anita Ekberg climbing the stairs to the
cupola of Saint Peter’s in a mammoth décor constructed at Cinecittà. The statue of Christ flown by helicopter over
Rome to Saint Peter's Square was inspired by an actual media event on May 1, 1956, which Fellini had witnessed.
The film wrapped August 15 on a deserted beach at Passo Oscuro with a bloated mutant fish designed by Piero
Gherardi.
La Dolce Vita broke all box office records. Despite scalpers selling tickets at 1000 lire,[27] crowds queued in line for
hours to see an “immoral movie” before the censors banned it. At an exclusive Milan screening on February 5, 1960,
one outraged patron spat on Fellini while others hurled insults. Denounced in parliament by right-wing
conservatives, undersecretary Domenico Magrì of the Christian Democrats demanded tolerance for the film’s
controversial themes.[28] The Vatican's official press organ, l'Osservatore Romano, lobbied for censorship while the
Board of Roman Parish Priests and the Genealogical Board of Italian Nobility attacked the film. In one documented
instance involving favourable reviews written by the Jesuits of San Fedele, defending La Dolce Vita had severe
consequences.[29] In competition at Cannes alongside Antonioni’s L’Avventura, the film won the Palme d'Or awarded
Federico Fellini 679

by presiding juror Georges Simenon. The Belgian writer was promptly “hissed at” by the disapproving festival
crowd.[30]

Art films and dreams (1961–1969)

A major discovery for Fellini after his Italian neorealism period (1950–1959) was the work of Carl Jung. After
meeting Jungian psychoanalyst Dr. Ernst Bernhard in early 1960, he read Jung's autobiography, Memories, Dreams,
Reflections. Bernhard also recommended that Fellini consult the I Ching and keep a record of his dreams. What
Fellini formerly accepted as "his extrasensory perceptions"[31] were now interpreted as psychic manifestations of the
unconscious. Bernhard’s focus on Jungian depth psychology proved to be the single greatest influence on Fellini’s
mature style and marked the turning point in his work from neorealism to filmmaking that was “primarily
oneiric”.[32] As a consequence, Jung's seminal ideas on the anima and the animus, the role of archetypes and the
collective unconscious directly influenced such films as 8½ (1963), Juliet of the Spirits (1965), Satyricon (1969),
Casanova (1976), and City of Women (1980).[33]
Exploiting La Dolce Vita’s success, financier Angelo Rizzoli set up Federiz in 1960, an independent film company,
for Fellini and production manager Clemente Fracassi to discover and produce new talent. Despite the best
intentions, their guarded editorial and business skills forced the company to close down soon after cancelling
Pasolini’s project, Accattone (1961).
Condemned as a “public sinner”[34] for La Dolce Vita, Fellini responded with The Temptations of Doctor Antonio, a
segment in the omnibus Boccaccio '70. His first colour film, it was the sole project green-lighted at Federiz. Infused
with the surrealistic satire that characterized the young Fellini’s work at Marc’Aurelio, the film ridiculed a crusader
against vice who goes insane trying to censor a billboard of Anita Ekberg espousing the virtues of milk.
In an October 1960 letter to his colleague Brunello Rondi, Fellini first outlined his film ideas about a man suffering
creative block: "Well then - a guy (a writer? any kind of professional man? a theatrical producer?) has to interrupt
the usual rhythm of his life for two weeks because of a not-too-serious disease. It’s a warning bell: something is
blocking up his system."[35] Unclear about the script, its title, and his protagonist’s profession, he scouted locations
throughout Italy “looking for the film”[36] in the hope of resolving his confusion. Flaiano suggested La bella
confusione (literally A Fine Confusion) as the movie’s title. Under pressure from his producers, Fellini finally settled
on 8½, a self-referential title referring principally (but not exclusively)[37] to the number of films he had directed up
to that time.
Giving the order to start production in spring 1962, Fellini signed deals with his producer Rizzoli, fixed dates, had
sets constructed, cast Mastroianni, Anouk Aimée, and Sandra Milo in lead roles, and did screen tests at the Scalera
Studios in Rome. He hired cinematographer Gianni Di Venanzo, among key personnel. But apart from naming his
hero Guido Anselmi, he still couldn't decide what his character did for a living.[38] The crisis came to a head in April
when, sitting in his Cinecittà office, he began a letter to Rizzoli confessing he had "lost his film" and had to abandon
the project. Interrupted by the chief machinist requesting he celebrate the launch of 8½, Fellini put aside the letter
and went on the set. Raising a toast to the crew, he "felt overwhelmed by shame… I was in a no exit situation. I was
a director who wanted to make a film he no longer remembers. And lo and behold, at that very moment everything
fell into place. I got straight to the heart of the film. I would narrate everything that had been happening to me. I
would make a film telling the story of a director who no longer knows what film he wanted to make".[39]
Shooting began on May 9, 1962. Perplexed by the seemingly chaotic, incessant improvisation on the set, Deena
Boyer, the director’s American press officer at the time, asked for a rationale. Fellini told her that he hoped to convey
the three levels “on which our minds live: the past, the present, and the conditional - the realm of fantasy”.[40] After
shooting wrapped on October 14, Nino Rota composed various circus marches and fanfares that would later become
signature tunes of the maestro’s cinema.[41] Nominated for four Oscars, 8½ won awards for best foreign language
film and best costume design in black-and-white. In Hollywood for the ceremony, Fellini toured Disneyland with
Walt Disney the day after.
Federico Fellini 680

Increasingly attracted to parapsychology, Fellini met the Turin magician Gustavo Rol in 1963. Rol, a former banker,
introduced him to the world of Spiritism and séances. In 1964, Fellini experimented with LSD 25[42] under the
supervision of Emilio Servadio, his psychoanalyst during production of La strada.[43] For years reserved about what
actually occurred that Sunday afternoon, he admitted in 1992 that
"objects and their functions no longer had any significance. All I perceived was perception itself, the
hell of forms and figures devoid of human emotion and detached from the reality of my unreal
environment. I was an instrument in a virtual world that constantly renewed its own meaningless image
in a living world that was itself perceived outside of nature. And since the appearance of things was no
longer definitive but limitless, this paradisiacal awareness freed me from the reality external to my self.
The fire and the rose, as it were, became one."[44]
Fellini's hallucinatory insights were given full flower in his first colour feature Juliet of the Spirits (1965), depicting
Giulietta Masina as a housewife, Juliet, who rightly suspects her husband's infidelity and succumbs to hearing voices
of spirits summoned at a séance at her home. Her sexually voracious next door neighbor Suzy (Sandra Milo)
introduces Juliet to a world of uninhibited sensuality but Juliet is haunted by childhood memories of her Catholic
guilt and a teenaged friend who committed suicide. Complex and filled with psychological symbolism, the film is set
to a jaunty score by Nino Rota.

Honours (1970–1980)
Fellini received a lifetime achievement at the 27th Cannes Film Festival in 1974.
Amarcord, a semi-autobiographical coming-of-age comedy, won the Oscar for Best Foreign Language Film in 1975.
The following year Fellini's Casanova won the Oscar for Best Costumes (Danilo Donati).

Late films and projects (1981–1990)

Organized by his publisher Diogenes Verlag in 1982, the first major exhibition of 63 drawings by Fellini was held in
Paris, Brussels, and the Pierre Matisse Gallery in New York.[45] A gifted caricaturist, much of the inspiration for his
sketches was derived from his own dreams while the films-in-progress both originated from and stimulated drawings
for characters, decor, costumes and set designs. Under the title, I disegni di Fellini (Fellini’s Designs), he published
350 drawings executed in pencil, watercolours, and felt pens.[46]
On September 6, 1985 Fellini was awarded the Golden Lion for lifetime achievement at the 42nd Venice Film
Festival. That same year, he became the first non-American to receive the Film Society of Lincoln Center’s annual
award for cinematic achievement.
Long fascinated by Carlos Castaneda’s The Teachings of Don Juan: A Yaqui Way of Knowledge, Fellini
accompanied the Peruvian author on a journey to the Yucatán to assess the feasibility of a film. After first meeting
Castaneda in Rome in October 1984, Fellini drafted a treatment with Pinelli titled Viaggio a Tulun. Producer Alberto
Grimaldi, prepared to buy film rights to all of Castaneda’s work, then paid for pre-production research taking Fellini
and his entourage from Rome to Los Angeles and the jungles of Mexico in October 1985.[47] When Castaneda
inexplicably disappeared and the project fell through, Fellini’s mystico-shamanic adventures were scripted with
Pinelli and serialized in Corriere della Sera in May 1986. A barely veiled satirical interpretation of Castaneda's
work,[48] Viaggio a Tulun was published in 1989 as a graphic novel with artwork by Milo Manara and as Trip to
Tulum in America in 1990.
For Intervista, produced by Ibrahim Moussa and RAI Television, Fellini intercut memories of the first time he
visited Cinecittà in 1939 with present-day footage of himself at work on a screen adaptation of Franz Kafka’s
Amerika. A meditation on the nature of memory and film production, it won the special 40th Anniversary Prize at
Cannes and the 15th Moscow Film Festival Grand Prize. In Brussels later that year, a panel of thirty professionals
from eighteen European countries named Fellini the world’s best director and 8½ the best European film of all
Federico Fellini 681

time.[49]
In early 1989 Fellini began production on The Voice of the Moon, based on Ermanno Cavazzoni’s novel, Il poema
des lunatici (The Lunatics’ Poem). A small town was built at Empire Studios on the via Pontina outside Rome.
Starring Roberto Benigni as Ivo Salvini, a madcap poetic figure newly released from a mental institution, the
character is a combination of La strada's Gelsomina, Pinocchio, and Italian poet Giacomo Leopardi.[50] Fellini
improvised as he filmed, using as a guide a rough treatment written with Pinelli.[51] Despite its modest critical and
commercial success in Italy, and its warm reception by French critics, it failed to interest North American
distributors.
Fellini won the Praemium Imperiale, the equivalent of the Nobel Prize in the visual arts, awarded by the Japan Art
Association in 1990.[52] The award covers five disciplines: painting, sculpture, architecture, music, and theatre/film.
Other winners include Akira Kurosawa, David Hockney, Balthus, Pina Bausch, and Maurice Béjart.

Final years (1991–1993)

In July 1991 and April 1992, Fellini worked in close collaboration with Canadian filmmaker Damian Pettigrew to
establish "the longest and most detailed conversations ever recorded on film".[53] Described as the "Maestro's
spiritual testament” by his biographer Tullio Kezich,[54] excerpts culled from the conversations later served as the
basis of their feature documentary, Fellini: I'm a Born Liar (2002) and the book, I'm a Born Liar: A Fellini Lexicon.
Finding it increasingly difficult to secure financing for feature films, he developed a suite of television projects
whose titles reflect their subjects: Attore, Napoli, L’Inferno, L’opera lirica, and L’America.
In April 1993, Fellini received his fifth Oscar for lifetime achievement "in recognition of his cinematic
accomplishments that have thrilled and entertained audiences worldwide". On June 28, he underwent heart bypass
surgery at the Cantonal Hospital in Zurich but suffered a stroke at the Grand Hotel in Rimini two months later.
Partially paralyzed, he was first transferred to Ferrara for rehabilitation and then to the Policlinico Umberto I in
Rome to be near his wife, also hospitalized. He suffered a second stroke and fell into an irreversible coma. Fellini
died in Rome on October 31 at the age of 73, a day after his fiftieth wedding anniversary. The memorial service was
held in Studio 5 at Cinecittà attended by an estimated “70,000 people”.[55] . At the request of Giulietta Masina,
trumpeter Mauro Maur played the "Improvviso dell'Angelo" by Nino Rota during the funeral ceremony.[56] . Five
months later on March 23, 1994, Giulietta Masina died of lung cancer.
Fellini, Masina and their son Pierfederico are buried in a bronze sepulchre sculpted by Arnaldo Pomodoro. Designed
as a ship's prow, the tomb is located at the main entrance to the Cemetery of Rimini. The Federico Fellini Airport in
Rimini is named in his honour.
Federico Fellini 682

Influence and legacy

Personal and highly idiosyncratic visions of
society, Fellini's films are a unique
combination of memory, dreams, fantasy
and desire. The adjectives "Fellinian" and
"Felliniesque" are "synonymous with any
kind of extravagant, fanciful, even baroque
image in the cinema and in art in general".[4]
La Dolce Vita contributed the term
paparazzi to the English language, derived
from Paparazzo, the photographer friend of
journalist Marcello Rubini (Marcello Dedicatory plaque to Fellini on Via Veneto, Rome:
To Federico Fellini, who made Via Veneto the stage for the "Sweet Life" - SPQR -
Mastroianni).[57]
January 20, 1995

Contemporary filmmakers such as Woody

Allen, Pedro Almodovar, Tim Burton,[58] Terry Gilliam,[59] Emir Kusturica,[60] David Lynch,[61] Girish Kasaravalli,
David Cronenberg, Martin Scorsese, and Juraj Jakubisko have cited Fellini's influence on their work.
Polish director, Wojciech Has, whose two major films, The Saragossa Manuscript (1965) and The Hour-Glass
Sanatorium (1973) are examples of modernist fantasies, has been compared to Fellini for the sheer "luxuriance of his
images".[62]
I Vitelloni inspired European directors Juan Antonio Bardem, Marco Ferreri, and Lina Wertmuller and had an
influence on Martin Scorsese's Mean Streets (1973), George Lucas's American Graffiti (1974), Joel Schumacher's St.
Elmo's Fire (1985), and Barry Levinson's Diner (1987), among many others.[63] When the American magazine
Cinema asked Stanley Kubrick in 1963 to name his favorite films, the film director listed I Vitelloni as number one
in his Top 10 list.[64]
Nights of Cabiria was adapted as the Broadway musical Sweet Charity and the movie Sweet Charity (1969) by Bob
Fosse starring Shirley MacLaine.
8½ inspired among others: Mickey One (Arthur Penn, 1965), Alex in Wonderland (Paul Mazursky, 1970), Beware of
a Holy Whore (Rainer Werner Fassbinder, 1971), Day for Night (François Truffaut, 1973), All That Jazz (Bob Fosse,
1979), Stardust Memories (Woody Allen, 1980), Sogni d'oro (Nanni Moretti, 1981), Parad Planet (Vadim
Abdrashitov, 1984), La Pelicula del rey (Carlos Sorin, 1986), Living in Oblivion (Tom DiCillo, 1995) , 8½ Women
(Peter Greenaway, 1999), Falling Down (Joel Schumacher, 1993), along with the successful Broadway musical,
Nine (Maury Yeston and Arthur Kopit, 1982).[65] Yo-Yo Boing! (1998), a Spanish novel by Puerto Rican writer
Giannina Braschi, features a dream sequence with Fellini that was inspired by 8½.
City of Women was adapted for the Berlin stage by Frank Castorf in 1992.
Fellini’s work is referenced on the albums Fellini Days (2001) by Fish and Funplex (2008) by the B-52's with the
song Juliet of the Spirits, and in the opening traffic jam of the music video Everybody Hurts by R.E.M..[66] It
influenced two American TV shows, Northern Exposure and Third Rock from the Sun.[67]
Certain of his film related material and personal papers are contained in the Wesleyan University Cinema Archives
to which scholars and media experts from around the world may have full access.[68] In October 2009, the Jeu de
Paume in Paris opened an exhibit devoted to Fellini, running through to January 2010. The exhibition included
Fellini ephemera, television interviews, behind-the-scenes photographs, and excerpts from La dolce vita and 8½. It
also featured the Book of Dreams based on 30 years of illustrations and notes by Fellini.[69]
Federico Fellini 683

Awards

Selected awards and nominations

• Rome, Open City (Dir. Roberto Rossellini, 1945)
• Oscar nomination for Best Screenplay (with Sergio Amidei)
• Paisà (Dir. Roberto Rossellini, 1946)
• Oscar nomination for Best Screenplay (with Sergio Amidei, Alfred Hayes, Marcello Pagliero, and Rossellini)
• I Vitelloni (1953)
• Venice Film Festival Silver Lion
• Oscar nomination for Best Screenplay (with Tullio Pinelli, Ennio Flaiano)
• La Strada (1954)
• Venice Film Festival Silver Lion
• Oscar for the Best Foreign Language Film
• Oscar nomination for Best Screenplay (with Tullio Pinelli, Ennio Flaiano, Brunello Rondi)
• New York Film Critics Award for Best Foreign Film
• Screen Directors Guild Award for Best Foreign Film
• Nights of Cabiria (1957)
• Festival de Cannes Best Actress Award (Giulietta Masina)
• Oscar for the Best Foreign Language Film
• La Dolce Vita (1960)
• Palme d'Or at Festival de Cannes
• Oscar Best Costumes in B&W (Piero Gherardi)
• Oscar nominations for Best Director, Best Screenplay (with Tullio Pinelli, Ennio Flaiano, Brunello Rondi),
Best Art and Set Direction
• New York Film Critics Award for Best Foreign Language Film
• National Board of Review citation for Best Foreign Language Film
• 8½ (Otto e Mezzo, 1963)
• Moscow International Film Festival Grand Prize
• Oscar for Best Foreign Language Film
• Oscar for Best Costumes in B&W (Piero Gherardi)
• Oscar nomination for Best Director
• Oscar nomination for Best Art Direction-Set Decoration in B&W (Piero Gherardi)
• Italian National Syndicate of Film Journalists Silver Ribbons for Best Cinematography in B&W (Gianni Di
Venanzo), Best Director (Federico Fellini), Best Original Story (Fellini and Flaiano), Best Producer (Angelo
Rizzoli), Best Score (Nino Rota), Best Screenplay (Fellini, Pinelli, Flaiano, Rondi), and Best Supporting
Actress (Sandra Milo)
• Berlin Film Festival Special Award
• BAFTA Film Award nomination for Best Film from any Source
• Bodil Award for Best European Film
• Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures
• New York Film Critics Award for Best Foreign Film
• National Board of Review Award for Best Foreign Language Picture
• Grolla d’Oro at Saint Vincent Film Festival for Best Director
• Kinema Junpo Award for Best Foreign Language Film & Best Foreign Language Film Director
Federico Fellini 684

• Juliet of the Spirits (1965)

• New York Film Critics Award for Best Foreign Film
• National Board of Review Award for Best Foreign Language Story
• Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film
• Satyricon (1969)
• Oscar nomination for Best Director
• I clowns (1970)
• National Board of Review citation for Best Foreign Language Film
• Amarcord (1974)
• Oscar for Best Foreign Film
• Oscar nomination for Best Director
• Oscar nomination for Best Writing, Original Screenplay
• New York Film Critics Award for Best Direction
• New York Film Critics Award for Best Motion Picture
• Fellini's Casanova (1976)
• Oscar for Best Costumes (Danilo Donati)
• Intervista (1987)
• Moscow International Film Festival Grand Prize
• Festival de Cannes Special 40th Anniversary Prize
• The Voice of the Moon (1990)
• David di Donatello Awards for Best Actor, Best Production Design, and Best Editing

Distinctions
• 1974
• 27th Cannes Film Festival Lifetime Achievement Award (with French director René Clair)
• 1985
• 42nd Venice Film Festival Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement
• Film Society of Lincoln Center Award for Cinematic Achievement
• 1989
• Lifetime Achievement Award - European Film Awards
• 1990
• Japan Art Association's Praemium Imperiale (equivalent of the Nobel Prize in the visual arts)
• 1993
• Oscar for Lifetime Achievement
Federico Fellini 685

Filmography

Major screenplay contributions

• L'ultima carrozzella (1943) (dir. Mario Mattoli) Co-scriptwriter
• Roma, città aperta (1945) (dir. Roberto Rossellini) Co-scriptwriter
• Paisà (1946) (dir. Roberto Rossellini). Co-scriptwriter
• Il delitto di Giovanni Episcopo (1947) (dir. Alberto Lattuada) Co-scriptwriter
• Senza pietà (1948) (dir. Alberto Lattuada) Co-scriptwriter
• Il miracolo (1948) (dir. Roberto Rossellini) Co-scriptwriter
• Il mulino del Po (1949) (dir. Alberto Lattuada) Co-scriptwriter
• Francesco, giullare di Dio (1950) (dir. Alberto Lattuada) Co-scriptwriter
• Il Cammino della speranza (1950) (dir. Pietro Germi) Co-scriptwriter
• La città si defende (1951) (dir. Pietro Germi) Co-scriptwriter
• Persiane chiuse (1951) (dir. Luigi Comencini) Co-scriptwriter
• Il brigante di Tacca del Lupo (1952) (dir. Pietro Germi) Co-scriptwriter
• Fortunella (1979) (dir. Eduardo De Filippo) Co-scriptwriter
• Lovers and Liars (1979) (dir. Mario Monicelli) Fellini not credited

Television commercials
• TV commercial for Campari Soda (1984)
• TV commercial for Barilla pasta (1984)
• Three TV commercials for Banca di Roma (1992)

Written and directed

• Luci del varietà (1950) (co-credited with Alberto Lattuada)
• Lo sceicco bianco (1952)
• I vitelloni (1953)
• L'amore in città (1953) (segment Un'agenzia matrimoniale)
• La strada (1954)
• Il bidone (1955)
• Le notti di Cabiria (1957)
• La dolce vita (1960)
• Boccaccio '70 (1962) (segment Le tentazioni del Dottor Antonio)
• 8½ (1963)
• Juliet of the Spirits (1965)
• Histoires extraordinaires (1968) (segment Toby Dammit, based on Edgar Allan Poe's short story "Never Bet the
Devil Your Head")
• Fellini: A Director's Notebook (1969)
• Satyricon (1969)
• I clowns (1970)
• Roma (1972)
• Amarcord (1973)
• Il Casanova di Federico Fellini (1976)
• Prova d'orchestra (1978)
• La città delle donne (1980)
• E la nave va (1983)
Federico Fellini 686

• Ginger and Fred (1986)

• Intervista (1987)
• La voce della luna (1990)

See also
• Art film
• Fellini Bibliography [70] via UC Berkeley

References

Bibliography
Primary sources
• Fellini, Federico (1988). Comments on Film. Ed. Giovanni Grazzini. Trans. Joseph Henry. Fresno: The Press of
California State University at Fresno.
• — (1993). I disegni di Fellini. Ed. Pier Marco De Santi. Roma: Editori Laterza.
• — and Damian Pettigrew (2003). I'm a Born Liar: A Fellini Lexicon. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN
0847831353
• — and Tullio Pinelli. Trip to Tulum. Trans. Stefano Gaudiano and Elizabeth Bell. New York: Catalan
Communications.
Secondary sources
• Alpert, Hollis (1988). Fellini: A Life. New York: Paragon House. ISBN 1557780005
• Bondanella, Peter (1992). The Cinema of Federico Fellini. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00875-2
• — (2002). The Films of Federico Fellini. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Burke, Frank, and M. R. Waller (2003). Federico Fellini: Contemporary Perspectives. Toronto: University of
Toronto Press. ISBN 0802076475
• Kezich, Tullio (2006). Federico Fellini: His Life and Work. New York: Faber and Faber, 2006. ISBN 9780571211685
• Miller, D. A. (2008). 8½. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.

Further reading
General
• Betti, Liliana (1979). Fellini: An Intimate Portrait. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.
• Bondanella, Peter (ed.)(1978). Federico Fellini: Essays in Criticism. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Cianfarani, Carmine (ed.) (1985). Federico Fellini: Leone d'Oro, Venezia 1985. Rome: Anica.
• Fellini, Federico (2008). The Book of Dreams. New York: Rizzoli.
• Panicelli, Ida, and Antonella Soldaini (ed.)(1995). Fellini: Costumes and Fashion. Milan: Edizioni Charta. ISBN
8886158823
• Rohdie, Sam (2002). Fellini Lexicon. London: BFI Publishing.
• Tornabuoni, Lietta (1995). Federico Fellini. Preface Martin Scorsese. New York: Rizzoli.
• Walter, Eugene (2002). Milking the Moon: A Southerner's Story of Life on This Planet. Ed. Katherine Clark. New
York: Three Rivers Press. ISBN 0-609-80965-2
Federico Fellini 687

Documentaries on Fellini
• Ciao Federico (1969). Dir. Gideon Bachmann. (60')
• Federico Fellini - un autoritratto ritrovato (2000). Dir. Paquito Del Bosco. (RAI TV, 68')
• Fellini: I'm a Born Liar (2002). Dir. Damian Pettigrew. Feature documentary. (ARTE, Eurimages, Scottish
Screen, 102')

External links
• Fellini Foundation [71] Official Rimini web site (in Italian)
• Fondation Fellini pour le cinéma (Switzerland) [72] Official Swiss web site (in French)
• Beyond La Dolce Vita [73] Peter Bondanella on Fellini's Films And Technique
• Federico Fellini [74] at the Internet Movie Database
• Federico Fellini [75] at the TCM Movie Database
• "Federico Fellini" [76]. Find a Grave.
• Anita [77] Film project inspired by Fellini's 1957 script, A Journey with Anita

References
[1] Il Quirinale (http:/ / www. quirinale. it/ onorificenze/ DettaglioDecorato. asp?idprogressivo=15661& iddecorato=15241)
[2] Burke and Waller, 12
[3] Alpert, 16
[4] Bondanella, The Films of Federico Fellini, 7
[5] Burke and Waller, 5-13
[6] Fellini interview in Panorama 18 (14 January 1980). Screenwriters Tullio Pinelli and Bernardino Zapponi, cinematographer Giuseppe
Rotunno and set designer Dante Ferretti also reported that Fellini imagined many of his “memories”. Cf. Bernardino Zapponi's memoir, Il mio
Fellini and Fellini's own insistence on having created his cinematic autobiography in I'm a Born Liar: A Fellini Lexicon, 32
[7] Alpert, 33
[8] Kezich, 31
[9] Bondanella, The Films of Federico Fellini, 8
[10] Kezich, 55
[11] Alpert, 42
[12] Kezich, 35
[13] Kezich, 46-48
[14] Kezich, 70
[15] Kezich, 71
[16] Kezich, 157. Cf. filmed interview with Luigi 'Titta' Benzi in Fellini: I'm a Born Liar (2003).
[17] Kezich, 78
[18] Kezich, 404
[19] Kezich, 114
[20] Kezich, 128
[21] Kezich, 158
[22] Kezich, 167
[23] Kezich, 168-69
[24] Kezich, 177
[25] Kezich, 189
[26] Alpert, 122
[27] Kezich, 208
[28] Kezich, 209
[29] Kezich, 210
[30] Alpert, 145
[31] Kezich, 224
[32] Kezich, 227
[33] Bondanella, Cinema of Federico Fellini, 151-54
[34] Kezich, 212
[35] Affron, 227
Federico Fellini 688

[36] Alpert, 159

[37] Kezich, 234 and Affron, 3-4
[38] Alpert, 160
[39] Fellini, Comments on Film, 161-62
[40] Alpert, 170
[41] Kezich, 245
[42] A synthetic derivative “fashioned to produce the same effects as the hallucinogenic mushrooms used by Mexican tribes”. Kezich, 255
[43] Kezich, 255
[44] Fellini and Pettigrew, 91
[45] Kezich, 413. Also cf. The Warsaw Voice (http:/ / www. warsawvoice. pl/ view/ 13135/ )
[46] Fellini, I disegni di Fellini (Roma: Editori Laterza), 1993. The drawings are edited and analysed by Pier Marco De Santi. For comparing
Fellini's graphic work with those of Sergei Eisenstein, consult S.M. Eisenstein, Dessins secrets (Paris: Seuil), 1999.
[47] Kezich, 360-61
[48] Kezich, 362
[49] Burke and Waller, xvi
[50] Bondanella, Cinema of Federico Fellini, 330
[51] Kezich, 383
[52] Kezich, 387
[53] Peter Bondanella, Review of Fellini: I'm a Born Liar in Cineaste Magazine (September 22, 2003), 32
[54] Kezich, "Forward" in I'm a Born Liar: A Fellini Lexicon, 5. Also cf. Kezich, 388
[55] Kezich, 416
[56] The Funerals of Federico Fellini (http:/ / www. santamariadegliangeliroma. it/ paginamastersing. html?codice_url=fellini_funerali&
lingua=ITALIANO& ramo_home=Eventi)
[57] Ennio Flaiano, the film's co-screenwriter and creator of Paparazzo, explained that he took the name from Signor Paparazzo, a character in
George Gissing's novel By the Ionian Sea (1901). Bondanella, The Cinema of Federico Fellini, 136
[58] Cf. Tim Burton Collective (http:/ / www. timburtoncollective. com/ influences. html) Accessed Sept 17 2008
[59] Cf. Gilliam at Senses of Cinema (http:/ / www. sensesofcinema. com/ contents/ directors/ 03/ gilliam. html) Accessed Sept 17 2008
[60] Cf. Kusturica Interview at BNET (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m1285/ is_9_29/ ai_55683952) Accessed Sept 17 2008
[61] Cf. City of Absurdity Quote Collection (http:/ / www. thecityofabsurdity. com/ quotecollection/ infl. html) Accessed Sept 17 2008
[62] Gilbert Guez, Review of The Saragossa Manuscript in Le Figaro (September, 1966), 23
[63] Kezich, 137
[64] Ciment, Michel. "Kubrick: Biographical Notes" (http:/ / www. visual-memory. co. uk/ amk/ doc/ milestones. html) Accessed Dec 23 2009
[65] Numerous sources include Affron, Alpert, Bondanella, Kezich, Miller et al.
[66] Miller, 7
[67] Burke and Waller, xv
[68] http:/ / www. wesleyan. edu/ cinema/
[69] Baker, Tamzin. " Federico Fellini (http:/ / www. artinfo. com/ news/ story/ 32958/ federico-fellini/ )." Modern Painters, November 2009.
[70] http:/ / www. lib. berkeley. edu/ MRC/ fellini. html
[71] http:/ / www. federicofellini. it/
[72] http:/ / www. fondation-fellini. ch/
[73] http:/ / simplycharly. com/ fellini/ peter_bondanella_interview. htm
[74] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0000019/
[75] http:/ / tcmdb. com/ participant/ participant. jsp?participantId=60684
[76] http:/ / www. findagrave. com/ cgi-bin/ fg. cgi?page=gr& GRid=6014
[77] http:/ / www. viaggioconfellini. com/ fellini_eng/
Douglas Hofstadter 689

Douglas Hofstadter
Douglas R. Hofstadter

Born February 15, 1945

New York, New York

Occupation Professor of cognitive science

Nationality United States

Alma mater Stanford University (B.S.), University of Oregon (Ph.D)

Period 1979-Present

Subjects Cognitive science, philosophy of mind, translation, analogy-making

Douglas Richard Hofstadter (born February 15, 1945) is an American academic whose research focuses on
consciousness, analogy-making, literary translation, artistic creation, and discovery in mathematics and physics. He
is best known for his book Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid, first published in 1979, for which he was
awarded the 1980 Pulitzer Prize for general non-fiction.[1]

Early life and education

Hofstadter was born in New York, New York, the son of Nobel Prize-winning physicist Robert Hofstadter. He grew
up on the campus of Stanford University, where his father was a professor, and he attended the International School
of Geneva in 1958-1959. He graduated with Distinction in Mathematics from Stanford University in 1965. He
continued his education and received his Ph.D. in Physics from the University of Oregon in 1975.

Academic career
Hofstadter is College of Arts and Sciences Distinguished Professor of Cognitive Science at Indiana University in
Bloomington, where he directs the Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition [2] which consists of himself and
his graduate students, forming the "Fluid Analogies Research Group" (FARG). He was initially appointed to the
Indiana University's Computer Science Department faculty in 1977, and at that time he launched his research
program in computer modeling of mental processes (which at that time he called "artificial intelligence research", a
label that he has since dropped in favor of "cognitive science research"). In 1984, he moved to the University of
Michigan in Ann Arbor, where he was hired as a professor of psychology and was also appointed to the Walgreen
Douglas Hofstadter 690

Chair for the Study of Human Understanding. In 1988 he returned to Bloomington as "College of Arts and Sciences
Professor" in both Cognitive Science and Computer Science, and also was appointed Adjunct Professor of History
and Philosophy of Science, Philosophy, Comparative Literature, and Psychology, but he states that his involvement
with most of these departments is nominal.[3] [4] [5] In April, 2009, Hofstadter was elected a Fellow of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences[6] and a Member of the American Philosophical Society.[7]
Hofstadter's many interests include music, visual art, the mind, creativity, consciousness, self-reference, translation
and mathematics. Several recursive number-theoretical sequences and concepts in triangle geometry have been
named after him.[8] [9] [10]
At the University of Michigan and Indiana University, he co-authored, with Melanie Mitchell, a computational
model of "high-level perception" — Copycat — and several other models of analogy-making and cognition,
including the Tabletop project, co-developed with Robert French. The Copycat project was subsequently extended
under the name "Metacat" by Hofstadter's doctoral student James Marshall.[11] The Letter Spirit project,
implemented by Gary McGraw and John Rehling, aims to model the act of artistic creativity by designing
stylistically uniform "gridfonts" (typefaces limited to a grid). Other more recent models are Phaeaco (implemented
by Harry Foundalis) and SeqSee (Abhijit Mahabal), which model high-level perception and analogy-making in the
microdomains of Bongard problems and number sequences, respectively, as well as George (Francisco
Lara-Dammer), which models the processes of perception and discovery in triangle geometry.[12] [13] [14]
Hofstadter collects and studies cognitive errors (largely, but not solely, speech errors), "bon mots" (spontaneous
humorous quips), and analogies of all sorts, and his long-time observation of these diverse products of cognition, and
his theories about the mechanisms that underlie them, have exerted a powerful influence on the architectures of the
computational models developed by himself and FARG members.[15]
All FARG computational models share certain key principles, among which are: that human thinking is carried out
by thousands of independent small actions in parallel, biased by the concepts that are currently activated; that
activation spreads from activated concepts to less activated "neighbor concepts"; that there is a "mental temperature"
that regulates the degree of randomness in the parallel activity; that promising avenues tend to be explored more
rapidly than unpromising ones. FARG models also have an overarching philosophy that all cognition is built from
the making of analogies. The computational architectures that share these precepts are called "active symbols"
architectures.
Provoked by predictions of a technological singularity (the hypothetical moment at which artificial intelligence will
surpass human intelligence), Hofstadter has both organized and participated in several public discussions of the
topic. At Indiana University in 1999 he organized such a symposium, and in April 2000, he organized a larger
symposium entitled "Spiritual Robots" at Stanford University, in which he moderated a panel consisting of Ray
Kurzweil, Hans Moravec, Kevin Kelly, Ralph Merkle, Bill Joy, Frank Drake, John Holland, John Koza. Hofstadter
was also an invited panelist at the first Singularity Summit, held at Stanford in May 2006. Hofstadter expressed
doubt about the likelihood of the singularity coming to pass in the foreseeable future.[16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21]
Hofstadter's thesis about consciousness, first expressed in GEB but also present in several of his later books, is that it
is an emergent consequence of seething lower-level activity in the brain. In GEB he draws an analogy between the
social organization of a colony of ants and the mind seen as a coherent "colony" of neurons. In particular, Hofstadter
claims that our sense of having (or being) an "I" comes from the abstract pattern he terms a "strange loop", which is
an abstract cousin of such concrete phenomena as audio and video feedback, and which Hofstadter has defined as "a
level-crossing feedback loop". The prototypical example of this abstract notion is the self-referential structure at the
core of Gödel's incompleteness theorems. Hofstadter's 2007 book I Am a Strange Loop carries his vision of
consciousness considerably further, including the idea that each human "I" is distributed over numerous brains,
rather than being limited to precisely one brain.[22]
Douglas Hofstadter 691

Public image
Hofstadter has said that he feels "uncomfortable with the nerd culture that centers on computers." He admits that "a
large fraction [of his audience] seems to be those who are fascinated by technology", but when it was suggested that
his work "has inspired many students to begin careers in computing and artificial intelligence" he replied that he was
pleased about that, but that he himself has "no interest in computers."[23] [24] In that interview he also mentioned a
course he has twice given at Indiana University, in which he took a "skeptical look at a number of highly-touted AI
projects and overall approaches".[5] For example, upon the defeat of Kasparov by Deep Blue, he commented that "It
was a watershed event, but it doesn't have to do with computers becoming intelligent."[25]
In April 2007, while replying to the following question by Deborah Solomon in Questions for Douglas Hofstadter:
"Your entry in Wikipedia says that your work has inspired many students to begin careers in computing and artificial
intelligence", he replied, "The entry is filled with inaccuracies, and it kind of depresses me." When asked why he
didn't fix it, he replied, "The next day someone will fix it back."[26]
In 1988 Dutch director Piet Hoenderdos created a docudrama about Hofstadter and his ideas entitled "Victim of the
Brain" based on The Mind's I. It includes interviews with Hofstadter about his work.[27]
In 2010: Odyssey Two, Arthur C. Clarke's first sequel to 2001: A Space Odyssey, HAL 9000 is described by Dr.
Chandra as being caught in a "Hofstadter-Moebius loop".
Hofstadter's book Fluid Concepts & Creative Analogies: Computer Models of the Fundamental Mechanisms of
Thought was the first book ever sold by Amazon.com.[28]

Columnist
When Martin Gardner retired from writing his "Mathematical Games" column for Scientific American magazine,
Hofstadter succeeded him in 1981-1983 with a column entitled Metamagical Themas (an anagram of "Mathematical
Games"). An idea he introduced in one of these columns was the concept of "Reviews of This Book", a book
containing nothing but cross-referenced reviews of itself which has an online implementation.[29] One of Hofstadter's
columns in Scientific American concerned the damaging effects of sexist language, and two chapters of his book
Metamagical Themas are devoted to that topic, one of which is a biting analogy-based satire entitled "A Person
Paper on Purity in Language", in which the reader's presumed revulsion at racism and racist language is used as a
lever to motivate an analogous revulsion to sexism and sexist language.[30] Another column reported on the
discoveries made by University of Michigan professor Robert Axelrod in his computer tournament pitting many
iterated Prisoner's Dilemma strategies against each other, and a follow-up column discussed a similar tournament
that Hofstadter and his graduate student Marek Lugowski organized. The "Metamagical Themas" columns ranged
over many themes, and included, to name just three, one on patterns in Frederic Chopin's piano music (particularly
the études), another on the concept of superrationality (choosing to cooperate when the other party/adversary is
assumed to be equally intelligent as oneself), and one on the self-modifying game of Nomic, based on the way in
which the legal system modifies itself, and developed by philosopher Peter Suber.[31]

Personal life
Hofstadter was married to Carol Ann Brush. They met in Bloomington, and married in Ann Arbor in 1985. They had
two children, Danny and Monica, but Carol died in 1993 from the sudden onset of a brain tumor — glioblastoma
multiforme — when their children were five and two. The Carol Ann Brush Hofstadter Memorial Scholarship for
Bologna-bound IU students was established in 1996 in her name.[32] Hofstadter's book Le Ton beau de Marot is
dedicated to their two children and its dedication reads "To M. & D., living sparks of their Mommy's soul".
Both inside and outside his professional work, Hofstadter is driven by a pursuit of beauty. He seeks beautiful
mathematical patterns, beautiful explanations, beautiful typefaces, beautiful sonic patterns in poetry, and so forth.
Hofstadter has said of himself, "I'm someone who has one foot in the world of humanities and arts, and the other foot
Douglas Hofstadter 692

in the world of science." He has had several exhibitions of his artworks in various university art galleries. These
shows have featured large collections of his gridfonts, his ambigrams (pieces of calligraphy created with two
readings, either of which is usually obtained from the other by rotating or reflecting the ambigram, but sometimes
simply by "oscillation", like the Necker Cube or the rabbit/duck figure of Joseph Jastrow), and his "Whirly Art"
(music-inspired visual patterns realized using shapes based on various alphabets from India). (The term "ambigram"
was invented by Hofstadter in 1984 and has since been taken up by many ambigrammists all over the world.)[33]
Hofstadter has composed numerous pieces for piano, and a few for piano and voice. He created an audio CD with the
title DRH/JJ, which includes all these compositions performed primarily by pianist Jane Jackson, but with a few
performed by Brian Jones, Dafna Barenboim, Gitanjali Mathur and himself.[34]
Hofstadter's writing is characterized by an intense interaction between form and content, as is exemplified by the 20
dialogues in GEB, many of which simultaneously talk about and imitate strict musical forms used by Bach, such as
canons and fugues. Most of Hofstadter's books are characterized by some kind of structural alternation: in GEB
between dialogues and chapters, in The Mind's I between selections and reflections, in Metamagical Themas between
Chapters and Postscripts, and so forth. Both in his writing and in his teaching, Hofstadter stresses the concrete,
constantly using examples and analogies, and avoids the abstract. Typical of the courses he teaches is his seminar
"Group Theory and Galois Theory Visualized", in which abstract mathematical ideas are rendered as concretely as
possible. He puts great effort into making ideas clear and visual, and asserts that when he teaches, if his students do
not understand something, it is never their fault but always his own.
Hofstadter is passionate about languages. He has studied many of them, and speaks them to varying degrees. In
addition to English, his mother tongue, he speaks French and Italian fluently (the language spoken at home with his
children is Italian). At various times in his life, he has studied (in descending order of level of fluency reached)
German, Russian, Spanish, Swedish, Mandarin, Dutch, Polish, and Hindi. His love of sounds pushes him to strive to
minimize, and ideally get rid of, any foreign accent.
Le Ton beau de Marot: In Praise of the Music of Language is a long book devoted to language and translation,
especially poetry translation, and one of its leitmotifs is a set of some 88 translations of "Ma Mignonne", a highly
constrained poem by sixteenth-century French poet Clément Marot. In this book, Hofstadter jokingly describes
himself as "pilingual" (meaning that the sum total of the varying degrees of mastery of all the languages that he's
studied comes to 3.14159...), as well as an "oligoglot" (someone who speaks "a few" languages).[35] [36]
In 1999, the bicentennial year of Russian poet and writer Alexander Pushkin, Hofstadter published a verse
translation of Pushkin's classic novel-in-verse Eugene Onegin. It is highly constrained and filled with many types of
sonic pattern. Aside from Eugene Onegin, Hofstadter has translated many other poems (always respecting their
formal constraints), and two other novels (in prose): La Chamade (That Mad Ache) by French writer Françoise
Sagan, and La Scoperta dell'Alba (The Discovery of Dawn) by Walter Veltroni, the then head of the Partito
Democratico in Italy. The Discovery of Dawn was published in 2007, and That Mad Ache was published in 2009,
bound together with Hofstadter's essay Translator, Trader: An Essay on the Pleasantly Pervasive Paradoxes of
Translation.
Hofstadter is related by marriage to the evolutionary theorist Stephen Jay Gould: Hofstadter's paternal aunt was
married to Gould's maternal uncle.
The dedication for I Am A Strange Loop is: "To my sister Laura, who can understand, and to our sister Molly, who
cannot." Hofstadter explains in the preface that his younger sister Molly never developed the ability to speak or
understand language.
Douglas Hofstadter 693

Published works

Books
The books published by Hofstadter are (the ISBNs refer to paperback editions, where available):
• Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid (ISBN 0-465-02656-7) (1979)
• Metamagical Themas (ISBN 0-465-04566-9) (collection of Scientific American columns and other essays, all with
postscripts)
• Ambigrammi: un microcosmo ideale per lo studio della creatività (in Italian only) ISBN 88-7757-006-7
• Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies (ISBN 0-465-02475-0)
• Rhapsody on a Theme by Clement Marot. The Grace A. Tanner Lecture in Human Values, 1995. (Published 1996)
• Le Ton beau de Marot: In Praise of the Music of Language (ISBN 0-465-08645-4)
• Eugene Onegin: A Novel Versification (ISBN 0-465-02094-1)
• I Am a Strange Loop (ISBN 0-465-03078-5) (2007)
• The Discovery of Dawn (ISBN 9780847831098) (2007)
• That Mad Ache, co-bound with Translator, Trader: An Essay on the Pleasantly Pervasive Paradoxes of
Translation (ISBN 9780465010981) (2009)
• Surfaces and Essences, co-authored with Emmanuel Sander (ISBN 0465018475) (coming out on September 27,
2010)

Papers
Hofstadter wrote, among many others, the following papers:
• "Energy levels and wave functions of Bloch electrons in rational and irrational magnetic fields", Rev. B 14 (1976)
2239 [37].
• Written while he was at the University of Oregon, this paper soon became well-known because, extending the
ideas of Russian (now Israeli) physicist Mark Ya. Azbel', it pointed the way to an understanding of a famous
unsolved problem in quantum mechanics, by showing that the allowed energy-level values of an electron in a
crystal lattice in a magnetic field form a graph (energy vs. magnetic field) that is a self-similar (fractal) shape.
This fractal structure is generally known as "Hofstadter's butterfly", which was the first fractal ever found in
physics, and it has recently been confirmed in transport measurements in two-dimensional electron systems
with a superimposed nano-fabricated lattice.
• "A non-deterministic approach to analogy, involving the Ising model of ferromagnetism", in E. Caianiello (ed.),
The Physics of Cognitive Processes. Teaneck, NJ: World Scientific, 1987.
• "Speechstuff and thoughtstuff: Musings on the resonances created by words and phrases via the subliminal
perception of their buried parts", in Sture Allen (ed.), Of Thoughts and Words: The Relation between Language
and Mind. Proceedings of the Nobel Symposium 92, London/New Jersey: World Scientific Publ., 1995, 217-267.
• "On seeing A's and seeing As.", Stanford Humanities Review 4,2 (1995) pp. 109–121.
• "Analogy as the Core of Cognition" [38], in Dedre Gentner, Keith Holyoak, and Boicho Kokinov (eds.) The
Analogical Mind: Perspectives from Cognitive Science, Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press/Bradford Book, 2001,
pp. 499–538.
• "To Err is Human; To Study Error-making is Cognitive Science" (co-authored by David J. Moser), Michigan
Quarterly Review, Vol. XXVIII, No. 2, 1989, pp. 185-215.
• Hofstadter wrote over 50 papers that were published through the Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition
[39]
Douglas Hofstadter 694

Involvement in other books

Hofstadter wrote forewords for or edited the following books:
• Sparse Distributed Memory by Pentti Kanerva (Bradford Books/MIT Press, 1988). (ISBN 0262111322)
• The Mind's I: Fantasies and Reflections on Self and Soul (co-edited with Daniel Dennett) (ISBN 0-465-03091-2
and ISBN 0-553-01412-9) (ISBN 0-553-34584-2) 1981
• Alan Turing: The Enigma by Andrew Hodges. (Preface)
• Gödel's Proof (2002 revised edition) by Ernest Nagel and James R. Newman, edited by Hofstadter (ISBN
0-8147-5816-9). In the forward, Hofstadter explains that the book (originally published in 1958) exerted a
profound influence on him when he was young.
• Who invented the computer? The legal battle that changed computing history. (2003) by Alice Rowe Burks.
• Alan Turing: Life and Legacy of a Great Thinker by Christof Teuscher (Editor)
• Jason Salavon: Brainstem Still Life (ISBN 981-05-1662-2) 2004 (Introduction)
• Masters of Deception: Escher, Dali & the Artists of Optical Illusion 2004 by Al Seckel. Hofstadter wrote the
foreword.
• King of Infinite Space: Donald Coxeter, the Man Who Saved Geometry by Siobhan Roberts, Walker and
Company, 2006. Hofstadter wrote the foreword.
• Are Quanta Real? A Galilean Dialogue by J.M. Jauch (ISBN 0-253-20545-X) 1989 Indiana University Press;
Hofstadter wrote the foreword.

Students
Some of Hofstadter's former students include:
• David Chalmers - philosopher of mind
• Melanie Mitchell - computer scientist and complexity theorist
• Robert M. French - cognitive scientist
• Scott A. Jones - inventor of voicemail
• Harry Foundalis - creator of Phaeaco, an architecture to solve Bongard Problems

See also
• Platonia dilemma
• Egbert B. Gebstadter
• BlooP and FlooP
• Hofstadter's law
• Superrationality
• American philosophy
• List of American philosophers
Douglas Hofstadter 695

External links
• Stanford University Presidential Lecture [40] - site dedicated to Hofstadter and his work
• List of publications [41] from the DBLP Bibliography Server.
• Entry [42] at Google Directory
• Profile [43] at c2.com
• Profile [44] at Resonance Publications
• NF Reviews [45] - bibliographic page with reviews of several of Hofstadter's books
• Radio interview [46] on Philosophy Talk

References
[1] A bedside book of paradoxes (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ books/ 97/ 07/ 20/ reviews/ hofstadter-themas. html), New York Times
[2] http:/ / www. cogsci. indiana. edu
[3] IU pages as faculty (http:/ / www. cogs. indiana. edu/ people/ homepages/ hofstadter. html), IU distinguished faculty (http:/ / www. indiana.
edu/ ~alldrp/ members/ hofstadter. html) (see this announcement (http:/ / newsinfo. iu. edu/ news/ page/ normal/ 5075. html) on March 21,
2007) and as speaker (http:/ / newsinfo. iu. edu/ sb/ page/ normal/ 198. html)
[4] A Day in the Life of... Douglas Hofstadter (http:/ / www. acm. org/ crossroads/ xrds10-2/ hofstadter. html) 2004
[5] Seminar: AI: Hope and Hype (http:/ / www. indiana. edu/ ~deanfac/ blspr99/ cogs/ cogs_q700_1003. html) 1999
[6] American Academy Announces 2009 Class of Fellows and Foreign Honorary Members (http:/ / www. amacad. org/ news/ new2009. aspx)
[7] American Philosophical Society: Members (http:/ / www. amphilsoc. org/ )
[8] Douglas Hofstadter's sequences Java applet (http:/ / pagesperso-orange. fr/ jean-paul. davalan/ mots/ suites/ hof/ index-en. html) 2002
[9] Hofstadter items at the On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences: A005185 (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Oeis:a005185) Q-sequence,
A004001 (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Oeis:a004001) Hofstadter-Conway $10000 sequence, A005206 (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/
Oeis:a005206) G-sequence, A005374 (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Oeis:a005374) H-sequence, A005375 (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/
Oeis:a005375) type, A005376 (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Oeis:a005376) another type, A046699 (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/
Oeis:a046699) Reg Allenby, K. Pinn : A chaotic cousin of Conway's recursive sequence, A006949 (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/
Oeis:a006949) S. M. Tanny : A well-behaved cousin of the Hofstadter sequence, A070864 (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Oeis:a070864)
Hofstadter-type sequence
[10] Hofstadter items at Wolfram MathWorld: Hofstadter-Conway $10,000 Sequence (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/
Hofstadter-Conway10000-DollarSequence. html), G-Sequence (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ HofstadterG-Sequence. html), H-Sequence
(http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ HofstadterH-Sequence. html), Q-Sequence (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ HofstadtersQ-Sequence.
html), Male-Female Sequences (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ HofstadterMale-FemaleSequences. html), Figure-Figure Sequence (http:/ /
mathworld. wolfram. com/ HofstadterFigure-FigureSequence. html) and geometric constructs: Hofstadter Point (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram.
com/ HofstadterPoint. html), Hofstadter Triangle (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ HofstadterTriangle. html), Hofstadter Ellipse (http:/ /
mathworld. wolfram. com/ HofstadterEllipse. html)
[11] An overview of Metacat (http:/ / science. slc. edu/ ~jmarshall/ metacat) 2003
[12] By Analogy: A talk with the most remarkable researcher in artificial intelligence today, Douglas Hofstadter, the author of Gödel, Escher,
Bach (http:/ / www. wired. com/ wired/ archive/ 3. 11/ kelly. html) Wired Magazine, November 1995
[13] Analogy as the Core of Cognition (http:/ / kwc. org/ blog/ archives/ 2006/ 2006-02-06.
talk_douglas_hofstadter_analogy_as_the_core_of_cognition. html) Review of Stanford lecture, Feb 2, 2006
[14] Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition (http:/ / www. cogsci. indiana. edu/ research. html)
[15] Hofstadter, Douglas, To Err is Human; to Study Error-making is Cognitive Science. Together with David Moser. Michigan Quarterly
Review, Vol. XXVIII, No. 2, 1989, pp. 185-215.
[16] "Will Spiritual Robots Replace Humanity By 2100?", April 1, 2000 Note: as of 2007, videos seem to be missing.
[17] “Moore’s Law, Artificial Evolution, and the Fate of Humanity.” In L. Booker, S. Forrest, et al. (eds.), Perspectives on Adaptation in Natural
and Artificial Systems. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.
[18] The Singularity Summit at Stanford (http:/ / sss. stanford. edu/ ) 2006
[19] Trying to Muse Rationally about the Singularity Scenario (http:/ / video. google. com/ videoplay?docid=8832143373632003914) 35 minute
video, May 13, 2006
[20] Quotes from his 2006 Singularity Summit presentation (http:/ / www. singinst. org/ summit2007/ quotes/ douglashofstadter/ )
[21] “Staring EMI Straight in the Eye — and Doing My Best Not to Flinch.” In David Cope, Virtual Music: Computer Synthesis of Musical Style,
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2001.
[22] Consciousness In The Cosmos: Perspective of Mind: Douglas Hofstadter (http:/ / www. bizcharts. com/ stoa_del_sol/ conscious/ conscious2.
html)
[23] "Me, My Soul, and I" (http:/ / www. wired. com/ wired/ archive/ 15. 03/ play. html?pg=3). Wired. March 2007. . Retrieved 2007-12-10.
Douglas Hofstadter 696

[24] The Mind Reader (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 04/ 01/ magazine/ 01wwlnQ4. t. html?_r=1& ref=magazine& oref=slogin) New York
Times Magazine, April 1, 2007
[25] Mean Chess-Playing Computer Tears at Meaning of Thought (http:/ / www. rci. rutgers. edu/ ~cfs/ 472_html/ Intro/ NYT_Intro/
ChessMatch/ MeanChessPlaying. html) by Bruce Weber, February 19, 1996, New York Times
[26] Use with caution: The perils of Wikipedia (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2007/ TECH/ 11/ 02/ perils. wikipedia/ )
[27] Victim of the Brain (http:/ / video. google. com/ videoplay?docid=8576072297424860224) - 1988 docudrama about the ideas of Douglas
Hofstadter
[28] Amazon.com's company timeline (http:/ / phx. corporate-ir. net/ phoenix. zhtml?c=176060& p=irol-corporateTimeline) July 1995
[29] Online implementation of his Reviews of this Book idea (http:/ / www. reenigne. org/ blog/ review/ )
[30] A Person Paper on Purity in Language (http:/ / www. cs. virginia. edu/ ~evans/ cs655/ readings/ purity. html) by William Satire (alias
Douglas R. Hofstadter), 1985 - a satirical piece, on the subject of sexist language
[31] Metamagical Themas, Douglas R. Hofstadter, Basic Books, New Yoork (1985), see preface, introduction, contents listing.
[32] French and Italian (http:/ / www. indiana. edu/ ~frithome/ alumni/ spr96index. html) Spring 1996, Vol. X
[33] Sounds like Bach (http:/ / www. unc. edu/ ~mumukshu/ gandhi/ gandhi/ hofstadter. htm)
[34] Piano Music by Douglas Hofstadter (Audio CD) ISBN 1576771431, 2000
[35] Hofstadter, Douglas R. Le Ton Beau de Marot. New York: Basic Books, 1997, pp. 16-17.
[36] Hofstadter, Douglas R. Le Ton Beau de Marot. New York: Basic Books, 1997, p. 627
[37] http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRB/ v14/ i6/ p2239_1''Phys.
[38] http:/ / prelectur. stanford. edu/ lecturers/ hofstadter/ analogy. html
[39] CRCC Publications offline (http:/ / www. cogsci. indiana. edu/ phard. html)
[40] http:/ / prelectur. stanford. edu/ lecturers/ hofstadter/
[41] http:/ / www. informatik. uni-trier. de/ ~ley/ db/ indices/ a-tree/ h/ Hofstadter:Douglas. html
[42] http:/ / www. google. com/ Top/ Computers/ Artificial_Intelligence/ Creativity/ Hofstadter,_Douglas_R. /
[43] http:/ / c2. com/ cgi/ wiki?DouglasHofstadter
[44] http:/ / www. resonancepub. com/ douglas_hofstadter. htm
[45] http:/ / www-users. cs. york. ac. uk/ ~susan/ bib/ nf/ h/ hofstdtr. htm
[46] http:/ / philosophytalk. org/ pastShows/ Loops. html
Homer 697

Homer
Homer (Greek Ὅμηρος Homēros)

Idealized portrayal of Homer dating to the Hellenistic period. British Museum.

Lived ca. 8th century BC

Influences rhapsodic oral poetry

Influenced Classics (Western canon)

Homer (Ancient Greek: Ὅμηρος, Hómēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic poet, traditionally said to be the
author of the epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey. The ancient Greeks generally believed that Homer was an
historical individual, but most scholars are skeptical: no reliable biographical information has been handed down
from classical antiquity,[1] and the poems themselves seem to represent the culmination of many centuries of oral
story-telling and a well-developed formulaic system of poetic composition. According to Martin West, "Homer" is
"not the name of a historical poet, but a fictitious or constructed name."[2]
The date of Homer's existence was controversial in antiquity and is no less so today. Herodotus said that Homer
lived 400 years before his own time, which would place him at around 850 BC;[3] but other ancient sources gave
dates much closer to the supposed time of the Trojan War.[4] The date of the Trojan War was given as 1194–1184
BC by Eratosthenes, who strove to establish a scientific chronology of events, and this date is gaining support in
light of recent archaeological research.
For modern scholarship, "the date of Homer" refers to the date of the poems' conception as much as to the lifetime of
an individual. The scholarly consensus is that "the Iliad and the Odyssey date from the extreme end of the 9th
century BC or from the 8th, the Iliad being anterior to the Odyssey, perhaps by some decades,"[5] i.e. somewhat
earlier than Hesiod,[6] and that the Iliad is the oldest work of Western literature. Over the past few decades, some
scholars have argued for a 7th-century date. Those who believe that the Homeric poems developed gradually over a
long period of time, however, generally give a later date for the poems: according to Gregory Nagy, they became
fixed texts in only the 6th century.[7]
Alfred Heubeck states that the formative influence of the works of Homer in shaping and influencing the whole
development of Greek culture was recognized by many Greeks themselves, who considered him to be their
instructor.[8]
Homer 698

Life and legends

Although "Homer" is a Greek name, attested in
Aeolic-speaking areas,[9] nothing definite is known of
him; yet rich traditions grew up, or were conserved,
purporting to give details of his birthplace and
background. Many of them were purely fantastical: the
satirist Lucian, in his fabulous True History, makes him
out to be a Babylonian called Tigranes, who assumed
the name Homer only when taken "hostage" (homeros)
by the Greeks.[10] When the Emperor Hadrian asked
the Oracle at Delphi who Homer really was, the Pythia
proclaimed that he was Ithacan, the son of Epikaste and
Telemachus, from the Odyssey.[11] These stories
proliferated and were incorporated into a number[12] of
Lives of Homer compiled from the Alexandrian period
onwards.[13] The most common version has Homer
born in the Ionian region of Asia Minor, at Smyrna, or
on the island of Chios, and dying on the Cycladic
island of Ios.[13] [14] A connection with Smyrna seems
to be alluded to in a legend that his original name was
"Melesigenes" ("born of Meles", a river which flowed
by that city), and of the nymph Kretheis. Internal
evidence from the poems gives some support to this
connection: familiarity with the topography of this area
Homer and His Guide, by William-Adolphe Bouguereau
of Asia Minor's littoral obtrudes in place-names and (1825–1905). The scene portrays Homer on Mount Ida, beset by
details, and similes evocative of local scenery: the dogs and guided by the goatherder Glaucus. (The tale is told in
meadow birds at the mouth of the Caystros (Iliad Pseudo-Herodotus).

2.459ff.), a storm in the Icarian sea (Iliad 2.144ff.), and

wind-lore (Iliad 2.394ff: 4.422ff: 9.5),[15] or that women of either Maeonia or Caria stain ivory with scarlet (Iliad
4.142).[16]

The association with Chios dates back at least to Semonides of Amorgos who cited a famous line in the Iliad (6.146)
as by "the man of Chios". Some kind of eponymous bardic guild, known as the Homeridae (sons of Homer), or
Homeristae ('Homerizers')[17] appears to have existed there, variously tracing descent from an imaginary ancestor of
that name,[18] or vaunting their special function as rhapsodes or "lay-stitchers" specialising in the recitation of
Homeric poetry.
The poet's name is homophonous with ὅμερος (hómēros), meaning, generally, "hostage" (or "surety"), long
understood as "he who accompanies; he who is forced to follow", or, in some dialects, "blind".[19] The assonance
itself generated many tales relating the person to the functions of a hostage or of a blind man. In regard to the latter,
traditions holding that he was blind may have arisen from the meaning of the word both in Ionic, where the verbal
form ὁμηρεύω (homēreúō) has the specialized meaning of "guide the blind",[20] and in the Aeolian dialect of Cyme,
where ὅμηρος (hómēros) was synonymous with standard Greek τυφλός (tuphlós), meaning 'blind'.[21] The
characterization of Homer as a blind bard goes back to some verses in the Delian Hymn to Apollo, the third of the
Homeric Hymns,[22] verses later cited to support this notion by Thucydides.[23] The Cumean historian Ephorus held
the same view, and the idea gained support in antiquity on the strength of a false etymology deriving his name from
ho mḕ horṓn (ὁ μὴ ὁρών: "he who does not see"). Critics have long taken as self-referential[24] a passage in the
Homer 699

Odyssey describing a blind bard, Demodocus, in the court of the Phaeacian king, who recounts stories of Troy to the
shipwrecked Odysseus.[25]
Many scholars take the name of the poet to be indicative of a generic function. Gregory Nagy takes it to mean "he
who fits (the Song) together".[26] ὁμηρέω (homēréō), another related verb, besides signifying "meet", can mean
"(sing) in accord/tune".[27] Some argue that "Homer" may have meant "he who puts the voice in tune" with
dancing.[28] [29] Marcello Durante links "Homeros" to an epithet of Zeus as "god of the assemblies" and argues that
behind the name lies the echo of an archaic word for "reunion", similar to the later Panegyris, denoting a formal
assembly of competing minstrels.[30] [31]
The Ancient Lives depict Homer as a wandering minstrel, much like Thamyris[32] or Hesiod, who walked as far as
Chalkis to sing at the funeral games of Amphidamas.[33] We are given the image of a "blind, begging singer who
hangs around with little people: shoemakers, fisherman, potters, sailors, elderly men in the gathering places of
harbour towns".[34] The poems themselves give evidence of singers at the courts of the nobility. Scholars are divided
as to which category, if any, the court singer or the wandering minstrel, the historic "Homer" belonged.[35]

Works attributed to Homer

The Greeks of the sixth and early fifth centuries understood by "Homer", generally, "the whole body of heroic
tradition as embodied in hexameter verse".[36] Thus, in addition to the Iliad and the Odyssey, there are "exceptional"
epics which organize their respective themes on a "massive scale".[37] Many other works were credited to Homer in
antiquity, including the entire Epic Cycle. The genre included further poems on the Trojan War, such as the Little
Iliad, the Nostoi, the Cypria, and the Epigoni, as well as the Theban poems about Oedipus and his sons. Other works,
such as the corpus of Homeric Hymns, the comic mini-epic Batrachomyomachia ("The Frog-Mouse War"), and the
Margites were also attributed to him, but this is now believed to be unlikely. Two other poems, the Capture of
Oechalia and the Phocais were also assigned Homeric authorship, but the question of the identities of the authors of
these various texts is even more problematic than that of the authorship of the two major epics.

Problems of authorship
The idea that Homer was responsible for just the two outstanding epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, did not win
consensus until 350 BC.[38] While many find it unlikely that both epics were composed by the same person, others
argue that the stylistic similarities are too consistent to support the theory of multiple authorship. One view which
attempts to bridge the differences holds that the Iliad was composed by "Homer" in his maturity, while the Odyssey
was a work of his old age. The Batrachomyomachia, Homeric Hymns and cyclic epics are generally agreed to be
later than the Iliad and the Odyssey.
Most scholars agree that the Iliad and Odyssey underwent a process of standardisation and refinement out of older
material beginning in the 8th century BC. An important role in this standardisation appears to have been played by
the Athenian tyrant Hipparchus, who reformed the recitation of Homeric poetry at the Panathenaic festival. Many
classicists hold that this reform must have involved the production of a canonical written text.
Other scholars still support the idea that Homer was a real person. Since nothing is known about the life of this
Homer, the common joke—also recycled with regard to Shakespeare—has it that the poems "were not written by
Homer, but by another man of the same name."[39] [40] Samuel Butler argued that a young Sicilian woman wrote the
Odyssey (but not the Iliad), an idea further pursued by Robert Graves in his novel Homer's Daughter and Andrew
Dalby in Rediscovering Homer.[41]
Independent of the question of single authorship is the near-universal agreement, after the work of Milman Parry,[42]
that the Homeric poems are dependent on an oral tradition, a generations-old technique that was the collective
inheritance of many singer-poets (aoidoi). An analysis of the structure and vocabulary of the Iliad and Odyssey
shows that the poems contain many formulaic phrases typical of extempore epic traditions; even entire verses are at
Homer 700

times repeated. Parry and his student Albert Lord pointed out that such elaborate oral tradition, foreign to today's
literate cultures, is typical of epic poetry in a predominantly oral cultural milieu, the key words being "oral" and
"traditional". Parry started with "traditional": the repetitive chunks of language, he said, were inherited by the
singer-poet from his predecessors, and were useful to him in composition. Parry called these repetitive chunks
"formulas".
Exactly when these poems would have taken on a fixed written form is subject to debate. The traditional solution is
the "transcription hypothesis", wherein a non-literate "Homer" dictates his poem to a literate scribe between the 8th
and 6th centuries. The Greek alphabet was introduced in the early 8th century, so it is possible that Homer himself
was of the first generation of authors who were also literate. The classicist Barry B. Powell suggests that the Greek
Alphabet was invented c. 800 BC by one man, probably Homer, in order to write down oral epic poetry.[43] More
radical Homerists like Gregory Nagy contend that a canonical text of the Homeric poems as "scripture" did not exist
until the Hellenistic period (3rd to 1st century BCE).

Homeric studies
The study of Homer is one of the oldest topics in scholarship, dating back to antiquity. The aims and achievements
of Homeric studies have changed over the course of the millennia. In the last few centuries, they have revolved
around the process by which the Homeric poems came into existence and were transmitted over time to us, first
orally and later in writing.
Some of the main trends in modern Homeric scholarship have been, in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Analysis
and Unitarianism (see Homeric Question), schools of thought which emphasized on the one hand the inconsistencies
in, and on the other the artistic unity of, Homer; and in the 20th century and later Oral Theory, the study of the
mechanisms and effects of oral transmission, and Neoanalysis, the study of the relationship between Homer and
other early epic material.

Homeric dialect
The language used by Homer is an archaic version of Ionic Greek, with admixtures from certain other dialects, such
as Aeolic Greek. It later served as the basis of Epic Greek, the language of epic poetry, typically in dactylic
hexameter.

Homeric style
Aristotle remarks in his Poetics that Homer was unique among the poets of his time, focusing on a single unified
theme or action in the epic cycle.[44]
The cardinal qualities of the style of Homer are well articulated by Matthew Arnold:
[T]he translator of Homer should above all be penetrated by a sense of four qualities of his author:—that
he is eminently rapid; that he is eminently plain and direct, both in the evolution of his thought and in
the expression of it, that is, both in his syntax and in his words; that he is eminently plain and direct in
the substance of his thought, that is, in his matter and ideas; and finally, that he is eminently noble.[45]
The peculiar rapidity of Homer is due in great measure to his use of hexameter verse. It is characteristic of early
literature that the evolution of the thought, or the grammatical form of the sentence, is guided by the structure of the
verse; and the correspondence which consequently obtains between the rhythm and the syntax—the thought being
given out in lengths, as it were, and these again divided by tolerably uniform pauses—produces a swift flowing
movement such as is rarely found when periods are constructed without direct reference to the metre. That Homer
possesses this rapidity without falling into the corresponding faults, that is, without becoming either fluctuant or
monotonous, is perhaps the best proof of his unequalled poetic skill. The plainness and directness of both thought
and expression which characterise him were doubtless qualities of his age, but the author of the Iliad (similar to
Homer 701

Voltaire, to whom Arnold happily compares him) must have possessed this gift in a surpassing degree. The Odyssey
is in this respect perceptibly below the level of the Iliad.
Rapidity or ease of movement, plainness of expression, and plainness
of thought are not distinguishing qualities of the great epic poets
Virgil, Dante,[46] and Milton. On the contrary, they belong rather to the
humbler epico-lyrical school for which Homer has been so often
claimed. The proof that Homer does not belong to that school—and
that his poetry is not in any true sense ballad poetry—is furnished by
the higher artistic structure of his poems and, as regards style, by the
fourth of the qualities distinguished by Arnold: the quality of
nobleness. It is his noble and powerful style, sustained through every
change of idea and subject, that finally separates Homer from all forms
of ballad-poetry and popular epic.

Like the French epics, such as the Chanson de Roland, Homeric poetry
is indigenous and, by the ease of movement and its resultant simplicity,
distinguishable from the works of Dante, Milton and Virgil. It is also
distinguished from the works of these artists by the comparative
absence of underlying motives or sentiment. In Virgil's poetry, a sense
of the greatness of Rome and Italy is the leading motive of a passionate
Statue of Homer outside the Bavarian State
rhetoric, partly veiled by the considered delicacy of his language.
Library in Munich.
Dante and Milton are still more faithful exponents of the religion and
politics of their time. Even the French epics display sentiments of fear
and hatred of the Saracens; but, in Homer's works, the interest is purely dramatic. There is no strong antipathy of
race or religion; the war turns on no political events; the capture of Troy lies outside the range of the Iliad; and even
the protagonists are not comparable to the chief national heroes of Greece. So far as can be seen, the chief interest in
Homer's works is that of human feeling and emotion, and of drama; indeed, his works are often referred to as
"dramas".

History and the Iliad

The excavations of Heinrich Schliemann at Hisarlik in the late 19th
century provided initial evidence to scholars that there was a historical
basis for the Trojan War. Research into oral epics in Serbo-Croatian
and Turkic languages, pioneered by the aforementioned Parry and
Lord, began convincing scholars that long poems could be preserved
with consistency by oral cultures until they are written down.[42] The
decipherment of Linear B in the 1950s by Michael Ventris (and others)
convinced many of a linguistic continuity between 13th century BC
Mycenaean writings and the poems attributed to Homer.

It is probable, therefore, that the story of the Trojan War as reflected in Greece according to the Iliad
the Homeric poems derives from a tradition of epic poetry founded on
a war which actually took place. It is crucial, however, not to underestimate the creative and transforming power of
subsequent tradition: for instance, Achilles, the most important character of the Iliad, is strongly associated with
southern Thessaly, but his legendary figure is interwoven into a tale of war whose kings were from the Peloponnese.
Tribal wanderings were frequent, and far-flung, ranging over much of Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean.[47] The
epic weaves brilliantly the disiecta membra (scattered remains) of these distinct tribal narratives, exchanged among
Homer 702

clan bards, into a monumental tale in which Greeks join collectively to do battle on the distant plains of Troy.

Hero cult
In the Hellenistic period, Homer was the subject of a hero cult in
several cities. A shrine, the Homereion, was devoted to him in
Alexandria by Ptolemy IV Philopator in the late 3rd century BC. This
shrine is described in Aelian's 3rd century work Varia Historia. He
tells how Ptolemy "placed in a circle around the statue [of Homer] all
the cities who laid claim to Homer" and mentions a painting of the poet
by the artist Galaton, which apparently depicted Homer in the aspect of
Oceanus as the source of all poetry.

A marble relief, found in Italy but thought to have been sculpted in

Egypt, depicts the apotheosis of Homer. It shows Ptolemy and his wife
or sister Arsinoe III standing beside a seated poet, flanked by figures
from the Odyssey and Iliad, with the nine Muses standing above them
and a procession of worshippers approaching an altar, believed to
represent the Alexandrine Homereion. Apollo, the god of music and
poetry, also appears, along with a female figure tentatively identified
The Apotheosis of Homer, by Archelaus of
as Mnemosyne, the mother of the Muses. Zeus, the king of the gods, Priene. Marble relief, possibly of the 3rd century
presides over the proceedings. The relief demonstrates vividly that the BC, now in the British Museum.
Greeks considered Homer not merely a great poet but the divinely
inspired reservoir of all literature.[48]

Homereia also stood at Chios, Ephesus, and Smyrna, which were among the city-states that claimed to be his
birthplace. Strabo (14.1.37) records a Homeric temple in Smyrna with an ancient xoanon or cult statue of the poet.
He also mentions sacrifices carried out to Homer by the inhabitants of Argos, presumably at another Homereion.[49]

Transmission and publication

Though evincing many features characteristic of oral poetry, the Iliad and Odyssey were at some point committed to
writing. The Greek script, adapted from a Phoenician syllabary around 800 BCE, made possible the notation of the
complex rhythms and vowel clusters that make up hexameter verse. Homer's poems appear to have been recorded
shortly after the alphabet's invention: an inscription from Ischia in the Bay of Naples, ca. 740 BCE, appears to refer
to a text of the Iliad; likewise, illustrations seemingly inspired by the Polyphemus episode in the Odyssey are found
on Samos, Mykonos and in Italy dating from the first quarter of the seventh century BCE. We have little information
about the early condition of the Homeric poems, but in the second century BCE, Alexandrian editors stabilized this
text from which all modern texts descend.
In late antiquity, knowledge of Greek declined in Latin-speaking western Europe and, along with it, knowledge of
Homer's poems. It was not until the fifteenth century AD that Homer's work began to be read once more in Italy. By
contrast it was continually read and taught in the Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire where the majority of the
classics also survived. The first printed edition appeared in 1488.
Homer
See also
Topics
• Achaeans (Homer)
• Achilles
• Aoidos
• Ancient accounts of
Homer
• Aristarchus of Samothrace
• Bibliomancy
• Catalogue of Ships
• Cyclic Poets
• Dactylic hexameter
• Deception of Zeus
• Epic Cycle
• Epic poetry
• Epithets in Homer
• Geography of the Odyssey
• Greek mythology
• Homeric Greek
• Homeric nod
• Homeric Question
• Homeric scholarship
• Homer's Ithaca
Modern scholars
• Richard Bentley
• Ioannis Kakridis
• Adolf Kirchhoff
• Geoffrey Kirk
• Karl Lachmann
• Walter Leaf
• Albert Lord
• David Binning Monro •
• Karl Otfried Müller
• Gilbert Murray
• Gregory Nagy
Selected bibliography
Editions
(texts in Homeric Greek)
• Demetrius Chalcondyles editio princeps, Florence, 1488
• the Aldine editions (1504 and 1517)
• Th. Ridel, Strassbourg, ca. 1572, 1588 and 1592.
• Wolf (Halle, 1794–1795; Leipzig, 1804 1807)
• Spitzner (Gotha, 1832–1836)
• Bekker (Berlin, 1843; Bonn, 1858)
• La Roche (Odyssey, 1867–1868; Iliad, 1873–1876, both at Leipzig)
703
• Hector
• Historicity of the Iliad
• Ithaca
• Life of Homer
(Pseudo-Herodotus)
• List of characters in the Iliad
• Odysseus
• Peisistratos (Athens)
• Rhapsode
• Shield of Achilles
• Sortes Homerica
• Tabula Iliaca
• "Telemachy"
• Trojan Battle Order
• Trojan War
• Trojan War in art and literature
• Troy
• Troy VII
• Venetus A Manuscript
• Zenodotus of Ephesus
• Gregor Wilhelm Nitzsch
• Milman Parry
• Barry B. Powell
• Heinrich Schliemann
• William Bedell Stanford
• Jean-Baptiste Gaspard d'Ansse de Villoison
• Alan Wace
Martin Litchfield West
• Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff
• Friedrich August Wolf
Homer 704

• Ludwich (Odyssey, Leipzig, 1889–1891; Iliad, 2 vols., 1901 and 1907)

• W. Leaf (Iliad, London, 1886–1888; 2nd ed. 1900-1902)
• W. Walter Merry and James Riddell (Odyssey i.-xii., 2nd ed., Oxford, 1886)
• Monro (Odyssey xiii.-xxiv. with appendices, Oxford, 1901)
• Monro and Allen (Iliad), and Allen (Odyssey, 1908, Oxford).
• D.B. Monro and T.W. Allen 1917-1920, Homeri Opera (5 volumes: Iliad = 3rd edition, Odyssey = 2nd edition),
Oxford. ISBN 0-19-814528-4, ISBN 0-19-814529-2, ISBN 0-19-814531-4, ISBN 0-19-814532-2, ISBN
0-19-814534-9
• H. van Thiel 1991, Homeri Odyssea, Hildesheim. ISBN 3-487-09458-4, 1996, Homeri Ilias, Hildesheim. ISBN
3-487-09459-2
• M.L. West 1998-2000, Homeri Ilias (2 volumes), Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3-598-71431-9, ISBN 3-598-71435-1
• P. von der Mühll 1993, Homeri Odyssea, Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3-598-71432-7
• Ilias in Wikisource

Interlinear translations
• The Iliad of Homer a Parsed Interlinear, Handheldclassics.com (2008) Text ISBN 978-1607252986

English translations
This is a partial list of translations into English of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.
• Augustus Taber Murray (1866–1940)
• Homer: Iliad, 2 vols., revised by William F. Wyatt, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press (1999).
• Homer: Odyssey, 2 vols., revised by George E. Dimock, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press
(1995).
• Robert Fitzgerald (1910–1985)
• The Iliad, Farrar, Straus and Giroux (2004) ISBN 0-374-52905-1
• The Odyssey, Farrar, Straus and Giroux (1998) ISBN 0-374-52574-9
• Robert Fagles (1933–2008)
• The Iliad, Penguin Classics (1998) ISBN 0-14-027536-3
• The Odyssey, Penguin Classics (1999) ISBN 0-14-026886-3
• Stanley Lombardo (b. 1943)
• Iliad, Hackett Publishing Company (1997) ISBN 0-87220-352-2
• Odyssey, Hackett Publishing Company (2000) ISBN 0-87220-484-7
• Iliad, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-08-3
• Odyssey, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-06-7
• The Essential Homer, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-12-1
• The Essential Iliad, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-10-5
• Samuel Butler (novelist) (1835–1902)
• The Iliad, Red and Black Publishers (2008) ISBN 978-1-934941-04-1
• The Odyssey, Red and Black Publishers (2008) ISBN 978-1-934941-05-8
• Herbert Jordan (b. 1938)
• "Iliad", University of Oklahoma Press (2008) ISBN 9780806139746 (soft cover); ISBN 9780806139425 (cloth
bound)
Homer 705

General works on Homer

• Pierre Carlier, Homère, Fayard 1999. ISBN 2-213-60381-2
• Pierre Vidal-Naquet, Le monde d'Homère, Perrin 2000. ISBN 2-262-01181-8
• Jacqueline de Romilly, Homère, Presses Universitaire de France, 5th ed. 2005. ISBN 2-13-054830-X
• J. Latacz 2004, Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery, Oxford, ISBN 0-19-926308-6; 5th
updated and expanded edition, Leipzig 2005 (in Spanish 2003 ISBN 84-233-3487-2, modern Greek 2005 ISBN
960-16-1557-1)
• Robert Fowler (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Homer [50], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2004.
ISBN 0-521-01246-5
• I. Morris and B. B. Powell 1997, A New Companion to Homer, Leiden. ISBN 90-04-09989-1
• B. B. Powell 2007, "Homer," 2nd edition. Oxford. ISBN 978-1-4051-5325-5
• Wace, A.J.B.; F.H. Stubbings (1962). A Companion to Homer. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-07113-1.

Influential readings and interpretations

• E. Auerbach 1953, Mimesis, Princeton (orig. publ. in German, 1946, Bern), chapter 1. ISBN 0-691-11336-X
• M.W. Edwards 1987, Homer, Poet of the Iliad, Baltimore. ISBN 0-8018-3329-9
• B. Fenik 1974, Studies in the Odyssey, Wiesbaden ('Hermes' Einzelschriften 30).
• M.I. Finley, The World of Odysseus 1954, rev. ed. 1978.
• I.J.F. de Jong 1987, Narrators and Focalizers, Amsterdam/Bristol. ISBN 1-85399-658-0
• G. Nagy 1980, "The Best of the Achaeans", Baltimore. ISBN 978-0801860157

Commentaries
• Iliad:
• P.V. Jones (ed.) 2003, Homer's Iliad. A Commentary on Three Translations, London. ISBN 1-85399-657-2
• G. S. Kirk (gen. ed.) 1985-1993, The Iliad: A Commentary (6 volumes), Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-28171-7,
ISBN 0-521-28172-5, ISBN 0-521-28173-3, ISBN 0-521-28174-1, ISBN 0-521-31208-6, ISBN
0-521-31209-4
• J. Latacz (gen. ed.) 2002-, Homers Ilias. Gesamtkommentar. Auf der Grundlage der Ausgabe von
Ameis-Hentze-Cauer (1868–1913) (2 volumes published so far, of an estimated 15), Munich/Leipzig. ISBN
3-598-74307-6, ISBN 3-598-74304-1
• N. Postlethwaite (ed.) 2000, Homer's Iliad: A Commentary on the Translation of Richmond Lattimore, Exeter.
ISBN 0-85989-684-6
• M.W. Willcock (ed.) 1976, A Companion to the Iliad, Chicago. ISBN 0-226-89855-5
• Odyssey:
• A. Heubeck (gen. ed.) 1990-1993, A Commentary on Homer's Odyssey (3 volumes; orig. publ. 1981-1987 in
Italian), Oxford. ISBN 0-19-814747-3, ISBN 0-19-872144-7, ISBN 0-19-814953-0
• P. Jones (ed.) 1988, Homer's Odyssey: A Commentary based on the English Translation of Richmond
Lattimore, Bristol. ISBN 1-85399-038-8
• I.J.F. de Jong (ed.) 2001, A Narratological Commentary on the Odyssey, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-46844-2
Homer 706

Trends in Homeric scholarship

"Classical" analysis
• A. Heubeck 1974, Die homerische Frage, Darmstadt. ISBN 3-534-03864-9
• R. Merkelbach 1969, Untersuchungen zur Odyssee (2nd edition), Munich. ISBN 3-406-03242-7
• D. Page 1955, The Homeric Odyssey, Oxford.
• U. von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff 1916, Die Ilias und Homer, Berlin.
• F.A. Wolf 1795, Prolegomena ad Homerum, Halle. Published in English translation 1988, Princeton. ISBN
0-691-10247-3
Neoanalysis
• M.E. Clark 1986, "Neoanalysis: a bibliographical review," Classical World 79.6: 379-94.
• J. Griffin 1977, "The epic cycle and the uniqueness of Homer," Journal of Hellenic Studies 97: 39-53.
• J.T. Kakridis 1949, Homeric Researches, London. ISBN 0-8240-7757-1
• W. Kullmann 1960, Die Quellen der Ilias (Troischer Sagenkreis), Wiesbaden. ISBN 3-515-00235-9
Homer and oral tradition
• E. Bakker 1997, Poetry in Speech: Orality and Homeric Discourse, Ithaca NY. ISBN 0-8014-3295-2
• J.M. Foley 1999, Homer's Traditional Art, University Park PA. ISBN 0-271-01870-4
• G.S. Kirk 1976, Homer and the Oral Tradition, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-21309-6
• A.B. Lord 1960, The Singer of Tales, Cambridge MA. ISBN 0-674-00283-0
• M. Parry 1971, The Making of Homeric Verse, Oxford. ISBN 0-19-520560-X
• B. B. Powell, 1991, Homer and the Origin of the Greek Alphabet, ISBN 0-521-58907-X

Dating the Homeric poems

• R. Janko 1982, Homer, Hesiod and the Hymns, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-23869-2

External links
• Iliad by Homer [51]
• Works by Homer [52] at Project Gutenberg.
• Iliad bilingual edition bks 1-12 [53] at archive.org
• Collection of Homer-related links [54]
• Greek lessons based on Homer [55]
• Clyde Pharr, Homer and the study of Greek [56]
• Homer [57]
• SORGLL: Homer, Iliad, Bk I, 1-52; read by Stephen Daitz [58]
• Racing Odysseus: A College President Becomes a Freshman Again [59] A former college president attended St.
John's College and wrote a memoir about his experience reading Homer, rowing Crew, and examining the
importance of a liberal arts education in today’s society.
• Heath, Malcolm (May 4, 2001). "Aristotle's Poetics: Notes on Homer's Iliad and Odyssey" [60]. Retrieved
2008-10-01
• Translation issues: [61] Iliad translator Herbert Jordan (U. of Oklahoma Press 2008) describes translation issues
including: how literal should it be; whether to call the besiegers Achaeans, Argives, Danaans, or Greeks;
how—and whether—to translate "winged words"; what the wall by the ships looked like; whether the besiegers
slept in tents, huts, camps—or nothing.
Authority control: LCCN: n78095639 [62]
Homer 707

References
[1] G. S. Kirk's comment that "Antiquity knew nothing definite about the life and personality of Homer" represents the general consensus (Kirk,
The Iliad: a Commentary (Cambridge 1985), v. 1).
[2] West, Martin (1999). "The Invention of Homer". Classical Quarterly 49 (364).
[3] Herodotus 2.53.
[4] Graziosi, Barbara (2002). The Invention of Homer. Cambridge. pp. 98–101.
[5] Vidal-Naquet, Pierre (2000). Le monde d'Homère. Perrin. p. 19.
[6] M. L. West (1966). Hesiod's Theogony. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 40, 46.
[7] Nagy, Gregory (2001). Homeric Poetry and Problems of Multiformity: The "Panathenaic Bottleneck. 96. Classical Philology (journal). pp.
109–119.
[8] Heubeck, Alfred; West, Stephanie; Hainsworth, J. B. (1988). A Commentary on Homer's Odyssey. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 3.
[9] Silk, Michael (1987). Homer: The Iliad. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 5.
[10] Lucian, Verae Historiae 2.20, cited and tr.Barbara Graziosi‚Inventing Homer:The Early Reception of Epic,’ Cambridge University Press,
2002 p.127
[11] Parke, Herbert W. (1967). Greek Oracles. pp. 136–137 citing the Certamen, 12.
[12] There were seven in addition to an account of a bardic competition between Homer and Hesiod.F.Stoessl,'Homeros'in Der Kleine Pauly:
Lexikon der Antike in fünf Bänden, Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, München 1979, Bd.2, p.1202
[13] Kirk, G.S. (1965). Homer and the Epic: A Shortened Version of the Songs of Homer. London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 190.
[14] Homêreôn was one of the names for a month in the calendar of Ios. H.G. Liddell, R. Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, rev.ed.Sir Henry
Stuart-Jones, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1968 ad loc
[15] Kirk, op.cit.pp.191f.; G.S.Kirk,The Songs of Homer, Cambridge University Press, 1962 pp.272ff.)
[16] Barry B. Powell, ‘Did Homer sing at Lefkandi?’, Electronic Antiquity, July 1993, Vol. 1, No. 2.
[17] Gilbert Murray, The Rise of the Greek Epic, p.307
[18] "The probability is that 'Homer' was not the name of a historical Greek poet but the imaginary ancestor of the Homeridai; such guild-names
in -idai and -adai are not normally based on the name of an historical person". M.L. West, The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in
Greek Poetry and Myth, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1997 p. 622. West hazards a conjectural Phoenician prototype for Homer's name, "*benê
ômerîm" ("sons of speakers"), id est professional tale-tellers.
[19] P. Chantraine, dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque, Klincksieck, Paris, 1968, vol.2 (3-4) p.797 ad loc.
[20] H.G.Liddell, R.Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, rev. ed. Sir Henry Stuart-Jones, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1968 ad loc.
[21] Pseudo-Herodotus, Vita Homeri1.3 in Thomas W. Allen, Homeri Opera, Tomus V,(1912) 1946 p.194. Cf. Lycophron, Alexandra, l.422
[22] Homeric Hymns 3:172-3
[23] Thucidides, The Peloponnesian War 3:104
[24] Barbara Graziosi,Inventing Homer: The Early Reception of Epic,’ Cambridge University Press, 2002 p.133
[25] Odyssey, 8:64ff.
[26] Gregory Nagy, The Best of the Achaeans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and
London, 1979 pp296-300
[27] M.L. West (ed.), Hesiod Theogony,Clarendon Press, Oxford 1966 on line 39, p.170
[28] Gilbert Murray, The Rise of the Greek Epic, ibid., p.
[29] Filippo Càssola (ed.) Inni Omerici, Mondadori, Milan, 1975 p. xxxiii
[30] Marcello Durante, 'II nome di Omero', in Rendiconti Accademia Lincei, XII, 1957 pp. 94-111
[31] Marcello Durante, Sulla preistoria della tradizione poetica greca,Edizioni dell'Ateneo, Rome 1971 2 vols. vol. 2 pp. 185-204, esp. pp.
194ff.
[32] Iliad, 2.595
[33] Hesiod, Works and Days, 654-5; Martin P. Nilsson, Homer & Mycenae(12933) University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972 pp. 207ff.
[34] Joachim Latacz, Homer: His Art and His World, tr. James P. Holoka, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor 1996, p. 29
[35] Barbara Graziosi, ibid. esp. p.134
[36] Gilbert Murray, The Rise of the Greek Epic', 4th ed. ibid. p. 93
[37] William G. Thalman, Conventions of Form and Thought in Early Greek Greek Epic Poetry, John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and
London, 1984 p. 119
[38] Gilbert Murray: The Rise of the Greek Epic, 4th ed. 1934, Oxford University Press reprint 1967 p. 299
[39] Yorku.ca (http:/ / psychclassics. yorku. ca/ Baldwin/ History/ preface. htm#f4)
[40] Worldwideschool.org (http:/ / www. worldwideschool. org/ library/ books/ lit/ literarystudies/ LiteraryBlunders/ chap7. html)
[41] Mary Ebbott "Butler's Authoress of the Odyssey: gendered readings of Homer, then and now," (Classics@: Issue 3). (http:/ / chs. harvard.
ed/ chs/ files/ classics_issue3_ebbott. pdf)
[42] Adam Parry (ed.) The Making of Homeric Verse: The Collected Papers of Milman Parry, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1987.
[43] "Signs of Meaning" Science 324 p 38 3-April-2009 reviewing Powell's Writing and citing Powell's Homer and the Origin of the Greek
Alphabet CUP 1991
Homer 708

[44] Aristotle, Poetics, 1451a 16-29. Cf. Aristotle, "On the Art of Poetry" in T.S. Dorsch (tr.), Aristotle, Horace, Longinus: Classical Literary
Criticism, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1965 ch. 8 pp. 42-43
[45] Matthew Arnold, 'On Translating Homer' (Oxford Lecture, 1861) in Lionel Trilling (ed.) The Portable Matthew Arnold,(1949) Viking Press,
New York 1956 pp. 204-228, p. 211
[46] Dante has Virgil introduce Homer, with a sword in hand, as poeta sovrano (sovereign poet), walking ahead of Horace, Ovid and Lucan. Cf.
Inferno IV, 88
[47] Gilbert Murray, The Rise of the Greek Epic, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1907, pp. 182f., slightly expanded in the 4th. ed.(1934) 1960 pp. 206ff.
[48] Morgan, Llewelyn, 1999. Patterns of Redemption in Virgil's Georgics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 30.
[49] Zanker, Paul, 1996. The Mask of Socrates: The Image of the Intellectual in Antiquity, Alan Shapiro, trans. (Berkeley: University of
California Press).
[50] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=K5WQRBvMp18C& printsec=frontcover
[51] http:/ / www. holyebooks. org/ authors/ homer/ illiad/ illiad. html
[52] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ browse/ authors/ h#a705
[53] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ iliadmurray01homeuoft
[54] http:/ / www. gpc. edu/ ~shale/ humanities/ literature/ world_literature/ homer. html
[55] http:/ / www. ellopos. net/ elpenor/ greek-language. asp
[56] http:/ / www. ellopos. net/ elpenor/ lessons/ pharr. asp
[57] http:/ / madeinatlantis. com/ athens/ homer. htm
[58] http:/ / www. rhapsodes. fll. vt. edu/ iliad1. htm
[59] http:/ / www. ucpress. edu/ books/ pages/ 11091. php/
[60] http:/ / www. leeds. ac. uk/ classics/ resources/ poetics/ poet-hom. htm
[61] http:/ / www. iliadtranslation. com/ translation. html
[62] http:/ / errol. oclc. org/ laf/ n78095639. html

Stephen King
Stephen King

Stephen King, February 2007

Born Stephen Edwin King

September 21, 1947
Portland, Maine, United States

Pen name Richard Bachman, John Swithen

Occupation Novelist, short story writer, screenwriter, columnist, actor, television producer, film director

Genres Horror, fantasy, science fiction, drama, gothic, genre fiction, dark fantasy
Stephen King 709

Spouse(s) Tabitha King

Children Naomi King

Joe King
Owen King

Signature

[3]
Official website

Stephen Edwin King (born September 21, 1947) is an American author of contemporary horror, suspense, science
fiction and fantasy fiction. His books have sold more than 500 million copies and have been made into many movies.
He is known for novels such as Carrie, The Shining, The Stand, It, Misery, and the seven-novel series The Dark
Tower, which King wrote over a period of 27 years. As of 2010, King has written and published 49 novels, including
seven under the pen name Richard Bachman, five non-fiction books, and nine collections of short stories including
Night Shift, Skeleton Crew, and Everything's Eventual. Many of his stories are set in his homestate of Maine. He has
collaborated with authors Peter Straub and Stewart O'Nan. Some of his novels have been also been turned into comic
books, such as The Stand, The Talisman, and The Dark Tower series.
King has received many awards, including several Bram Stoker Awards, Locus Awards, and, in 2003, the National
Book Foundation awarded him the Medal for Distinguished Contribution to American Letters.[4]
King and his wife, Tabitha, have three children, Naomi, Joe and Owen. Tabitha, Joe and Owen are also published
writers.

Early life and background

King's father, Donald Edwin King, who was born ca. 1913 in Peru, Indiana, was a merchant seaman[5] ; his mother,
Nellie Ruth (née Pillsbury) (March 13, 1913 - December 28, 1973) was born in Scarborough, Maine[5] . They got
married July 23, 1939 in Cumberland County, Maine[5] .
Stephen King was born September 21, 1947 in Portland, Maine. When King was two years old, his father left the
family under the pretense of "going to buy a pack of cigarettes," leaving his mother to raise King and his adopted
older brother David by herself, sometimes under great financial strain. The family moved to De Pere, Wisconsin;
Fort Wayne, Indiana; and Stratford, Connecticut. When King was eleven years old, the family returned to Durham,
Maine, where Ruth King cared for her parents until their deaths. She then became a caregiver in a local residential
facility for the mentally challenged.[6]
As a child, King apparently witnessed one of his friends being struck and killed by a train, though he has no memory
of the event. His family told him that after leaving home to play with the boy, King returned, speechless and
seemingly in shock. Only later did the family learn of the friend's death. Some commentators have suggested that
this event may have psychologically inspired some of King's darker works,[7] but King himself has dismissed the
idea.[8]
Stephen King 710

King's primary inspiration for writing horror fiction was related in detail in his 1981 non-fiction Danse Macabre, in a
chapter titled "An Annoying Autobiographical Pause". King makes a comparison of his uncle successfully dowsing
for water using the bough of an apple branch with the sudden realization of what he wanted to do for a living. While
browsing through an attic with his elder brother, King uncovered a paperback version of an H. P. Lovecraft
collection of short stories that had belonged to his father. The cover art—an illustration of a yellow-green Demon
hiding within the recesses of a Hellish cavern beneath a tombstone—was, he writes,
"The moment of my life when the dowsing rod suddenly went down hard... as far as I was concerned, I
was on my way."

Education and early creativity

King attended Durham Elementary School and graduated from Lisbon Falls High School in Lisbon Falls, Maine. He
displayed an early interest in horror as an avid reader of EC's horror comics, including Tales from the Crypt (he later
paid tribute to the comics in his screenplay for Creepshow). He began writing for fun while still in school,
contributing articles to Dave's Rag, the newspaper that his brother published with a mimeograph machine and later
began selling stories to his friends which were based on movies he had seen (though when discovered by his
teachers, he was forced to return the profits). The first of his stories to be independently published was "I Was a
Teenage Grave Robber", serialized over three published and one unpublished issue of a fanzine, Comics Review, in
1965.[9] That story was published the following year in a revised form as "In a Half-World of Terror" in another
fanzine, Stories of Suspense, edited by Marv Wolfman.[10]
From 1966, King studied English at the University of Maine, where he graduated in 1970, the year in which his first
daughter, Naomi Rachel, was born, with a Bachelor of Science in English. He wrote a column for the student
newspaper, The Maine Campus, titled "Steve King's Garbage Truck", took part in a writing workshop organized by
Burton Hatlen,[1] and took odd jobs to pay for his studies, including one at an industrial laundry. He sold his first
professional short story, "The Glass Floor", to Startling Mystery Stories in 1967.[6] The Fogler Library at UMaine
now holds many of King's papers.
After leaving the university, King earned a certificate to teach high school but, being unable to find a teaching post
immediately, initially supplemented his laboring wage by selling short stories to men's magazines such as Cavalier.
Many of these early stories have been published in the collection Night Shift. In 1971, King married Tabitha Spruce,
a fellow student at the University of Maine whom he had met at the University's Fogler Library after one of
Professor Hatlen's workshops.[1] That fall, King was hired as a teacher at Hampden Academy in Hampden, Maine.
He continued to contribute short stories to magazines and worked on ideas for novels.[6] It was during this time that
King developed a drinking problem, which stayed with him for more than a decade.
In 1972, Joseph Hillstrom, his second child was born.

Success with Carrie

On Mother's Day, 1973, King's novel Carrie was accepted by publishing house Doubleday. King actually threw an
early draft of the novel in the trash after becoming discouraged with his progress writing about a teenage girl with
psychic powers. His wife retrieved the manuscript and encouraged him to finish it.[11] His advance for Carrie was
$2,500, with paperback rights earning $400,000 at a later date. King and his family relocated to southern Maine
because of his mother's failing health. At this time, he began writing a book titled Second Coming, later titled
Jerusalem's Lot, before finally changing the title to 'Salem's Lot (published 1975). Soon after the release of Carrie in
1974, his mother died of uterine cancer. His Aunt Emrine read the novel to her before she died. King has written of
his severe drinking problem at this time, stating that he was drunk delivering the eulogy at his mother's funeral.[8]
After his mother's death, King and his family had moved to Boulder, Colorado, where King wrote The Shining
(published 1977). The family returned to western Maine in 1975, where King completed his fourth novel, The Stand
Stephen King 711

(published 1978). In 1977, the family, with the addition of Owen Phillip (his third and last child), traveled briefly to
England, returning to Maine that fall where King began teaching creative writing at the University of Maine. King
has kept his primary residence in Maine ever since.

The Dark Tower books

In the late 1970s, King began a series of interconnected stories about a
lone gunslinger, Roland, who pursues the "Man in Black" in an
alternate-reality universe that is a cross between J.R.R. Tolkien's
Middle-earth and the American wild west as depicted by Clint
Eastwood and Sergio Leone in their spaghetti westerns. The first of
these, The Dark Tower: The Gunslinger, was first published in five
installments by The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction under the
editorship of Edward L. Ferman, beginning in 1977 and the last in
1981. The Gunslinger would be continued as a large 7-book epic called
The Dark Tower, which would be written and published infrequently
over four decades, from the 1970s to the 2000s.

In 1982, the fantasy small-press Donald M. Grant (known for

publishing the entire canon of Robert E. Howard) printed these stories
for the first time together in hardcover form with color and
black-and-white illustrations by then up-and-coming fantasy artist
Michael Whelan, as The Gunslinger. Each chapter was named for the
story previously published in magazine form. King dedicated the
hardcover edition to his editor at F&SF, Ed Ferman, who "took a
Stephen King at the Harvard Book Store
chance on these stories". The original print-run was only 10,000
copies, which was, by this time, a comparatively low run for a first
printing of a King novel in hardcover. His 1980 novel, Firestarter, had an initial print-run in trade hardcover at
100,000 copies, and his 1983 novel, Christine, had a trade hardcover print-run of 250,000 copies, both by the much
larger publisher Viking. The Gunslinger's initial release was not highly publicized, and only specialty science-fiction
and related bookstores carried it on their shelves. The book was generally not available in the larger chain stores,
except by special order. Rumors spread among avid fans that there was a King book out that few readers knew about,
let alone had actually read. When the initial 10,000 copies sold out, Grant printed another 10,000 copies in 1984, but
these runs were still far short of the growing demand among fans for this book. The Dark Tower: The Gunslinger
was the beginning of his magnum opus fantasy epic. Both the first and second printings of The Gunslinger garner
premium prices on the collectible book market, notably among avid readers and collectors of Stephen King, horror
literature, fantasy literature, and even American western literature. And it is also desirable among avid fans of the
artwork of Michael Whelan.

In 1987, King released the second installment, The Dark Tower II: The Drawing of the Three, in which Roland
draws three people from 20th-century United States into his world through magical doors. Grant published The
Drawing of the Three with illustrations by Phil Hale in a slightly larger run of 30,000 copies, which was still well
below King's typical initial hardcover print-run of a new book. (It, published in 1986, had an initial print-run of
1,000,000 copies, King's largest to date.) King had believed that the Dark Tower books would only be of interest to a
select group of his fans, and he had resisted releasing it on a larger scale. Finally, in the late 1980s, bowing to
pressure from his publishers and fans who were hungry for the books (at this point fewer than 50,000 of his millions
of readers would have been able to own any of the Dark Tower books), King agreed to release The Gunslinger and
all subsequent Dark Tower books in trade paperback and mass market formats. The series reached seven books, with
Stephen King 712

the final installment called The Dark Tower VII: The Dark Tower, in 2004.
In the early 2000s King revised the original book, The Gunslinger, because he felt the voice and imagery of the
original stories of the late 1970s did not seem to fit the voice of the final installment of 2004. King felt the style of
the work had markedly changed during the intervening 27 years. The revised version was published in 2003 by his
former hardcover publisher Viking. Grant published its hardcover limited edition of the revised version of The
Gunslinger along with a prequel story set in the Dark Tower world called "The Little Sisters of Eluria" (from King's
short story collection Everything's Eventual) in 2009.
On November 10, 2009, King announced he was writing a new Dark Tower novel titled The Wind Through the
Keyhole. King stated it will take place between the fourth and fifth installments.[12]

Adaptations
In October 2005, King signed a deal with Marvel Comics to publish a seven-issue, miniseries spin-off of The Dark
Tower series called The Gunslinger Born. The series, which focuses on a young Roland Deschain, is plotted by
Robin Furth, with dialogue by Peter David, and illustrated by Eisner Award-winning artist Jae Lee. The first issue
was published on February 7, 2007, and King, David, Lee and Marvel Editor-in-Chief Joe Quesada appeared at a
midnight signing at a Times Square, New York comic book store to promote it.[13] [14] The work had sold over
200,000 copies by March 2007.[15] The success of The Gunslinger Born led to a ongoing series of miniseries
published by Marvel, with Furth and David continuing to collaborate, featuring both adapted material from the Dark
Tower books and new material approved by King; it also led to a second series of King adaptations in the same
format, serializing the events of The Stand.
Although The Hollywood Reporter announced in February 2007 that plans were underway for Lost co-creator J. J.
Abrams to do an adaptation of King's epic Dark Tower series,[2] Abrams stated in a November 2009 interview with
MTV that he would not be adapting the series.[16]

Richard Bachman
In the late 1970s-early 1980s, King published a handful of short novels—Rage (1977), The Long Walk (1979),
Roadwork (1981), The Running Man (1982) and Thinner (1984)—under the pseudonym Richard Bachman. The idea
behind this was largely an experiment to measure for himself whether or not he could replicate his own success
again, and allay at least part of the notion within his mind that popularity might all be just an accident of fate. An
alternate (or additional) explanation was that publishing standards at the time allowed only a single book a year.[17]
Richard Bachman was exposed as being King's pseudonym after a persistent Washington D.C. bookstore clerk,
Steve Brown, noticed similarities between the two's works and later located publisher's records at the Library of
Congress naming King as the author of one of Bachman's novels.[18] This led to a press release heralding Bachman's
"death" — supposedly from "cancer of the pseudonym".[19] King dedicated his 1989 book The Dark Half, about a
pseudonym turning on a writer, to "the deceased Richard Bachman", and in 1996, when the Stephen King novel
Desperation was released, the companion novel The Regulators carried the "Bachman" byline.
In 2006, during a press conference in London, King declared that he had discovered another Bachman novel, titled
Blaze. It was published on June 12, 2007. In fact, the manuscript had been held at King's alma mater, the University
of Maine in Orono, for many years and had been covered by numerous King experts. King completely rewrote the
1973 manuscript for its publication.
Stephen King 713

Confronting addiction
Shortly after The Tommyknockers publication in 1987, King's family and friends staged an intervention, dumping
evidence of his addictions taken from the trash including beer cans, cigarette butts, grams of cocaine, Xanax,
Valium, NyQuil, dextromethorphan (cough medicine) and marijuana, on the rug in front of him. As King related in
his memoir, he then sought help and quit all forms of drugs and alcohol in the late 1980s, and has remained sober
since.[8]

Car accident and thoughts of retirement

In the summer of 1999, King had finished the memoir section of On Writing: A Memoir of the Craft, but had
abandoned the book for nearly eighteen months, unsure of how or whether to proceed.
On June 19, at about 4:30 p.m., he was reading a book and walking on the shoulder of Route 5, in Lovell, Maine.
Driver Bryan Smith, distracted by an unrestrained dog moving in the back of his minivan,[20] struck King, who
landed in a depression in the ground about 14 feet from the pavement of Route 5.[8] According to Oxford County
Sheriff deputy Matt Baker, King was struck from behind and some witnesses said the driver was not speeding or
reckless.[21]
King was conscious enough to give the deputy phone numbers to contact his family but was in considerable pain.
The author was first transported to Northern Cumberland Hospital in Bridgton and then flown by helicopter to
Central Maine Medical Center, in Lewiston. His injuries—a collapsed right lung, multiple fractures of his right leg,
scalp laceration and a broken hip—kept him at CMMC until July 9. After five operations in ten days and physical
therapy, King resumed work on On Writing in July, though his hip was still shattered and he could only sit for about
forty minutes before the pain became worse. Soon it became nearly unbearable.
King's lawyer and two others purchased Smith's van for $1,500, reportedly to prevent it from appearing on eBay.
The van was later crushed at a junkyard, much to King's disappointment, as he dreamed of beating it with a baseball
bat. King later mentioned during an interview with Fresh Air's Terry Gross that he wanted to completely destroy the
vehicle himself with a pickaxe.[22]
Two years later, King suffered severe pneumonia as a direct result of his lung being punctured in the accident.
During this time, Tabitha King was inspired to redesign his studio. King visited the space while his books and
belongings were packed away. What he saw was an image of what his studio would look like if he died, providing a
seed for his novel Lisey's Story.
In 2002, King announced he would stop writing, apparently motivated in part by frustration with his injuries, which
had made sitting uncomfortable and reduced his stamina. He has since resumed writing, but states on his website
that:
"I'm writing but I'm writing at a much slower pace than previously and I think that if I come up with
something really, really good, I would be perfectly willing to publish it because that still feels like the
final act of the creative process, publishing it so people can read it and you can get feedback and people
can talk about it with each other and with you, the writer, but the force of my invention has slowed
down a lot over the years and that's as it should be."[23]
Stephen King 714

Later works
In 2000, King published a serialized novel, The Plant, online, bypassing print publication. At first it was presumed
by the public that King had abandoned the project because sales were unsuccessful, but he later stated that he had
simply run out of stories.[24] The unfinished epistolary novel is still available from King's official site, now free.
In 2006, King published an apocalyptic novel Cell.
In 2008, King published both a novel, Duma Key, and a collection, Just After Sunset. The latter featured 13 short
stories, including a novella, N., which was later released as a serialized animated series that could be seen for free,
or, for a small fee, could be downloaded in a higher quality; it then was adopted into a limited comic book series.
In 2009, King published "Ur", a novella written exclusively for the launch of the second-generation Amazon Kindle
and available only on Amazon.com, and "Throttle", a novella co-written with his son Joe Hill, which later was
released as an audiobook Road Rage, which included Richard Matheson's short story Duel.
King's latest novel is Under the Dome, a reworking of an unfinished novel he tried writing twice in the late 1970s
and early 1980s. It was published on November 10, 2009. It is the largest novel he has written since 1986's It,
coming in at 1074 pages. It debuted at #1 in The New York Times Bestseller List, and #3 in UK Book Charts.
On February 16, 2010, King announced on his website that his next book will be a collection of four previously
unpublished novellas. The book will be called Full Dark, No Stars.
In April 2010, King published Blockade Billy, an original novella issued first by independent small press Cemetery
Dance Publications and later released in mass market paperback by Simon & Schuster. This baseball-related
suspense novella is not set to be reprinted in Full Dark, No Stars.

Work in comics
King has done some writing for comic books.[25] In 1985 King wrote a few pages of the benefit X-Men comic book
Heroes for Hope Starring the X-Men. The book, whose profits were donated to assist with famine relief in Africa,
was written by a number of different authors in the comic book field, such as Chris Claremont, Stan Lee, and Alan
Moore, as well as authors not primarily associated with that industry, such as Harlan Ellison.[26] The following year,
King wrote the introduction to Batman #400, an anniversary issue in which he expressed his preference for that
character over Superman.[27]
In 2007, Marvel Comics began publishing comic books based on King's Dark Tower series, followed by adaptations
of The Stand in 2008 and The Talisman in 2009.
In 2010, DC Comics premiered American Vampire, a monthly series written by King with short story writer Scott
Snyder, and illustrated by Rafael Albuquerque.[28]
Stephen King 715

Family life
King and his wife own and occupy three
different houses, one in Bangor, one in
Lovell, Maine, and they regularly winter in
their waterfront mansion located off the
Gulf of Mexico, in Sarasota, Florida. He and
Tabitha have three children and three
grandchildren.[6]

Tabitha King has published nine of her own

novels. Both King's sons are published
authors: Owen King published his first
collection of stories, We're All in This
Together: A Novella and Stories, in 2005;
Joseph Hillstrom published an
award-winning collection of short stories,
King's home in Bangor
20th Century Ghosts, in 2005, and his first
novel, Heart-Shaped Box will be adapted by
Irish director Neil Jordan for a 2010 Warner Bros. release.[29]

King's daughter Naomi spent two years as a minister in the Unitarian Universalist Church, in Utica, New York.
Naomi now ministers for the Unitarian Universalist Church of River of Grass, in Plantation, Florida with her
same-sex partner, Rev. Dr. Thandeka.[30]

Interests

Philanthropy
Since becoming commercially successful, King and his wife have donated large amounts of money to causes around
their home state of Maine and elsewhere, notably to literacy projects.
The Kings' early '90s donation to the University of Maine Swim Team saved the program from elimination from the
school's athletics department. Donations to local YMCA and YWCA programs have allowed renovations and
improvements that would otherwise have been impossible. Additionally, King annually sponsors a number of
scholarships for high school and college students.
The Kings do not desire recognition for their funding of Bangor-area facilities: they named the Shawn T. Mansfield
Stadium for a prominent local little league coach's son who has cerebral palsy, while the Beth Pancoe Aquatic Park
memorializes an accomplished swimmer from the region who died of cancer.
On November 6, 2008, King appeared with friend and fellow author Richard Russo to raise money for the Western
Massachusetts food bank. The event held by the Odyssey Bookshop in South Hadley at Mount Holyoke College
raised over $18,000 and helped to promote his new collection, Just After Sunset, and Russo's Bridge of Sighs.
Stephen and Tabitha King also donate thousands each year to politically progressive organizations, such as the
Maine People's Alliance.
Stephen King 716

Baseball
King is a fan of baseball, and of the Boston Red Sox in particular; he frequently attends the team's home and away
games, and occasionally mentions the team in his novels and stories. He helped coach his son Owen's Bangor West
team to the Maine Little League Championship in 1989. He recounts this experience in the New Yorker essay "Head
Down", which also appears in the collection Nightmares & Dreamscapes. In 1999, King wrote The Girl Who Loved
Tom Gordon, which featured former Red Sox pitcher Tom Gordon as the protagonist's imaginary companion. King
recently co-wrote a book titled Faithful: Two Diehard Boston Red Sox Fans Chronicle the Historic 2004 Season
with Stewart O'Nan, recounting the authors' roller coaster reaction to the Red Sox's 2004 season, a season
culminating in the Sox winning the 2004 American League Championship Series and World Series. In the 2005 film
Fever Pitch, about an obsessive Boston Red Sox fan, King tosses out the first pitch of the Sox's opening day game.
He has also devoted one of his recent columns for Entertainment Weekly on the subject of commercialism in Major
League Baseball. More recently, King has starred in an ESPN SportsCenter advertisement referencing both his
allegiance to the Red Sox and his preferred writing genre (horror fiction).

Radio stations
Stephen and his wife Tabitha own The Zone Corporation, a central Maine radio station group consisting of WZON,
WZON-FM, and WKIT. The last of the three stations features a Frankenstein-esque character named "Doug E.
Graves" as part of the logo and the tagline "Stephen King's Rock 'n' Roll Station."

Columnist
Since August 2003, King has written a column on pop culture appearing in Entertainment Weekly, usually every
third week. The column is called "The Pop of King", a play on the nickname "The King of Pop" commonly given to
Michael Jackson.[31]

Political views
In April 2008, King spoke out against HB 1423, a bill pending in the Massachusetts state legislature that would
restrict or ban the sale of violent video games to anyone under the age of 18. Although King stated that he had no
personal interest in video games as a hobby, he criticized the proposed law, which he sees as an attempt by
politicians to scapegoat pop culture, and to act as surrogate parents to others' children, which he asserted is usually
"disastrous" and "undemocratic". He also saw the law as inconsistent, as it would forbid a 17-year-old, legally able to
see Hostel: Part II, from buying or renting Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas, which is violent but less graphic. While
conceding that he saw no artistic merit in some violent video games, King also opined that such games reflect the
violence that already exists in society, which would not be lessened by such a law, and would be redundant in light
of the ratings system that already exists for video games. King argued that such laws allow legislators to ignore the
economic divide between the rich and poor, and the easy availability of guns, which he felt were the more legitimate
causes of violence.[32]
A controversy emerged on May 5, 2008, when a conservative blogger posted a clip of King at a Library of Congress
reading event. King, talking to high-school students, had said: "If you can read, you can walk into a job later on. If
you don't, then you've got the Army, Iraq, I don't know, something like that."[33] The comment was described by the
blog as "another in a long line of liberal media members bashing the military," and likened to John Kerry's similar
remark from 2006.[34] King responded later that day, saying, "That a right-wing-blog would impugn my patriotism
because I said children should learn to read, and could get better jobs by doing so, is beneath contempt...I live in a
national guard town, and I support our troops, but I don’t support either the war or educational policies that limit the
options of young men and women to any one career—military or otherwise."[35] King again defended his comment
in an interview with the Bangor Daily News on May 8, saying, "I’m not going to apologize for promoting that kids
get better education in high school, so they have more options. Those that don’t agree with what I’m saying, I’m not
Stephen King 717

going to change their minds."[36]

King's website states that he is a supporter of the Democratic Party. During the 2008 presidential election, King
voiced his support for Democratic candidate Barack Obama.[37]
King was quoted as calling conservative commentator Glenn Beck "Satan's mentally challenged younger
brother."[38]

Work

Writing style
King's formula for learning to write well is: "Read and write four to six hours a day. If you cannot find the time for
that, you can't expect to become a good writer." He sets out each day with a quota of 2000 words and will not stop
writing until it is met. He also has a simple definition for talent in writing: "If you wrote something for which
someone sent you a check, if you cashed the check and it didn't bounce, and if you then paid the light bill with the
money, I consider you talented."[39]
Shortly after his accident, King wrote the first draft of the book Dreamcatcher with a notebook and a Waterman
fountain pen, which he called "the world's finest word processor."[40]
When asked why he writes, King responds: "The answer to that is fairly simple—there was nothing else I was made
to do. I was made to write stories and I love to write stories. That's why I do it. I really can't imagine doing anything
else and I can't imagine not doing what I do."[41] He is also often asked why he writes such terrifying stories and he
answers with another question "Why do you assume I have a choice?"[42]
King often uses authors as characters, or includes mention of fictional books in his stories, novellas and novels, such
as Paul Sheldon who is the main character in Misery and Jack Torrance in The Shining. See also List of fictional
books in the works of Stephen King for a complete list. On 21 September 2009 was announced he will be started as
author for Fangoria.[43]

Influences
King has called Richard Matheson "the author who influenced me most as a writer."[8] Both authors casually
integrate characters' thoughts into the third person narration, just one of several parallels between their writing styles.
In a current edition of Matheson's The Shrinking Man, King is quoted: "A horror story if there ever was one...a great
adventure story—it is certainly one of that select handful that I have given to people, envying them the experience of
the first reading."
King refers to H. P. Lovecraft several times in Danse Macabre. "Gramma", a short story made into a film in the
1980s anthology horror show The New Twilight Zone, mentions Lovecraft's notorious fictional creation
Necronomicon, also borrowing the names of a number of the fictional monsters mentioned therein. "I Know What
You Need" from the 1976 collection Night Shift, and 'Salem's Lot also mention the tome. In On Writing, King is
critical of Lovecraft's dialogue-writing skills, using passages from The Colour Out of Space as particularly poor
examples. There are also several examples of King referring to Lovecraftian characters in his work, such as
Nyarlathotep and Yog-Sothoth.
King acknowledges the influence of Bram Stoker, particularly on his novel 'Salem's Lot, which he envisioned as a
retelling of Dracula.[44] Its related short story "Jerusalem's Lot", is reminiscent of Stoker's The Lair of the White
Worm.
King has also referenced author Shirley Jackson. 'Salem's Lot opens with a quotation from Jackson's The Haunting of
Hill House, and a character in Wolves of the Calla references the Jackson book We Have Always Lived in the Castle.
King is a fan of John D. MacDonald, and dedicated the novella "Sun Dog" to MacDonald, saying "I miss you, old
friend." For his part, MacDonald wrote an admiring preface to Night Shift, and even had his famous character, Travis
Stephen King 718

McGee, reading Cujo in one of the last McGee novels and Pet Sematary in the last McGee novel, The Lonely Silver
Rain.
In 1987 King's Philtrum Press published Don Robertson's novel, The Ideal, Genuine Man. In his forenote to the
novel, King wrote, "Don Robertson was and is one of the three writers who influenced me as a young man who was
trying to 'become' a novelist (the other two being Richard Matheson and John D. MacDonald)."[45]
Robert A. Heinlein's book The Door into Summer is repeatedly mentioned in King's Wolves of the Calla.
In an interview with King, Published in the USA Weekend in March, 2009, the author stated, "People look on writers
that they like as an irreplaceable resource. I do. Elmore Leonard, every day I wake up and – not to be morbid or
anything, although morbid is my life to a degree – don't see his obituary in the paper, I think to myself, "Great! He's
probably working somewhere. He's gonna produce another book, and I'll have another book to read." Because when
he's gone, there's nobody else."[46]
King partly dedicated his book Cell to film director George Romero, and wrote an essay for the Elite DVD version
of Night of the Living Dead.

Collaborations
King has written two novels with acclaimed horror novelist Peter Straub: The Talisman and a sequel, Black House.
King has indicated that he and Straub will likely write the third and concluding book in this series, the tale of Jack
Sawyer, but has set no time line for its completion.
King also wrote the nonfiction book, Faithful with novelist and fellow Red Sox fanatic Stewart O'Nan.
In 1996 King collaborated with Michael Jackson to create Ghosts, a 40-minute musical video in which the singer
portrays a recluse living in a mansion confronting an unwelcoming group of townsfolk initially calling for his exodus
from their community.
"Throttle", a novella written in collaboration with his son Joe Hill, appears in the anthology He Is Legend:
Celebrating Richard Matheson, (Gauntlet Press, 2009).[47]
The Diary of Ellen Rimbauer: My Life at Rose Red, was a paperback tie-in for the King-penned miniseries Rose Red.
The book was published under anonymous authorship, and written by Ridley Pearson. This spin-off is a rare
occasion of another author being granted permission to write commercial work using characters and story elements
invented by King.
Speculation that King wrote the novel Bad Twin, a tie-in to the series Lost, under the pseudonym Gary Troup has
been discredited. This theory was fueled by King being an avid and self-declared Lost fan, having mentioned it and
praised it several times in his Entertainment Weekly articles.
King has written a musical play with John Mellencamp titled Ghost Brothers of Darkland County.
King played guitar for the rock band Rock-Bottom Remainders, several of whose members are authors. Other
members include Dave Barry, Ridley Pearson, Scott Turow, Amy Tan, James McBride, Mitch Albom, Roy Blount,
Jr., Matt Groening, Kathi Kamen Goldmark, Sam Barry, and Greg Iles. None of them claim to have any musical
talent. King is a fan of the rock band AC/DC, who did the soundtrack for his 1986 film, Maximum Overdrive. He is
also a fan of The Ramones, who wrote the title song for Pet Sematary and appeared in the music video. King referred
to the band several times in various novels and stories and The Ramones referenced King on the song "It's Not My
Place (In the 9 to 5 World)", which is on 1981's Pleasant Dreams. In addition he wrote the liner notes for their
tribute album We're a Happy Family. In 1988, the band Blue Öyster Cult recorded an updated version of their 1974
song "Astronomy". The single released for radio play featured a narrative intro spoken by King.[48]
On Sunday, October 25, 2009 the DC Comics Vertigo blog news feed released that King will team up with short
story writer Scott Snyder and artist Rafael Albuquerque in a new monthly comic book series from Vertigo in March
2010 called American Vampire.[49] King is to write the background history of the very first American vampire,
Skinner Sweet, in the five issues of the first arc. Scott Snyder will write the story of Pearl. Both stories are to weave
Stephen King 719

together to form the first story arc.

In 2010, King collaborated with musician Shooter Jennings and his band Hierophant, providing the narration for
their most recent album, Black Ribbons.

Films and TV
Many of King's novels and short stories have been made into major motion pictures or TV movies and miniseries.
King has stated that his favorite book-to-film adaptations are Stand by Me, The Shawshank Redemption, and The
Mist.[50]
King's first film appearance was in George Romero's Knightriders as a buffoonish audience member. His first
featured role was in Creepshow, playing Jordy Verrill, a backwoods redneck who, after touching a fallen meteor in
hopes of selling it, grows moss all over his body. He has since made cameos in several adaptations of his works. He
appeared in Pet Sematary as a minister at a funeral, in Rose Red as a pizza deliveryman, as a news reporter in The
Storm of the Century, in The Stand as "Teddy Wieszack," in the Shining miniseries as a band member, in The
Langoliers as Tom Holby and in Sleepwalkers as the cemetery caretaker. He has also appeared in The Golden Years,
in Chappelle's Show and, along with fellow author Amy Tan, on The Simpsons as himself. In addition to acting, King
tried his hand at directing with Maximum Overdrive, in which he also made a cameo appearance as a man using an
ATM that is on the fritz.
King produced and acted in a miniseries, Kingdom Hospital, which is based on the Danish miniseries Riget by Lars
von Trier. He also co-wrote The X-Files season 5 episode "Chinga" with the creator of the series Chris Carter.
King has also made an appearance as a contestant on Celebrity Jeopardy! in 1995, playing to benefit the Bangor
Public Library.
King provided the voice of Abraham Lincoln in the audiobook version of Assassination Vacation.
In a 2009 episode of Family Guy, "Three Kings", three of King's novels' film adaptations, Stand By Me, Misery, and
The Shawshank Redemption, were parodied.
A season 3 episode of Quantum Leap is a homage to King, at the end when Sam realizes that the character Stevie is a
young Stephen King and that Sam supposedly gave Stephen the idea for "Cujo" just before Sam leaps at the end of
the episode.
The Syfy TV series Haven is based on King's novella, The Colorado Kid.[51]

Reception

Critical response
Although critical reaction to King's work has been mostly positive, he has occasionally come under fire from
academic writers.
Science fiction editors John Clute and Peter Nichols [52] offer a largely favorable appraisal of King, noting his
"pungent prose, sharp ear for dialogue, disarmingly laid-back, frank style, along with his passionately fierce
denunciation of human stupidity and cruelty (especially to children) [all of which rank] him among the more
distinguished 'popular' writers."
In his analysis of post-World War II horror fiction, The Modern Weird Tale (2001), critic S. T. Joshi[53] devotes a
chapter to King's work. Joshi argues that King's best-known works (his supernatural novels), are his worst,
describing them as mostly bloated, illogical, maudlin and prone to deus ex machina endings. Despite these
criticisms, Joshi argues that since Gerald's Game (1993), King has been tempering the worst of his writing faults,
producing books that are leaner, more believable and generally better written. Joshi suggests that King's strengths as
a writer include the accessible "everyman" quality of his prose, and his unfailingly insightful observations about the
Stephen King 720

pains and joys of adolescence. Joshi cites two early non-supernatural novels—Rage (1977) and The Running Man
(1982)—as King's best, suggesting both are riveting and well-constructed suspense thrillers, with believable
characters.
In 1996, King won an O. Henry Award for his short story "The Man in the Black Suit".
In 2003, King was honored by the National Book Awards with a lifetime achievement award, the Medal of
Distinguished Contribution to American Letters, with his work being described thus:
Stephen King’s writing is securely rooted in the great American tradition that glorifies spirit-of-place
and the abiding power of narrative. He crafts stylish, mind-bending page-turners that contain profound
moral truths–some beautiful, some harrowing–about our inner lives. This Award commemorates Mr.
King’s well-earned place of distinction in the wide world of readers and book lovers of all ages.
Some in the literary community expressed disapproval of the award: Richard Snyder, the former CEO of Simon &
Schuster, described King's work as "non-literature", and critic Harold Bloom denounced the choice:
The decision to give the National Book Foundation's annual award for "distinguished contribution" to
Stephen King is extraordinary, another low in the shocking process of dumbing down our cultural life.
I've described King in the past as a writer of penny dreadfuls, but perhaps even that is too kind. He
shares nothing with Edgar Allan Poe. What he is is an immensely inadequate writer on a
sentence-by-sentence, paragraph-by-paragraph, book-by-book basis.[54]
However, others came to King's defense, such as writer Orson Scott Card, who responded:
Let me assure you that King's work most definitely is literature, because it was written to be published
and is read with admiration. What Snyder really means is that it is not the literature preferred by the
academic-literary elite."[55]
In Roger Ebert's review of the 2004 movie Secret Window, he stated, "A lot of people were outraged that [King] was
honored at the National Book Awards, as if a popular writer could not be taken seriously. But after finding that his
book On Writing had more useful and observant things to say about the craft than any book since Strunk and White's
The Elements of Style, I have gotten over my own snobbery."[56]
In 2008, King's book On Writing was ranked 21st on Entertainment Weekly list of "The New Classics: The 100 Best
Reads from 1983 to 2008".[57]

Awards
• Alex Awards 2009: "Just After Sunset"
• American Library Association Best Books for Young Adults
• 1978: "'Salem's Lot"
• 1981: "Firestarter"
• Balrog Awards 1980: "Night Shift"
• Black Quill Awards 2009: "Duma Key"
• Bram Stoker Award
• 1987: Misery
• 1990: Four Past Midnight
• 1995: Lunch at the Gotham Café
• 1996: The Green Mile
• 1998: Bag of Bones
• 2002: "Lifetime Achievement Award"
• 2006: Lisey's Story
• 2009: Duma Key
• 2009: "Just After Sunset"
Stephen King 721

• British Fantasy Award

• 1981: For Outstanding Contribution to the Genre
• 1987: "It"
• 1982: "Cujo"
• 1999: "Bag of Bones"
• 2005: "The Dark Tower VII: The Dark Tower"
• Deutscher Phantastik Preis
• 2000: "Hearts in Atlantis"
• 2001: "The Green Mile"
• 2003: "Black House"
• 2004: International Author of the Year
• 2005: "The Dark Tower VII: The Dark Tower"
• Horror Guild
• 1997: "Desperation"
• 2001: "Riding the Bullet"
• 2001: "On Writing"
• 2002: "Black House"
• 2003: "From a Buick 8"
• 2003: "Everything's Eventual"
• Hugo Award 1982: Danse Macabre
• International Horror Guild Award 1999: "Storm of the Century"
• Locus Awards
• 1982: "Danse Macabre"
• 1986: "Skeleton Crew"
• 1997: "Desperation"
• 1999: "Bag of Bones"
• 2001: "On Writing"
• Mystery Writers of America 2007: "Grand Master Award"
• National Book Award 2003: "Medal of Distinguished Contribution to American Letters"
• New York Public Library Books for the Teen Age 1982: "Firestarter"
• O. Henry Award 1996: The Man in the Black Suit
• Quill Award 2005: "Faithful"
• Spokane Public Library Golden Pen Award 1986: Golden Pen Award
• University of Maine 1980: Alumni Career Award
• Us Magazine 1982: Best Fiction Writer of the Year
• World Fantasy Award
• 1980: "Convention Award"
• 1982: "The Reach"
• 1995: The Man in the Black Suit
• 2004: "Lifetime Achievement"
• World Horror Convention 1992: World Horror Grandmaster
Stephen King 722

See also
Bibliography Publishers
• Stephen King bibliography • Cemetery Dance Publications
• Short fiction by Stephen King • Scribner
• Unpublished works by Stephen King • Doubleday
Family • Grant
• Philtrum Press
• Joseph Hillstrom King
• Viking Press
• Naomi King
• Owen King Projects
• Tabitha King • Dollar Baby
King's fictional topography • Rock Bottom Remainders

• Castle Rock, Maine

• Derry, Maine
• Jerusalem's Lot, Maine

References
[1] Anstead, Alicia (2008-01-23). "UM scholar Hatlen, mentor to Stephen King, dies at 71" (http:/ / bangornews. com/ news/ t/ city.
aspx?articleid=159261& zoneid=176). Bangor Daily News. . Retrieved 2008-03-04.
[2] Sampson, Mike. "Abrams on Dark Tower?" JoBlo.com, February 14, 2007 (http:/ / joblo. com/ abrams-on-dark-tower)
[3] http:/ / www. stephenking. com
[4] http:/ / www. nationalbook. org/ amerletters. html The National Book Foundation's Medal for Distinguished Contribution to American Letters
award page
[5] Ancestry of Stephen King (http:/ / www. genealogy. com/ famousfolks/ stephen-king/ d0/ i0000002. htm) at Geneaology.com; Accessed
August 3, 2010
[6] King, Tabitha; Marsha DeFilippo. "Stephen King.com: Biography" (http:/ / www. stephenking. com/ biography. php). . Retrieved
2008-03-04.
[7] Beahm, George The Stephen King Story: A Literary Profile Andrews and McMeel. 1991. ISBN 0-8362-7989-1 : pp.101
[8] King, Stephen (2000). On Writing. Scribner. ISBN 0684853523.
[9] Wood, Rocky et al. 'Stephen King: Uncollected, Unpublished Abingdon, Maryland 2006 ISBN 1-58767-130-1
[10] Private Research by Rocky Wood confirmed by a copy of the original publication secured in 2008
[11] King, Stephen (2000). On Writing. Scribner. pp. 76–77. ISBN 0684853523.
[12] http:/ / blogs. usaweekend. com/ whos_news/ 2009/ 03/ stephen-king-no. html
[13] Peter David discusses the signing on his blog. (http:/ / peterdavid. malibulist. com/ archives/ 005156. html)
[14] Another blog entry of the signing with photos and links to interviews. (http:/ / peterdavid. malibulist. com/ archives/ 005169. html)
[15] Stephen King Ventures Into Comic Books (http:/ / entertainment. tv. yahoo. com/ entnews/ ap/ 20070310/ 117359580000. html)
[16] "J.J. Abrams Not Adapting King's 'Dark Tower' Series" (http:/ / www. cinematical. com/ 2009/ 11/ 10/
j-j-abrams-not-adapting-kings-dark-tower-series/ ). Cinematical. 2009-10-11. . Retrieved 2010-02-26.
[17] King, Stephen. "Stephen King FAQ: "Why did you write books as Richard Bachman?"" (http:/ / www. stephenking. com/ pages/ FAQ/
Stephen_King/ whybachman. php). StephenKing.com. . Retrieved December 13, 2006.
[18] Brown, Steve. 'Richard Bachman Exposed' (http:/ / www. liljas-library. com/ bachman_exposed. php/ ). Lilja's Library: The World of
Stephen King. Retrieved December 27, 2008.
[19] 'Blaze - Book Summary' (http:/ / books. simonandschuster. com/ 9781416548584). Simon & Schuster. Retrieved January 10, 2009.
[20] Stephen King cracking jokes following surgery - June 21, 1999 (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ books/ news/ 9906/ 21/ stephen. king. 03/ )
[21] Liljas-library homepage (http:/ / www. liljas-library. com/ accident. html)
[22] "Novelist Stephen King" (http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/ story/ story. php?storyId=1124785) Fresh Air; NPR June 22, 2001
[23] "Stephen King.com: The Official FAQ: Is it true that you have retired?" (http:/ / www. stephenking. com/ pages/ FAQ/ Stephen_King/
retired. php). . Retrieved 2008-03-04.
[24] Slashdot | Stephen King's Net Horror Story (http:/ / slashdot. org/ features/ 00/ 11/ 30/ 1238204. shtml)
[25] Stephen King at The Comic Book Database (http:/ / www. comicbookdb. com/ creator. php?ID=2957)
[26] Heroes for Hope at the Comic Book Database (http:/ / www. comicbookdb. com/ creator_title. php?ID=1385& cID=2957& pID=1)
[27] Batman #400 at The Comic Book Database (http:/ / www. comicbookdb. com/ issue. php?ID=34874)
[28] Mullin, Pamela. "SCOTT SNYDER and STEPHEN KING to write a new horror comic book series, AMERICAN VAMPIRE", Vertigo
Blog October 25, 2009 (http:/ / vertigo. blog. dccomics. com/ 2009/ 10/ 25/
scott-snyder-and-stephen-king-to-write-a-new-horror-comic-book-series-american-vampire/ )
Stephen King 723

[29] Internet Movie DataBase - Heart Shaped Box (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0790681/ )
[30] "River of Grass Ministry" (http:/ / www. riverofgrass. org/ index. php?option=com_content& view=category& layout=blog& id=27&
Itemid=12). . Retrieved 2009-04-05.
[31] The Pop of King: The Tao of Steve (http:/ / www. ew. com/ ew/ article/ 0,,472359,00. html)
[32] King, Stephen; "Videogame Lunacy"; "The Pop of King" Entertainment Weekly; April 11, 2008.
[33] Discussion on Writing with Stephen King: C-SPAN Video Library (http:/ / www. c-spanarchives. org/ library/ index.
php?main_page=product_video_info& products_id=204835-1)
[34] Writer Stephen King: If You Can't Read, You'll End Up in the Army or Iraq (http:/ / newsbusters. org/ blogs/ noel-sheppard/ 2008/ 05/ 05/
writer-stephen-king-if-you-cant-read-youll-end-army-or-iraq)
[35] "StephenKing.com" (http:/ / www. stephenking. com/ ). 2008-05-05. . Retrieved 2008-05-23.
[36] McGarrigle, Dale (2008-05-08). "Stephen King defends remarks on Army, Iraq" (http:/ / bangornews. com/ news/ t/ news.
aspx?articleid=164062& zoneid=500). Bangor Daily News. . Retrieved 2008-05-23.
[37] Stephen King backing Barack Obama: US Entertainment (http:/ / www. earthtimes. org/ articles/ show/
175900,stephen-king-backing-barack-obama. html)
[38] Roberts, Nicholas "Mad Man: Is Glenn Beck Bad for America?" [[Time (magazine)|Time (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ politics/ article/
0,8599,1924348-3,00. html)] magazine/The New York Times, September 17, 2009; Page 3 of 4]
[39] Everything You Need to Know About Writing Successfully—in Ten Minutes
[40] King, Stephen (2001). Dreamcatcher. Scribner. ISBN 0743211383.
[41] "Stephen King's official site" (http:/ / www. stephenking. com/ pages/ FAQ/ Stephen_King/ whywriter. php). . Retrieved 2007-05-14.
[42] King, Stephen (1976). Night Shift. xii: Doubleday. pp. 336.
[43] Stephen King writes for FANGORIA! (http:/ / www. fangoria. com/ home/ news/ 1-latest-news/ 3978-stephen-king-writes-for-fangoria.
html)
[44] StephenKing.com: 'Salems Lot (http:/ / www. stephenking. com/ pages/ works/ salems_lot/ )
[45] Robertson, Don (1987). The Ideal, Genuine Man. Bangor, ME: Philtrum Press. viiI.
[46] "Exclusive: Stephen King on J.K. Rowling, Stephenie Meyer"
[47] Gauntlet Press website, forth coming titles (http:/ / www. gauntletpress. com/ cgi-bin/ gauntletpress/ perlshop. cgi?ACTION=template&
thispage=HeisLegend& ORDER_ID=251390396)
[48] Bolle Gregmar. "Complete Blue Oyster Cult Discography" (http:/ / www. blueoystercult. com/ Studio/ BOC_Discography. pdf) (PDF). Blue
Oyster Cult. . Retrieved 2008-07-14.
[49] Vertigo blog, SCOTT SNYDER and STEPHEN KING to write a new horror comic book series, AMERICAN VAMPIRE, Sunday, October
25, 2009 (http:/ / vertigo. blog. dccomics. com/ 2009/ 10/ 25/
scott-snyder-and-stephen-king-to-write-a-new-horror-comic-book-series-american-vampire/ )
[50] Matt Lauer interview of King (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=BXRuWx-mkTc& feature=related) on The Today Show; YouTube; 8
February 2008
[51] About page (http:/ / www. syfy. com/ haven/ about. php) for Syfy's Haven.
[52] Clute, John and Peter Nichols. The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 1993. ISBN 0-312-09618-6
[53] Joshi, S.T, The Modern Weird Tale: A Critique of Horror Fiction, McFarland & Company, 2001, ISBN 978-0-7864-0986-0
[54] Bloom, Harold (September 24, 2003). "Dumbing down American readers" (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ globe/ editorial_opinion/ oped/
articles/ 2003/ 09/ 24/ dumbing_down_american_readers/ ). The Boston Globe. .
[55] Yummi Bears, Lions, Boomtown, Mayer, and King - Uncle Orson Reviews Everything (http:/ / www. hatrack. com/ osc/ reviews/
everything/ 2003-09-21. shtml)
[56] Chicago Sun-Times - Reviews Secret Window (xhtml) (http:/ / rogerebert. suntimes. com/ apps/ pbcs. dll/ article?AID=/ 20040312/
REVIEWS/ 403120306/ 1023)
[57] http:/ / www. ew. com/ ew/ article/ 0,,20207076_20207387_20207349,00. html

Additional reading
• The Many Facets of Stephen King, Michael R. Collings, Starmont House, 1985, ISBN 0-930261-14-3
• The Shorter Works of Stephen King, Michael R. Collings with David A. Engebretson, Starmont House, 1985,
ISBN 0-930261-02-X
• Stephen King as Richard Bachman, Michael R. Collings, Starmont House, 1985, ISBN 0-930261-00-3
• The Annotated Guide to Stephen King: A Primary and Secondary Bibliography of the Works of America’s
Premier Horror Writer, Michael R. Collings, Starmont House, 1986, ISBN 0-930261-80-1
• The Films of Stephen King, Michael R. Collings, Starmont House, 1986, ISBN 0-930261-10-0
• The Stephen King Phenomenon, Michael R. Collings, Starmont House, 1987, ISBN 0-930261-12-7
• Horror Plum'd: An International Stephen King Bibliography and Guide 1960-2000, Michael R. Collings,
Overlook Connection Press, 2003, ISBN 1-892950-45-6
Stephen King 724

• The Complete Stephen King Encyclopedia, Stephen Spignesi, Contemporary Books, 1991, ISBN
978-0-8092-3818-7
• The Lost Work of Stephen King, Stephen Spignesi, Birch Lane Press, 1998, ISBN 978-1-55972-469-2
• The Essential Stephen King, Stephen Spignesi, Career Press, 2001, ISBN 978-1-56414-710-3
• The Complete Guide to the Works of Stephen King, Rocky Wood, David Rawsthorne and Norma Blackburn,
Kanrock Partners, ISBN 0-9750593-3-5
• Stephen King: Uncollected, Unpublished, Rocky Wood, Cemetery Dance, 2006, ISBN 1-58767-130-1
• The Stephen King Collector's Guide, Rocky Wood and Justin Brooks, Kanrock Partners, ISBN
978-0-9750593-5-7
• Stephen King: A Primary Bibliography of the World's Most Popular Author, Justin Brooks, Cemetery Dance,
2008, ISBN 1-58767-153-0
• Stephen King: The Non-Fiction, Rocky Wood and Justin Brooks, Cemetery Dance, 2008, ISBN 1-58767-160-3
• Stephen King Is Richard Bachman, Michael R. Collings, Overlook Connection Press, March 2008, ISBN
1-892950-74-X
See also Books about Stephen King

External links
• Stephen King's Official Web Site (http://www.stephenking.com/)
• Official Website for Carrie The Musical (http://www.carriethemusical.com/)
• Stephen & Tabitha King Foundation (http://www.stkfoundation.org/)
• The Paris Review interview (http://theparisreview.org/viewinterview.php/prmMID/5653)
• La Torre Nera - Stephen King (http://www.latorrenera.com) Italian/English Website
• Video (http://www.heraldtribune.com/article/20080328/NEWS/803280336/1661) of a March 2008
interview with King in Sarasota, Fla.
• Works by or about Stephen King (http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n79-63767) in libraries (WorldCat
catalog)
• Stephen King (http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/ea.cgi?Stephen_King) at the Internet Speculative Fiction
Database
• Stephen King (http://www.iblist.com/author62.htm) at the Internet Book List
• Stephen King (http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000175/) at the Internet Movie Database
Stanley Kubrick 725

Stanley Kubrick
Stanley Kubrick

1940s self-portrait with a Leica III camera during the time he worked for Look.
From the book Drama and Shadows.
Born July 26, 1928
Manhattan, New York, United States

Died March 7, 1999 (aged 70)

Harpenden, Hertfordshire, England, United Kingdom

Occupation Film director, film producer, screenwriter, cinematographer, film editor

Years active 1951–1999

Spouse(s) Toba Metz (1948–1951) (divorced)

Ruth Sobotka (1954–1957) (divorced)
Christiane Harlan (1958–1999) (his death)

Stanley Kubrick (July 26, 1928 – March 7, 1999) was an American film director, writer, producer, and
photographer who lived in England during most of the last four decades of his career. Kubrick was noted for the
scrupulous care with which he chose his subjects, his slow method of working, the variety of genres he worked in,
his technical perfectionism, and his reclusiveness about his films and personal life. He worked far beyond the
confines of the Hollywood system, maintaining almost complete artistic control and making movies according to his
own whims and time constraints, but with the rare advantage of big-studio financial support for all his endeavors.
Although he was nominated for an Academy Award as a screenwriter and director on several occasions, his only
personal win was for the special effects in 2001: A Space Odyssey.
Kubrick is widely acknowledged as one of the most accomplished, innovative, and influential filmmakers in the
history of cinema.[1] He directed a number of highly acclaimed and often controversial films that have often been
perceived as a reflection of his obsessive and perfectionist nature.[2] His films are characterized by a formal visual
style and meticulous attention to detail—his later films often have elements of surrealism and expressionism that
eschews structured linear narrative. While often viewed as expressing an ironic pessimism,[3] a few critics feel his
films contain a cautious optimism when viewed more carefully.[4] Even though all of his films, apart from the first
two, were adapted from novels or short stories, his works are noted as some of the "most original, provocative, and
visionary motion pictures ever made".[5]
Stanley Kubrick 726

Early life
Stanley Kubrick was born on July 26, 1928 at the Lying-In Hospital in
Manhattan, New York, the first of two children born to Jacques
Leonard Kubrick (1901–85) and his wife Gertrude (née Perveler;
1903–85). His sister, Barbara, was born in 1934. Jacques Kubrick,
whose parents and paternal grandparents, were Jewish of Austrian,
Romanian and Polish origin,[6] [7] was a doctor. At Stanley's birth, the
Kubricks lived in an apartment at 2160 Clinton Avenue in The
Stanley Kubrick was a Look magazine
Bronx.[8] photographer when he caught himself in the
mirror of Rosemary Williams, a showgirl, in
Kubrick's father taught him chess at age twelve, and the game
1949. Kubrick's history in photography would
remained a lifelong obsession.[8] He also bought his son a Graflex later greatly influence his film directing.
camera when he was thirteen, triggering a fascination with still
photography. As a teenager, Kubrick was interested in jazz, and briefly attempted a career as a drummer.[8]
Kubrick attended William Howard Taft High School from 1941–45. He was a poor student, with a meager 67 grade
average.[9] He graduated from high school in 1945, but his poor grades, combined with the demand for college
admissions from soldiers returning from the Second World War, eliminated any hopes of higher education. Later in
life, Kubrick spoke disdainfully of his education and of education in general, maintaining that nothing about school
interested him.[8] His parents sent him to live with relatives for a year in Los Angeles in the hopes that it would help
his academic growth.
While still in high school, he was chosen as an official school photographer for a year. In 1946, since he wasn't able
to gain admission to day session classes at colleges, he briefly attended evening classes at the City College of New
York (CCNY) and then left.[10] Eventually, he sought jobs as a freelance photographer, and by graduation, he had
sold a photographic series to Look magazine. Kubrick supplemented his income by playing chess "for quarters" in
Washington Square Park and various Manhattan chess clubs.[11] He became an apprentice photographer for Look in
1946, and later a full-time staff photographer. (Many early [1945–50] photographs by Kubrick have been published
in the book Drama and Shadows [2005, Phaidon Press] and also appear as a special feature on the 2007 Special
Edition DVD of 2001: A Space Odyssey.)
During his Look magazine years, Kubrick married Toba Metz (b. 1930) on May 29, 1948. They lived in Greenwich
Village, eventually divorcing in 1951. During this time, Kubrick began frequenting film screenings at the Museum of
Modern Art and the cinemas of New York City. He was particularly inspired by the complex, fluid camerawork of
director Max Ophüls, whose films influenced Kubrick's later visual style.

Film career and later life

Early works
In 1951, Kubrick's friend Alex Singer persuaded him to start making short documentaries for The March of Time, a
provider of newsreels to movie theatres. Kubrick agreed, and shot the independently financed Day of the Fight in
1951. The film notably employed a reverse tracking shot, which would become one of Kubrick's signature camera
movements.[12] Although its distributor went out of business that year, Kubrick has been said to have sold Day of the
Fight to RKO Pictures for a profit of $100,[13] although Kubrick himself said he lost $100 in Jeremy Bernstein,
Interview With Stanley Kubrick in 1966.[14] Inspired by this early success, Kubrick quit his job at Look magazine and
began working on his second short documentary, Flying Padre (1951), funded by RKO. A third short film, The
Seafarers (1953) was filmed just after his first feature Fear and Desire (see below) in order to recoup costs. It was a
30-minute promotional film for the Seafarers' International Union and was Kubrick's first color film. These three
films constitute Kubrick's only surviving work in the documentary genre. It is believed, however, that he was
Stanley Kubrick 727

involved in other shorts, which have been lost—most notably World Assembly of Youth (1952).[15] He also served as
second unit director on an episode of the Omnibus television program about the life of Abraham Lincoln. None of
these shorts has ever been officially released, though they have been widely bootlegged, and clips are used in the
documentary Stanley Kubrick: A Life In Pictures. In addition, Day of the Fight and Flying Padre have been shown
on TCM.

1950s: Fear and Desire, Killer's Kiss, The Killing and Paths of Glory
Kubrick moved to narrative feature films with Fear and Desire (1953), the story of a team of soldiers caught behind
enemy lines in a fictional war. While wracked with anxiety about how they will escape, they stumble across a
woman whom they capture for fear of her reporting them. One of the soldiers begins to fall in love with her, but
shoots her when she tries to escape. He then abandons the troop. Another soldier becomes unsatisfied with a simple
escape down the river and persuades the remaining soldiers to engage in a scheme to kill a general in a surprise
attack at a nearby base.
Kubrick and his then-wife, Toba Metz, were the only crew on the film, which was written by Kubrick's friend
Howard Sackler, who later became a successful playwright. Fear and Desire garnered respectable reviews but was a
commercial failure. Later in life, Kubrick was embarrassed by the film, which he dismissed as an amateur effort. He
refused to allow Fear and Desire to be shown at retrospectives and public screenings and did everything possible to
keep it out of circulation.[16] At least one copy remained in the archives of the film printing company, and the film
subsequently surfaced in bootleg copies.
Kubrick's marriage to Toba Metz ended during the making of Fear and Desire. He met his second wife,
Austrian-born dancer and theatrical designer Ruth Sobotka, in 1952. They lived together in New York's East Village
from 1952 until their marriage on January 15, 1955. They moved to Hollywood that summer. Sobotka, who made a
cameo appearance in Kubrick's next film, Killer's Kiss (1955), also served as art director on The Killing (1956). Like
Fear and Desire, Killer's Kiss is a short feature film, with a running time of slightly more than an hour. It met with
limited commercial and critical success. The film is about a young heavyweight boxer at the end of his career who
gets involved in a love triangle in which his rival is involved with organized crime. Both Fear and Desire and
Killer's Kiss were privately funded by Kubrick's family and friends.[17] [18]
Stanley Kubrick 728

Alex Singer introduced Kubrick to a young producer named James B.

Harris, and the two became close friends.[19] Their business
partnership, Harris-Kubrick Productions, would finance Kubrick's next
three films. The two bought the rights to the Lionel White novel Clean
Break, which Kubrick and co-screenwriter Jim Thompson turned into
The Killing. The story is about a meticulously planned racetrack
robbery gone wrong after the mobsters get away with the money. (The
film title may refer either to the robbery or the subsequent murder of a
group of mobsters by a jealous boyfriend). Starring Sterling Hayden,
The Killing was Kubrick's first full-length feature film shot with a
professional cast and crew. The story is told out of sequence in a
non-linear narrative as a consequence of the film narration retelling the
events of the same day (and sometimes the same events) from the
perspective of different characters. (This is not the same as using
successive multiple in-world flashbacks as Citizen Kane does.) While
this technique was highly unusual for contemporary 1950s American
cinema, it was imitated nearly 40 years later in Reservoir Dogs by Although film noir had peaked in the 1940s, both
the plot and cinematography of The Killing
director Quentin Tarantino who has acknowledged Kubrick's film as a
strongly evoked that genre, and it is now regarded
major influence,[20] and critics have noticed the similarity in plot as one of the best of that kind. Note the use of
structure.[21] In many ways, The Killing followed the conventions of shadows and cigarette smoke; note also the
film noir, both in its plotting and cinematography style. That kind of resemblance of the mask to those used in A
Clockwork Orange.
crime caper film had peaked in the 1940s; but today, many regard this
film as one of the best of the noir genre.[22] While it was not a financial
success, it received good reviews.[23]

The widespread admiration for The Killing brought Harris-Kubrick Productions to the attention of
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.[24] The studio offered them its massive collection of copyrighted stories from which to
choose their next project. During this time, Kubrick also collaborated with Calder Willingham on an adaptation of
the Austrian novel The Burning Secret. Although Kubrick was enthusiastic about the project, it was eventually
shelved.[25]
Kubrick's next film Paths of Glory was set during World War I and
based on Humphrey Cobb's 1935 antiwar novel of the same name. It
follows a French army unit ordered on an impossible mission by their
superiors. As a result of the mission's failure, three innocent soldiers
are charged with cowardice and sentenced to death, allegedly as an
example to the troops, but actually serving as scapegoats for the
failings of their commanders. Kirk Douglas was cast as Colonel Dax, a
humanitarian officer who tries to prevent the soldiers' execution.
Douglas was instrumental in securing financing for the ambitious
Long before it became film fashion after the
production. The film was not a significant commercial success, but it
Vietnam era, Kubrick portrayed war as brutal,
using stark black-and-white images in Paths of was critically acclaimed and widely admired within the industry,
Glory. establishing Kubrick as a major up-and-coming young filmmaker.
Critics over the years have praised the film's unsentimental, spare, and
unvarnished combat scenes and its raw, black-and-white cinematography.[26] Steven Spielberg has named this one of
his favorite Kubrick films.[27]
Stanley Kubrick 729

During the production of Paths of Glory in Munich, Kubrick met and romanced young German actress Christiane
Harlan (credited by her stage name, "Susanne Christian"), who played the only female speaking part in the film.
Kubrick divorced his second wife, Ruth Sobotka, in 1957. Christiane Susanne Harlan (b. 1932 in Germany)
belonged to a theatrical family and had trained as an actress. She and Kubrick married in 1958 and remained together
until his death in 1999. During her marriage to Kubrick, Christiane concentrated on her career as a painter.[28] In
addition to raising Christiane's young daughter Katharina (b. 1953) from her first marriage to the late German actor
Werner Bruhns (d. 1977), the couple had two daughters, Anya (1959–2009) and Vivian (b. 1960). Christiane's
brother Jan Harlan was Kubrick's executive producer from 1975 onward.

1960s: Spartacus, Lolita, Dr. Strangelove and 2001: A Space Odyssey

Upon his return to the United States, Kubrick worked for six months
on the Marlon Brando vehicle One-Eyed Jacks (1961). The two
clashed over a number of casting decisions, and Brando eventually
fired him and decided to direct the picture himself.[29] Kubrick worked
on a number of unproduced screenplays, including Lunatic at Large,
which Kubrick intended to develop into a movie,[30] until Kirk Douglas
asked him to take over Douglas' epic production Spartacus (1960)
from Anthony Mann, who had been fired by the studio two weeks into
shooting.

Based upon the true story of a doomed uprising of Roman slaves,

Spartacus was a difficult production. Creative differences arose
between Kubrick and Douglas, and the two reportedly had a stormy
working relationship. Frustrated by his lack of creative control,
Kubrick later largely disowned the film, which further angered While Douglas and Kubrick worked on Paths of
Douglas.[31] The friendship the two men had formed on Paths of Glory Glory, Kubrick was both the film's director and
was destroyed by the experience of making the film. Years later, executive producer. But on Spartacus, Douglas,
in addition to being lead actor, was executive
Douglas referred to Kubrick as "a talented shit."[32]
producer, making Kubrick's directorial role
Despite the on-set troubles, Spartacus was a critical and commercial subordinate. They meshed well on the first film,
but Spartacus severed their earlier bond.
success and established Kubrick as a major director. However, its
embattled production convinced Kubrick to find ways of working with
Hollywood financing while remaining independent of its production system, which he called "film by fiat, film by
frenzy."[33]
Spartacus is the only Stanley Kubrick film in which Kubrick had no hand in the screenplay,[34] no final cut,[35] no
producing credit, or any say in the casting.[36] [37] [38] [39] It was largely Kirk Douglas' project.
Spartacus would go on to win 4 Oscars with one going to Peter Ustinov, for his turn as the slave dealer Batiatus, the
only actor to win one under Kubrick's direction.
In 1962, Kubrick moved to England to film Lolita, and he would live there for the rest of his life. The original
motivation was to film Lolita in a country with laxer censorship laws. However, Kubrick had to remain in England to
film Dr. Strangelove since Peter Sellers was not permitted to leave England at the time as he was involved in divorce
proceedings, and the filming of 2001: A Space Odyssey required the large capacity of the sound stages of Shepperton
Studios, which were not available in America. It was after filming the first two of these films in England and in the
early planning stages of 2001 that Kubrick decided to settle in England permanently.
Stanley Kubrick 730

Lolita was Kubrick's first film to generate major controversy.[40] The

book, by Russian-American novelist Vladimir Nabokov, dealt with an
affair between a middle-aged man named Humbert Humbert (James
Mason) and his twelve-year-old stepdaughter, and was already
notorious as an "obscene" novel and a cause célèbre when Kubrick
embarked on the project. The difficult subject matter was mocked in
the film's famous tagline, "How did they ever make a film of
Lolita?"[41] Kubrick originally engaged Nabokov to adapt his own
novel for the screen. The writer first produced a 400-page screenplay,
Lolita was one of most controversial novels of the which he then reduced to 200.[42] The final screenplay was written by
century, given its theme. Here, Lolita kisses her Kubrick himself, and Nabokov himself estimated that only 20% of his
stepfather Humbert goodnight while he plays
work made it into the film.[43] Nabokov's original draft was later
chess with her mother (Shelley Winters). Any
kind of overt sexual content had to be toned down published under the title Lolita: A Screenplay.
significantly for Kubrick's film adaptation, and
Prior to its release, Kubrick realized that to get a Production Code seal,
most of the sexual acts between its title character
and Humbert are only hinted at. the screenplay would have to downplay the book's provocativeness,
treading lightly with its theme. Kubrick tried to make some elements
more acceptable by omitting all material referring to Humbert's lifelong infatuation with "nymphets" and possibly
ensuring Lolita looked like a teenager. James Harris, Kubrick's co-producer and uncredited co-screenwriter of Lolita
decided with Kubrick to raise Lolita's age.[44] [45] Nonetheless, Kubrick had liaised with the censors during
production and it was only "slightly edited", in particular removing the eroticism between Lolita and Humbert.[46] As
a result, the novel's more sensual aspects were toned down in the final cut, leaving much to the viewer's imagination.
Kubrick would later say that had he known the severity of the censorship he would face, he probably would not have
made the film.[47]

Lolita was the first of two times Kubrick worked with British comic actor Peter Sellers, the second being Dr.
Strangelove (1964). Sellers plays Clare Quilty, a second older man (unknown to Humbert) who is involved with
Lolita, serving dramatically as Humbert's darker doppelganger. In the novel, Quilty is behind the scenes for most of
the story, but Kubrick brings him to the foreground, which resulted in an expansion of his role (although it is only
about thirty minutes of screen time). Kubrick exercises his dramatic license, and has Quilty's pretend to be multiple
characters in the film, allowing Sellers to employ his gift for mock accents.
Critical reception of the film was mixed; many praised it for its daring subject matter, while others were surprised by
the lack of intimacy between Lolita and Humbert. The film received an Academy Award nomination for Best
Adapted Screenplay, and Sue Lyon, who played the title role, won a Golden Globe for Best Newcomer.
Film critic Gene Youngblood holds that stylistically Lolita is a transitional film for Kubrick, "marking the turning
point from a naturalistic cinema...to the surrealism of the later films."[48]
Stanley Kubrick 731

Kubrick's next film, Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop

Worrying and Love the Bomb (1964), became a cult film and is now
considered a classic. Roger Ebert wrote that it is the best satirical film
ever made.[49] The screenplay—based upon the novel Red Alert, by
ex-RAF flight lieutenant Peter George (writing as Peter Bryant)—was
co-written by Kubrick and George, with contributions by American
satirist Terry Southern. Red Alert is a serious, cautionary tale of
accidental atomic war. However, Kubrick found the conditions leading
to nuclear war so absurd that the story became a sinister macabre
comedy.[50] Once re-conceived, Kubrick recruited Terry Southern to
polish the final screenplay.

The story centers on an unauthorized American nuclear attack on the

Soviet Union, initiated by renegade U.S.A.F. Gen. Jack D. Ripper
(Sterling Hayden; the character's name is a reference to Jack the
Ripper). When Ripper gives his orders, the bombers are all at fail-safe
points, before which passing they cannot arm their warheads, and past
which, they cannot proceed without direct orders. Once past this point, Although this was the sixth film with Peter
Sellers in multiple roles, he was relatively
the planes will only return with a prearranged recall code. The film
unknown in America where many viewers of Dr.
intercuts between three locales: Ripper's Air Force Base, where RAF Strangelove did not initially realize that Kubrick
Group Captain Lionel Mandrake (Sellers) tries to stop the mad Gen. had cast him in three roles, all with distinctively
Ripper by obtaining the codes; the Pentagon War Room, where the different appearances and accents.

President of the United States (Sellers) and U.S.A.F. Gen. Buck

Turgidson (George C. Scott) try to develop a strategy with the Soviets to stop Gen. Ripper's B-52 bombers from
dropping nuclear bombs on Russia; and Major Kong's (Slim Pickens) B-52 bomber, where he and his crew of airmen
(never knowing their orders are false) doggedly try to complete their mission. It soon becomes clear that the bombers
may reach Russia, since only Gen. Ripper knows the recall codes. At this point, the character of Dr. Strangelove
(Sellers' third role) is introduced. His Nazi-style plans for ensuring the survival of the fittest of the human race in the
aftermath of a nuclear holocaust are the black-comedy highlight of the film.

Peter Sellers, who had played a pivotal part in Lolita, was hired to play four roles in Dr. Strangelove. He eventually
played three, due to an injured leg and his difficulty in mastering bomber pilot Major "King" Kong's Texas accent.
Kubrick later called Sellers "amazing", but lamented the fact that the actor's manic energy rarely lasted beyond two
or three takes. To overcome this problem, Kubrick ran two cameras simultaneously and let Sellers improvise.[51]
The film prefigured the antiwar sentiments which would become explosive only a few years after its release. It was
highly irreverent toward war policies of the U.S., which were largely considered sacrosanct up to that time. Eight
months after the release of Strangelove, the straight thriller Fail-Safe with a plot remarkably similar to that of Dr.
Strangelove was released. Strangelove earned four Academy Award nominations (including Best Picture and Best
Director) and the New York Film Critics' Best Director award.
Stanley Kubrick 732

Kubrick spent five years developing his next film, 2001: A Space
Odyssey (1968). The film was conceived as a Cinerama spectacle and
was photographed in Super Panavision 70. Kubrick co-wrote the
screenplay with science fiction writer Sir Arthur C. Clarke, expanding
on Clarke's short story "The Sentinel". Kubrick reportedly told Clarke
that his intention was to make "the proverbial great science fiction
2001 is Kubrick's first film to use a mostly (or
entirely) classical score. Kubrick's famed opening
film."
shot of the Sun, Earth and Moon is one of several
2001 begins four million years ago with an encounter between a group
accompanied by the majestic fanfarelike opening
of apes and a mysterious black monolith, which seems to trigger in
to Richard Strauss's tone poem Also sprach
Zarathustra. Space flight is accompanied bythem the ability to use a bone as both a tool and a weapon. This new
knowledge allows them to reclaim a water hole from another group of
Johann Strauss's graceful The Blue Danube, and
all appearances of the monolith are accompanied
apes, who have no tool-wielding ability. A victorious ape tosses his
by the unearthly modernistic Requiem by György
bone into the air, at which point the film makes a celebrated match-cut
Ligeti.
to an orbiting satellite, circa 2000. At this time, a group of Americans
at their moon base dig up a monolith similar to that encountered by the
apes, which sends a radio signal to Jupiter. Eighteen months later, a group of astronauts aboard the spaceship
Discovery are sent to explore Jupiter, their true purpose of investigating the signal is initially concealed from them.
During the flight, the ship's sentient HAL 9000 computer, aware of the truth about the mission, malfunctions but
resists disconnection. Believing its control of the mission to be crucial, the computer terminates life support for most
of the crew before it is shut down by the surviving astronaut, David Bowman (Keir Dullea). Using a space pod,
Bowman explores another monolith in orbit around Jupiter, whereupon he is hurled into a portal in space at high
speed, witnessing many strange cosmological phenomena. His interstellar journey ends with his transformation into
a fetus-like new being enclosed in an orb of light, last seen gazing at Earth from space.

The $10,000,000 (U.S.) film was a massive production for its time. The groundbreaking visual effects were overseen
by Kubrick and were engineered by a team that included a young Douglas Trumbull, who would become famous in
his own right for his work on the films Silent Running and Blade Runner. Kubrick extensively used traveling matte
photography to film space flight, a technique also used nine years later by George Lucas in making Star Wars,
although that film also used motion-control effects that were unavailable to Kubrick at the time. Kubrick made
innovative use of slit-scan photography to film the Stargate sequence. The film's striking cinematography was the
work of legendary British director of photography Geoffrey Unsworth, who would later photograph classic films
such as Cabaret and Superman. Manufacturing companies were consulted as to what the design of both
special-purpose and everyday objects would look like in the future. At the time of the movie's release, Arthur C.
Clarke predicted that a generation of engineers would design real spacecraft based upon 2001 "…even if it isn't the
best way to do it." The film also is a rare instance of portraying space travel realistically, with complete silence in the
vacuum of space and a realistic representation of weightlessness.

The film is famous for using classical music in place of an original score. Richard Strauss's Also sprach Zarathustra
and Johann Strauss's The Blue Danube waltz became indelibly associated with the film for a while, especially the
former, as it was not well-known to the public prior to the film. Kubrick also used music by contemporary
avant-garde Hungarian composer György Ligeti, although some of the pieces were altered without Ligeti's consent.
The appearance of Atmospheres, Lux Aeterna, and Requiem on the 2001 soundtrack was the first wide commercial
exposure of Ligeti's work. This use of "program" music was not originally planned. Kubrick had commissioned
composer Alex North to write a full-length score for the film, but Kubrick became so attached to the temporary
soundtrack he had constructed during editing that he dropped the idea of an original score entirely.[52]
Although it eventually became an enormous success, the film was not an immediate hit. Initial critical reaction was
extremely hostile, with critics attacking the film's lack of dialogue, slow pacing, and seemingly impenetrable
Stanley Kubrick 733

storyline. One of the film's few defenders was Penelope Gilliatt,[53] who called it (in The New Yorker) "some kind of
a great film". Word of mouth among young audiences—especially the 1960s counterculture audience, who loved the
movie's "Star Gate" sequence, a seemingly psychedelic journey to the infinite reaches of the cosmos—made the film
a hit. Despite nominations in the directing, writing, and producing categories, the only Academy Award Kubrick
ever received was for supervising the special effects of 2001: A Space Odyssey. Today, however, many consider it
the greatest sci-fi film ever made,[54] and it is a staple on All Time Top 10 lists.[55]
Artistically, 2001 was a radical departure from Kubrick's previous films. It contains only 45 minutes of spoken
dialogue, over a running time of two hours and twenty minutes. The fairly mundane dialogue is mostly superfluous
to the images and music. The film's most memorable dialogue belongs to the computer HAL in HAL's exchanges
with Dave Bowman. Some argue that Kubrick is portraying a future humanity largely dissociated from a sterile and
antiseptic machine-driven environment.[56] [57] [58] [59] The film's ambiguous, perplexing ending continues to
fascinate contemporary audiences and critics. After this film, Kubrick would never experiment so radically with
special effects or narrative form; however, his subsequent films would still maintain some level of ambiguity.
Interpretations of 2001: A Space Odyssey are numerous and diverse. Despite having been released in 1968, it still
prompts debate today. When critic Joseph Gelmis asked Kubrick about the meaning of the film, Kubrick replied:[60]
They are the areas I prefer not to discuss, because they are highly subjective and will differ from viewer
to viewer. In this sense, the film becomes anything the viewer sees in it. If the film stirs the emotions
and penetrates the subconscious of the viewer, if it stimulates, however inchoately, his mythological and
religious yearnings and impulses, then it has succeeded.
2001: A Space Odyssey is perhaps Kubrick's most famous and influential film. Steven Spielberg called it his
generation's big bang,[61] focusing attention upon the space race. It was a precursor to the explosion of the science
fiction film market nine years later, which began with the release of Star Wars and Close Encounters of the Third
Kind.

1970s: A Clockwork Orange and Barry Lyndon

After 2001, Kubrick initially attempted to make a film about the life of
Napoleon Bonaparte. When financing fell through, Kubrick went
looking for a project that he could film quickly on a small budget. He
eventually settled on A Clockwork Orange (1971). His adaptation of
Anthony Burgess' novel is a dark, shocking exploration of violence in
human society. The film was initially released with an X rating in the
United States [62] and caused considerable controversy. The film's
In A Clockwork Orange, Kubrick continued his
iconic poster imagery was created by legendary designer Bill Gold.
innovative use of classical music begun in 2001:
The story takes place in a futuristic version of Great Britain that is both A Space Odyssey. However, instead of
accompanying graceful space flight, the music
authoritarian and chaotic. The central character is a teenage hooligan
accompanied violence and rape. The slow-motion
named Alex DeLarge (Malcolm McDowell), who, along with his fight scene about to commence is choreographed
companion "droogs", gleefully torments, beats, robs, tortures, and to Rossini's overture to "The Thieving Magpie."
rapes without conscience or remorse. His brutal beating and murder of
an older woman finally lands Alex in prison. Alex undergoes an experimental medical aversion treatment, known as
the Ludovico Technique, that inhibits his violent tendencies, though he has no real free moral choice. At the public
demonstration of the success of the technique, Alex is treated cruelly but does not fight back; the treatment has made
him less than human. He has been conditioned against classical music, his love of which was his one human feature,
and apparently all of his sex drive is gone. We further see hints that the promotion of the treatment is politically
motivated. After being freed, he is found by his former partners in crime who had betrayed him and who are now
policemen, and they beat him mercilessly.
Stanley Kubrick 734

He then comes to the home of a political writer who disdains "the modern age" and is initially sympathetic to Alex's
plight until he recognizes Alex as the young man who brutally raped his wife and paralyzed him a few years before.
Alex then becomes a pawn in a political game.
The society was sometimes perceived as Communist (as Michel Ciment pointed out in an interview with Kubrick,
although he himself didn't feel that way) due to its slight ties to Russian culture. The teenage slang has a heavily
Russian vocabulary, which can be attributed to Burgess. There is some evidence to suggest that the society is a
socialist one, or perhaps a society moving out of a failed, Leftist socialism and into a Rightist, or fascist, society. In
the novel, streets have paintings of working men in the style of Russian socialist art, and in the film, there is a mural
of socialist artwork with obscenities drawn on it. As Malcolm McDowell points out on the DVD commentary, Alex's
residence was shot on failed Labour Party architecture, and the name "Municipal Flat Block 18A, Linear North"
alludes to socialist-style housing. Later in the film, when the new right-wing government takes power, the
atmosphere is certainly more authoritarian than the anarchist air of the beginning. Kubrick's response to Ciment's
question remained ambiguous as to exactly what kind of society it is. He held that the film held comparisons
between both the left and right end of the political spectrum and that there is little difference between the two.
Kubrick stated, "The Minister, played by Anthony Sharp, is clearly a figure of the Right. The writer, Patrick Magee,
is a lunatic of the Left. ...They differ only in their dogma. Their means and ends are hardly distinguishable."[63]
Kubrick photographed A Clockwork Orange quickly and almost entirely on location in and around London. Despite
the low-tech nature of the film as compared to 2001: A Space Odyssey, Kubrick showed his talent for innovation; at
one point, he threw "an old Newman Sinclair clockwork mechanism camera" off a rooftop in order to achieve the
effect he wanted.[64] For the score, Kubrick enlisted electronic music composer Wendy Carlos—at the time, known
as Walter Carlos (Switched-On Bach)—to adapt famous classical works (such as Beethoven's Ninth Symphony) for
the Moog synthesizer.
It is pivotal to the plot that the lead character, Alex, is fond of classical music, and that the brainwashing Ludovico
treatment accidentally conditions him against classical music. As such, it was natural for Kubrick to continue the
tradition begun in 2001: A Space Odyssey of using a great deal of classical music in the score. However, in this film,
classical music accompanies scenes of violent mayhem and coercive sexuality rather than of graceful space flight
and mysterious alien presences. Both Pauline Kael (who generally disliked Kubrick) and Roger Ebert (who often
praises Kubrick) found Kubrick's use of juxtaposing classical music and violence in this film unpleasant, Ebert
calling it a "cute, cheap, dead-end dimension,"[65] and Kael, "self-important."[66] Burgess, in his introduction to his
own stage adaptation of the novel, held that ultimately, classical music is what will finally redeem Alex.
The film was extremely controversial because of its explicit depiction of teenage gang rape and violence. It was
released in the same year as Sam Peckinpah's Straw Dogs and Don Siegel's Dirty Harry, and the three films sparked
a ferocious debate in the media about the social effects of cinematic violence. The controversy was exacerbated
when copycat crimes were committed in England by criminals wearing the same costumes as characters in A
Clockwork Orange. British readers of the novel noted that Kubrick had omitted the final chapter (also omitted from
American editions of the book) in which Alex finds redemption and sanity.
After receiving death threats to himself and his family as a result of the controversy, Kubrick took the unusual step
of removing the film from circulation in Britain. It was unavailable in the United Kingdom until its re-release in
2000, a year after Kubrick's death, although it could be seen in continental Europe. The Scala cinema in London's
Kings Cross showed the film in the early 1990s, and at Kubrick's insistence, the cinema was sued and put out of
business, thus depriving London of one of its very few independent cinemas. It is now the Scala club.[67] In early
1973, Kubrick re-released A Clockwork Orange to cinemas in the United States with footage modified so that it
could get its rating reduced to an R. This enabled many more newspapers to advertise it, since in 1972 many
newspapers had stopped carrying any advertising for X-rated films due to the new association of that rating with
pornography.[68]
Stanley Kubrick 735

In the mid-1990s, a documentary entitled Forbidden Fruit, about the censorship controversy, was released in Britain.
Kubrick was unable to prevent the documentary makers from including footage from A Clockwork Orange in their
film.
Kubrick's next film, released in 1975, was an adaptation of William
Makepeace Thackeray's The Luck of Barry Lyndon, also known as
Barry Lyndon, a picaresque novel about the adventures and
misadventures of an 18th-century Irish gambler and social climber.
After serving in the Prussian army, Lyndon slowly insinuates himself
into English high society, eventually marrying the Countess of Lyndon.
The world of the aristocracy turns out to be a hollow paradise, dull and
Special lenses were developed for Barry Lyndon
decaying. Lyndon is ultimately unable to maintain his good standing
to allow filming using only natural light. there and falls from grace after a series of persecutions.

Reviewers such as Pauline Kael, who had been critical of Kubrick's

previous work,[66] found Barry Lyndon a cold, slow-moving, and lifeless film. Its measured pace and length—more
than three hours—put off many American critics and audiences, although it received positive reviews from Rex Reed
and Richard Schickel. Time magazine published a cover story about the film, and Kubrick was nominated for three
Academy Awards. The film as a whole was nominated for seven Academy Awards and won four, more than any
other Kubrick film. Despite this, Barry Lyndon was not a box office success in the U.S., although the film found a
great audience in Europe, particularly in France. The French journal of film criticism, Cahiers du cinéma, included
Barry Lyndon at 67 on its top 100 list of all-time films.[69]

As with most of Kubrick's films, Barry Lyndon's reputation has grown through the years, particularly among other
filmmakers. Director Martin Scorsese has cited it as his favorite Kubrick film. Steven Spielberg has praised its
"impeccable technique", though, when younger, he famously described it "like going through the Prado without
lunch."[70]
As in his other films, Kubrick's cinematography and lighting techniques were highly innovative. Most famously,
interior scenes were shot with a specially adapted high-speed f/0.7 Zeiss camera lens originally developed for
NASA. This allowed many scenes to be lit only with candlelight, creating two-dimensional diffused-light images
reminiscent of 18th-century paintings.
Like its two predecessors, the film does not have an original score. Irish traditional songs (performed by The
Chieftains) are combined with works such as Antonio Vivaldi's Cello Concerto in B, a Johann Sebastian Bach
Double Concerto, George Frideric Handel's Sarabande from the Keyboard Suite in D minor (HWV 448, HG II/ii/4),
and Franz Schubert's German Dance No. 1 in C major, Piano Trio No. 2 in E flat, and Impromptu No. 1 in C minor.
The music was conducted and adapted by Leonard Rosenman, for which he won an Oscar.
In 1976, production designer Ken Adam, who had worked with Kubrick on Dr. Strangelove and Barry Lyndon,
asked Kubrick to visit the recently completed 007 Stage at Pinewood Studios to provide advice on how to light the
enormous soundstage, which had been built and prepared for the James Bond movie The Spy Who Loved Me.
Kubrick agreed to consult when it was promised that nobody would ever know of his involvement. This was honored
until after his death in 1999, when in 2000 the fact was revealed by Adam in the documentary on the making of The
Spy Who Loved Me on the special edition DVD release of the movie.
Stanley Kubrick 736

1980s: The Shining and Full Metal Jacket

The pace of Kubrick's work slowed considerably after Barry Lyndon,
and he did not make another film for five years. The Shining, released
in 1980, was adapted from the novel of the same name by bestselling
horror writer Stephen King. The film starred Jack Nicholson as Jack
Torrance, a failed writer who takes a job as an off-season caretaker of
the Overlook Hotel, a high-class resort deep in the Colorado
mountains. The job requires spending the winter in the isolated hotel
with his wife, Wendy (played by Shelley Duvall) and their young son,
Danny, who is gifted with a form of telepathy—the "shining" of the
Kubrick's film was the second to make notably
film's title. innovative use of the Steadicam, which can track
motion smoothly without a dolly track.
As winter takes hold, the family's isolation deepens, and the demons
and ghosts of the Overlook Hotel's dark past begin to awake,
displaying horrible, phantasmagoric images to Danny, and driving his father Jack mad devolving into a homicidal
psychosis.
The film was shot entirely on London soundstages, with the exception of second-unit exterior footage, which was
filmed in Colorado, Montana, and Oregon. In order to convey the claustrophobic oppression of the haunted hotel,
Kubrick made extensive use of the newly invented Steadicam, a weight-balanced camera support, which allowed for
smooth camera movement in enclosed spaces.
More than any of his other films, The Shining gave rise to the legend of Kubrick as a megalomaniac perfectionist.
Reportedly, he demanded hundreds of takes of certain scenes (approximately 1.3 million feet of film was shot). This
process was particularly difficult for actress Shelley Duvall, who was used to the faster, improvisational style of
director Robert Altman.
Stephen King disliked the movie, calling Kubrick "a man who thinks too much and feels too little."[71] In 1997, King
collaborated with Mick Garris to create a television miniseries version of the novel that was more faithful to King's
original.
The film opened to mostly negative reviews, but proved a commercial success. As with most Kubrick films,
subsequent critical reaction has treated the film more favorably. Among horror movie fans, The Shining is a cult
classic, often appearing at the top of best horror film lists alongside Psycho (1960), The Exorcist (1973), and other
horror classics. Much of its imagery, such as the elevator shaft disgorging blood and the ghost girls in the hallway
are among the most recognizable and widely known images from any Stanley Kubrick film, as are the lines
"Redrum" and "All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy". The financial success of The Shining renewed Warner
Brothers' faith in Kubrick's ability to make artistically satisfying and profitable films after the commercial failure of
Barry Lyndon in the United States.
Stanley Kubrick 737

Seven years later, Kubrick made his next film, Full Metal Jacket
(1987), an adaptation of Gustav Hasford's Vietnam War novel The
Short-Timers, starring Matthew Modine as Joker, Adam Baldwin as
Animal Mother, R. Lee Ermey as Gunnery Sergeant Hartman, and
Vincent D'Onofrio as Private Leonard "Gomer Pyle" Lawrence.
Kubrick said to film critic Steven Hall that his attraction to Gustav
Hasford's book was because it was "neither antiwar or prowar", held
Reviewers noted that unlike most Vietnam War
"no moral or political position", and was primarily concerned with "the
films set in lush jungle environments, Kubrick
made a mainly urban Vietnam film set around way things are."
bombed-out buildings, giving this war film a
The film begins at Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island, South
more distinctively grim and bleak quality.
Carolina, U.S., where Senior Drill Instructor Gunnery Sergeant
Hartman relentlessly pushes his recruits through basic training in order
to transform them from worthless "maggots" into motivated and disciplined killing machines. Private Lawrence, an
overweight, slow-witted recruit who Hartman has nicknamed "Gomer Pyle", is unable to cope with the program and
slowly cracks under the strain. On the eve of graduation, he has a psychotic breakdown and murders Hartman before
killing himself.

In characteristic Kubrick style, the second half of the film jumps abruptly to Vietnam, following Joker, since
promoted to sergeant. As a reporter for the United States military's newspaper, Stars and Stripes, Joker occupies
war's middle ground, using wit and sarcasm to detach himself from the carnage around him. Though a Marine at war,
he is also a reporter and is thus compelled to abide by the ethics of his profession. The film then follows an infantry
platoon's advance on and through Hue City, decimated by the Tet Offensive. The film climaxes in a battle between
Joker's platoon and a sniper hiding in the rubble, who is revealed to be a young girl. She almost kills Joker until his
reporter partner shoots and severely injures her. Joker then kills her to put her out of her misery.
Filming a Vietnam War film in England was a considerable challenge for Kubrick and his production team. Much of
the filming was done in the Docklands area of London, with the ruined-city set created by production designer Anton
Furst. As a result, the film is visually very different from other Vietnam War films such as Platoon and Hamburger
Hill, most of which were shot in the Far East. Instead of a tropical, Southeast-Asian jungle, the second half of the
story unfolds in a city, illuminating the urban warfare aspect of a war generally portrayed (and thus perceived) as
jungle warfare, notwithstanding significant urban skirmishes like the Tet offensive. Reviewers and commentators
thought this contributed to the bleakness and seriousness of the film. During the making of the film, Kubrick was
also helped by R. Lee Ermey, who acted and worked as technical adviser.[72] [73]
Full Metal Jacket received mixed critical reviews on release but also found a reasonably large audience, despite
being overshadowed by Oliver Stone's Platoon and Clint Eastwood's Heartbreak Ridge. Like Kubrick's other films,
its critical status has increased immensely since its initial release.
Stanley Kubrick 738

1990s: Eyes Wide Shut

Kubrick's final film was Eyes Wide Shut, starring then-married actors
Tom Cruise and Nicole Kidman as a wealthy Manhattan couple on a
sexual odyssey.
The story of Eyes Wide Shut is based on Arthur Schnitzler's Freudian
novella Traumnovelle (Dream Story in English), although the story has
been moved from Vienna in the 1920s to New York City in the 1990s.
It follows Dr. William Harford's journey into the sexual underworld of
New York City, after his wife, Alice, has shattered his faith in her
fidelity by confessing to having fantasized about giving him and their
The casting of real-life celebrity couple Nicole
daughter up for one night with another man. Until then, Harford had Kidman and Tom Cruise as a married couple in a
presumed women are more naturally faithful than men. This new film rumored (correctly) to have a sexually
revelation generates doubt and despair, and he begins to roam the charged plot fueled wild speculations about the
film's content.
streets of New York, acting blindly on his jealousy.

After trespassing upon the rituals of a sinister, mysterious sexual cult, Dr. Harford thinks twice before seeking sexual
revenge against his wife. Upon returning home, his wife now gives an anguished confession she has had a dream
about making love to several men at once. After his own dangerous escapades, Dr. Harford has no high moral
ground over her. The couple begin to patch their relationship.
The film was in production for more than two years, and two of the main members of the cast, Harvey Keitel and
Jennifer Jason Leigh, were replaced in the course of the filming. Although it is set in New York City, the film was
mostly shot on London soundstages, with little location shooting. Shots of Manhattan itself were pickup shots filmed
in New York City by a second-unit crew. Because of Kubrick's secrecy about the film, mostly inaccurate rumors
abounded about its plot and content. Most especially, the story's sexual content provoked speculation, some
journalists writing that it would be "the sexiest film ever made."[74] The casting of then celebrity-actor supercouple
Tom Cruise and Nicole Kidman as a husband-wife couple in the film increased the pre-release journalistic
hyperbole.
Eyes Wide Shut, like Lolita and A Clockwork Orange before it, faced censorship before release. In the United States
and Canada, digitally manufactured silhouette figures were strategically placed to mask explicit copulation scenes so
as to secure an R rating from the MPAA. In Europe, and the rest of the world, the film has been released uncut, in its
original form. The October 2007 DVD reissue contains the uncut version, making it available to North American
audiences for the first time.

Death
In 1999—four days after screening a final cut of Eyes Wide Shut for his family, Tom Cruise, Nicole Kidman, and
Warner Brothers executives—70-year-old Kubrick died of a heart attack in his sleep. He was buried next to his
favorite tree in Childwickbury Manor, Hertfordshire, England, U.K.[75]

Kubrick Academy Awards

Kubrick won his only Academy Award for Best Special Visual Effects for A Space Odyssey at the 41st Academy
Awards and was nominated for Producer, Director and Writer in his various films.
Stanley Kubrick 739

Year Award Film Result

1964 Best Picture Dr. Strangelove Nominated

Best Director Nominated

Best Writing (Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium) Nominated

1968 Best Director 2001: A Space Odyssey Nominated

Best Story and Screenplay (Written Directly for the Screen) Nominated

Best Special Visual Effects Won

1971 Best Picture A Clockwork Orange Nominated

Best Director Nominated

Best Writing (Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium) Nominated

1975 Best Picture Barry Lyndon Nominated

Best Director Nominated

Best Writing (Screenplay Adapted from Other Material) Nominated

1987 Best Writing (Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium) Full Metal Jacket Nominated

Projects unrealized or completed by others

The Burning Secret and Natural Child

In 1956, after MGM turned down Harris and Kubrick's request to film Paths of Glory, they invited him to look
through their other properties. Harris and Kubrick discovered Stefan Zweig's novel The Burning Secret, in which a
young baron tries to seduce a young Jewish woman by first befriending her twelve-year-old son, who eventually
becomes wise to the situation. Kubrick was very excited about this novel and hired novelist Calder Willingham to
produce a screenplay, but Production Code restrictions made the project impossible.[76]
Kubrick had earlier been interested in adapting another Calder Willingham novel (Natural Child), but quickly
realized it could not be done within the Production Code.[77]
Stanley Kubrick 740

One-Eyed Jacks
The Hollywood Reporter announced on October 18, 1956 that producer Frank Rosenberg had bought rights to
Charles Neider's novel The Authentic Death of Hendry Jones for $40,000. Two years later, Pennebaker Inc., Marlon
Brando's independent production company, bought the rights to the novel as well as Sam Peckinpah's first-draft
screenplay adaptation for $150,000. Even at this time, it was announced that Brando might direct.
Later that year, Kubrick was announced as director of Gun's Up, the working title for the production. Shortly after
this announcement, the name of the film was changed to One-Eyed Jacks and Pina Pellicer was announced as "the
unanimous choice of Brando, Rosenberg, and Kubrick" to play the female lead.
On November 20, 1958, Kubrick quit as director of One-Eyed Jacks, stating that he had the utmost respect for
Marlon Brando as one of "the world's foremost artists"[78] but had recently acquired the rights to Nabokov's Lolita
and wanted to begin production work immediately in light of this wonderful opportunity. The film was completed
with directorial credit given to Marlon Brando.

Napoleon
After the success of 2001, Kubrick planned a large-scale biographical film about Napoleon Bonaparte.[79] He
conducted research, read books about the French Emperor, and wrote a preliminary screenplay (which has become
available on the Internet). With the help of assistants, he meticulously created a card catalogue of the places and
deeds of Napoleon's inner circle during its operative years. Kubrick scouted locations, planning to film large portions
of the story in the same places as in Napoleon's life. In notes to his financial backers, preserved in The Kubrick
Archives, Kubrick told them he was unsure how his Napoleon film would turn out, but that he expected to create
"the best movie ever made."[80]
Ultimately, the project was canceled for the prohibitive cost of location filming, the Western release of Sergei
Bondarchuk's epic film version of Leo Tolstoy's novel War and Peace (1968), and the commercial failure of
Bondarchuk's Napoleon-themed film Waterloo (1970). Much of his historical research would influence Barry
Lyndon (1975), the storyline of which ends in 1789, about 15 years before the Napoleonic Wars began.
In a conversation with the British Film Institute, Kubrick's brother-in-law, Jan Harlan, stated that at the time the film
was about to go into production, before it was cancelled, the English actor David Hemmings was his favourite choice
to play Napoleon. Other choices including Oscar Werner and Jack Nicholson.[81] After years of pre-production, the
movie was set aside indefinitely in favor of more economically feasible projects. As late as 1987, Kubrick stated that
he had not given up on the project, mentioning that he had read almost 500 books on the historical figure and that he
was convinced that a film worthy of the subject had not yet appeared.

Aryan Papers
As early as 1976, Kubrick wanted to make a film about the Holocaust, trying to persuade Isaac Bashevis Singer to
contribute an original screenplay. Kubrick sought a "dramatic structure that compressed the complex and vast
information into the story of an individual who represented the essence of this man-made hell." Singer declined,
saying, "I don't know the first thing about the Holocaust."[82] [83] In the early 1990s, Kubrick almost went into
production on a film of Louis Begley's Wartime Lies, the story of a boy and his aunt in hiding during The Holocaust.
The first-draft screenplay, titled "Aryan Papers", had been penned by Kubrick himself. Full Metal Jacket
co-screenwriter Michael Herr reports that Kubrick had considered casting Julia Roberts or Uma Thurman as the aunt.
Eventually, Johanna ter Steege was cast as the aunt and Joseph Mazzello as the young boy, with Kubrick even
travelling to the Czech city of Brno as a possible location for wartime Warsaw. But Kubrick chose not to make the
film due to the release of Steven Spielberg's Holocaust-themed Schindler's List in 1993. In addition, according to
Kubrick's wife, Christiane, the subject itself had become too depressing and difficult for the director. Kubrick
eventually concluded that an accurate film about the Holocaust was beyond the capacity of cinema and abandoned
the project in 1995 and turned his attention back to A.I.[84]
Stanley Kubrick 741

A.I. Artificial Intelligence

Throughout the 1980s and early '90s, Kubrick collaborated with Brian Aldiss on an expansion of his short story
"Super-Toys Last All Summer Long" into a three-act film, along with other writers, such as Sara Maitland and Ian
Watson, under various names, including "Pinocchio" and "Artificial Intelligence.". It was a futuristic fairy-tale about
a robot that resembles and behaves as a child, sold as a temporary surrogate to a family whose real son is in
suspended animation with a deadly disease. The story focuses on the efforts of the robot to become a 'real boy' in a
manner similar to Pinocchio.
Kubrick reportedly held long telephone discussions with Steven Spielberg regarding the film, and, according to
Spielberg, at one point stated that the subject matter was closer to Spielberg's sensibilities than his.[85] In 1999,
following Kubrick's death, Spielberg took the various drafts and notes left by Kubrick and his writers and composed
a new screenplay and, in association with what remained of Kubrick's production unit, made the movie A.I. Artificial
Intelligence, starring Haley Joel Osment, Jude Law, Frances O'Connor, and William Hurt.[86] The film was released
in June 2001.
The film contains a posthumous producing credit for Stanley Kubrick at the beginning and the brief dedication "For
Stanley Kubrick" at the end. The film contains many recurrent Kubrick motifs, such as an omniscient narrator, an
extreme form of the three-act structure, the themes of humanity and inhumanity, and a sardonic view of Freudian
psychology. In addition, John Williams' score contains many allusions to pieces heard in other Kubrick films.[87]

Lunatic at Large
On November 1, 2006, Philip Hobbs, Kubrick's son-in-law, announced that he would be shepherding a film
treatment of Lunatic at Large, which was commissioned by Kubrick for treatment from noir pulp novelist Jim
Thompson in the 1950s, but had been lost until Kubrick's death.[88] This project is currently being developed for
future release as of 2010.[89]

Unreleased screenplays
A number of screenplays remain for which Kubrick was either commissioned or wrote for unsuccessful projects,
include The German Lieutenant (co-written with Richard Adams), featuring a group of German soldiers in a mission
during the final days of World War II;[90] I Stole 16 Million Dollars, about notorious 1930s bank robber Willie
Sutton (the film was to be made by Kirk Douglas' Bryna production company, despite Douglas believing the script
was poorly written, and Cary Grant was approached for the lead);[91] and a first draft of a script about the
Confederate Mosby Rangers guerilla force in the Civil War.[]

Other projects
Kubrick is reported to have been fascinated by the career of Nazi filmmaker Veit Harlan, his wife's uncle, and to
have contemplated a film on the circle around Joseph Goebbels. Although Kubrick worked on it for several years,
this never got further than a rough story outline.[92]
Kubrick wanted to make a film based on Umberto Eco's 1988 novel Foucault's Pendulum, but Eco declined because
of his dissatisfaction with the filming of his earlier novel The Name of the Rose and Kubrick's unwillingness to allow
him to write the screenplay himself; after Kubrick died, Eco would admit he regretted his decision.[93]
Before moving onto 2001, Terry Southern suggested that Kubrick should make a high-budget pornographic film
called Blue Movie in an attempt to take the genre and reinvent it. He decided not to do it, believing that he did not
have the temperament for pornographic cinema and didn't think he could successfully reinvent the genre enough to
truly elevate it. At this time, Southern started work on a novel that would not be published until 1970, also entitled
Blue Movie, about a highly regarded art film director named Boris Adrian who attempts just such a film (the book is
dedicated to Kubrick).[94]
Stanley Kubrick 742

When J. R. R. Tolkien sold the film rights of The Lord of the Rings to United Artists in 1969, the Beatles considered
making a film of it, and approached Kubrick as a possible director, but Kubrick told John Lennon he thought the
novel was unfilmable due to its immensity.[95] [96]
Kubrick also toyed with the idea of adapting Perfume by Patrick Süskind, a book he greatly enjoyed, though nothing
came of it.[97] It would later be adapted for the screen by Tom Tykwer as Perfume: The Story of a Murderer.

Frequent collaborators
Unlike directors such as John Ford, Martin Scorsese, and Akira Kurosawa, Kubrick did not generally reuse actors.
However, Kubrick did on several occasions work with the same actor more than once. In lead roles, Sterling Hayden
appeared in both The Killing and Dr. Strangelove, Peter Sellers in Lolita and Dr. Strangelove, and Kirk Douglas in
Paths of Glory and Spartacus. In supporting roles, Joe Turkel appears in The Killing, Paths of Glory, and The
Shining, Philip Stone appears in A Clockwork Orange, Barry Lyndon, and The Shining, Leonard Rossiter is featured
in 2001: A Space Odyssey and Barry Lyndon, while Timothy Carey is in both The Killing and Paths of Glory. A
Clockwork Orange and Barry Lyndon saw the largest crossover, with six actors (including Patrick Magee) having
roles of various lengths in each film.
One of Kubrick's longest collaborations was with Leon Vitali, who, after playing the older Lord Bullingdon in Barry
Lyndon, became Kubrick's personal assistant, working as the casting director on his following films, and supervising
film-to-video transfers for Kubrick.[98] He also appeared in Eyes Wide Shut, playing the ominous Red Cloak, who
confronts Tom Cruise during the infamous orgy scene. Since Kubrick's death, Vitali has overseen the restoration of
both picture and sound elements for most of Kubrick's films. He has also collaborated frequently with Eyes Wide
Shut co-star Todd Field on his pictures.

Family cameos
Stanley Kubrick's daughter Vivian has cameos in 2001: A Space Odyssey (as Heywood Floyd's daughter), Barry
Lyndon (as a girl at the birthday party for young Bryan Lyndon), The Shining (as a party ghost), and Full Metal
Jacket (as a TV reporter). His stepdaughter Katharina has cameos in A Clockwork Orange and Eyes Wide Shut, and
her character's son in the latter is played by her real son. Kubrick's wife Christiane Kubrick appeared prior to her
marriage to Kubrick in Paths of Glory, billed as Susanne Christian (her birth name is Christiane Susanne Harlan),
and as a cafe guest in Eyes Wide Shut.

Style and trademarks

Stanley Kubrick's films have several trademark characteristics. All but
his first two full-length films and 2001 were adapted from existing
novels (2001 being based on The Sentinel as well as having its own
planned novelization), and he occasionally wrote screenplays in
collaboration with writers (usually novelists, but a journalist in the case
of Full Metal Jacket) who had limited screenwriting experience.[99]
Many of his films had voice-over narration, sometimes taken verbatim
from the novel. With or without narration, all of his films contain
extensive character's-point-of-view footage. The closing of films with
Kubrick's cinematic style frequently features
"The End" went out of style with the advent of long closing credits, but scenes with long parallel walls.
Kubrick continued to put it at the end of the credits, long after the rest
of the film industry stopped using it. On the other hand, Kubrick occasionally dispensed with opening credits (in
Space Odyssey and Clockwork Orange) long before the industry started doing so commonly. His credits are always a
slide show. His only rolling credits are the opening credits to The Shining.
Stanley Kubrick 743

Kubrick paid close attention to the releases of his films in other countries. Not only did he have complete control of
the dubbing cast, but sometimes alternative material was shot for international releases—in The Shining, the text on
the typewriter pages was re-shot for the countries in which the film was released; in Eyes Wide Shut, the newspaper
headlines and paper notes were re-shot for different languages. Since Kubrick's death, no new voice translations are
allowed to be produced for any of the films he had control of; in countries where no authorized dubs exist, only
subtitles are allowed for translation. Kubrick also closely supervised the actual translation of the script into foreign
languages.
Beginning with 2001: A Space Odyssey, all of his films except Full Metal Jacket used mostly pre-recorded classical
music, in two cases electronically altered by Wendy Carlos.[100] He also often used merry-sounding pop music in an
ironic way during scenes depicting devastation and destruction, especially in the closing credits or end sequences of
a film.[101]
In his review of Full Metal Jacket, Roger Ebert[102] noted that many
Kubrick films have a facial closeup of an unraveling character in which
the character's head is tilted down and his eyes are tilted up. Kubrick
also extensively employed wide angle shots, character tracking shots,
zoom shots, and shots down tall parallel walls.
Many of Kubrick's films have back-references to previous Kubrick
films. The best-known examples of this are the appearance of the
Roger Ebert, among others, has noted the soundtrack album for 2001: A Space Odyssey appearing in the record
oft-recurring "Kubrick stare." store in A Clockwork Orange and Quilty's joke about Spartacus in
Lolita. Less obvious is the reference to a painter named Ludovico in
Barry Lyndon, Ludovico being the name of the conditioning treatment in A Clockwork Orange.

All Stanley Kubrick movies have a scene in or just outside a bathroom.[103] (Oddly, the most cited example of this in
2001 is Dr. Floyd's becoming stymied by the Zero-Gravity Toilet en route to the moon, but not David Bowman's
exploration [while still wearing his spacesuit] of the bathroom adjacent to his celestial bedroom after his journey
through the Star Gate.)

CRM-114
Although Dr. Strangelove employs a device called CRM-114, and A
Clockwork Orange has a sound-alike medicine called Serum 114,
numerous and oft-repeated claims that the numbers 114 appear in other
Kubrick films are apocryphal. CRM-114 is also used in the source
novel Red Alert, upon which Dr. Strangelove is based, although claims
have been made that the acronym appears in Kubrick's earlier film The
Killing. Nonetheless, in a remarkable case of a director's influence over
popular culture through an exaggerated urban legend, there is in honor
of this Kubrick trademark, an e-mail spam filtering system, a
progressive rock band, a right-wing website, a sound amplifier in the
film Back to the Future, a catalog code in the TV series Heroes, and a
weapon in the TV series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, all named
CRM-114, as well as a short film called Serum 114. The Star Trek:
Deep Space Nine episode, "Business as Usual", had as guest star actor
The two actual cases of Kubrick's usage of
Steven Berkoff from A Clockwork Orange and Barry Lyndon, and it CRM-114 and the CRM-114 amplifier from the
was directed by regular cast member Alexander Siddig, who is a film Back to the Future.
nephew of Clockwork Orange star Malcolm McDowell.[104]
Stanley Kubrick 744

Aspect ratio
There has been a longstanding debate regarding the DVD releases of Kubrick's films, specifically regarding the
aspect ratio of many of the films. The primary point of contention relates to his final five films: A Clockwork
Orange, Barry Lyndon, The Shining, Full Metal Jacket, and Eyes Wide Shut.
Kubrick's initial involvement with home video mastering of his films was a result of television screenings of 2001: A
Space Odyssey.[105] Because the film was shot in 65 mm, the composition of each shot was compromised by the
pan-and-scan method of transferring a wide-screen image to fit a 1.33:1 television set.
Kubrick's final five films were shot "flat"—the full 1.37:1 area is exposed in the camera, but with appropriate
markings on the viewfinder, the picture was composed for and cropped to the 1.85:1 aspect ratio in a theater's
projector.
The first mastering of these five films was in 2000 as part of the "Stanley Kubrick Collection", consisting of Lolita,
Dr. Strangelove (in association with Sony Pictures), 2001: A Space Odyssey, A Clockwork Orange, Barry Lyndon,
The Shining, Full Metal Jacket, and Eyes Wide Shut. Kubrick oversaw the video masters in 1989 for Warner Home
Video, and approved of 1.33:1 transfers for all of the films except for 2001, which was letterboxed.
Kubrick never approved a 1.85:1 video transfer of any of his films; when he died in 1999, DVDs and the 16×9
format were only beginning to become popular in the US. Most people were accustomed to seeing movies fill their
television screen; in July 2007, less than 10% of US households had High-definition television (HDTV) (16×9
ready) sets.[106] Warner Home Video chose to release these films with the transfers that Kubrick had explicitly
approved.[107]
In 2007, Warner Home Video remastered 2001: A Space Odyssey, A Clockwork Orange, The Shining, Full Metal
Jacket, and Eyes Wide Shut in High-Definition, releasing the titles on DVD, HD DVD, and Blu-ray Disc. All were
released in 16×9 anamorphic transfers, preserving the theatrical 1.85:1 aspect ratios for all of the flat films except A
Clockwork Orange and Eyes Wide Shut, which were transferred at the aspect ratio of 1.66:1.[108]
In regards to the Warner Bros. titles, there is little studio documentation that is public about them other than
instructions given to projectionists on initial release; however, Kubrick's storyboards for The Shining do prove that
he composed the film for wide-screen. In instructions given to photographer John Alcott in one panel, Kubrick
writes: THE FRAME IS EXACTLY 1.85-1. Obviously you compose for that but protect the full 1.33-1 area.[109]
More confusion results regarding Kubrick's non-Warner distributed titles. During the days of laserdisc, The Criterion
Collection released six Kubrick films. Spartacus and 2001 were both native 70 mm releases (exhibited in their
roadshow engagements at a ratio of 2.20:1) at the same ratio as their subsequent DVD releases, and The Killing and
Paths of Glory were both transferred at 1.33:1, despite the latter being hard matted extensively. Both pictures were
theatrically projected at an aspect ratio of 1.85:1.[110] [111]
Dr. Strangelove and Lolita were also transferred at 1.33:1, although Strangelove exhibits a number of hard mattes at
a ratio of 1.66:1 in second-unit footage. This is sometimes falsely attributed to the use of stock footage in
Strangelove. Both films were presented theatrically at ratios of 1.85:1.[112] [113]
The DVD versions of The Killing and Paths of Glory released by MGM Home Entertainment retained the same
1.33:1 aspect ratio as the laserdisc versions. The upcoming Criterion Collection DVD and Blu-ray editions of Paths
of Glory will feature a 1.66:1 aspect ratio.[114] The initial DVD releases of Strangelove maintained the 1.33:1,
Kubrick-approved transfer, but for the most recent DVD and Blu-ray editions, Sony Pictures Home Entertainment
replaced it with a new, digitally remastered anamorphic transfer with an aspect ratio of 1.66:1. All DVD releases of
Lolita to date have been at a uniform 1.66:1 aspect ratio, and the expectation is that future releases will retain this
aspect ratio.
Laserdisc releases of 2001 were presented in a slightly different aspect ratio than the original film. The film was shot
in 65 mm, which has a ratio of 2.20:1, but many theaters could only show it in 35 mm reduction prints, which were
presented at a ratio of 2.35:1. Thus, the picture was slightly modified for the 35 mm prints. The laserdisc releases
Stanley Kubrick 745

maintained the 2.20:1 ratio, but the source material was an already cropped 35 mm print; thus, the edges were
slightly cropped and the top and bottom of the image slightly opened up. This seems to have been corrected with the
most recent DVD release, which was newly remastered from a 70 mm print.

Personal life

Character
Kubrick infrequently discussed personal matters in interview, and rarely spoke publicly at all. Over time, the gamut
of his public image in the media ranged from a reclusive genius to a megalomaniacal lunatic shut off from the
world.[115] Since his death, Kubrick's friends and family have publicly denied both of these stereotypes. It is clear
that the director left behind a strong family and a circle of close friends, and many of those who worked for him have
spoken in his favor.
Kubrick's famous reclusive nature is largely a myth, and may have
resulted from his aversion to air travel. Despite once holding a pilot's
license, Kubrick had a fear of flying[116] and refused to take airplane
trips. As a result, he rarely left England in the last forty years of his
life. In addition, Kubrick shunned the Hollywood system and its
publicity machine,[117] resulting in little media coverage of him as a
personality. Upon purchasing the Childwickbury Manor in
Hertfordshire, England, Kubrick set up his life so that family and
business were one.[118] He purchased top-of-the-line film editing Kubrick's Childwickbury Manor in Hertfordshire,
England
equipment and owned a number of cameras, which he sometimes used
on his own movies. Children and animals would frequently come in
and out of the room as he worked on a script or met with an actor. His appearance was not well-known in his later
years, to the extent that a British man named Alan Conway successfully impersonated Kubrick in order to meet
several well-known actors and get into fancy clubs.[119] Conway is the subject of the film Colour Me Kubrick
(2005), written by Kubrick's assistant Anthony Frewin and directed by Brian Cook, Kubrick's First Assistant
Director for 25 years.

Despite his aversion to international travel, Kubrick was in constant contact with family members and business
associates, often by telephone, and called his collaborators at all hours of the day and night for conversations that
lasted from under a minute to several hours. Many of Kubrick's admirers and friends spoke of these telephone
conversations with great affection and nostalgia after his death, especially Michael Herr and Steven Spielberg. In his
memoir of Kubrick, Herr stated that dozens of people have claimed to have spoken to Kubrick on the day of his
death and remarked that "I believe all of them."[120] Kubrick also frequently invited people to his house, ranging
from actors to close friends, admired film directors, writers, and intellectuals.
Since his death, efforts by his friends and family have been made to attempt to reverse the popular image of him as a
recluse. However he was known to rarely travel, by car or train, outside his estate. Moreover, his obsessive,
perfectionistic style, and specific, intense interests have led some researchers to speculate he may have had
Asperger's Syndrome.[121]
It was little-known by the public during Kubrick's life that he was also an animal lover. He owned many dogs and
cats, and showed an extraordinary affection for them. He is reported to have owned dogs his whole life[122] and
Kubrick's widow, Christiane, in her book version of Stanley Kubrick: A Life In Pictures, wrote that Kubrick brought
his cats onto film sets and editing rooms with him in order to spend more time with them. Matthew Modine
remembers Kubrick's being deeply upset when a family of rabbits was accidentally killed during the making of Full
Metal Jacket. Kubrick was so beside himself that he cancelled shooting for the rest of the day. Philip Kaplan, one of
Kubrick's lawyers and friends, told the story that Stanley once cancelled, at the last moment, a meeting with him and
Stanley Kubrick 746

another lawyer who had flown to London from the United States because he had sat up all night with a dying cat and
was in no shape to participate. Also, according to Kaplan, the huge kitchen table at Kubrick's home in Harpenden
(Hertfordshire, United Kingdom) was supported by an undulating base with interior spaces, and housed within each
curved space was a dog, most of whom were of no recognizable breed, and some not notably friendly to strangers.
Kubrick had a reputation for being tactless and rude to those he worked with. Some of Kubrick's collaborators
complained that his personality was cold and that he lacked sympathy for the feelings of other people. Although
Kubrick became close friends with Clockwork Orange star Malcolm McDowell during filming, Kubrick abruptly
terminated the friendship soon after the film was complete. McDowell was deeply hurt by this, and the schism
between the two men lasted until Kubrick's death.[123] Science fiction writer Brian Aldiss was fired from Kubrick's
never-completed project A.I. for vacationing with his family in violation of his contract, even though Kubrick had
put the project on hold at the time. James Earl Jones, despite his admiration for Kubrick on an artistic level, spoke
negatively of his experience on Dr. Strangelove, saying that Kubrick was disrespectful to actors, using them as
instruments in a grand design rather than allowing them to be creative artists in their own right.[124] George C. Scott,
who admired Kubrick in retrospect for reportedly being one of the few people who could routinely beat him at chess,
famously resented Kubrick's using Scott's most over-the-top performances for the final cut of Dr. Strangelove after
being promised by Kubrick that they were warmups and would not actually be in the movie.[124] [125] Kubrick's
employees and crew members have stated that he was notorious for not complimenting anyone, and rarely showed
admiration for his coworkers for fear it would make them complacent. Kubrick complimented them on their work
only after the movie was finished, unless he felt their work was "genius." The only actors that Kubrick called
"genius" were Peter Sellers, James Mason, and Malcolm McDowell.
Michael Herr, in his otherwise positive memoir of his friendship with Kubrick, complained that Kubrick was
extremely cheap and very greedy about money. He stated that Kubrick was a "terrible man to do business with" and
that the director was upset until the day he died that Jack Nicholson made more money from The Shining than he
did.[126] Kirk Douglas often commented on Kubrick's unwillingness to compromise, his out-of-control ego, and his
ruthless determination to make a film his own distinct work of art instead of a group effort. However, Douglas has
acknowledged that a large part of his dislike for Kubrick was caused by the director's consistently negative
statements about Spartacus.
Many of those who worked with Kubrick have spoken kindly of him since his death, including coworkers and
friends Jack Nicholson, Diane Johnson, Tom Cruise, Joe Turkel, Con Pederson, Carl Solomon, Ryan O'Neal,
Anthony Frewin, Andrew Birkin, Ian Watson, John Milius, Jocelyn Pook, Sydney Pollack, R. Lee Ermey, and
others. Michael Herr's memoir of Kubrick, and Matthew Modine's book Full Metal Jacket Diary show a much
kinder, saner, and warmer version of Kubrick than the conventional view of him as cold, demanding, and
impersonal. In a series of interviews found on the DVD of Eyes Wide Shut, a teary-eyed Tom Cruise remembers
Kubrick with great affection; Nicole Kidman shares her sentiments. Shelley Winters, when asked what she thought
of him, answered: "A gift." Shelley Duvall, who played Wendy in The Shining, had a rocky relationship with
Kubrick, but said in retrospect that it was a great experience that made her smarter—though she'd never want to do it
again. Malcolm McDowell acknowledged in retrospect that some of his statements about Kubrick were "unfair" and
were a "cry out" to Kubrick to reconnect with him.
Kubrick's immediate family felt that the common perception of him as a eccentric reclusive misanthrope were
entirely off-the-mark stereotypes. His stepdaughter Katharina recalls that her sister Anya once stated that "the more
she reads about daddy the more she thinks that Howard Hughes was probably a perfectly normal person."[127] When
his widow, Christiane, was asked which books on Kubrick were not reliable, she singled out Frederic Raphael's Eyes
Wide Open: A Memoir of Stanley Kubrick and John Baxter's Stanley Kubrick: A Biography[127] (not to be confused
with the identically titled book by Vincent LoBrutto). The posthumous family production of the documentary and
book Stanley Kubrick: A Life in Pictures (film documentary directed by Jan Harlan, book tie-in written by Christiane
Kubrick née Harlan) was partly intended to offset the negative impressions created by these works.
Stanley Kubrick 747

Politics
In his memoir of Kubrick, Michael Herr, his friend and co-writer of the screenplay for Full Metal Jacket, wrote:
Stanley had views on everything, but I would not exactly call them political... His views on democracy
were those of most people I know, neither left or right, not exactly brimming with belief, a noble failed
experiment along our evolutionary way, brought low by base instincts, money and self-interest and
stupidity... He thought the best system might be under a benign despot, though he had little belief that
such a man could be found. He wasn't a cynic, but he could have easily passed for one. He was certainly
a capitalist. He believed himself to be a realist.
Herr recalls that Kubrick was sometimes akin to a 19th-century liberal-humanist, that he found Irving Kristol's
definition of a neoconservative as a "liberal mugged by reality" to be hysterically funny, that he distrusted almost all
authority, and that he was a Social Darwinist.[128]
Herr further wrote that Kubrick owned guns and did not think that war was an entirely bad thing. In the documentary
Stanley Kubrick: A Life in Pictures, Herr says "…he also accepted that it was perfectly okay to acknowledge that, of
all the things war is, it's also very beautiful." The writer said of initial reactions to Full Metal Jacket that "The
political left will call Kubrick a fascist."[129] In a 1987 interview with Gene Siskel, called Candidly Kubrick, Kubrick
said, "Full Metal Jacket suggests there is more to say about war than it is just bad." He added that everything serious
the drill instructor says, such as "A rifle is only a tool, it is a hard heart that kills", is completely true.[130]
Though some have said Kubrick disliked America, Michael Herr says that America was all he talked about and that
he often thought of moving back.[131] Herr wrote that Kubrick was sent VHS tapes from American friends of NFL
Football, Seinfeld, The Simpsons, and other television shows that he could not get in the United Kingdom. Kubrick
told Siskel that he was not anti-American and thought that America was a good country, though he did not think that
Ronald Reagan was a good President. In the interview, he also predicted an economic meltdown worldwide by
pointing out to Siskel that most of the major banks in the United States held dubious foreign bonds as collateral and
huge third world loans treated as assets.[132] Kubrick likened this to the Hans Christian Andersen fairy tale about the
"Emperor's New Clothes", and felt even during the Cold War, an economic collapse was more worrisome and
imminent than nuclear annihilation was. As far as Kubrick's views on welfare and taxation, according to Ian Watson,
Kubrick said of the pre-1997 socialist Labour Party that "If the Labourites ever get in, I’ll leave the country." Watson
claims that Kubrick was extremely opposed to taxes on the rich and to welfare in general.[133]
Kubrick's earlier work is seen by Pauline Kael as more socially liberal than his later work.[134] The early films
embody liberal ideals, and the satire of government and military in Dr. Strangelove seems to point to a liberal
political perspective. Similarly, film analyst Glenn Perusek thinks Kubrick's earlier Paths of Glory reflects a
Rousseauist vision of man with natural human sympathy crushed by the artifice of society; later Kubrick films
abandon that perspective.[135] While Kael viewed Dr. Strangelove as a liberal film, Kagan disagrees, holding that
film to be written from the point of view of a detached realist, lacking the overt liberalism of similar anti-war films
of the era such as On the Beach or Fail-Safe.[136] Kubrick's more mature works are more pessimistic and suspicious
of the so-called innate goodness of mankind, and are critical of stances based on that positive assessment. For
example, in A Clockwork Orange, the police are as violent and vulgar as the droogs, and Kubrick depicts both the
subversive Leftist writer Mr. Alexander and the authoritarian status quo Minister of the Interior as manipulative and
sinister. Kubrick commented regarding A Clockwork Orange:
Man isn't a noble savage, he's an ignoble savage. He is irrational, brutal, weak, silly, unable to be
objective about anything where his own interests are involved—that about sums it up. I'm interested in
the brutal and violent nature of man because it's a true picture of him. And any attempt to create social
institutions on a false view of the nature of man is probably doomed to failure.[137]
He went on to say:
Stanley Kubrick 748

The idea that social restraints are all bad is based on a utopian and unrealistic vision of man. But in this
movie, you have an example of social institutions gone a bit berserk. Obviously, social institutions faced
with the law-and-order problem might choose to become grotesquely oppressive. The movie poses two
extremes: it shows Alex in his precivilized state, and society committing a worse evil in attempting to
cure him."
When New York Times writer Fred M. Hechinger wrote a piece that declared A Clockwork Orange "fascist", Kubrick
responded:
It is quite true that my film's view of man is less flattering than the one Rousseau entertained in a
similarly allegorical narrative—but, in order to avoid fascism, does one have to view man as a noble
savage rather than an ignoble one? Being a pessimist is not yet enough to qualify one to be regarded as a
tyrant (I hope)... The age of the alibi, in which we find ourselves, began with the opening sentence of
Rousseau's Emile: 'Nature made me happy and good, and if I am otherwise, it is society's fault.' It is
based on two misconceptions: that man in his natural state was happy and good, and that primal man had
no society... Rousseau's romantic fallacy that it is society which corrupts man, not man who corrupts
society, places a flattering gauze between ourselves and reality. This view, to use Mr. Hechinger's frame
of reference, is solid box office but, in the end, such a self-inflating illusion leads to despair.[138]
Kubrick quoted extensively from Robert Ardrey, author of African Genesis and The Social Contract—not to be
confused with Rousseau's—and author Arthur Koestler, who is famous for writing The Ghost in the Machine. Both
authors (Koestler through psychology and Ardrey through anthropology) searched for the cause of humanity's
capacity for death and destruction, and both, like Kubrick, were suspicious of the liberal belief in the innate goodness
of mankind. Ardrey and Kubrick both attribute this to Rousseau, who, in Ardrey's words, "Fathered the romantic
fallacy" and Behaviourism, especially what they consider "radical Behaviourism", which they blame primarily on B.
F. Skinner. In his interview with The New York Times, Kubrick stated that his view of man was closer to those of
Christianity than to humanism or Jewish theology, saying, "I mean, it's essentially Christian theology anyway, that
view of man."
Kubrick appeared to believe that freedom is still worth pursuing even if mankind is ultimately ignoble, and that evil
on the part of the individual—however undesirable—is still preferable in contrast to the evil of a totalitarian society.
Kubrick said in an interview with Gene Siskel:
To restrain man is not to redeem him... I think the danger is not that authority will collapse, but that,
finally, in order to preserve itself, it will become very repressive... Law and order is not a phony issue,
not just an excuse for the Right to go further right.[139]

Religion
Stanley Kubrick was of Jewish descent, but his family did not practice religion at all.[140] Indeed though his father's
real name was Jacob, he went by Jacques or Jack as a move towards American assimilation.[] When asked by Michel
Ciment in an interview if he had a religious upbringing, Kubrick replied: "No, not at all."[141]
Kubrick is often said to have been an atheist. This may or may not be true. In Kubrick's interview with Craig
McGregor, he said:[138]
2001 would give a little insight into my metaphysical interests... I'd be very surprised if the universe
wasn't full of an intelligence of an order that to us would seem God-like. I find it very exciting to have a
semi-logical belief that there's a great deal to the universe we don't understand, and that there is an
intelligence of an incredible magnitude outside the Earth. It's something I've become more and more
interested in. I find it a very exciting and satisfying hope.
When asked by Eric Nordern in Kubrick's interview with Playboy if 2001: A Space Odyssey was a religious film,
Kubrick elaborated:[142]
Stanley Kubrick 749

I will say that the God concept is at the heart of 2001 but not any traditional, anthropomorphic image of
God. I don't believe in any of Earth's monotheistic religions, but I do believe that one can construct an
intriguing scientific definition of God, once you accept the fact that there are approximately 100 billion
stars in our galaxy alone, that each star is a life-giving sun and that there are approximately 100 billion
galaxies in just the visible universe. Given a planet in a stable orbit, not too hot and not too cold, and
given a few billion years of chance chemical reactions created by the interaction of a sun's energy on the
planet's chemicals, it's fairly certain that life in one form or another will eventually emerge. It's
reasonable to assume that there must be, in fact, countless billions of such planets where biological life
has arisen, and the odds of some proportion of such life developing intelligence are high. Now, the sun
is by no means an old star, and its planets are mere children in cosmic age, so it seems likely that there
are billions of planets in the universe not only where intelligent life is on a lower scale than man but
other billions where it is approximately equal and others still where it is hundreds of thousands of
millions of years in advance of us. When you think of the giant technological strides that man has made
in a few millennia—less than a microsecond in the chronology of the universe—can you imagine the
evolutionary development that much older life forms have taken? They may have progressed from
biological species, which are fragile shells for the mind at best, into immortal machine entities—and
then, over innumerable eons, they could emerge from the chrysalis of matter transformed into beings of
pure energy and spirit. Their potentialities would be limitless and their intelligence ungraspable by
humans.
In the same interview, he also blames the poor critical reaction to 2001 as follows:[142]
Perhaps there is a certain element of the lumpen literati that is so dogmatically atheist and materialist
and Earth-bound that it finds the grandeur of space and the myriad mysteries of cosmic intelligence
anathema.
In an interview with William Kloman of The New York Times, when asked why there is hardly any dialogue in 2001,
Kubrick explained:
I don't have the slightest doubt that to tell a story like this, you couldn't do it with words. There are only
46 minutes of dialogue scenes in the film, and 113 of non-dialogue. There are certain areas of feeling
and reality—or unreality or innermost yearning, whatever you want to call it—which are notably
inaccessible to words. Music can get into these areas. Painting can get into them. Non-verbal forms of
expression can. But words are a terrible straitjacket. It's interesting how many prisoners of that
straitjacket resent its being loosened or taken off. There's a side to the human personality that somehow
senses that wherever the cosmic truth may lie, it doesn't lie in A, B, C, D. It lies somewhere in the
mysterious, unknowable aspects of thought and life and experience. Man has always responded to it.
Religion, mythology, allegories—it's always been one of the most responsive chords in man. With
rationalism, modern man has tried to eliminate it, and successfully dealt some pretty jarring blows to
religion. In a sense, what's happening now in films and in popular music is a reaction to the stifling
limitations of rationalism. One wants to break out of the clearly arguable, demonstrable things which
really are not very meaningful, or very useful or inspiring, nor does one even sense any enormous truth
in them.
Stephen King recalled Kubrick calling him late at night while he was filming The Shining and Kubrick asked him,
"Do you believe in God?" King said that he had answered in the affirmative, but has had three different versions of
what happened next. One time, he said that Kubrick simply hung up on him. On other occasions, he claimed Kubrick
said, "I knew it", and then hung up on him. On yet another occasion, King claimed that Kubrick said, before hanging
up, "No, I don't think there is a God." In more recent interviews, King has had yet another version of the "God"
story, in which Kubrick calls King and asks him if he thinks ghost stories are optimistic because they all suggest
there is life after death. King replies, "What about hell?" There is a pause and Kubrick says, "I do not believe in
Stanley Kubrick 750

hell."
Finally, Katharina Kubrick Hobbs was asked by alt.movies.kubrick if Stanley Kubrick believed in God. Here is her
response:[143]
Hmm, tricky. I think he believed in something, if you understand my meaning. He was a bit of a fatalist
actually, but he was also very superstitious. Truly a mixture of nature and nurture. I don't know exactly
what he believed, he probably would have said that no-one can really ever know for sure, and that it
would be rather arrogant to assume that one could know. I asked him once after The Shining, if he
believed in ghosts. He said that it would be nice if there "were" ghosts, as that would imply that there is
something after death. In fact, I think he said, "Gee I hope so."...He did not have a religious funeral
service. He's not buried in consecrated ground. We always celebrated Christmas and had huge Christmas
trees.
In Stanley Kubrick: A Life in Pictures, Jack Nicholson recalls that Kubrick said The Shining is an overall optimistic
story because "anything that says there's anything after death is ultimately an optimistic story."

Alternate adaptations
Three of Stanley Kubrick's films have had their source material re-adapted in some fashion: Anthony Burgess's
subsequent stage adaptation of A Clockwork Orange in 1990, which he hoped would be considered a more definitive
adaptation than Kubrick's film;[144] the Stephen King written and produced television miniseries of The Shining,
which he hoped would stand as the authorized adaptation; and Adrian Lyne's adaptation of Lolita, which had the
blessing of Vladimir Nabokov's son, Dmitri (who echoed his father's moderate misgivings about Kubrick's
version).[145] [146] Both Burgess and King overtly stated that they were annoyed by Kubrick's denying their lead
characters (Alex DeLarge and Jack Torrance, respectively) a final redemption that was present in the source material,
but absent from Kubrick's adaptation.
It must be noted that among other Kubrick film adaptations of the work of living authors, both Arthur C. Clarke and
Gustav Hasford (author of the source novel for Full Metal Jacket) were entirely satisfied with how Kubrick adapted
their work.

Legacy
Kubrick made only thirteen feature films in his life. His oeuvre was comparatively low in number (compared to
contemporaries such as Ingmar Bergman or Federico Fellini) due to his methodical and meticulous dedication to
every aspect of film production. A number of his films are recognized as seminal classics within their genre.
Awards and recognition
Five of Stanley Kubrick's films were nominated for Academy Awards in various categories, including Best Picture
for Dr. Strangelove, A Clockwork Orange, and Barry Lyndon, and Best Director for 2001: A Space Odyssey, Dr.
Strangelove, A Clockwork Orange, and Barry Lyndon. 2001: A Space Odyssey received numerous technical awards,
including a BAFTA award for cinematographer Geoffrey Unsworth and an Academy Award for best visual effects,
which Kubrick (as director of special effects on the film) received.
Most awards for which Kubrick's films were nominated tended to be in the areas of cinematography, art design,
screenwriting, and music. However, only four of his films were nominated for their acting performances, notably
Lolita, getting three acting nominations from the Golden Globes, and Peter Sellers getting nominated for both an
Oscar and a BAFTA for his triple roles in Dr. Strangelove. Of all his movies, only Spartacus rewarded a cast
member with an acting award.
All Kubrick films from Paths of Glory to the end of his career were nominated for at least one Golden Globe or
Oscar (along with several BAFTA nominations) with the notable exception of The Shining which was actually
nominated for the infamous Razzie award. Ironically, at least two published books, The Wolf at the Door by Jay
Stanley Kubrick 751

Cocks and Kubrick, inside a film artist's maze by Thomas Nelson, consider The Shining to be a kind of master key to
Kubrick's whole body of work in which all of Kubrick's philosophical preoccupations merge into a grand synthesis.
In 1997, three of Kubrick's films were selected by the American Film Institute for their list of the 100 Greatest
Movies in America: 2001: A Space Odyssey at #22, Dr. Strangelove at #26 and A Clockwork Orange at #46. In
2007, the AFI updated their list with 2001 ranked at #15, Dr. Strangelove ranked at #39 and Clockwork Orange
ranked at #70; Spartacus was one of the new selections, ranking at #81.
Reviews from critics
Many of Kubrick's films initially received lukewarm reviews, only to be hailed as major and seminal classics
decades later. Film critics Andrew Sarris and Pauline Kael were consistently highly dismissive of Kubrick, often
considering him as impersonal and misanthropic. Writer Mark Browning has noted that critics seem divided between
those that consider him "immensely profound" or "just plain pretentious."[147] Likewise, Tony Mills in the Sunday
Times Book review said he is "depending on who you ask either the greatest film director since Orson Welles or...a
hypnotically pretentious fake".[148] Initially, Roger Ebert gave a poor review of The Shining which now Ebert has
canonized in his series of reviews of great films. It has been argued that this frequent shift in opinion is due to the
consistently idiosyncratic and unconventional character of his film-making style, and this also accounts for his
enormous influence on the film community. (See the section on "Tributes from filmmakers" below.) Ronnie
Lankford notes "It is fascinating, when reflecting upon Kubrick, how many times he made a seminal film." which
approached subjects in a new way. In the same essay he writes,
..critical opinion has always lagged behind when it came to Kubrick. Look up 2001: A Space Odyssey
(1968) in the average movie guide. Most call it an innovative masterpiece and forget to mention that a
number of critics hated the film when it was released. Kubrick’s films have often been groundbreaking,
controversial, and misunderstood. But critics who dare to question his artistry usually have to eat their
review.[149]
Style
For Kubrick, written dialogue is one element to be put in balance with mise en scène (set arrangements), music, and
especially, editing. Inspired by Pudovkin's treatise on film acting,[150] Kubrick realized that one could create a
performance in the editing room and often re-direct a film.
As he explained to a journalist,
Everything else [in film] comes from something else. Writing, of course, is writing; acting comes from
the theatre; and cinematography comes from photography. Editing is unique to film. You can see
something from different points of view almost simultaneously, and it creates a new experience.[151]
Kubrick's method of operating thus became a quest for an emergent vision in the editing room, when all the elements
of a film could be assembled. The price of this method, beginning as early as Spartacus (when he first had an ample
budget for film stock), was endless exploratory re-shooting of scenes that was an exhaustive investigation of all
possible variations of a scene.[152] This enabled him to walk into the editing room with copious options. John Baxter
has written:
Instead of finding the intellectual spine of a film in the script before starting work, Kubrick felt his way
towards the final version of a film by shooting each scene from many angles and demanding scores of
takes on each line. Then over months... he arranged and rearranged the tens of thousands of scraps of
film to fit a vision that really only began to emerge during editing.[151]
Kubrick also pioneered the use of long takes extended over the course of a picture, such as the extended tricycle
riding sequence in The Shining or the long pullback from Alex's face at the beginning of A Clockwork Orange.
While not an unknown technique before Kubrick, it became seen in the film community as a Kubrickian
trademark.[153]
Tributes from filmmakers, critics and imitators
Stanley Kubrick 752

Leading directors, including Martin Scorsese, Steven Spielberg, James Cameron, Woody Allen, Terry Gilliam and
Ridley Scott, have cited Kubrick as a source of inspiration, and in the case of Spielberg, collaboration.[154] [155] On
the DVD of Eyes Wide Shut, Steven Spielberg, in an interview, comments on Kubrick that "nobody could shoot a
picture better in history" but that Kubrick "tells a story is antithetical to the way we are accustomed to receiving
stories". Writing in the introduction to a recent edition of Michel Ciment's Kubrick, film director Martin Scorsese has
noted that most of Kubrick's films were misunderstood and under-appreciated when first released. Then came a
dawning recognition that they were masterful works unlike any other films.
Even today, Kubrick continues to be cited as a major influence by many directors, including Christopher Nolan,[156]
David Fincher,[157] Guillermo del Toro,[158] David Lynch,[159] Lars Von Trier,[160] Richard Linklater,[161] Sam
Mendes,[162] Joel Schumacher,[163] Taylor Hackford,[164] Michael Mann [165] and George A. Romero.[166] Many
filmmakers imitate Kubrick's inventive and unique use of camera movement and framing, For example, Jonathan
Glazer's film Birth and music video The Universal contain many visual references to Kubrick.
On the other hand, others, such as the filmmakers of the remodernist film movement, have been critical of Kubrick's
work, described by Jesse Richards as "boring and dishonest".[167] Peter Rinaldi, in his essay on the Remodernist Film
Manifesto for Mungbeing, The Shore as Seen from the Deep Sea, defends the manifesto, writing:
I certainly don't share in my friend's opinion of this man's work, but I actually think this is a hugely
important part of the manifesto. A lot of us came to be filmmakers because a particular director's (or a
number of directors) work inspired us. A friend of mine calls these inspirational figures his "Giants",
which I think is a great word for them because sometimes they are built up so much in our minds that we
don't think we, or our work, can ever really reach them and theirs. I think, for the most part, the
generation that I grew up in had Kubrick as their Giant. His work has a mystical "perfectionism" that is
awe-inspiring at times. This perfectionism is anathema to the Remodernist mentality and for many
healthy reasons, this giant (or whatever giant towers over your work) must fall in our minds. We must
become the giant.[168]
Kubrick was both a great fan of The Simpsons and in friendly contact with the show's producers. Analysts of the
show argue that The Simpsons contains more references to many films of Stanley Kubrick than any other pop culture
phenomenon. References abound not only to 2001, A Clockwork Orange, and The Shining but also to Spartacus, Dr.
Strangelove, Lolita, and Full Metal Jacket. It has been noted that while references to "fantastic fiction" in The
Simpsons are copious, "there are two masters of the genre whose impact on The Simpsons supersedes that of all
others: Stanley Kubrick and Edgar Allan Poe."[169] Similarly, it has been observed that
...the show's almost obsessive references to the films of Stanley Kubrick...[make it] as if the show's
admittance of these films into the show's pantheon of intertextual allusions finally marked their entry
into the deepest subconscious level of the global pop cultural mind.[170]
Studies of Kubrick
At least two full-length books on Stanley Kubrick are devoted to frame-by-frame analysis of his visual style: Stanley
Kubrick, Director: A Visual Analysis by Alexander Walker, and Stanley Kubrick: Visual Poet 1928–1999 (Basic
Film) by Paul Duncan. History professor Geoffrey Cocks notes that Kubrick has what he calls an "open narrative"
style that "requires the audience to derive meaning actively rather than being passively instructed, entertained, and
manipulated."[171] On the other hand, Cocks believes that Kubrick's preoccupation with sweeping overarching
historical themes causes him to frequently sacrifice character development. "His films consistently display a basic
taxonomy of violence, systems of control, and inherent human evil. This idée fixe freezes the people in his films into
types rather than fully developed characters."[172]
Social commentary and vision
Kubrick has been noted both for his social commentary and for his distinctive visual style. Regarding social
commentary, Kubrick has been noted for the recurring theme of concern with the over-mechanization of society
Stanley Kubrick 753

which, in its attempt to create a safe environment, creates an artificial sterility that breeds the very evils it tries to
exclude.[173] Multiple critics have noted that Kubrick's earlier films have more straightforward linear narrative while
the later films are moderately and subtly surreal reflecting a sense of social dislocation and confusion[174] The
emotional distance Kubrick maintains from many of his characters have caused critics to see Kubrick as a cold and
detached rationalist, while the recurrence of strongly psychopathic characters from Alex DeLarge to Jack Torrance in
his films have caused many to view Kubrick's outlook as deeply pessimistic.[175] A frequently recurring observation
on the Kubrick film that Steven Spielberg completed A.I is that it uneasily meshes Spielberg's rosy optimistic
outlook with Kubrick's pessimistic one, although one reviewer wrote “Spielberg, has done a remarkable job in
balancing Kubrick's pessimism with his optimism without having one overcrowd the other”[176]
In spite of Kubrick's own denial that he is a pessimist,[177] the charge is frequently repeated. Newspaper obituaries of
Kubrick notably the one in The New York Times by Stephen Holden (as well as that in the San Jose Mercury), the
entry on Kubrick in the online edition of Encyclopædia Britannica, and Vincent LoBrutto's full-length biography[178]
of Kubrick (which was spoken of approvingly by Kubrick's wife) all characterize Kubrick broadly as pessimistic.
(Holden wrote “if Mr. Kubrick's misanthropy prompted some critics to accuse him of coldness and inhumanity,
others saw his pessimism as an uncompromisingly Swiftian vision of human absurdity.”) So also did Kubrick's most
severe critic, Pauline Kael.[179] The charge was repeated in reviews of the multi-film DVD boxed set of his films in
2007, a New Jersey film critic writing “And yet preserved too -- like an ugly insect trapped in amber -- are some of
the artist's most problematic qualities, including a bitter pessimism, a cruel humor and an almost godlike superiority
that often viewed other people -- and particularly women -- as little more than impediments."[180] A pessimistic
streak was found in essays collected in The Philosophy of Stanley Kubrick, one of which characterizes Eyes Wide
Shut as “a kind of Sartrean pessimism about our inevitable dissatisfaction with romantic love.”[181]
Not all critics agree with this assessment. Other essays in the same anthology find Eyes to be very optimistic. James
Naremore in On Kubrick characterizes Kubrick as a modernist in the tradition of James Joyce and Franz Kafka with
their distrust of mass society. As such, Naremore notes that Kubrick's detachment from his subjects does not make
him a dour pessimist, although Kubrick does often dwell on “the failure of scientific reasoning, and the fascistic
impulses in masculine sexuality”.[182] Peter Kramer's study of 2001 argues it is meant to counterweight the
pessimism of Kubrick's previous Doctor Strangelove.
Some view Kubrick's pessimism as either at least overstated by others or even more apparent than real, an
impression created by Kubrick's refusal of any bland or cheap optimism, refusal to make films that conform to
conventional ideas of a spectacle, and a desire to employ films as a wake-up call to humanity to understand its
capacity for evil. The editors of The Kubrick Site note that Kubrick avoids cinematically conventional ways of
structuring stories. This does indeed create for many viewers a sense of emotionless detachment from the human
subjects as noted above. For example, Kubrick often prefers lengthy dialogue scenes shot from one camera angle
with no cutting. But the editors of TKS believe this is done in order to establish a life of characters beyond dialogue
which "helps to reveal, in the spaces and silences, some of the emotional nature permeating the film's world" as well
as a realistic sense of the characters' situatedness in time and society. Kubrick's focus is not just on individual
characters but on the larger society around them and how it affects their motivation, often in negative ways. The
authors also stress that however bleak Kubrick's outlook (intermittently) is, he is not a misanthrope.[183]
A recent outspoken dissenter from pessimistic readings of Kubrick is author Julian Rice, a scholar of Native
American literature. His book Kubrick's Hope argues that although there is a powerful vision of evil in Kubrick,
there is vision of redemption and goodness in Kubrick's films stronger than often initially recognized, a vision
focused both on family feeling and access to the sublime depths of the subconscious beyond superficial socialization.
However, Rice has been alleged to misrepresent the work of prior Kubrick film scholars, particularly with reference
to just how pessimistic or misanthropic they actually think Kubrick's films are.[184]
Steven Spielberg, himself a noted cinematic optimist and close personal friend of Kubrick, expressed a similar view
of Kubrick. Going against the grain of the view that Kubrick's films are misanthropic and pessimistic, Spielberg in a
Stanley Kubrick 754

tribute to Kubrick at the 71st Academy awards said that

He dared us to have the courage of his convictions, and when we take that dare, we're transported
directly to his world, and we're inside his vision. And in the whole history of movies, there has been
nothing like that vision ever. It was a vision of hope and wonder, of grace and of mystery. It was a gift
to us, and now it's a legacy. "[185]
Perhaps the last word in this debate might be Kubrick's own from a 1968 interview in Playboy
The most terrifying fact about the universe is not that it is hostile but that it is indifferent, but if we can
come to terms with the indifference, then our existence as a species can have genuine meaning.
However vast the darkness, we must supply our own light.

Filmography
Documentary short films
• Day of the Fight (1951)
• Flying Padre (1951)
• The Seafarers (1953)
Feature films

Year Title Awards (limited to Oscars, Golden Globes, and BAFTAs)

1953 Fear and Desire

1955 Killer's Kiss

1956 The Killing Nominated for BAFTA Award: Best Film from Any Source

1957 Paths of Glory Nominated for BAFTA Award: Best Film from Any Source

1960 Spartacus Nominated for 6 Oscars, Won 4: Best Supporting Actor, Best Art Direction, Best
Cinematography, Best Costume Design, Best Editing, Best Original Score
Nominated for 6 Golden Globes, Won 1: Best Drama Picture, Best Drama Actor, Best Director,
Best Original Score, Best Supporting Actor
Nominated for BAFTA Award: Best Film from Any Source

1962 Lolita Nominated for Oscar: Best Adapted Screenplay

Nominated for 5 Golden Globes, Won 1: Most Promising Newcomer – Female, Best Drama
Actor, Best Drama Actress, Best Director, Best Supporting Actor
Nominated for BAFTA Award: Best Actor

1964 Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Nominated for 4 Oscars:Best Actor, Best Director, Best Picture, Best Adapted Screenplay
Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb Nominated for 6 BAFTA Awards, Won 3: Best British Art Direction, Best British Film, Best
Film from any Source, Best British Actor, Best British Screenplay, Best Foreign Actor

1968 2001: A Space Odyssey Nominated for 4 Oscars, Won 1 : Best Special Effects, Best Director, Best Art Direction, Best
Original Screenplay
Nominated for 4 BAFTA Awards, Won 3: Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, Best Sound
Track, Best Film

1971 A Clockwork Orange
Nominated for 4 Oscars: Best Director, Best Editing, Best Picture, Best Adapted Screenplay
Nominated for 3 Golden Globes: Best Director, Best Drama Picture, Best Drama Actor
Nominated for 7 BAFTA Awards: Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, Best Direction, Best
Film, Best Film Editing, Best Screenplay, Best Sound Track
Won 2 recognitions by The New York Film Critics: Best Director, Best Picture
Stanley Kubrick 755

1975 Barry Lyndon Nominated for 7 Oscars, Won 4: Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, Best Costume
Design, Best Original Song Score and/or Adaptation, Best Director, Best Picture, Best Adapted
Screenplay
Nominated for 2 Golden Globes: Best Director, Best Drama Picture
Nominated for 5 BAFTA Awards, Won 2: Best Cinematography, Best Direction, Best Art
Direction, Best Costume Design, Best Film

1980 The Shining

1987 Full Metal Jacket Nominated for Oscar: Best Adapted Screenplay
Nominated for Golden Globe: Best Supporting Actor
Nominated for 2 BAFTA Awards: Best Sound, Best Special Effects

1999 Eyes Wide Shut Nominated for Golden Globe: Best Original Score

Kubrick has also been nominated for and won awards from various societies of film critics, film festivals, and both
the Writers Guild of America and the Directors Guild of America.
In the science fiction world, Kubrick has thrice won the especially coveted Hugo Award, a prized mainly for print
writing and only secondarily for drama production. He also received four nominations (with one win) of the
sci-fi-film-oriented Saturn awards from the Academy of Science Fiction for The Shining, an award that did not exist
when Kubrick won his three Hugos.
Kubrick only received two awards from major film festivals: "Best Director" from the Locarno International Film
Festival in 1959 for Killer's Kiss and "Filmcritica Bastone Bianco Award" at the Venice Film Festival in 1999 for
"Eyes Wide Shut". He also was nominated for the "Golden Lion" of the Venice Film Festival in 1962 for Lolita. The
Venice Film Festival awarded him the "Career Golden Lion" in 1997 and the Sitges - Catalonian International Film
Festival awarded him the "Honorary Grand Prize" in 2008.
The least honored of Kubrick's films since 1956's The Killing is The Shining, which garnered only the
above-mentioned four nominations (with one win) for Saturn awards. In addition, The Shining is the only Stanley
Kubrick film ever to be nominated for any of the notorious Razzies. It was nominated for two, Worst Actress
(Shelley Duvall) and Worst Director.

See also
• Stanley Kubrick Archive

References
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State University Press. ISBN 0814328490.
• "AFI's 10 Top 10" [188]. American Film Institute. Retrieved 2010-01-09.
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ALT.MOVIES.KUBRICK FAQ. Retrieved 2007-12-24.
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Uses of History. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299216144.
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McMeel. ISBN 0740758101.
• Dupont, Joan (September 15, 2001). "Kubrick Speaks, Through Family's Documentary" [205]. New York Times.
Retrieved 2008-05-08.
• Ebert, Roger (February 11, 1972). "A Clockwork Orange" [206]. Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved 2010-01-09.
• Ebert, Roger (June 26, 1987). "Full Metal Jacket" [207]. Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved 2008-10-25.
• Ebert, Roger (July 11, 1999). "Dr. Strangelove (1964)" [208]. Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved 2010-01-09.
• Ebert, Roger (June 15, 1999). "Cruise opens up about working with Kubrick" [209]. Chicago Sun-Times.
Retrieved 2008-10-25.
• Ericson, John Lars (January 4, 2004). "The measure of a man: Stanley Kubrick's "Full Metal Jacket"" [210].
Blogcritics Video. Retrieved 2010-01-10.
Stanley Kubrick 757

• Friedman, Lester D.; Notbohm, Brent, eds (2001). Stephen Spielberg: Interviews. University Press of Mississippi.
ISBN 1-57806-113-X.
• Gelmis, Joseph (1970). The Film Director as Superstar (Kubrick, Lester, Mailer, Nichols, Penn, Polanski).
Doubleday. ISBN 9780436173707.
• Gilliatt, Penelope (April 13 1968). "After Man" [211]. The New Yorker: 150.
• Greenwald, Ted (September 26, 2007). "Q&A: Ridley Scott Has Finally Created the Blade Runner He Always
Imagined" [212]. Wired Magazine [213]. Retrieved 2010-01-16.
• Hall, Sheldon (no date). "Kubrick, Stanley (1928-1999)" [214]. screenonline. Retrieved 2010-01-12.
• Hare, William (2008). L.A. Noir: Nine Dark Visions of the City of Angels. McFarland. ISBN 0786437405.
• Jan Harlan. (2001). Stanley Kubrick: A Life in Pictures. [DVD]. Warner Home Video.
• Harlan, Jan (2001). "Stanley Kubrick: A Brief Overview" [215]. Filmbug. Retrieved January 9, 2010.
• Harris, James (Fall 2002). "Lolita at 40: Producer James B. Harris. The Five-0 Interview" [216]. Hollywood
Five-0. Retrieved January 9, 2010.
• Haut, Woody (2002). Heartbreak and Vine: The Fate of Hardboiled Writers in Hollywood. Serpent's Tail.
ISBN 0253213908.
• "The Hechingler Debacle" [217]. The Kubrick Site. no date. Retrieved 2010-01-10.
• Herr, Michael (2001). Kubrick. Grove. ISBN 0802138187.
• Stephen Holden (March 8, 1999). "Stanley Kubrick, Film Director With a Bleak Vision, Dies at 70" [218]. New
York Times. Retrieved 2007-07-21.
• Howard, James (2000). Stanley Kubrick Companion. B.T. Batsford. ISBN 0-7134-8487-X.
• IMDb Movie/TV News: Studio Briefing (October 31, 2006). "New "Kubrick Film" To Be Made" [219]. IMDb.
Retrieved 2010-01-12.
• Jackson, Kenneth T.; Markoe, Karen; Markoe, Arnie, eds (2001). The Scribner Encyclopedia of American Lives.
Volume 5. Charles Scribner's. ISBN 0684806630.
• Jones, James Earl (November 16 2004). "A Bombardier's Reflection. The 40th anniversary of "Dr. Strangelove"
prompts some Cold War reminiscences." [220]. The Wall Street Journal.
• Kael, Pauline (January 1972). "Stanley Strangelove" [221]. The New Yorker.
• Kagan, Norman (2000). The cinema of Stanley Kubrick. Continuum International Publishing Group.
ISBN 9780826412430.
• Kemp, Philip (spring / summer 2006). "The Kubrick Legacy" [222]. University of the Arts London Magazine
(University of the Arts London): 8–17. Retrieved 2010-01-12.
• Kobel, Peter (April 22, 2001). "Nabokov Won't Be Nailed Down" [223]. New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-16.
• LoBrutto, Vincent (1997). Stanley Kubrick: a biography. D.I. Fine Books.
• LoBrutto, Vincent (1999). Stanley Kubrick: a biography [224]. Da Capo Press. ISBN 9780306809064.
• "Lolita (1962) - Taglines" [225]. IMDb [226]. Retrieved 2009-12-03.
• Lucas, Sandy (no date). "7 Classic Movies that Influenced Quentin Tarantino: Horror, Suspense, Film Noir - and
Plenty of Laughs" [227]. About.com. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
• Lyon, Christopher; Doll, Susan, eds (1984). Macmillan Dictionary of Films and Filmmakers: Films V. 1.
Macmillan. ISBN 0333335252.
• Mason, Darryl (October 4, 2000). "The greatest movie Stanley Kubrick never made" [228]. Salon. Retrieved
2010-01-10.
• McGregor, Craig (January 30, 1972). "Nice Boy from the Bronx?" [229]. New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
• Morgan, Stephanie (September 30, 2002). "Stanley Kubrick: An Indoor-Plumbing Luddite" [230]. Columbus
Wired. Retrieved 2008-10-25.
• Myers, Jason (no date). "A.I." [231]. Revolution Science Fiction. Retrieved 2010-01-10.
• Naperstak, Ben (December 15, 2007). "The Armani of Literature" [232]. Melbourne: The Age. Retrieved
2010-01-17.
Stanley Kubrick 758

• Nelson, Thomas Allen (1982). Kubrick: Inside a Film Artist's Maze. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253213908.
• Nelson, Thomas Allen (2000). Kubrick: Inside a Film Artist's Maze. New and Expanded Edition. Indiana
University Press. ISBN 0253213908.
• Nielsen Wire (blog) (December 11, 2008). "In U.S., Hi-Def TV Household Penetration Tops 23%" [233].
nielsen.com. Retrieved 2010-01-17.
• Nordern, Eric (September 1968). "The Playboy Interview: Stanley Kubrick". Playboy.. Reprinted in: Philips
2001; extract in The ALT.MOVIES.KUBRICK FAQ
• Paul, Duncan (2003). Stanley Kubrick: Visual Poet 1928-1999. Taschen America. ISBN 3822815926.
• Philips, Gene D. (1999). Major Film Directors of the American and British Cinema. Lehigh University Press.
ISBN 0934223599.
• Philips, Gene D., ed (2001). Stanley Kubrick: Interviews. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 1-57806-297-7.
• "Regarding Full Metal Jacket: A Discussion" [234]. The Kubrick Site. no date. Retrieved 2010-01-10.
• Rhodes, Gary D., ed (2006). Stanley Kubrick: Essays on His Films and Legacy. McFarland. ISBN 0786432977.
• Rice, Julian (2008). Kubrick's hope: discovering optimism from 2001 to Eyes wide shut. The Scarecrow Press,
Inc. ISBN 0810862069.
• Rose, Lloyd (June 28, 1987). "Stanley Kubrick, at a Distance" [235]. Washington Post. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
• Roud, Richard (1980). Cinema: A Critical Dictionary: The Major Film-makers, Volume 2. Viking Adult.
ISBN 0670222577.
• Schwam, Stephanie, ed (2000). The Making of 2001, A Space Odyssey. Random House, Modern Library.
ISBN 9780375755286.
• Sleeper, Mick (March 1997). "la Fiction du Pulp: Tarantino's trail of bread crumbs leads to the French New
Wave" [236]. Images. Retrieved 2010-01-11.
• Southern, Terry (2002). Southern, Nile; Friedman, Josh Alan. eds. Now Dig This: The Unspeakable Writings of
Terry Southern, 1950-1995. Grove Press. ISBN 0802138942.
• Sperb, Jason (2006). The Kubrick Facade: Faces and Voices in the Films of Stanley Kubrick. Scarecrow Press.
ISBN 0-8108-5855-X.
• "Stanley Kubrick (American director)" [237]. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2010-01-12.
• "Stanley Kubrick" [238]. New York Times. no date. Retrieved 2010-01-14.
• Strick, Philip; Houston, Penelope (Spring 1972). "Interview with Stanley Kubrick regarding A Clockwork
Orange" [239]. Sight & Sound.
• Stuart, Jamie (May 29, 2007). "A Hell of an Experience" [240]. The Reeler. Retrieved 2010-01-10.
• Tatara, Paul (July 15, 1999). "Review: 'Eyes Wide Shut' - All undressed with no place to go" [241]. CNN.com.
Retrieved 2010-01-14.
• Thuss, Holger (2002). Students on the Right Way: European Democrat Students, 1961–2001. Books on Demand
GmbH. ISBN 3831141290.
• Watson, Ian (May 2000). "Plumbing Stanley Kubrick" [242]. The New York Review of Science Fiction (141).
ISSN 1052-9438.
• Westfahl, Gary, ed (2005). The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Themes, Works, and
Wonders. Greenwood. ISBN 0313329508.
• Youngblood, Gene (2008). "Lolita" [243]. The Criterion Collection. Retrieved 2009-05-24.
Stanley Kubrick 759

Further reading
• Crone, Rainer (text) and Stanley Kubrick (photographs) (2005). Stanley Kubrick. Drama and Shadows:
Photographs 1945-1950. Phaidon Press. ISBN 0-7148-4438-1.
• Fischer, Ralf Michael (2009). Raum und Zeit im filmischen Oeuvre von Stanley Kubrick. Berlin: Gebr. Mann
Verlag. ISBN 978-3-7861-2598-3.
• David Hughes (2000). The Complete Kubrick. London: Virgin. ISBN 0-7535-0452-9.
• Jacke, Andreas (2009). Stanley Kubrick: Eine Deutung der Konzepte seiner Filme. Psychosozial-Verlag.
ISBN 978-3-89806-856-7, ISBN 3-89806-856-0.
• Lyons, V and Fitzgerald, M. (2005) ‘’Asperger syndrome : a gift or a curse?’’ New York : Nova Science
Publishers. ISBN 1-59454-387-9
• Rasmussen, Randy (2005). Stanley Kubrick: Seven Films Analyzed. McFarland. ISBN 0786421525,
9780786421527.
• Deutsches Filmmuseum (Ed.): Stanley Kubrick ; Kinematograph Nr. 14, Frankfurt/Main, 2004. ISBN
3-88799-069-2 (English edition)
Documentary
• Stanley Kubrick: A Life in Pictures. Documentary film. Dir. Jan Harlan. Warner Home Video, 2001. 142 min.

External links
• Stanley Kubrick [244] at the Internet Movie Database
• Stanley Kubrick [245] at Yahoo! Movies
• Stanley Kubrick: The Master Filmmaker [246]
• Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database [247]
• Stanley Kubrick biography and credits [248] at the British Film Institute's Screenonline
• Works by or about Stanley Kubrick [249] in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
• Stanley Kubrick Archive [250] at the London College of Communication
• The Authorized Stanley Kubrick Web Site by Warner Bros. [251]
• The Kubrick Site [252]
• Kubrick Multimedia Film Guide [253]
• Kubrick on Senses of Cinema (In Depth Biography) [254]
• Multi-media Kubrick archive [255]
• The Guardian: Citizen Kubrick [256]
• List of interviews and Look photographs [257]
• List of all the published Look photographs [258]
• The Hechinger Debacle [217]
• Stanley Kubrick Interviews [259], by Stanley Kubrick, Gene D. Phillips
• Stanley Kubrick [260] at the TCM Movie Database
• "Stanley Kubrick" [261]. Find a Grave.
Stanley Kubrick 760

References
[1] Kemp 2006, pp. 8-18. Online at: The Kubrick Legacy (http:/ / www. arts. ac. uk/ docs/ kubrick-mag-web. pdf)
[2] Hall (no date). Online at: Kubrick, Stanley (1928-1999) (http:/ / www. screenonline. org. uk/ people/ id/ 459560/ index. html)
[3] Encyclopædia Britannica. Online at: Stanley Kubrick (American director) (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 324290/
Stanley-Kubrick)
[4] Rice 2008.
[5] Ankeny (no date). Online at: Stanley Kubrick: Biography (http:/ / www. allmovie. com/ artist/ stanley-kubrick-98221/ bio)
[6] LoBrutto 1999, p. 6.
[7] "Stanley Kubrick's photographs brought to life by Jane and Louise Wilson" (http:/ / www. theartnewspaper. com/ articles/
Stanley-Kubrick-s-photographs-brought-to-life-by-Jane-and-Louise-Wilson/ 16943). by Louisa Buck theartnewspaper.com. . Retrieved
2009-03-18.
[8] LoBrutto 1999, p. 524.
[9] Schwam 2000, p. 70.
[10] LoBrutto 1999, p. 33.
[11] Baxter 1999, p. 32.
[12] Paul 2003, pp. 25, 46, 62. Online: Google Books link (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=XBQi4cCEYNIC& pg=PA25)
[13] Dunn 2006, p. 84. Online: Google Books link (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=QLc5oWuTIMcC& pg=PA84)
[14] Jeremy Bernstein, Interview With Stanley Kubrick, 1966. Take 27, about 16 minutes into Tape 27 side A
[15] Thuss 2002, p. 110. Online: Google Books link (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=FLNEwpF4s3EC& pg=PA110)
[16] Baxter 1997, p. 56. Online: Google Books link (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=PKMZ4_i60LYC& pg=PA56)
[17] Philips 2001, p. 190. Online: Google Books link (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=iOU9bIlnPHIC& pg=PA190)
[18] Philips 1999, p. 127. Online: Google Books link (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cVFly8avlXIC& pg=PA127)
[19] Baxter 1999, p. 70.
[20] Lucas (no date). Online at: 7 Classic Movies that Influenced Quentin Tarantino: Horror, Suspense, Film Noir - and Plenty of Laughs (http:/ /
classicfilm. about. com/ od/ movieslistsbydirector/ tp/ Classics_Influenced_Tarantino. htm)
[21] Sleeper 1997. Online at: la Fiction du Pulp: Tarantino's trail of bread crumbs leads to the French New Wave (http:/ / www. imagesjournal.
com/ issue03/ features/ tarantino1. htm)
[22] Online: Stanley Kubrick Exhibition. Newsletter no. 9, October 2004. (http:/ / www. stanleykubrick. de/ eng. php?img=img-l-6&
kubrick=newsletter09-eng)
[23] Roud 1980 p. 562. Online: Google Books link (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xehkAAAAMAAJ& q="apparently+ unassuming+
'B'+ feature+ that+ critics+ love"& dq="apparently+ unassuming+ 'B'+ feature+ that+ critics+ love"& ei=6zLHSI7gLpCkjgHKten2Cw&
pgis=1)
[24] Jackson et al 2001. Online: Google Books link (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=7QsOn9_NviAC& pg=PA322)
[25] Nelson 2000, p. 260. Online: Google Books link (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=wabgZNgT9OgC& pg=PA260)
[26] See for example: Denby 2008. Online at: The First Casualty (http:/ / www. newyorker. com/ arts/ critics/ notebook/ 2008/ 03/ 31/
080331gonb_GOAT_notebook_denby)
[27] Friedman, Lester, and Brent Notbohm, p. 82. Online: Google Books link (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=5E80Tv7F3zIC&
pg=PA82)
[28] www.creationagency.com. "Christiane Kubrick, Biography" (http:/ / www. christianekubrick. com/ workBio. php). Christianekubrick.com. .
Retrieved 2010-03-07.
[29] LoBrutto 1999, p. 164.
[30] Haut 2002, p. 125.
[31] Cohan, Steven and Ina Rae Rark 1993, p. 170. Online: Google Books link (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=9_Ijvzk6dR0C&
pg=PA170)
[32] Abrams 2009, p. 170. Online: Google Books link (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=QbJo2oiFFoUC& pg=PA170)
[33] Southern, Terry 2002, p. 74. Online: Google Books link (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Nu8GefPL46QC& pg=PA74)
[34] Kubrick is not credited for the screenplay of Lolita but he heavily rewrote Nabokov's script and took no credit simply for contractual
reasons. See intro to Nabokov's published version and (http:/ / www. complete-review. com/ reviews/ nabokovv/ lolita2. htm)
[35] Cooper 1996. Online: Spartacus: Still Censored After All These Years (http:/ / www. visual-memory. co. uk/ amk/ doc/ 0103. html)
[36] Harlan 2001. Online at: Stanley Kubrick: A Brief Overview (http:/ / www. filmbug. com/ db/ 328); see also review of Spartacus: Spartacus
(Criterion) (http:/ / www. dvdtimes. co. uk/ content. php?contentid=3517)
[37] Kagan 2000, p. 69.
[38] Sperb 2006, p. 60.
[39] Philips 2001, p. 102.
[40] Bogdanovich 1999. Online: What They Say About Stanley Kubrick (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.
html?res=9901E6DD113AF937A35754C0A96F958260& scp=17& sq=stanley kubrick lolita& st=cse)
[41] IMDb. Online: Lolita (1962) - Taglines (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0056193/ taglines)
[42] Aragay 2006, p 113. Online: Google Books link (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=HqvBDYpaqsYC& hl=en).
Stanley Kubrick 761

[43] Coyle 1980, p. 46. Online: Google Books link (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=omlZAAAAMAAJ& pgis=1).
[44] Harris 2002. Online: Lolita at 40: Producer James B. Harris. The Five-0 Interview (http:/ / www. hollywoodfiveo. com/ archive/ issue2/
exclusive/ harris/ harris. htm)
[45] Kagan pp. 82, 83. "He couldn't dramatize Humbert's erotic relationship with the nymphet."
[46] Paul 2003, pp. 79-80. Online: Google Books link (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=XBQi4cCEYNIC)
[47] LoBrutto 1997 p. 225. "he told Newsweek in 1972 in referring to the censorship restrictions."
[48] Youngblood 2008. Online: Lolita (http:/ / www. criterion. com/ current/ posts/ 836)
[49] Ebert 1999. Online: Dr. Strangelove (1964) (http:/ / rogerebert. suntimes. com/ apps/ pbcs. dll/ article?AID=/ 19990711/ REVIEWS08/
907110301/ 1023)
[50] Lyon and Doll 1984, p. 126.
[51] LoBrutto 1997 p. 205.
[52] mfiles (no date). Online: 2001: A Space Odyssey - Alex North's unused Soundtrack (http:/ / www. mfiles. co. uk/ reviews/
alex-norths-2001-a-space-odyssey. htm)
[53] Gilliatt 1968. Online: After Man [review of 2001: A Space Odyssey] (http:/ / www. krusch. com/ kubrick/ Q22. html)
[54] American Film Institute. Online: AFI's 10 Top 10 (http:/ / www. afi. com/ 10top10/ scifi. html)
[55] British Film Institute. Online at: BFI Critic's Top Ten Poll (http:/ / www. bfi. org. uk/ sightandsound/ topten/ poll/ critics. html)
[56] 2001: A Space Odyssey (http:/ / www. celtoslavica. de/ chiaroscuro/ films/ 2001/ 2001. html). Celtoslavica.de. Retrieved on 2010-08-07.
[57] Social History :The Cultural Impact of 2001: A Space Odyssey (http:/ / www. centennialofflight. gov/ essay/ Social/ 2001/ SH8. htm).
Centennialofflight.gov. Retrieved on 2010-08-07.
[58] 2001: A Space Odyssey (http:/ / www. avrev. com/ dvd-movie-disc-reviews/ sci-fi-fantasy/ 2001-a-space-odyssey. html). Avrev.com
(2001-06-12). Retrieved on 2010-08-07.
[59] The science fiction, horror and fantasy movie review site - 2001: A Space Odyssey (http:/ / www. moria. co. nz/ index.
php?option=com_content& task=view& id=3871Itemid=1). Moria (2010-07-18). Retrieved on 2010-08-07.
[60] Gelmis 1970. Extract: What did Kubrick say is the plot of 2001? (http:/ / www. krusch. com/ kubrick/ Q13. html)
[61] Carr 2002, p. 1.
[62] http:/ / www. cityweekly. net/ utah/ event-59108-a-clockwork-orange-40th-anniversary-screening-with-malcolm-mcdowell. html, Salt Lake
City Weekly
[63] Ciment 1982. Online at: Kubrick on A Clockwork Orange: An interview with Michel Ciment (http:/ / www. visual-memory. co. uk/ amk/
doc/ interview. aco. html)
[64] Strick and Houston 1972. Online at: Interview with Stanley Kubrick regarding A Clockwork Orange (http:/ / www. visual-memory. co. uk/
amk/ doc/ 0070. html)
[65] Ebert 1972. Online at: A Clockwork Orange (http:/ / rogerebert. suntimes. com/ apps/ pbcs. dll/ article?AID=/ 19720211/ REVIEWS/
202110301/ 1023)
[66] Kael 1972. Online at: Stanley Strangelove (http:/ / www. visual-memory. co. uk/ amk/ doc/ 0051. html)
[67] Aspect Press Release. Online at: Aspect® delivers passion to Scala (http:/ / www. turbosound. com/ newsroom/ scala/ index. html)
[68] Comstock 2007. Online: How “X-rated” became synonymous with “porn,” and the death of movie making for grown-ups. (http:/ / www.
theintenttoarouse. com/ ?p=70)
[69] http:/ / www. cahiersducinema. com/ imprime. php3?id_article=1337
[70] Friedman, Lester, and Brent Notbohm 2000, p. 36.
[71] Bianculli 1997. Online at: 'The Shining,' By the Book (http:/ / www. nydailynews. com/ archives/ entertainment/ 1997/ 04/ 27/
1997-04-27__the_shining___by_the_book. html)
[72] The Kubrick Site. Online at: Regarding Full Metal Jacket: A Discussion (http:/ / www. visual-memory. co. uk/ amk/ doc/ 0030. html)
[73] Ericson 2004. Online at: The measure of a man: Stanley Kubrick's "Full Metal Jacket" (http:/ / blogcritics. org/ video/ article/
the-measure-of-a-man-stanley/ )
[74] Tatara1999. See for example: Review: 'Eyes Wide Shut' - All undressed with no place to go (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ SHOWBIZ/ Movies/
9907/ 15/ review. eyeswideshut/ )
[75] Holden 1999. Online at: Stanley Kubrick, Film Director With a Bleak Vision, Dies at 70 (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.
html?res=9D01EFDF103FF93BA35750C0A96F958260)
[76] Cocks 2004, p. 151.
[77] Cocks 2004, p. 149.
[78] LoBrutto 1997 p. 164.
[79] Mason 2000. Online at: The greatest movie Stanley Kubrick never made (http:/ / archive. salon. com/ ent/ movies/ feature/ 2000/ 10/ 04/
napoleon/ index. html)
[80] Castle 2009.
[81] "Online at" (http:/ / www. bfi. org. uk/ live/ video/ 274). Bfi.org.uk. . Retrieved 2010-03-07.
[82] Cocks et al 2006, p. 196.
[83] Cocks 2004.
[84] Caldwell 2006. Online at: (Review of) The wolf at the door: Stanley Kubrick, history & the Holocaust. [[#Cocks2004 (http:/ / www. latrobe.
edu. au/ screeningthepast/ 19/ wolf-door-kubrick. html)]]
Stanley Kubrick 762

[85] Myers (no date). Online at: A.I.(review) (http:/ / www. revolutionsf. com/ article. php?id=67)
[86] Variety 2001. Online at: A.I. Artificial Intelligence (http:/ / www. variety. com/ article/ VR1117799373. html?categoryid=1049& cs=1)
[87] "John WILLIAMS: A.I. Artificial Intelligence : Film Music CD Reviews- August 2001 MusicWeb(UK)" (http:/ / www.
musicweb-international. com/ film/ 2001/ Aug01/ Artificial_Intelligence. html). Musicweb-international.com. . Retrieved 2010-03-07.
[88] IMDb Movie/TV News. Online at: New "Kubrick Film" To Be Made (http:/ / imdb. com/ news/ sb/ 2006-10-31/ #4)
[89] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0000040/
[90] Chiaventone (no date). Online: The Untitled Dead Pool Column (http:/ / www. tnmc. org/ dp/ 0122031. shtml)
[91] Stanley Kubrick. Online: Stanley Kubrick (http:/ / movies. nytimes. com/ person/ 98221/ Stanley-Kubrick/ biography)
[92] Dupont 2001. Online at: Kubrick Speaks, Through Family's Documentary (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2001/ 09/ 15/ style/
15iht-kubrick_ed2_. html)
[93] Naperstak 2007 Online at: The Armani of Literature (http:/ / www. theage. com. au/ news/ books/
bliteratureb-umberto-eco-the-armani-of-literature/ 2007/ 12/ 13/ 1197135651584. html?page=fullpage#contentSwap2)
[94] Baxter 1997, pp. 194-195.
[95] Drout 2006, p. 15.
[96] See also interview in "Show" magazine vol. 1, Number 1 1970
[97] Baxter 1997, pp. 332, 360.
[98] Stuart 2007. Online at: A Hell of an Experience (http:/ / www. thereeler. com/ features/ a_hell_of_an_experience. php)
[99] Terry Southern for Doctor Strangelove, Arthur C. Clarke for 2001, and Diane Johnson for The Shining
[100] A Clockwork Orange and The Shining. CO's Walter Carlos and Shining's Wendy Carlos are one and the same.
[101] The closing scenes or credits of Doctor Strangelove, A Clockwork Orange, The Shining, and Full Metal Jacket all employ jolly music in an
ironic way in their closing credits or final scenes. However, although the closing scenes of Jacket have the soldiers singing the Mickey Mouse
song, the closing credits use the Rolling Stones song Paint it Black
[102] Ebert 1987. Online at: Full Metal Jacket (review) (http:/ / rogerebert. suntimes. com/ apps/ pbcs. dll/ article?AID=/ 19870626/ REVIEWS/
706260302/ 1023)
[103] Morgan 2002. Online at: Stanley Kubrick: An Indoor-Plumbing Luddite (http:/ / www. columbuswired. net/ Columns/ Morgan/
Kubrick_093002. htm)
[104] Business As Usual. Online at: Business as Usual (http:/ / swedish. imdb. com/ title/ tt0708510/ )
[105] Baxter 1997, p. 252: "Kubrick had also been appalled by the excesses of TV presentation, and the pan-and-scan technique..."
[106] Nielsen Wire Online at: In U.S., Hi-Def TV Household Penetration Tops 23% (http:/ / blog. nielsen. com/ nielsenwire/
media_entertainment/ in-us-hi-def-tv-penetration-tops-23/ ).
[107] The Stanley Kubrick Collection. [DVD]. Warner Home Video. August 29, 2000. ISBN 6305440093.
[108] Stanley Kubrick - Warner Home Video Directors Series. [DVD]. Warner Home Video. January 22, 2008. ISBN B000UJCAKO.
[109] Castle 2002 p. 452.
[110] May 26, 1956 "Feature Reviews: The Killing". BoxOffice Magazine, Page 1975.
[111] November 23, 1957 "Feature Reviews: Paths of Glory." BoxOffice Magazine, Page 2165.
[112] June 25, 1962 "Feature Reviews: Lolita." BoxOffice Magazine, Page 2641.
[113] February 3, 1964 "Feature Reviews: Dr. Strangelove". BoxOffice Magazine, Page 2797.
[114] http:/ / www. criterion. com/ films/ 27522-paths-of-glory
[115] Kubrick was portrayed as such by his script collaborator Eyes Wide Shut both in a New Yorker article entitled A Kubrick Odyssey (June
14, 1999), and in his subsequent memoir Eyes Wide Open. Tom Cruise discusses this in a interview with Roger Ebert at Ebert June 15, 1999.
Online at: Cruise opens up about working with Kubrick (http:/ / rogerebert. suntimes. com/ apps/ pbcs. dll/ article?AID=/ 19990715/ PEOPLE/
77010329)
[116] Rhodes 2008, p. 17.
[117] Hare 2008, p. 166.
[118] Howard 2000, p. 16.
[119] Anthony 1999. Online at: The counterfeit Kubrick (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ film/ 1999/ mar/ 14/ andrewanthony)
[120] Herr 2001, p. 64.
[121] Asperger syndrome: a gift or a curse? (2005). Lyons, Viktoria, Fitzgerald, Dr. Michael. Nova Publishers./
[122] Baxter 1999, p. 31.
[123] Comments by McDowell are in Stanley Kubrick: A Life in Pictures: Harlan 2001
[124] Jones 2004. Online at: A Bombardier's Reflection. The 40th anniversary of "Dr. Strangelove" prompts some Cold War reminiscences.
(http:/ / www. opinionjournal. com/ la/ ?id=110005898)
[125] Herr 2001, p. 60.
[126] Herr 2001, p. 19.
[127] Rice 2008, p. 239.
[128] Herr 2001, pp. 11-12.
[129] Rose 1987. Online at: Stanley Kubrick, at a Distance (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-srv/ style/ movies/ features/ kubrick1987.
htm)
[130] Philips 2001, p. 198.
Stanley Kubrick 763

[131] Herr 2001, p. 46.

[132] Philips 2001, p. 186.
[133] Watson 2000. Online at: Plumbing Stanley Kubrick (http:/ / www. ianwatson. info/ kubrick. htm)
[134] Kagan 2000, pp. 65, 66, 71, 134. "a world the liberal Dax will not accept"; Kael: "Strangelove ... concealed its own liberal pieties"
[135] Perusek in anthology Depth of Field edited by Cocks, Diedrick, Perusek
[136] Kagan 2000, pp. 65-67, 134-135.
[137] McGregor 1972. Online at: Nice Boy from the Bronx? (http:/ / partners. nytimes. com/ library/ film/ 013072kubrick-profile. html)
[138] Kubrick Site (no date). Online at: The Hechinger Debacle (http:/ / www. visual-memory. co. uk/ amk/ doc/ 0037. html)
[139] Philips 2001, p. 156.
[140] Cocks, p. 23.
[141] Ciment 1982a. Online at: Kubrick on The Shining: An interview with Michel Ciment (http:/ / www. visual-memory. co. uk/ amk/ doc/
interview. ts. html)
[142] The ALT.MOVIES.KUBRICK FAQ. Extract: What did Kubrick have to say about what 2001 "means"? (http:/ / www. krusch. com/
kubrick/ Q12. html)
[143] Katharina Kubrick Hobbs (2000-07-14). "c8dffa.1823bc9e@usw-ex0104-031.remarq.com Re: Questions for KCKH (news:03)".
lt.movies.kubrick alt.movies.kubrick (news:a). (Web link) (http:/ / groups. google. com/ group/ alt. movies. kubrick/ msg/
93d412d7e01b9d0d).
[144] "Anthony Burgess from A Clockwork Orange: A play with music (Century Hutchinson Ltd, 1987)" (http:/ / home. wlv. ac. uk/ ~fa1871/
burgess. html). Home.wlv.ac.uk. . Retrieved 2008-10-25.
[145] Kobel 2001. Online at: Nabokov Won't Be Nailed Down (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.
html?res=9B06EEDB1630F931A15757C0A9679C8B63& sec=& spon=& pagewanted=all,)
[146] "NABOKV-L Archives - September 1999 (#63)" (http:/ / listserv. ucsb. edu/ lsv-cgi-bin/ wa?A2=ind9909& L=nabokv-l& P=8171).
Listserv.ucsb.edu. . Retrieved 2008-10-25.
[147] Stephen King on the Big Screen by Mark Browning p. 200
[148] cited in LoBrutto biography p. 311
[149] "Stanley Kubrick: A Life in Pictures" (http:/ / www. documentaryfilms. net/ Reviews/ StanleyKubrickALifeInPictures/ ).
Documentaryfilms.net. . Retrieved 2010-03-07.
[150] Philips 2001, p. 199.
[151] Baxter 1999, p. 40.
[152] For discussion of Kubrick's method of multiple takes see Lobrutto 1997, pp. 398, 423-31, 440-446. Page 398: "Kubrick continued to work
in a directorial style that included running up a lot of takes on a single setup— a philosophy that embraced the theory that film stock is the
cheapest part of making a film."
[153] See Stanley Kubrick: A Narrative and Stylistic Analysis by Mario Falsetto and (http:/ / www. arts. ac. uk/ kubrick. htm)
[154] See Harlan 2001 for interviews with Scorsese and Spielberg.
[155] See Greenwald 2007 for an interview with Scott.
[156] "Christopher Nolan (I)" (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0634240/ bio). .
[157] "David Fincher" (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0000399/ bio). .
[158] "Guillermo del Toro" (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0868219/ bio). .
[159] "David Lynch (I)" (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0000186/ bio). .
[160] "Films that inspired directors" (http:/ / kottke. org/ 09/ 12/ films-that-inspired-directors). .
[161] "BFI" (http:/ / www. bfi. org. uk/ sightandsound/ topten/ poll/ voter. php?forename=Richard& surname=Linklater). .
[162] "BFI" (http:/ / www. bfi. org. uk/ sightandsound/ topten/ poll/ voter. php?forename=Sam& surname=Mendes). .
[163] "BFI" (http:/ / www. bfi. org. uk/ sightandsound/ topten/ poll/ voter. php?forename=Joel& surname=Schumacher). .
[164] "BFI" (http:/ / www. bfi. org. uk/ sightandsound/ topten/ poll/ voter. php?forename=Taylor& surname=Hackford). .
[165] "A Mann's Man World Page 2 - News - Los Angeles - LA Weekly" (http:/ / www. laweekly. com/ 2006-07-27/ news/
a-mann-s-man-s-world/ 2/ ). .
[166] "Romero, George A. (post-Land of the Dead)" (http:/ / www. dreadcentral. com/ interviews/ romero-george-a-post-land-dead). .
[167] "Remodernist Film Manifesto", When The Trees Were Still Real, August 27, 2008 (http:/ / jesse-richards. blogspot. com/ 2008/ 08/
remodernist-film-manifesto. html). Retrieved October 7, 2009.
[168] "Remodernist Film", MungBeing, October 4, 2009 (http:/ / www. mungbeing. com/ issue_28. html?page=34& sub_id=1568#1568).
Retrieved October 7, 2009.
[169] Westfahl 2005, p. 1232.
[170] Alberti 2003, p. 277.
[171] Cocks 2004, p. 6.
[172] Cocks 2004, p. 11.
[173] This is discussed in Rasmussen Stanley Kubrick: Seven Films Analyzed, Ciment's Kubrick Altman's A Cinema of Loneliness and Nelson's
Kubrick: Inside a Film Artist's Maze
[174] See especially Nelson again and Jason Sperb The Kubrick Facade
Stanley Kubrick 764

[175] See for example neurologist Gordon Bank's 1990 article "Kubrick's Psychopaths" reprinted at (http:/ / www. gordonbanks. com/ gordon/
pubs/ kubricks. html)
[176] A.I.: Artificial Intelligence | film reviews (http:/ / www. musicomh. com/ films/ ai. htm). musicOMH (2009-08-27). Retrieved on
2010-08-07.
[177] The Kubrick Site: Kubrick's comments regarding 'A Clockwork Orange' (http:/ / www. visual-memory. co. uk/ amk/ doc/ interview. aco.
html). Visual-memory.co.uk. Retrieved on 2010-08-07.
[178] pp. 199 & 490
[179] quoted in The Cinema of Stanley Kubrick by Norman Kagan
[180] A life spent chafing moguls and movie stars (http:/ / www. nj. com/ entertainment/ tv/ index. ssf/ 2007/ 11/
a_life_spent_chafing_moguls_an. html). NJ.com (2007-11-03). Retrieved on 2010-08-07.
[181] quoted in Thomas Doherty's review of same in The Chronicle of Higher Eductation August 3rd, 2007
[182] James Naremore On Kubrick (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cRplAAAAMAAJ& q=James+ Naremore+ Kubrick& dq=James+
Naremore+ Kubrick& hl=en& ei=IqMfTLvdNs3pnQeSsuiKDg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA),
British Film Institute, 2007 ISBN 1-84457-142-4
[183] See question 37 (http:/ / www. visual-memory. co. uk/ faq/ index4. html)
[184] notably by film scholar Jason Sperb in a review on his online blog subsequently deleted. Sperb's book The Kubrick Facade is briefly
discussed in Rice's book in a manner which Sperb regards as a total misinterpretation
[185] "Stanley Kubrick" (http:/ / www. scifistation. com/ kubrick/ kub_index. html). Scifistation.com. . Retrieved 2010-03-07.
[186] http:/ / www. mfiles. co. uk/ reviews/ alex-norths-2001-a-space-odyssey. htm
[187] http:/ / www. variety. com/ article/ VR1117799373. html?categoryid=1049& cs=1
[188] http:/ / www. afi. com/ 10top10/ scifi. html
[189] http:/ / www. krusch. com/ kubrick/ Q12. html
[190] http:/ / www. allmovie. com/ artist/ stanley-kubrick-98221/ bio
[191] http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ film/ 1999/ mar/ 14/ andrewanthony
[192] http:/ / www. turbosound. com/ newsroom/ scala/ index. html
[193] http:/ / www. bfi. org. uk/ sightandsound/ topten/ poll/ critics. html
[194] http:/ / www. nydailynews. com/ archives/ entertainment/ 1997/ 04/ 27/ 1997-04-27__the_shining___by_the_book. html
[195] http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9901E6DD113AF937A35754C0A96F958260& scp=17&
sq=stanley%20kubrick%20lolita& st=cse
[196] http:/ / swedish. imdb. com/ title/ tt0708510/
[197] http:/ / www. latrobe. edu. au/ screeningthepast/ 19/ wolf-door-kubrick. html
[198] http:/ / www. tnmc. org/ dp/ 0122031. shtml
[199] http:/ / www. visual-memory. co. uk/ amk/ doc/ interview. aco. html
[200] http:/ / www. visual-memory. co. uk/ amk/ doc/ interview. ts. html
[201] http:/ / www. theintenttoarouse. com/ ?p=70
[202] http:/ / www. visual-memory. co. uk/ amk/ doc/ 0103. html
[203] http:/ / www. dvdtimes. co. uk/ content. php?contentid=3517#
[204] http:/ / www. newyorker. com/ arts/ critics/ notebook/ 2008/ 03/ 31/ 080331gonb_GOAT_notebook_denby
[205] http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2001/ 09/ 15/ style/ 15iht-kubrick_ed2_. html
[206] http:/ / rogerebert. suntimes. com/ apps/ pbcs. dll/ article?AID=/ 19720211/ REVIEWS/ 202110301/ 1023
[207] http:/ / rogerebert. suntimes. com/ apps/ pbcs. dll/ article?AID=/ 19870626/ REVIEWS/ 706260302/ 1023
[208] http:/ / rogerebert. suntimes. com/ apps/ pbcs. dll/ article?AID=/ 19990711/ REVIEWS08/ 907110301/ 1023
[209] http:/ / rogerebert. suntimes. com/ apps/ pbcs. dll/ article?AID=/ 19990715/ PEOPLE/ 77010329
[210] http:/ / blogcritics. org/ video/ article/ the-measure-of-a-man-stanley/
[211] http:/ / www. krusch. com/ kubrick/ Q22. html
[212] http:/ / www. wired. com/ entertainment/ hollywood/ magazine/ 15-10/ ff_bladerunner?currentPage=all
[213] http:/ / www. screenonline. org. uk
[214] http:/ / www. screenonline. org. uk/ people/ id/ 459560/ index. html
[215] http:/ / www. filmbug. com/ db/ 328
[216] http:/ / www. hollywoodfiveo. com/ archive/ issue2/ exclusive/ harris/ harris. htm
[217] http:/ / www. visual-memory. co. uk/ amk/ doc/ 0037. html
[218] http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9D01EFDF103FF93BA35750C0A96F958260
[219] http:/ / imdb. com/ news/ sb/ 2006-10-31/ #4
[220] http:/ / www. opinionjournal. com/ la/ ?id=110005898
[221] http:/ / www. visual-memory. co. uk/ amk/ doc/ 0051. html
[222] http:/ / www. arts. ac. uk/ docs/ mag_issue5. pdf
[223] http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2001/ 04/ 22/ movies/ film-nabokov-won-t-be-nailed-down. html?sec=& spon=& pagewanted=all,
[224] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=JBKHvSzToJ4C& printsec=frontcover
[225] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0056193/ taglines
Stanley Kubrick 765

[226] http:/ / www. imdb. com

[227] http:/ / classicfilm. about. com/ od/ movieslistsbydirector/ tp/ Classics_Influenced_Tarantino. htm
[228] http:/ / archive. salon. com/ ent/ movies/ feature/ 2000/ 10/ 04/ napoleon/ index. html
[229] http:/ / partners. nytimes. com/ library/ film/ 013072kubrick-profile. html
[230] http:/ / www. columbuswired. net/ Columns/ Morgan/ Kubrick_093002. htm
[231] http:/ / www. revolutionsf. com/ article. php?id=67
[232] http:/ / www. theage. com. au/ news/ books/ bliteratureb-umberto-eco-the-armani-of-literature/ 2007/ 12/ 13/ 1197135651584.
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[233] http:/ / blog. nielsen. com/ nielsenwire/ media_entertainment/ in-us-hi-def-tv-penetration-tops-23/
[234] http:/ / www. visual-memory. co. uk/ amk/ doc/ 0030. html
[235] http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-srv/ style/ movies/ features/ kubrick1987. htm
[236] http:/ / www. imagesjournal. com/ issue03/ features/ tarantino1. htm
[237] http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 324290/ Stanley-Kubrick
[238] http:/ / movies. nytimes. com/ person/ 98221/ Stanley-Kubrick/ biography
[239] http:/ / www. visual-memory. co. uk/ amk/ doc/ 0070. html
[240] http:/ / www. thereeler. com/ features/ a_hell_of_an_experience. php
[241] http:/ / www. cnn. com/ SHOWBIZ/ Movies/ 9907/ 15/ review. eyeswideshut/
[242] http:/ / www. ianwatson. info/ kubrick. htm
[243] http:/ / www. criterion. com/ current/ posts/ 836
[244] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0000040/
[245] http:/ / movies. yahoo. com/ movie/ contributor/ 1800011072
[246] http:/ / pages. prodigy. com/ kubrick/
[247] http:/ / archive. sensesofcinema. com/ contents/ directors/ 02/ kubrick. html
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[261] http:/ / www. findagrave. com/ cgi-bin/ fg. cgi?page=gr& GRid=7016
Camille Paglia 766

Camille Paglia
Camille Paglia

Camille Paglia

Born April 2, 1947

Endicott, New York

Occupation Professor and Cultural critic

Nationality United States

Period 1974–

Subjects Feminism, Popular Culture, Art, Poetry,

Sex

[1]
Official website

Camille Anna Paglia (born April 2, 1947) is an American author, teacher, and social critic. She has described
herself as a dissident feminist.[2] Since 1984, Paglia has been a Professor at The University of the Arts in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Her book, Sexual Personae: Art and Decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson,
published in 1990, became a bestseller.

Overview
Paglia (pronounced with a silent 'g') is an intellectual of many seeming contradictions: an atheist who respects
religion[3] and a classicist who champions art both high and low. She believes that human nature has an inherently
dangerous Dionysian aspect, especially the darker sides of human sexuality.[4] She favors a curriculum grounded in
comparative religion, art history and the literary canon, with a greater emphasis on facts in the teaching of history.
She came to public attention in 1990, with the publication of her first book, Sexual Personae: Art and Decadence
from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson. Her notoriety as the author of this book made it possible for her to write on
popular culture and feminism in mainstream newspapers and magazines. Paglia has challenged what she calls the
"liberal establishment", including academia, feminist advocacy groups such as the National Organization for Women
(NOW), and AIDS activists ACT UP.
Camille Paglia 767

Paglia describes herself as a feminist and as a registered Democrat whose 2000 presidential vote was for the Green
Party candidate Ralph Nader, "[because] I detest the arrogant, corrupt superstructure of the Democratic Party, with
which I remain stubbornly registered."[5] She campaigned for John F. Kennedy as an adolescent and later voted for
Bill Clinton. However, she criticized Clinton for not resigning after the Monica Lewinsky scandal, which she says
led to America being "blindsided by 9/11."[5] In the 2008 U.S. presidential election, Paglia supported Barack
Obama.[6] Paglia has taken controversial stances such as rejecting the idea that homosexuality is an inborn trait and
being skeptical about global warming.[7] [8] Her views have led to accusations of neoconservatism; she described
those making the accusations as "idiots."[9] Paglia's embrace of fetishism, pornography, prostitution and
homosexuality puts her at odds with American social conservatives.[10]
Paglia wrote a column for Salon.com from its inception in 1995 until 2001. Paglia rejoined Salon in February 2007.
She is a contributing editor at Interview magazine and is on the editorial board of the classics and humanities journal
Arion.
For some years, Paglia shared a residence with the artist and teacher Alison Maddex. Their relationship included
Paglia legally adopting Maddex's son (who was born in 2002). In 2009, the couple separated.[11]

Life and career

Childhood
Paglia was born in Endicott, New York, the elder daughter of Pasquale and Lydia Anne (Colapietro) Paglia. Her
mother was born in Ceccano, Italy and her father's ancestors also came from Italy.
Despite their modest means, her parents exposed her to classical Western art and culture. The first music to make an
impression on her was Bizet's Carmen, an opera which, in her words, "struck me with electrifying force."[12] She
was three when she first heard the opera, but was still enamored of it in her writing more than 40 years later.
Paglia spent her primary school years in rural Oxford, New York, where her family lived in a working farmhouse.[13]
Her father, a veteran of World War II,[14] taught at the Oxford Academy high school. In 1957, her family moved to
Syracuse, New York, so that her father could begin graduate school; he eventually became a professor of Romance
languages at Le Moyne College. She attended the Edward Smith Elementary school, T. Aaron Levy Junior High and
William Nottingham High School.[15]
By all accounts, she was an excellent student at Nottingham High School. She spent her Saturdays in the Carnegie
Library, absorbed in books and manuscripts. In 1992, Carmelia Metosh, her Latin teacher for three years, said "She
always has been controversial. Whatever statements were being made (in class), she had to challenge them. She
made good points then, as she does now. She was very alert, 'with it' in every way."[16] Paglia thanked Metosh in the
acknowledgements to Sexual Personae, later describing her as "the dragon lady of Latin studies, who breathed fire at
principals and school boards."[15]
She attended Spruce Ridge Camp, a Girl Scout facility in the Adirondacks where, by her later account, she had
crushes on the women counselors. She took a variety of names when she was there, including Anastasia (her
confirmation name, inspired by the Ingrid Bergman film); Stacy; and Stanley. An iconic experience was the time the
outhouse exploded when she poured too much lime into it. "It symbolized everything I would do with my life and
work. Excess and extravagance and explosiveness. I would be someone who would look into the latrine of culture,
into pornography and crime and psychopathology...and I would drop the bomb into it."[17] [18]
Paglia discovered Simone de Beauvoir's The Second Sex in 1963.[19] It led Paglia to stop working on the book about
Amelia Earhart she had been writing for three years, and to resolve to write a "mega-book that will take everything
in", the beginning of what later became Sexual Personae.[20] On July 8 1963, Newsweek magazine published her
letter about equal opportunity for American women. On November 24, 1963, Syracuse's Herald American profiled
her outstanding achievements as a student, noting her longtime study of feminist icon Amelia Earhart.
Camille Paglia 768

College years

Binghamton University, Harpur College (1964–1968)

She entered the Harpur College at Binghamton University in 1964, graduating as class valedictorian in 1968. The
essays she wrote during those years on "sexual ambiguity and aggression in literature, art and history" grew into
Sexual Personae.
She had been writing poetry prior to entering college (her poem "Atrophy" had been published in her local
newspaper in 1964[21] ), but it was at Harpur that she received an education in it, taking courses in Metaphysical
poetry and John Milton. She later wrote that the biggest impact on her thinking were the classes taught by poet
Milton Kessler. "He believed in the responsiveness of the body, and of the activation of the senses to literature... And
oh did I believe in that. Probably from my Italian background — that's the way we respond to things, with our body.
From Michelangelo, Bernini, there's this whole florid physicality leading right down to the Grand Opera, the great
arias."[22]
She wrote her senior thesis on Emily Dickinson, and aspired to be a poet, inspired by the work of Edna St. Vincent
Millay and Gerard Manley Hopkins. She submitted a reconfiguration of the Dido episode of Virgil's Aeneid to the
college literary magazine, but its editor, Deborah Tannen, rejected it, saying that "Poets don't write like this
anymore."[23]
At Harpur she befriended three gay men who have had a lifelong influence on her thinking: Bruce Benderson (a
classmate at Nottingham High School), Stephen Jarratt, and Stephen Feld. Her father got her a summer job working
the night shift at St. Joseph's Hospital in Syracuse as an emergency ward secretary. "It was unbelievable, like being
in a war without any danger to myself," she later said. "I forced myself to look at every single horrible thing — once,
OK? After a while, you start to adjust. It was pivotal because it's one of the reasons I'm not sentimental at all about
death or disease."[16]
Seeing a female student being groped on the street by two drunken men at Harpur, she hit one of them in the teeth;
she was 19 at the time. She was once put on probation for committing 39 pranks, a fact in which she takes pride.[24]
She told an interviewer in 2003 that she follows the model of the "Hindu gurus, the aging masters and sages"
because they're "actually very funny. They're funny, they're prankish. Zen masters are known to be prankish." She
said, "To me, comedy is a symptom of a balanced perspective on life, and people who are going around, like gloomy
gusses, in that Sontag style of intellectual, these people are suffering from something coming from their childhood, it
has nothing to do with the proper intellectual response to life..."[25]

Yale Graduate School (1968–1972)

Paglia did her graduate studies at Yale just as the women's movement and gay liberation came into American
consciousness, yet here too her sexual orientation and sexually ambiguous persona led to conflict. A friend of hers at
the time, Robert Caserio, recalled in 1996: "She did not act in a way that convention there dictated. Yale was an
extremely genteel place. Camille wasn't genteel. She was so upfront and she wore pants in a very aggressive way.
She was an out-feminist and identified with gay sexuality. We were all very much more discreet."
Paglia has repeatedly noted she was openly lesbian while at Yale Graduate School, and claimed to have been the
only open lesbian there from 1968 to 1972.[26]
While at Yale, Paglia quarreled with Rita Mae Brown, whom she later characterised as "then darkly nihilist", and
argued with the New Haven, Connecticut Women's Liberation Rock Band when they dismissed the Rolling Stones as
sexist.[27] Paglia writes that she, "had two close encounters with Kate Millett (author of Sexual Politics) just after she
became famous, in New Haven, Connecticut, and in Provincetown, Massachusetts, but she was too morosely
self-absorbed to notice." Because of what she saw as Millett's careless attitude toward scholarship, Paglia became
critical of her and those who supported her work.
Camille Paglia 769

Her study of sexuality in Western literature continued to develop with her reading of D. H. Lawrence's Women in
Love (1920) and Edmund Spenser's Faerie Queene (1590). In 1970, she wrote a 160-page paper for her last graduate
seminar at Yale entitled "Male and Female in Virginia Woolf." Her original plan for her book "Sexual Personae" was
that it would end with a study of Woolf and Lawrence.[28]
In 1971, she discovered Kenneth Clark's The Nude (1956), a book which would have a profound impact on her
dissertation and later work. "If ever I was in love with a book, it was with this one," she wrote in Sex, Art &
American Culture; and in an article for Women's Quarterly in 2002, she called it "the best introduction by far to
representation of the human figure in art."[29]
In 1971 Paglia received an M.Phil from Yale, a degree awarded when all coursework and examinations towards a
Ph.D. have been completed but the dissertation has not yet been written and accepted, and began her dissertation
under the supervision of her mentor Harold Bloom. It was then titled "The Androgynous Dream: the image of the
androgyne as it appears in literature and is embodied in the psyche of the artist, with reference to the visual arts and
the cinema."[30] While reading a draft of her thesis in 1971, Bloom wrote in the margin that a passage was "Mere
Sontagisme!" Paglia later wrote, "It saddened me, but I knew Bloom was right. Susan Sontag, who could have been
Jane Harrison's successor as a supreme woman scholar, had become synonymous with a shallow kind of hip
posturing."[31]
In a letter dated February 13, 1972 to Carolyn Heilbrun at Columbia University, Paglia inquired about her
forthcoming book on androgyny;[30] Heilbrun wrote back saying that her book could not deal with all available
material on the subject. When asked about Paglia's letter years later, Heilbrun could not remember it.[32] When
Heilbrun's Toward a Recognition of Androgyny came out, Paglia panned it in a review for the Summer 1973 issue of
the Yale Review. "Heilbrun's book is so poorly researched that it may disgrace the subject in the eyes of serious
scholars," she wrote. She noted that "the most distinguished commentators on androgyny are Mircea Eliade and G.
Wilson Knight"; and criticized Heilbrun for her reliance on the work of Joseph Campbell, and for including "four
flattering references" to Kate Millett while making "fifteen glib jibes" at Sigmund Freud. The author of the review
was clearly an expert on the history of androgyny, but as it was the journal's policy for reviews to be published
without attribution, few knew that Paglia wrote it.

Teaching career
In the fall 1972, Paglia began teaching at Bennington College, which hired her in part thanks to a recommendation
from Harold Bloom.[33] At Bennington, she befriended the philosopher James Fessenden, who first taught there that
very semester.[34] One of her students, Mitchell Lichtenstein became a prominent filmmaker, writing and directing
Teeth in 2007, a movie that was inspired by the myth of the vagina dentata, and was heavily influenced by Paglia's
work. Another student of hers was Mark W. Edmundson, now a professor at the University of Virginia, who in
January 1997, wrote about her as follows: "She was appointed as my faculty advisor in her first term. I went in for
my advisorial visit and she was entirely herself, talking very fast about many things I knew nothing about. I ran in
fear. Alas, I was too puzzled to take any of her classes, which seemed to be full of very sophisticated people from
LA and from New York."[35]
Writer Heidi Schmidt, who attended her classes, recalled in 1996: "She was thought of as peculiar. She was so full of
excitement and so intense. She would light one cigarette and then forget about it and light another, so she was
waving two cigarettes. I think people took her quite lightly, she was thought of as eccentric."
Yet another Bennington student from Paglia's time there was Judith Butler, who went on to a successful academic
career. In a 2005 interview, Paglia said of Butler: "She was a student when I was at my first job at Bennington in the
70s, and I saw her up close. And I know what she knows. I mean, she transferred from there, to Yale, and her
background in anything is absolutely minimal. She started a career in philosophy, abandoned that, and has been
taken as this sort of major philosophical thinker by people in literary criticism. But has she ever made any
exploration of science? For her to be dismissing biology, and to say gender is totally socially constructed — where
Camille Paglia 770

are her readings, her studies? It's all gameplay, wordplay, and her work is utterly pernicious, a total dead-end."[36]
Paglia's first scholarly publication was "Lord Hervey and Pope," published in the 1973 18th Century Studies. (A
Times Literary Supplement cover story on Lord Hervey, November 2, praised the paper as "brilliant.").[37] The article
was a revision of a term paper she wrote. In April 1973, she attended a Susan Sontag lecture at Dartmouth College
and later invited her to Bennington to speak there on October 4. The event proved controversial because Sontag read
a short story instead of giving the expected cultural lecture. Paglia later commented, "I was stunned because I
thought she was going to be a major intellectual", later writing at length about their meeting in an essay entitled
"Sontag, Bloody Sontag", published in Vamps & Tramps. Susan Sontag said of Paglia, "We used to think Norman
Mailer was bad, but she makes Norman Mailer look like Jane Austen."[38]
Another intellectual disappointment for Paglia was Marija Gimbutas, who published The Goddesses and Gods of Old
Europe in 1974. At the same time, Paglia launched "a detailed attack on an exhibit at Bennington's Crossett Library,
'Matriarchy: The Golden Age,' which used appallingly shoddy feminist materials alleging the existence of a peaceful,
prehistoric matriarchy, later supposedly overthrown by nasty males."[27]
Through her study of the classics and the scholarly work of Jane Ellen Harrison, James George Frazer, Erich
Neumann and others, Paglia developed a theory of sexual history that contradicted a number of ideas in vogue at the
time, hence her criticism of Gimbutas, Heilbrun, Millett and others. She laid out her ideas on matriarchy, androgyny,
homosexuality, sadomasochism and other topics in her Yale Ph.D. thesis Sexual Personae: The Androgyne in
Literature and Art, which she defended in December 1974. In September 1976, she gave a public lecture drawing on
that dissertation,[39] in which she discussed Edmund Spenser's Faerie Queene, followed by remarks on Diana Ross,
Gracie Allen, Yul Brynner, and Stephane Audran.[40]
In March 1975, she saw Germaine Greer speak in Albany. She was disappointed, reporting later that "During the
question period, I nervously raised my hand from the crowd and asked if Greer, a former English professor, would
be writing on literary subjects again soon. Her reply was stern and swift: 'There are far more important things in the
world than literature!'"
In another disheartening experience, Paglia "nearly came to blows with the founding members of the women's
studies program at the State University of New York at Albany, when they categorically denied that hormones
influence human experience or behavior. These women (whose field was literature) attributed my respect for science
to 'brainwashing' by men."[41] Similar fights with feminists, lesbians, chauvinists, homophobes and academics
culminated in a 1978 incident that led her to resign from Bennington a year later.[42]
Paglia finished Sexual Personae in the early 1980s, but could not get it published. She supported herself with visiting
and part-time teaching jobs at Yale, Wesleyan, and other Connecticut colleges. She taught night classes at the
Sikorsky Helicopter plant. Her paper, "The Apollonian Androgyne and the Faerie Queen," was published in English
Literary Renaissance, Winter 1979, and her dissertation was cited by J. Hillis Miller in his April 1980 article
"Wuthering Heights and the Ellipses of Interpretation," in Journal of Religion in Literature, but her academic career
was otherwise stalled at a time when her peers were moving on to important positions at major universities. In a
1995 letter to Boyd Holmes, she recalled: "I earned a little extra money by doing some local features reporting for a
New Haven alternative newspaper (The Advocate) in the early 1980s." She wrote articles on New Haven's historic
pizzerias and on an old house that was a stop on the Underground Railroad."[43]
In 1984, she joined the faculty of the Philadelphia College of Performing Arts, which merged in 1987 with the
Philadelphia College of Art to become the University of the Arts.
Camille Paglia 771

Paglia and Feminism

In Sexual Personae, and in media statements and campus appearances made after its publication, Paglia criticized
leaders of the American feminist movement. Paglia claimed that they were ignorant of art, science and history, were
hostile to men, and were harming young women by teaching them to see themselves as victims. Paglia compared
feminists to cults such as the Unification Church.[44] [45] Paglia's stance aroused controversy. Paglia has been
associated with the term "postfeminism", but rejects this label.[46]
Gloria Steinem compared Sexual Personae to Mein Kampf, and likened Paglia to Adolf Hitler.[47] In response, Paglia
called Steinem "evil" and equated her with Joseph Stalin.[48]
Paglia has repeatedly excoriated Patricia Ireland, former president of the National Organization for Women, calling
her a "sanctimonious," unappealing role model for women[49] whose "smug, arrogant" attitude is accompanied by
"painfully limited processes of thought."[50] Paglia contends that under Ireland's leadership, NOW "damaged and
marginalized the women's movement."[51]
Molly Ivins wrote a scathing review of Sexual Personae in which she accused Paglia of historical inaccuracy,
demagoguery of second-wave feminists, egocentrism, and writing in sweeping generalizations.[52] Ivins concluded
her review with this passage: "There is one area in which I think Paglia and I would agree that politically correct
feminism has produced a noticeable inequity. Nowadays, when a woman behaves in a hysterical and disagreeable
fashion, we say, 'Poor dear, it's probably PMS.' Whereas, if a man behaves in a hysterical and disagreeable fashion,
we say, 'What an asshole.' Let me leap to correct this unfairness by saying of Paglia, Sheesh, what an asshole."
Betty Friedan said in an interview, "How can you take her seriously? She is an exhibitionist, and she takes the most
extreme elements of the women's movement and tries to make the whole movement antisexual, antilife, antijoy. And
neither I nor most of the women I know are that way."[53]
Paglia has called feminist philosopher Martha Nussbaum a "PC diva," and accused her of borrowing her ideas
without acknowledgement. She further contends that Nussbaum's "preparation or instinct for sex analysis is dubious
at best."[54]
Naomi Wolf traded a series of sometimes personal attacks with Paglia throughout the early 1990s. In The New
Republic, Wolf labeled Paglia, "the nipple-pierced person's Phyllis Schlafly who poses as a sexual renegade but is in
fact the most dutiful of patriarchal daughters" and called Paglia's writing "full of howling intellectual dishonesty."[55]
[56] [57] [58]

Katha Pollitt called Paglia "the Charles Murray of sex. You know, "There's nothing you can do about it."'[59] Pollitt
also accused Paglia of "glorify[ing] male dominance".[60]

Paglia and French thought

Paglia is critical of the influence modern French writers have had on the humanities in the U.S. Paglia has singled
out Michel Foucault, Jacques Lacan, and Jacques Derrida for criticism, and has also made dismissive remarks about
Hélène Cixous, Luce Irigaray, Monique Wittig, Georges Bataille, Jean Baudrillard, Claude Lévi-Strauss, and Pierre
Bourdieu.[61] Paglia has condemned Foucault because she believes that he deliberately spread HIV.[62] [63]
However, Paglia's assessment of French writers is not purely negative. Paglia has called Simone de Beauvoir's The
Second Sex "brilliant" and "the only thing undergraduate sex study needs", and identified Jean-Paul Sartre's work as
part of a high period in literature. Paglia has made positive comments about Roland Barthes's Mythologies and Gilles
Deleuze's Masochism: Coldness and Cruelty, while finding both men's later work flawed. Of Gaston Bachelard, who
influenced Paglia, she wrote "whose dignified yet fluid phenomenological descriptive method seemed to me ideal for
art", adding that he was "the last modern French writer I took seriously."[64] [65] [66] [67]
Camille Paglia 772

Works

Sexual Personae: The Androgyne in Literature and Art (1974)

Sexual Personae is the dissertation she presented to the Graduate School of Yale University in candidacy for her Ph.
D in December 1974, and which formed the basis for her 1990 book by the same name. The 451 page study,
organized into four chapters, examined the appearance of sexually ambiguous figures in art and literature from
classical antiquity to the modern period. She wrote that her thesis was based on the assumption that "the inner
dynamic of all artistic creation is a psychic union between masculine and feminine powers." She described her
method as interdisciplinary, as it combined "literary criticism, art history, and psychology in what I believe is a new
synthesis."[68]

Sexual Personae: Art and Decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson (1990)
The two-volume manuscript of Sexual Personae was completed in February 1981 and rejected by seven publishers
and five agents throughout the 1980s before its eventual acceptance by Ellen Graham for Yale University Press in
1985.[69] For the next few years,[70] Paglia continued to teach while perfecting volume one of the book for its
eventual publication in February 1990, and releasing a few additional portions of it in other journals and books.
Her paper "Oscar Wilde and the English Epicene" was published in 1988 in Oscar Wilde's The Importance of Being
Earnest, edited by Bloom; '"Sex and Violence, or Nature and Art", was published in 1988 in Western Humanities
Review; and "Sex," was published in the Spenser Encyclopedia by A. C. Hamilton in 1989.
After the release of Sexual Personae on 15 February 1990[71] the book received little publicity from its publisher as
was typical of university presses at the time, but it sold well for months, prompting Yale University Press to send it
for a second printing by November 1990. It was nominated for a National Book Critics Circle Award that year, and
then reprinted in paperback by Vintage Press in 1991. It became a best-seller, as did her subsequent books Sex, Art
and American Culture: Essays (1992) and Vamps and Tramps (1994).
Throughout the 1990s, Paglia said that a second volume to Sexual Personae would be forthcoming, and was to
include her thoughts on sports and popular culture.[72] Eventually, she decided not to proceed with the book as
planned, as it would need to undergo too many revisions in order to reflect her changing attitude towards popular
culture.

Sex, Art, and American Culture (1992)

Sex, Art, and American Culture (1992) exposed readers to Paglia's views on figures such as Madonna ("the future of
feminism"), Elizabeth Taylor, Robert Mapplethorpe and Anita Hill.
Paglia's controversial piece on Madonna, which was originally published in the New York Times in 1990,[73] would
be the first of several articles, reviews and other commentary about her.
In Elizabeth Taylor: Hollywood's Pagan Queen, Paglia called Taylor Hollywood's only living queen and wrote of
her devotion to her, mentioning the fact that she at one point had collected five hundred and ninety nine pictures of
Taylor.[74]
The Beautiful Decadence of Robert Mapplethorpe defended Mapplethorpe's cultural importance and talent while
criticising activists and liberals for playing down the disturbing aspects of his work.[75]
In The Strange Case of Clarence Thomas and Anita Hill, Paglia denied that Anita Hill had been sexually harassed
and criticized her for not having responded properly to any incident that may have occurred between her and
Clarence Thomas, writing "I suspect Hill's behavior was compliant and, to use her own word about a recent
exchange with a Thomas friend, "passive.""[76]
Two chapters, Rape and Modern Sex War and The Rape Debate, Continued, were mainly about date rape, which in
Paglia's view contemporary feminists had been incapable of preventing. Paglia wrote, "Rape is an outrage that
Camille Paglia 773

cannot be tolerated in civilized society. Yet feminism, which has waged a crusade for rape to be taken more
seriously, has put young women in danger by hiding the truth about sex from them."[77]
In a long article titled Junk Bonds and Corporate Raiders: Academe in the Hour of the Wolf, Paglia critically
reviewed books about homosexuality in ancient Greece by classicists David M. Halperin and John J. Winkler. Paglia
criticised Halperin and Winkler for what she regarded as their shoddy scholarship and careerism, and expressed
dismay that philosopher Martha Nussbaum gave their books a favourable review. Paglia attacked Michel Foucault at
length in this article, questioning his learning and denying his originality as a thinker. Paglia wrote, "Foucault is the
Cagliostro of our time. Nowhere is this more evident than in his treatment of Émile Durkheim, his true source...An
entire book could be written applying Harold Bloom's theory of anxiety of influence to Foucault's desperate
concealment of his massive indebtedness to Durkheim, to whom he barely, dismissively, and inaccurately refers."[78]

Vamps and Tramps (1994)

Vamps and Tramps was a collection of Paglia's writings since Sex, Art, and American Culture. The book was a
bestseller and exposed a wide readership to Paglia's views on contemporary issues such as feminism, academia, the
Clinton presidency, the life of Jacqueline Kennedy, and the career of Barbra Streisand.
Paglia explained her title this way: "I want a revamped feminism. Putting the vamp back means the lady must be a
tramp. My generation of Sixties rebels wanted to smash the bourgeois codes that had become the authoritarian
totems of the Fifties. The 'nice' girl with her soft, sanitized speech and decorous manners had to go. Thirty years
later, we're still stuck with her — in the official spokesmen and the anointed heiresses of the feminist
establishment...Equal opportunity feminism, which I espouse, demands the removal of all barriers to woman's
advance in the political and professional world — but not at the price of special protections for women which are
infantilizing and anti-democratic."
Vamps and Tramps included "No Law in the Arena: A Pagan Theory of Sexuality". In it, Paglia discussed
controversial sexual issues such as rape, abortion, sexual harassment, prostitution, pornography, and homosexuality.
The section on homosexuality discussed debate over what causes people to be gay: "There may indeed be a genetic
component predisposing some people toward homosexuality, but social factors in childhood play an enormous role
in determining whether that tendency manifests itself or not. Parents are not specifically to blame, insofar as they
themselves are affected by historical forces of disintegration. But the family matrix is central to the sexual story."
Paglia called the idea that people are born gay "ridiculous," adding that "it is symptomatic of our overpoliticized
climate that such assertions are given instant credence by gay activists and their media partisans." Paglia mentioned
neuroscientist Simon LeVay's research on the hypothalamus, writing, "Media reports, manipulated by gay activists,
trumpeted that LeVay, despite his careful qualifiers, had incontrovertibly established that gay people were born that
way and that moral opposition to gayness would hence cease, since homosexuality is not a matter of choice."
Paglia also addressed the issue of conversion therapy. Paglia wrote that, "ACT UP's hysteria made me reconsider
those vilified therapists and ministers who think change of homosexual orientation is possible and whose meetings
are constantly disrupted by gay agitators. Is gay identity so fragile that it cannot bear the thought that some people
may not wish to be gay? The difficulties in changing sexual orientation do not spring from its genetic innateness.
Sexuality is highly fluid, and reversals are theoretically possible."[79]
Vamps and Tramps also included transcripts of Paglia's previous TV and film appearances, including her 1993
collaboration with Glenn Belverio in his short film "Glennda and Camille Do Downtown," which played at the
Sundance Film Festival and won first prize for best short documentary at the Chicago Underground Film Festival,
and The Return of Carry Nation, an article reprinted from Playboy, attacking anti-pornography feminists Catharine
MacKinnon and Andrea Dworkin.[65]
Camille Paglia 774

The Birds (1998)

In 1998 Paglia's fourth book was published. It was an analysis of Alfred Hitchcock's The Birds for the British Film
Institute's "Film Classics Series".

Break, Blow, Burn (2005)

In 2005 Paglia's study of poetry entitled Break, Blow, Burn: Camille Paglia Reads
Forty-three of the World's Best Poems was published. The book contains full texts of the
43 poems, each followed by an essay. The title is from a line in "Holy Sonnet XIV" by
John Donne. It was named as one of the "New York Times Notable Books of the Year"
for 2005, and was on the bestseller lists for Amazon.com, Booksense, The New York
Times, The Northern California Independent Booksellers Association and the Toronto
Globe & Mail.

In this book, she wrote essays on poems by William Shakespeare, John Donne, George
Herbert, Andrew Marvell, William Blake, William Wordsworth, Percy Bysshe Shelley,
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Walt Whitman, Emily Dickinson, William Butler Yeats,
Wallace Stevens, William Carlos Williams, Jean Toomer, Langston Hughes, Theodore
Roethke, Robert Lowell, Sylvia Plath, Frank O'Hara, Paul Blackburn, May Swenson, Gary Snyder, Norman H.
Russell, Chuck Wachtel, Rochell Kraut, Wanda Coleman, Ralph Pomeroy, and one song, "Woodstock," by Joni
Mitchell.

While speaking at events during the 2006 promotional tour for the paperback version of her book, she attacked the
positive reputations that poets John Ashbery and Jorie Graham have enjoyed in academe. Of Graham she said,
"Maybe she had some talent early on... She is like a mirror to the professors; they look into her and see
themselves."[80]
Paglia also spoke of how she regretted not including poems by Allen Ginsberg in the book, since she has been a fan
of his since reading "Howl". She said that she tried to excerpt the first hundred lines of "Howl", but that it gave the
wrong impression of the work. The poem also did not entirely meet her standards. Paglia told a reporter for the
Toronto Star: "'Howl', when I reread it, came across as so garish, stagey, hammy. It didn't work for this book."

Current work
Paglia is currently working on "a study of the visual arts intended as a companion book to Break, Blow, Burn"[81]

Bibliography
• Sexual Personae: The Androgyne in Literature and Art (Dissertation: 1974)
• Sexual Personae: Art and Decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson (1990)
• Sex, Art and American Culture: Essays (1992)
• Vamps and Tramps: New Essays (1994) ISBN 0-679-75120-3
• The Birds (BFI Film Classics) (1998)
• Break, Blow, Burn: Camille Paglia Reads Forty-three of the World's Best Poems (2005) ISBN 0-375-42084-3
Camille Paglia 775

External links
• Articles, essays, etc, by Camille Paglia [82]
• Salon Articles by Camille Paglia [83]
• No fairy-tale ending for Madonna [84] article by Paglia
• Oasis - Teen Talk with Camille Paglia [85] 1 June 1996
• Break, Blow, Burn. [86], "On Point with Tom Ashbrook" - NPR, May 27, 2005.
• Camille Paglia [87] at the Internet Movie Database

References
[1] http:/ / www. breakblowburn. com
[2] Vamps and Tramps, p.189
[3] http:/ / www. themorningnews. org/ archives/ birnbaum_v/ camille_paglia. php Camille Paglia interview
[4] Paglia, "Sexual Personae: Art and Decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson," p. 5-6, 1990: "The Dionysian is no picnic. It is the
chthonian realities which Apollo evades, the blind grinding of subterranean force, the long slow suck, the murk and ooze."
[5] "Who's Getting Your Vote?" (http:/ / www. reason. com/ news/ show/ 29304. html). Reason. 2004-11. . Retrieved 2008-10-27.
[6] Paglia, Camille (April 20, 2008). "Why women shouldn't vote for Hillary Clinton" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ worldnews/
1896080/ Why-women-shouldn't-vote-for-Hillary-Clinton. html). The Daily Telegraph (London). . Retrieved April 28, 2010.
[7] Paglia, "No Law in the Arena," Vamps and Tramps, p.72
[8] Real inconvenient truths | Salon (http:/ / www. salon. com/ opinion/ paglia/ 2007/ 04/ 11/ global_warming/ index3. html)
[9] Paglia, Sex, Art, and American Culture, p.252
[10] Paglia, "No Law in the Arena," Vamps and Tramps, p.19-94
[11] "Paglia Splits with Partner" (http:/ / www. towleroad. com/ 2009/ 06/ camille-paglia-gay-activists-childish-for-demanding-rights. html)
[12] "Music of my mind: Camille Paglia on the influence of music on her life and work," interview with Camille Paglia, "Interview
Magazine",August 2002.
[13] "Arcadia," "The Financial Times," March 15, 1997, p22.
[14] Pasquale J. Paglia, obit., Syracuse Herald Tribune, January 23, 1991. "Mr. Paglia served with the 511 Airborne Infantry in the Philippines
and in the nine-month occupation of Japan."
[15] Paglia, Camille (January 26, 2000). "My Education". The Scotsman (The Scotsman).
[16] "Hurricane Camille," Jim McKeever, "Syracuse Herald American" (Syracuse, New York), November 22, 1992
[17] "New York Observer," July 5–12, 1993.
[18] "Advertisements for Themselves" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9403E1D8113EF933A15752C1A962958260&
sec=& spon=& pagewanted=2), WENDY STEINER, The New York Times November 20, 1994
[19] Paglia, "Sex, Art and American Culture", p. 112, 1992,
[20] "The M.I.T. Lecture: Crisis in the American Universities," (lecture, September 19, 1991), in "Sex, Art and American Culture," p. 259,
Camille Paglia, 1992.
[21] "The Post-Standard," (Syrcause, New York), April 12, 1964
[22] "An Interview with Camille Paglia," Bookslut, April 2005, http:/ / www. bookslut. com/ features/ 2005_04_005030. php
[23] "Prickly poet still battling status quo," Margaria Fichtner, "Miami Herald," (Miami, Florida), May 8, 2005.
[24] "My Education," by Camille Paglia, "The Scotsman," (Edinburgh, Scotland), January 26, 2000, pg. 3
[25] "In Depth: Camille Paglia," Book TV (C-Span2, American Television), August 3, 2003
[26] As told to Dan Savage, "The Stranger" (Seattle, Washington), September 28 - October 4, 1992: "I took the career price for that. I shoved my
lesbianism down people's throats when I wasn't getting any pleasure from it; I couldn't find anyone to be with! There is the irony, I took all the
negatives without any of the positives! I tried. I tried to pick up women, I tried. In 1969 I traveled Europe with the handbook, The Gay Guide
to Europe. I went from place to place, every city, and I thought, "What is the problem here?" All the gay men are finding contacts everywhere!
You can't avoid it! Bus terminals, toilets, diners, everywhere! Finally I had to conclude, after so many decades of frustration, that lesbians are
not looking for sex. It's not about sex. They think it's about sex. It's about mommy! It's about mommy is what it's about!"
[27] "Letter to the Editor," Camille Paglia, "Chronicle of Higher Education," June 17, 1998.
[28] Paglia, "Vamps & Tramps," p. 329, 1994.
[29] "The best introduction by far to representation of the human figure in art. The Nude is a beautifully written work of sophisticated
connoisseurship that analyzes art in its own terms rather than imposing strident, politicized categories on it. It outlines the major body types,
male and female, in Western art and, via a wealth of illustrations, trains the reader's eye to detect and evaluate proportion. This book reveres
art — an attitude all too rare at universities these days. Students who read Clark will be safely inoculated against the worst excesses of
feminist theory, with its prattle about "objectification" and "the male gaze" — terms cooked up by ideologues with glaringly little knowledge
or feeling for art."
[30] Letter, Camille A. Paglia to Professor Carolyn Heilbrun, February 13, 1972 (Knopf Archive, Humanities Research Center, Austin, Texas.)
[31] Paglia, "Vamps & Tramps," p. 345, 1994.
Camille Paglia 776

[32] Email, Carolyn G. Heilbrun to D. Doohan, February 13, 1996: "I have no recollection of receiving a letter in 1972 from Paglia, which
doesn't mean that I didn't. I hear she has said nasty things about me, but I haven't read them. I have no respect for her; certainly I would not
have welcomed mean statements about Millett." Heilbrun had been informed that in the 1972 letter, Paglia has been critical of Millett, saying
that her "shabby and humorless attempts at literary criticism in "Sexual Politics" have severely discredited Women's Liberation."
[33] "Girlfriends magazine", Heather Findlay (interview), September 2000.
[34] Paglia, "Vamps & Tramps: New Essays," 1993, p. 202.
[35] E-mail message, Mark W. Edmundson to D. Doohan, January 23, 1997
[36] "An Interview with Camille Paglia," Bookslut, April 2005, http:/ / www. bookslut. com/ features/ 2005_04_005030. php
[37] Also see her review of Robert Halsband's "Lord Hervey: Eighteenth-Century Courtier," in the journal "Scriblerian," Spring 1974.
[38] Susan Sontag (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ obituaries/ 1479923/ Susan-Sontag. html)
[39] "Bennington Banner," September 20, 1976, announced that the lecture would take place the following day at 8:15 p.m. in Usdan Gallery in
the Visual and Performing Arts Center.
[40] In 2002, she called Stephane Audran "one of my favorite actresses" and said that "director Claude Chabrol's wife and leading lady in the '60s
and '70s... prowled Parisian salons to find exactly the right handbag for a role. She'd say, 'Until I have the clothing, I don't know who the
character is.'" See "Interview," November 2002.
[41] "Letter to the Editor," Camille Paglia, Chronicle of Higher Education, June 17, 1998.
[42] As explained by Paglia to Heather Findlay, in a cover story for Girlfriends magazine, September 2000. In 1978, Paglia and her lesbian
partner of the time were assaulted at a Bennington dance by a male student. Paglia said "I went to the police and filed a report. Then her
parents went ballistic. There was an enormous to-do from her rich parents telling the administration, 'Open homosexuals shouldn't be
employed by a college. We're not sending our daughter to a place where there are gays like this on the faculty.'" After a lengthy standoff with
the administration, Paglia accepted a settlement from the college and resigned the following year.
[43] Letter, Camille Paglia to Boyd Holmes, February 1995.
[44] Paglia, Sex, Art, and American Culture, p. 304.
[45] Paglia, Vamps and Tramps, p. 239. Paglia used the derogatory term "Moonies".
[46] Feminism Past and Present: Ideology, Action, and Reform (http:/ / www. bu. edu/ arion/ Paglia 16-1. html)
[47] DIVA Lesbian Magazine (http:/ / www. divamag. co. uk/ diva/ features. asp?AID=1918& s=1)
[48] 60 Minutes Interview (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=8nXzNlrePyM)
[49] "Why I Go for Women with Big Beaks" (http:/ / www. salon. com/ april97/ columnists/ paglia970429. html)
[50] "Men and their Discontents" (http:/ / 208. 17. 81. 135/ col/ pagl/ 1997/ 10/ 14frames. html)
[51] "The Peevish Porcupine Beats the Shrill Rooster" (http:/ / archive. salon. com/ people/ col/ pagl/ 2000/ 12/ 06/ year_end/ print. html)
[52] "Mother Jones," September/October 1991. pp 8-10, http:/ / www. its. caltech. edu/ ~erich/ misc/ ivins_on_paglia
[53] PLAYBOY. Let's discuss other feminists. What is your relationship with Betty Friedan, the founder of modern American feminism?
PAGLIA: I have always loved her – I love that style. The National Organization for Women banished her, and she has troubles with the
movement leaders like I do. It was a shame she didn't embrace me from the moment I came on the scene.
PLAYBOY: In her Playboy Interview, we asked her about you and she said, "How can you take her seriously? She is an exhibitionist, and she
takes the most extreme elements of the women's movement and tries to make the whole movement antisexual, antilife, antijoy. And neither I
nor most of the women I know are that way. "
PAGLIA: The truth is we have similar opinions. If she had come into line with me when I came onto the scene, we could have smashed
everybody.
" Interview with Camille Paglia (http:/ / privat. ub. uib. no/ BUBSY/ playboy. htm)" May 1995 Playboy
[54] Salon. "Butler vs. Nussbaum" (http:/ / www. salon. com/ it/ col/ pagl/ 1999/ 02/ 24pagl. html)
[55] Naomi Wolf. "Feminist Fatale." The New Republic. March 16, 1992. pp. 23-25
[56] Camille Paglia. "Wolf Pack." The New Republic. April 13, 1992. pp. 4-5
[57] Naomi Wolf and Camille Paglia. "The Last Words." The New Republic. May 18, 1992. pp. 4-5
[58] "The Guardian." September 1, 2001, http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ weekend/ story/ 0,3605,544353,00. html''
[59] Katha Pollitt (http:/ / www. thefreelibrary. com/ Katha+ Pollitt-a015969308)
[60] Pollitt, Katha (November 1997). "Feminism's Unfinished Business" (http:/ / www. theatlantic. com/ issues/ 97nov/ pollitt. htm). The
Atlantic. . Retrieved 2008-05-25. "Some frankly glorify male dominance, among them Camille Paglia, who being a woman can say things --
that the California high school date-rape gang known as the Spur Posse is "beautiful," for example -- that might make even Rush Limbaugh
blanch."
[61] "Obama's Early Stumbles." (http:/ / www. salon. com/ opinion/ paglia/ 2009/ 01/ 14/ obama/ index2. html)
[62] Huw Christie, "AIDS and Decadence" Continuum, vol 4, issue 3, p 20.
[Huw Christie:] What did you mean when you said of Michel Foucault that if what you'd reliably heard of his public behavior after he knew
he had AIDS is true then he should be condemned by any ethical person?
[Camille Paglia:] People say this was not true, blah blah blah. I'm sorry, I happen to believe it. This information came to me very reliably.
There were only two people between me and Foucault. Foucault told a famous gay writer, who told my close friend, who told me, that when
he realized he had AIDS, he was so angry that he determined he would take as many with him as he could. He would take as many to death as
he could. That he deliberately went to bars and would deliberately have sex with people and not tell them and try actively to take them with
him.
Camille Paglia 777

[63] "This was a man of mutilated psyche: if what I have reliably heard about his public behavior after he knew he had AIDS is true, then
Foucault would deserve the condemnation of every ethical person." Paglia, Sex, Art and American Culture, 230
[64] Paglia, Sex, Art, and American Culture
[65] Paglia, Vamps and Tramps
[66] Of Versace and killer prom queens, page 2| Salon (http:/ / www. salon. com/ july97/ columnists/ paglia2970722. html)
[67] Real inconvenient truths| Salon (http:/ / www. salon. com/ opinion/ paglia/ 2007/ 04/ 11/ global_warming/ index4. html)
[68] "Sexual Personae: The Androgyne in Literature and Art" (1974), p. ii.
[69] "Sex, Art, And American Culture," p. xi.
[70] She cites only three books that were published in the 1980s: "Michelangelo: A Psychoanalytic Study of His Life and Images" (New Haven,
1983); "The Diary of Virginia Woolf" (London, 1980); and "The Complete Notebooks of Henry James" (New York, 1987.)
[71] In a letter to Clayton Eshleman, Paglia included a copy of feminist Lillian Faderman's 18 February 1990 review of "Sexual Personae" in the
"Washington Post" and noted that it was "the first review," as "the book was released 2/15/90."
[72] Letter, Camille Paglia to Boyd Holmes, March 1993: "Re: the second volume of Sexual Personae. It was completed with the entire book in
February 1981 and discusses modern popular culture. The contents, in order, are: movies, television, sports, rock music. I wanted to write a
book that began with cave art and ended with the Rolling Stones. The title isn't totally fixed for the second volume yet; these things change up
to the last minute. The subtitle to Volume One, for example, was a matter of mass hysteria, between Yale Press and me and my advisors. More
items went in and out of that subtitle! Then literally at production deadline, the marketing department tried to get the main title changed (as
an obscure Latinism that would limit sales), leading to a major crisis. Thank heavens the executive editor of Yale Press took my side, and the
title Sexual Personae (which has now entered the language even of ad copy and captions in fashion magazines) was spared. It will probably
be several more years until Volume Two appears; Yale Press will release it in hardback. Thousands more note cards have accumulated in the
intervening 14 years, and I am in the process of working them in. I try to avoid subjects too recent, as those tend to date quickly. As with
Volume One, I want the book to be a more permanent statement."
[73] "New York Times," 14 December 1990
[74] Paglia, Sex, Art, and American Culture, p. 14-15
[75] Paglia, Sex, Art, and American Culture, p. 38-45
[76] Paglia, Sex, Art, and American Culture, p. 46-48
[77] Paglia, Sex, Art, and American Culture, p. 49
[78] Paglia, Sex, Art, and American Culture, p. 170-248
[79] Paglia, Camille (1994). Vamps and Tramps (http:/ / www. narth. com/ docs/ innate. html). Vintage Books. .
[80] "The Heckler and the Diva," Jeffrey McDaniel, PoetryFoundation.org, May 2006, http:/ / www. poetryfoundation. org/ dispatches/
dispatches. reading. html?id=178147
[81] "Where's Camille?" (http:/ / www. salon. com/ news/ opinion/ camille_paglia/ ) Salon.com Jan 20, 2010 10:21 ET
[82] http:/ / privat. ub. uib. no/ BUBSY/ nomore1. htm
[83] http:/ / dir. salon. com/ topics/ camille_paglia/ index. html
[84] http:/ / www. findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_qn4158/ is_20050827/ ai_n14900926
[85] http:/ / www. oasismag. com/ Issues/ 9606/ oasis-coverstory. html
[86] http:/ / www. onpointradio. org/ 2005/ 05/ break-blow-burn-rebroadcast
[87] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0656468/
Milorad Pavić (writer) 778

Milorad Pavić (writer)

Milorad Pavić at the 2007 Belgrade Book Fair

Born October 15, 1929

Belgrade, Kingdom of Yugoslavia

Died November 30, 2009 (aged 80)

Belgrade, Serbia

Occupation novelist, poet

Language Serbian

Ethnicity Serb

Notable work(s) Dictionary of the Khazars

[1]
Official website

Milorad Pavić (Serbian Cyrillic: Милорад Павић) (15 October 1929 – 30 November 2009) was a Serbian poet,
prose writer, translator, and literary historian.
Pavić was born in Belgrade. He wrote five novels which were translated into English: Dictionary of the Khazars: A
Lexicon Novel, Landscape Painted With Tea, Inner Side of the Wind, Last Love in Constantinople and Unique Item
as well as many short stories not in English translation.
Though Pavić's novels can be enjoyed by reading them cover-to-cover, among his stated goals are a desire to write
novels with unusual forms and to make the reader a more active participant than is usual. In an interview published
in 1998, Pavić said:
I have tried my best to eliminate or to destroy the beginning and the end of my novels. The Inner Side of
the Wind, for example, has two beginnings. You start reading this book from the side you want. In
Dictionary of the Khazars you can start with whatever story you want. But writing it, you have to keep
in mind that every entry has to be read before and after every other entry in the book. I managed to
avoid, at least until now, the old way of reading, which means reading from the traditional beginning to
the traditional end.[2]
Milorad Pavić (writer) 779

To achieve these ends, he used a number of unconventional techniques in order to introduce nonlinearity into his
works:
• Dictionary of the Khazars takes the form of three cross-referenced encyclopaedias of the Khazar people. The
book was published in a "male" and "female" version, which differ in only a brief, critical passage.
• Landscape Painted With Tea mixes the forms of novel and crossword puzzle.
• Inner Side of the Wind — which tells the story of Hero and Leander — can be read back to front, each section
telling one character's version of the story.
• Last Love in Constantinople has chapters numbered after tarot cards; the reader is invited to use a tarot deck to
determine the order in which the chapters can be read.
• Unique Item has one hundred different endings and the reader can choose one.
Many of his works can be considered examples of ergodic literature. He has also written one play. There are more
than 80 translations of his writing, into many languages. Milorad Pavić was nominated for the Nobel prize in
literature by experts in Europe, the USA and Brazil.
In 1991 he was elected as a member of Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts in the Department of Language and
Literature. Pavić died on November 30, 2009, aged 80 of heart failure in Belgrade[3] and was interred in the Novo
Groblje cemetery[4] .

Complete bibliography (in Serbian)

1. Pаlimpsesti pesme, Beogrаd 1967, 63 str.
2. Istorijа srpske književnosti bаroknog dobа, Beogrаd 1970, 527 str.
3. Mesečev kаmen pesme, Beogrаd 1971, 118 str.
4. Vojislаv Ilić i evropsko pesništvo, Novi Sаd 1971, 367 str.
5. Gаvril Stefаnović Venclović, Beogrаd 1972, 326 str.
6. Vojislаv Ilić, njegovo vreme i delo, Beogrаd 1972, 346 str.
7. Gvozdenа zаvesа, priče, Novi Sаd 1973, 222 str.
8. Jezičko pаmćenje i pesnički oblik ogledi, Novi Sаd 1976, 429 str.
9. Konji svetogа Mаrkа, priče, Beogrаd 1976, 159 str.
10. Istorijа srpske književnosti klаsicizmа i predromаntizmа, Beogrаd 1979, 572 str.
11. Ruski hrt, priče, Beogrаd 1979, 215 str.
12. Nove beogrаdske priče, Beogrаd 1981, 360 str.
13. Duše se kupаju poslednji put, Novi Sаd 1982, 145 str.
14. Rаđаnje nove srpske književnosti, Beogrаd 1983, 631 str.
15. Hаzаrski rečnik. Romаn-leksikon u 100.000 reči, Beogrаd 1984, 242 str.
16. Istorijа, stаlež i stil, ogledi, Novi Sаd 1985, 281 str.
17. Predeo slikаn čаjem. Romаn zа ljubitelje ukrštenih reči, Beogrаd, 1988, 375 (525) str.
18. Izvrnutа rukаvicа, priče, Novi Sаd 1989, 180 str.
19. Krаtkа istorijа Beogrаdа / -{A Short History of Belgrade}-, Beogrаd 1990, 68 str.
20. Unutrаšnjа strаnа vetrа ili romаn o Heri i Leаndru, Beogrаd 1991, 115+98 str.
21. Istorijа srpske književnosti 2, 3, 4. (Bаrok , Klаsicizаm, Predromаntizаm), Beogrаd, 1991, 225 + 181 + 181 str.
22. Pozorišni jelovnik zа uvek i dаn više, Beogrаd 1993, 134 str.
23. Poslednjа ljubаv u Cаrigrаdu. Priručnik zа gаtаnje, Beogrаd 1994, 195 str.
24. Šešir od riblje kože. LJubаvnа pričа, Beogrаd 1996, 80 str.
25. Stаkleni puž. Priče sа Internetа, Beogrаd, 1998, 154 + 12 str.
26. Milorаd Pаvić, Jаsminа Mihаjlović. Dve kotorske priče, Beogrаd, Deretа, 1998, 52 + 71 str.
27. Glinenа аrmijа, Beogrаd, Interpres, 1999. (Bibliogrаfsko izdаnje)
28. Kutijа zа pisаnje, Beogrаd, Deretа, 1999, 171 str.
Milorad Pavić (writer) 780

29. Zvezdаni plаšt. Astrološki vodič zа neupućene , Beogrаd, Deretа, 2000, 186 str.
30. Strаšne ljubаvne priče, izаbrаne i nove. Plаto, Beogrаd, 2001, 215 str.
31. Vrаtа snа i druge priče. Deretа, Beogrаd, 2002, 196 str.
32. Pričа o trаvi i druge priče. Deretа, Beogrаd, 2002, 187 str.
33. Devet kišа i druge priče. Deretа, Beogrаd, 2002, 202 str.
34. Cаrski rez i druge priče. Deretа, Beogrаd, 2002, 266 str.
35. Sedаm smrtnih grehovа. Plаto, Beogrаd, 2002, 173 str.
36. Dve interаktivne drаme – Krevet zа troje, Stаkleni puž. Deretа, Beogrаd, 2002, 150 str.
37. Dve lepeze iz Gаlаte – Stаkleni puž i druge priče. Deretа, Beogrаd, 2003, 167 str.
38. Nevidljivo ogledаlo – Šаreni hleb (romаn zа decu i ostаle). Deretа, Beogrаd, 2003, 84 + 70 str.
39. Unikаt. Deretа, Beogrаd, 2004, 170 str.
40. Plаvа sveskа. Deretа, Beogrаd, 2004, 118 str.
41. Interаktivne drаme: Zаuvek i dаn više; Krevet zа troje; Stаkleni puž. Deretа, Beogrаd, 2004, 274 str.
42. Jаsminа Mihаjlović, Milorаd Pаvić – LJubаvni romаn u dve priče. Čigojа, Beogrаd, 2004, 63 str.
43. Pričа kojа je ubilа Emiliju Knor. (nа srpskom i engleskom) Deretа, Beogrаd, 2005, 44 + 50 str.
44. Romаn kаo držаvа i drugi ogledi. Plаto, Beogrаd, 2005, 176 str.
45. Svаdbа u kupаtilu – Veselа igrа u sedаm slikа. Deretа, Beogrаd, 2005, 104 str.
46. Drugo telo. Deretа, Beogrаd, 2006, 310 str.
47. Pozorište od hаrtije, romаn. Zаvod zа udžbenike, Beogrаd, 2007, 240 str.
48. Drugo telo (novo dopunjeno izdаnje romаnа). Euro Giunti, Beogrаd, 2008, 292 str.
49. Sve priče. Zаvod zа udžbenike, Beogrаd, 2008, 450 str.
50. Veštаčki mlаdež. Tri krаtkа nelineаrnа romаnа o ljubаvi. Mаticа srpskа, Novi Sаd, 2009, 157 str.

Translations
1. A. S. Puškin: Poltаvа (Prepev pesme spevа Milorаdа Pаvićа – Mlаdost,Beogrаd 1949)
2. A. S. Puškin: Poltаvа (Prepevаo Milorаd Pаvić – Beogrаd,Novo Pokoljenje,1952)
3. U Sаnаng: Čičkovi pupoljci (NIN,9.I.1995)
4. Zegi: Pesme Delte (NIN,9.I.1995)
5. Mun Bim: Mesečinа nа Mendelejskom dvorcu (NIN,12.VI 1995)
6. Leon Dаmаs: Ivice, Sećаnjа (NIN, 2. H 1995)
7. Brijer Žаn: Kаdа smo se rаstаli (NIN,30.H 1995)
8. Pаul Niger: Mesec (NIN, 30. X 1955, V, br. 252.)
9. Aleksаndаr Puškin: Evgenije Onjegin (prepev i predgovor)
10. Aleksаndаr Puškin: Evgenije Onjegin
11. A.S.Puškin: Selo i druge pesme
12. A.S.Puškin: Drаme, poeme, pesme
13. DŽordž Gordon Bаjron: Izаbrаnа delа: - Drаmske poeme,spevovi i pesme
14. A.S.Puškin: Boris Godunov, mаle trаgedije, bаjke – koаutor
15. Čаrls Simić: Pile bez glаve
16. A.S.Puškin: Pesmа o Crnom Đorđu (odlomаk)
17. DŽordž Gordon Bаjron: Mаnfred (odlomаk)
Milorad Pavić (writer) 781

On Pаvić
1. Mihаjlović, Jаsminа. Prilog zа bibliogrаfiju Milorаdа Pаvićа, Beogrаd, Prosvetа, 1991, str. 231-305.
2. -{Lefebvre, François. Lectures du Dictionnaire Khazar de Milorad Pavic}-
3. Krаtkа istorijа jedne knjige; izbor nаpisа o romаnu leksikonu u 100.000 reci „Hаzаrski rečnik“ od Milorаdа
Pаvićа
4. Delić, Jovаn. Hаzаrskа prizmа. Tumаčenje proze Milorаdа Pаvićа, Beogrаd – Prosvetа, Dosije; Titogrаd –
Oktoih
5. -{Leitner, Andreas. Milorad Pavics roman "Das Chasarische Wörterbuch"}-.
6. Mihаjlović, Jаsminа. Pricа o dusi i telu. Slojevi i znаčenjа u prozi Milorаdа Pаvićа, Beogrаd, Prosvetа, 1992, 191
str.
7. Mihаjlović, Jаsminа. Biogrаfijа i bibliogrаfijа Milorаdа Pаvićа, Beogrаd, G
8. -{Homann, Binja. Phantastik und Realität zu den schriftlichen Quellen in Milorad Pavics}-
9. Sаvremenа srpskа prozа (Pаvić i postmodernа) 5, Trstenik, 1993 (1994″). (Miodrаg Rаdović, Zorаn Gluščević...)
10. -{Ehrlich, Edeltraude. Das historische und das fiktive im „Chasarischen Wörterbuch“ von Milorad Pavic,
Klagenfurt, D}-
11. Mihаjlović, Jаsminа. Bio-bibliogrаfijа Milorаdа Pаvićа, (zаsebno i kаo deo knjige „Anаhoret u NJujorku“ u
okviru Sаbrаnih delа)
12. Pijаnović, Petаr, Pаvić, Beogrаd, „Filip Višnjić“, 1998, 407 str.
13. Vаsić, Smiljkа, Polаzne osnove novije srpske proze. Knj. 2. Hаzаrski recnik Milorаdа Pаvićа – frekvencijski
rečnik
14. Bаbić, Sаvа, Milorаd Pаvić morа pričаti priče, Beogrаd, "Stylos", 2000, 191 str.
15. Popović, Rаdovаn, Prvi pisаc treceg milenijа: Zivotopis Milorаdа Pаvićа, Beogrаd, Deretа, 2002, 233 str.

Books of talks with Pаvić

1. Jevtić, Milos. Rаzgovori sа Pаvićem, Beogrаd, Nаučnа knjigа, 1990, 128 str.
2. Šomlo, Anа. Hаzаri, ili obnovа vizаntijskog romаnа. Rаzgovori sа Milorаdom Pаvicem, Beogrаd, BIGZ, Nаrodnа
knjigа, 1990, 189 str.
3. Tаnаsis, Lаlаs. Milorаd Pаvić, Solun, 1997, 1-30 str.

External links
• Official site [5]
• Pavić's library at Project Rastko [6] - His works in Serbian, Russian and Slovene; a few articles on Pavić in
English, French and German
• The Scriptorium: Milorad Pavić [7]
• Steven H Silver's review of "Last Love in Constantinople" [8]
• An interview with Milorad Pavić [9]
Milorad Pavić (writer) 782

References
[1] http:/ / www. khazars. com/ en/
[2] " As a Writer, I Was Born Two Hundred Years Ago (http:/ / www. centerforbookculture. org/ interviews/ interview_pavic. html)," by
Thanassis Lallas (Interview)
[3] Writer Milorad Pavic dies (http:/ / www. glassrbije. org/ E/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=9198& Itemid=26)
[4] khazars.com: Sad Passing of Academician Milorad Pavić (http:/ / www. khazars. com/ en/ )
[5] http:/ / www. khazars. com/
[6] http:/ / www. rastko. org. rs/ knjizevnost/ pavic/ index_c. html
[7] http:/ / www. themodernword. com/ scriptorium/ pavic. html
[8] http:/ / www. sfsite. com/ ~silverag/ pavic. html
[9] http:/ / www. human2stay. com/ article. php?subaction=showfull& id=1240692820& archive=& start_from=& ucat=2&
Poe (singer) 783

Poe (singer)
Poe

Annie Danielewski at EdgeFest in Dayton, Ohio, 1996 (photo by Kent Hagan)

Background information

Birth name Anne Decatur Danielewski

Born March 23, 1968

Origin New York City, U.S.

Genres Alternative rock

Occupations Musician, songwriter

Instruments Vocals, Guitar

Years active 1995–present

Labels Atlantic Records

Anne "Annie" Decatur Danielewski (born March 23, 1968), professionally known as Poe, is an American singer
and songwriter.[1] [2] She first hit the modern rock charts in the mid-1990s. Poe is the daughter of Polish film director
Tad Danielewski and his second wife, Priscilla Machold. She is the sister of author Mark Z. Danielewski. Poe's
musical style is a blend of folk, rock and electronica elements backing intimate lyrical compositions. Poe was signed
to Atlantic Records from 1995–2001. She is currently on her label RePoezessed Records [3].

History
Poe grew up in Provo, Utah, where her father was a professor at Brigham Young University. She eventually began
pursuing her undergraduate studies at Princeton University where she organized her first band. Her first album,
Hello, was released in 1995. Her debut single, "Angry Johnny", got much radio and MTV airplay.
Occupied by extensive small club tours, she was unable to produce a second album until 2000's Haunted. Poe
included her late father on Haunted after discovering cassette tapes containing his voice. Listening to them the first
time proved so difficult that she was hesitant to use them in her music. "I took these tapes home and I couldn't listen
to them," Poe explains. "It was too hard, so I kept finding ways to avoid it. They were sitting on my coffee table next
to a boombox."[3] The album also dovetails with themes and concepts from her brother Mark's postmodern novel
House of Leaves; the CD and the book were released simultaneously. Poe and Mark toured together across America
at Borders Books and Music locations in support of the album and the novel.
A remix of the song, "Hey Pretty", featured Mark reading a passage from the novel. It was released on one of the
Haunted singles and became a radio hit. Hey Pretty was also the theme to a short-lived MTV soap opera Spyder
Games. The show usually ended with bits of the risque video or a picture of the single's cover. In 10 Things I Hate
About You the character of Kat has the Poe ball on her schoolbook.
Poe (singer) 784

Poe started a campaign which she referred to as the "Re-POE-Session", an attempt to gain control of her master
recordings from her former record label, Atlantic Records, because they refused to re-release her albums although
she was still under contract. Her dedicated fan base, "The Angry Psychos", supported her fight by passing a "Poe
Ball" around the country to show their support. In 2004, both albums were re-released on CD by FEI/Sheridan
Square Records, and in downloadable form on various online music stores.
According to statements on her official forum, Poe has (or had) started work on a third album, but details are sketchy
and several years have passed since the first announcement. Her most recent work includes collaborations with Rhys
Fulber's solo project, Conjure One. She has had a part in the writing and singing of five songs on Conjure One's
albums: "Center of the Sun" and "Make a Wish" on the self-titled first album and "Endless Dream," "One Word" and
"Extraordinary Way" on Extraordinary Ways. She is credited as Jane on this later album.
Poe appeared in the movie Gossip performing the song "My Lips are Sealed" (a cover of The Go-Go's' "Our Lips
Are Sealed"), and as a CGI character, Mary Magdalene/Plague, in the PlayStation game Apocalypse. Apocalypse also
featured an alternate version of her song "Control", later released on Haunted.
Poe provides the voice of "Single Mother" in the movie musical "Repo! The Genetic Opera", along with other
voices. In November 2007 Poe began collecting MP3 recordings of dream accounts on her website, Repoezessed. [5]
The Song "Haunted" appears in the Xbox 360 game Alan Wake released in May of 2010.

See also
• List of number-one dance hits (United States)
• List of artists who reached number one on the US Dance chart
• Conjure One
• Mononymous persons

Discography

Albums
• Hello (1995) Gold
• Haunted (2000)

Singles
• "Trigger Happy Jack (Drive by a Go-Go)" (1995) (#27 Modern Rock)
• "Angry Johnny" (1995) (#7 Modern Rock hit)
• "Hello" (1996) (#13 Modern Rock, #1 Dance hit)
• "Today" (Promo 1998)
• "Rise and Shine" Charity Single (1998)
• "Control" (Promo 1998)
• "Walk the Walk" (Promo, 2000)
• "Hey Pretty" Drive-by 2001 remix (Promo, 2001) (#13 Modern Rock, #30 Adult Top 40)
• "Wild" (Promo, 2001)
Poe (singer) 785

Unreleased/compilation
• "Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer" (1996) originally on KROQ's Kevin & Bean's Christmastime In The LBC
and then re-released in 1997 on The Best of Kevin and Bean: A Family Christmas in Your Ass.
• "A Rose is a Rose" on the various artist album, Lounge-a-palooza (1997)
• "I Cain't Say No" (an Oklahoma! showtune cover) on the Welcome to Woop Woop Soundtrack (1998)
• "Padre Fear" (1995) Non-LP Track. Found on the CD single of Trigger Happy Jack (Drive By A Go-Go)
• "Which Way to the Top?" (additional vocals) on Fastball's All the Pain Money Can Buy (1998)
• "Strange Wind" on the Anywhere But Here Soundtrack (1999)
• "My Lips are Sealed" (cover) on the Gossip soundtrack (1999)
• "Center of the Sun" and "Make a Wish" with Conjure One (2002)
• "Endless Dream," "One Word," and "Extraordinary Way" with Conjure One (credited as "Jane") (2005)

References
[1] Poe (http:/ / www. allmusic. com/ cg/ amg. dll?p=amg& sql=11:dvfexq8gldae) at Allmusic
[2] Poe discography (http:/ / www. rollingstone. com/ artists/ poe/ discography), Rolling Stone
[3] Baltin, Steve. "The Haunting Return of Poe" (http:/ / www. rollingstone. com/ artists/ poe/ articles/ story/ 5922844/
the_haunting_return_of_poe), Rolling Stone, November 2, 2000

External links
• Official Poe Website (http://www.repoezessed.com/)
• POE.ORG ::: Fan Website (http://www.poe.org/)
Edgar Allan Poe 786

Edgar Allan Poe

Edgar Allan Poe

1848 "Ultima Thule" daguerreotype of Poe

Born Edgar Poe

January 19, 1809
Boston, Massachusetts, USA

Died October 7, 1849 (aged 40)

Baltimore, Maryland, USA

Occupation Poet, short-story writer, editor, literary critic

Nationality American

Genres Horror fiction, Gothic romance, crime fiction, detective fiction, comedy, satire

Literary movement Romanticism

Spouse(s) Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe

Signature

Edgar Allan Poe (January 19, 1809 – October 7, 1849) was an American writer, poet, editor and literary critic,
considered part of the American Romantic Movement. Best known for his tales of mystery and the macabre, Poe was
one of the earliest American practitioners of the short story and is considered the inventor of the detective-fiction
genre. He is further credited with contributing to the emerging genre of science fiction.[1] He was the first
well-known American writer to try to earn a living through writing alone, resulting in a financially difficult life and
career.[2]
He was born as Edgar Poe in Boston, Massachusetts; he was orphaned young when his mother died shortly after his
father abandoned the family. Poe was taken in by John and Frances Allan, of Richmond, Virginia, but they never
formally adopted him. He attended the University of Virginia for one semester but left due to lack of money. After
enlisting in the Army and later failing as an officer's cadet at West Point, Poe parted ways with the Allans. His
Edgar Allan Poe 787

publishing career began humbly, with an anonymous collection of poems, Tamerlane and Other Poems (1827),
credited only to "a Bostonian".
Poe switched his focus to prose and spent the next several years working for literary journals and periodicals,
becoming known for his own style of literary criticism. His work forced him to move between several cities,
including Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York City. In Baltimore in 1835, he married Virginia Clemm, his
13-year-old cousin. In January 1845 Poe published his poem "The Raven" to instant success. His wife died of
tuberculosis two years after its publication. He began planning to produce his own journal, The Penn (later renamed
The Stylus), though he died before it could be produced. On October 7, 1849, at age 40, Poe died in Baltimore; the
cause of his death is unknown and has been variously attributed to alcohol, brain congestion, cholera, drugs, heart
disease, rabies, suicide, tuberculosis, and other agents.[3]
Poe and his works influenced literature in the United States and around the world, as well as in specialized fields,
such as cosmology and cryptography. Poe and his work appear throughout popular culture in literature, music, films,
and television. A number of his homes are dedicated museums today.

Life and career

Early life
He was born Edgar Poe in Boston, Massachusetts, on January 19,
1809, the second child of actress Elizabeth Arnold Hopkins Poe and
actor David Poe, Jr. He had an elder brother, William Henry Leonard
Poe, and a younger sister, Rosalie Poe.[4] Edgar may have been named
after a character in William Shakespeare's King Lear, a play the couple
was performing in 1809.[5] His father abandoned their family in
1810,[6] and his mother died a year later from consumption. Poe was
then taken into the home of John Allan, a successful Scottish merchant
in Richmond, Virginia, who dealt in a variety of goods including
This plaque marks the approximate location
tobacco, cloth, wheat, tombstones, and slaves.[7] The Allans served as a
where Edgar Poe was born in Boston,
foster family and gave him the name "Edgar Allan Poe",[8] though they Massachusetts.
never formally adopted him.[9]

The Allan family had Poe baptized in the Episcopal Church in 1812. John Allan alternately spoiled and aggressively
disciplined his foster son.[8] The family, including Poe and Allan's wife, Frances Valentine Allan, sailed to Britain in
1815. Poe attended the grammar school in Irvine, Scotland (where John Allan was born) for a short period in 1815,
before rejoining the family in London in 1816. There he studied at a boarding school in Chelsea until summer 1817.
He was subsequently entered at the Reverend John Bransby’s Manor House School at Stoke Newington, then a
suburb four miles (6 km) north of London.[10]

Poe moved back with the Allans to Richmond, Virginia in 1820. In 1824 Poe served as the lieutenant of the
Richmond youth honor guard as Richmond celebrated the visit of the Marquis de Lafayette.[11] In March 1825, John
Allan's uncle[12] and business benefactor William Galt, said to be one of the wealthiest men in Richmond, died and
left Allan several acres of real estate. The inheritance was estimated at $750,000. By summer 1825, Allan celebrated
his expansive wealth by purchasing a two-story brick home named Moldavia.[13] Poe may have become engaged to
Sarah Elmira Royster before he registered at the one-year-old University of Virginia in February 1826 to study
languages.[14] The university, in its infancy, was established on the ideals of its founder, Thomas Jefferson. It had
strict rules against gambling, horses, guns, tobacco and alcohol, but these rules were generally ignored. Jefferson had
enacted a system of student self-government, allowing students to choose their own studies, make their own
arrangements for boarding, and report all wrongdoing to the faculty. The unique system was still in chaos, and there
Edgar Allan Poe 788

was a high dropout rate.[15] During his time there, Poe lost touch with Royster and also became estranged from his
foster father over gambling debts. Poe claimed that Allan had not given him sufficient money to register for classes,
purchase texts, and procure and furnish a dormitory. Allan did send additional money and clothes, but Poe's debts
increased.[16] Poe gave up on the university after a year, and, not feeling welcome in Richmond, especially when he
learned that his sweetheart Royster had married Alexander Shelton, he traveled to Boston in April 1827, sustaining
himself with odd jobs as a clerk and newspaper writer.[17] At some point he started using the pseudonym Henri Le
Rennet.[18]

Military career
Unable to support himself, on May 27, 1827, Poe enlisted in the United
States Army as a private. Using the name "Edgar A. Perry", he claimed
he was 22 years old even though he was 18.[19] He first served at Fort
Independence in Boston Harbor for five dollars a month.[17] That same
year, he released his first book, a 40-page collection of poetry,
Tamerlane and Other Poems, attributed with the byline "by a
Bostonian". Only 50 copies were printed, and the book received
virtually no attention.[20] Poe's regiment was posted to Fort Moultrie in
Charleston, South Carolina and traveled by ship on the brig Waltham
Poe was first stationed at Boston's Fort
on November 8, 1827. Poe was promoted to "artificer", an enlisted
Independence while in the army.
tradesman who prepared shells for artillery, and had his monthly pay
doubled.[21] After serving for two years and attaining the rank of
Sergeant Major for Artillery (the highest rank a noncommissioned officer can achieve), Poe sought to end his
five-year enlistment early. He revealed his real name and his circumstances to his commanding officer, Lieutenant
Howard. Howard would only allow Poe to be discharged if he reconciled with John Allan and wrote a letter to Allan,
who was unsympathetic. Several months passed and pleas to Allan were ignored; Allan may not have written to Poe
even to make him aware of his foster mother's illness. Frances Allan died on February 28, 1829, and Poe visited the
day after her burial. Perhaps softened by his wife's death, John Allan agreed to support Poe's attempt to be
discharged in order to receive an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point.[22]

Poe finally was discharged on April 15, 1829, after securing a replacement to finish his enlisted term for him.[23]
Before entering West Point, Poe moved back to Baltimore for a time, to stay with his widowed aunt Maria Clemm,
her daughter, Virginia Eliza Clemm (Poe's first cousin), his brother Henry, and his invalid grandmother Elizabeth
Cairnes Poe.[24] Meanwhile, Poe published his second book, Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane and Minor Poems, in Baltimore
in 1829.[25]
Poe traveled to West Point and matriculated as a cadet on July 1, 1830.[26] In October 1830, John Allan married his
second wife, Louisa Patterson.[27] The marriage, and bitter quarrels with Poe over the children born to Allan out of
affairs, led to the foster father finally disowning Poe.[28] Poe decided to leave West Point by purposely getting
court-martialed. On February 8, 1831, he was tried for gross neglect of duty and disobedience of orders for refusing
to attend formations, classes, or church. Poe tactically pled not guilty to induce dismissal, knowing he would be
found guilty.[29]
He left for New York in February 1831, and released a third volume of poems, simply titled Poems. The book was
financed with help from his fellow cadets at West Point, many of whom donated 75 cents to the cause, raising a total
of $170. They may have been expecting verses similar to the satirical ones Poe had been writing about commanding
officers.[30] Printed by Elam Bliss of New York, it was labeled as "Second Edition" and included a page saying, "To
the U.S. Corps of Cadets this volume is respectfully dedicated." The book once again reprinted the long poems
"Tamerlane" and "Al Aaraaf" but also six previously unpublished poems including early versions of "To Helen",
"Israfel", and "The City in the Sea".[31] He returned to Baltimore, to his aunt, brother and cousin, in March 1831. His
Edgar Allan Poe 789

elder brother Henry, who had been in ill health in part due to problems with alcoholism, died on August 1, 1831.[32]

Publishing career
After his brother's death, Poe began more earnest attempts to start his career as a writer. He chose a difficult time in
American publishing to do so.[33] He was the first well-known American to try to live by writing alone[2] [34] and
was hampered by the lack of an international copyright law.[35] Publishers often pirated copies of British works
rather than paying for new work by Americans.[34] The industry was also particularly hurt by the Panic of 1837.[36]
Despite a booming growth in American periodicals around this time period, fueled in part by new technology, many
did not last beyond a few issues[37] and publishers often refused to pay their writers or paid them much later than
they promised.[38] Poe, throughout his attempts to live as a writer, had to repeatedly resort to humiliating pleas for
money and other assistance.[39]
After his early attempts at poetry, Poe had turned his attention to prose.
He placed a few stories with a Philadelphia publication and began
work on his only drama, Politian. The Baltimore Saturday Visiter
awarded Poe a prize in October 1833 for his short story "MS. Found in
a Bottle".[40] The story brought him to the attention of John P.
Kennedy, a Baltimorian of considerable means. He helped Poe place
some of his stories, and introduced him to Thomas W. White, editor of
the Southern Literary Messenger in Richmond. Poe became assistant
editor of the periodical in August 1835,[41] but was discharged within a
few weeks for being caught drunk by his boss.[42] Returning to
Baltimore, Poe secretly married Virginia, his cousin, on September 22,
1835. He was 26 and she was 13, though she is listed on the marriage
certificate as being 21.[43] Reinstated by White after promising good
behavior, Poe went back to Richmond with Virginia and her mother.
He remained at the Messenger until January 1837. During this period, Poe married his 13-year old cousin, Virginia
Poe claimed that its circulation increased from 700 to 3,500.[4] He Clemm. Her early death may have inspired some
of his writing.
published several poems, book reviews, critiques, and stories in the
paper. On May 16, 1836, he had a second wedding ceremony in
Richmond with Virginia Clemm, this time in public.[44]

The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket was published and widely reviewed in 1838.[45] In the summer of
1839, Poe became assistant editor of Burton's Gentleman's Magazine. He published numerous articles, stories, and
reviews, enhancing his reputation as a trenchant critic that he had established at the Southern Literary Messenger.
Also in 1839, the collection Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque was published in two volumes, though he made
little money off of it and it received mixed reviews.[46] Poe left Burton's after about a year and found a position as
assistant at Graham's Magazine.[47]

In June 1840, Poe published a prospectus announcing his intentions to start his own journal, The Stylus.[48]
Originally, Poe intended to call the journal The Penn, as it would have been based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In
the June 6, 1840 issue of Philadelphia's Saturday Evening Post, Poe bought advertising space for his prospectus:
"Prospectus of the Penn Magazine, a Monthly Literary journal to be edited and published in the city of Philadelphia
by Edgar A. Poe."[49] The journal was never produced before Poe's death. Around this time, he attempted to secure a
position with the Tyler administration, claiming he was a member of the Whig Party.[50] He hoped to be appointed to
the Custom House in Philadelphia with help from President Tyler's son Robert,[51] an acquaintance of Poe's friend
Frederick Thomas.[52] Poe failed to show up for a meeting with Thomas to discuss the appointment in
mid-September 1842, claiming to be sick, though Thomas believed he was drunk.[53] Though he was promised an
appointment, all positions were filled by others.[54]
Edgar Allan Poe 790

One evening in January 1842, Virginia showed the first signs of

Poe spent the last few years of his life in a small
cottage in the Bronx, New York.
[58]
Poe a household name almost instantly,
consumption, now known as tuberculosis, while singing and playing
the piano. Poe described it as breaking a blood vessel in her throat.[55]
She only partially recovered. Poe began to drink more heavily under
the stress of Virginia's illness. He left Graham's and attempted to find a
new position, for a time angling for a government post. He returned to
New York, where he worked briefly at the Evening Mirror before
becoming editor of the Broadway Journal and, later, sole owner.[56]
There he alienated himself from other writers by publicly accusing
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow of plagiarism, though Longfellow never
responded.[57] On January 29, 1845, his poem "The Raven" appeared
in the Evening Mirror and became a popular sensation. Though it made
he was paid only $9 for its publication.[59]

The Broadway Journal failed in 1846.[56] Poe moved to a cottage in the Fordham section of The Bronx, New York.
That home, known today as the "Poe Cottage", is on the southeast corner of the Grand Concourse and Kingsbridge
Road. Virginia died there on January 30, 1847.[60] Biographers and critics often suggest Poe's frequent theme of the
"death of a beautiful woman" stems from the repeated loss of women throughout his life, including his wife.[61]
Increasingly unstable after his wife's death, Poe attempted to court the poet Sarah Helen Whitman, who lived in
Providence, Rhode Island. Their engagement failed, purportedly because of Poe's drinking and erratic behavior.
However, there is also strong evidence that Whitman's mother intervened and did much to derail their
relationship.[62] Poe then returned to Richmond and resumed a relationship with his childhood sweetheart, Sarah
Elmira Royster.[63]

Death
On October 3, 1849, Poe was found on the streets of Baltimore delirious, "in
great distress, and... in need of immediate assistance", according to the man who
found him, Joseph W. Walker.[64] He was taken to the Washington College
Hospital, where he died on Sunday, October 7, 1849, at 5:00 in the morning.[65]
Poe was never coherent long enough to explain how he came to be in his dire
condition, and, oddly, was wearing clothes that were not his own. Poe is said to
have repeatedly called out the name "Reynolds" on the night before his death,
though it is unclear to whom he was referring. Some sources say Poe's final
words were "Lord help my poor soul."[65] All medical records, including his
death certificate, have been lost.[66] Newspapers at the time reported Poe's death
as "congestion of the brain" or "cerebral inflammation", common euphemisms
for deaths from disreputable causes such as alcoholism.[67] The actual cause of
death remains a mystery;[68] from as early as 1872, cooping was commonly
believed to have been the cause,[69] and speculation has included delirium Edgar Allan Poe is buried in
Baltimore, Maryland. The
tremens, heart disease, epilepsy, syphilis, meningeal inflammation,[3] cholera[70] circumstances and cause of his death
and rabies.[71] remain uncertain.
Edgar Allan Poe 791

Griswold's "Memoir"
The day Edgar Allan Poe was buried, a long obituary appeared in the New York Tribune signed "Ludwig". It was
soon published throughout the country. The piece began, "Edgar Allan Poe is dead. He died in Baltimore the day
before yesterday. This announcement will startle many, but few will be grieved by it."[72] "Ludwig" was soon
identified as Rufus Wilmot Griswold, an editor, critic and anthologist who had borne a grudge against Poe since
1842. Griswold somehow became Poe's literary executor and attempted to destroy his enemy's reputation after his
death.[73]
Rufus Griswold wrote a biographical article of Poe called "Memoir of the Author", which he included in an 1850
volume of the collected works. Griswold depicted Poe as a depraved, drunk, drug-addled madman and included Poe's
letters as evidence.[73] Many of his claims were either lies or distorted half-truths. For example, it is now known that
Poe was not a drug addict.[74] Griswold's book was denounced by those who knew Poe well,[75] but it became a
popularly accepted one. This occurred in part because it was the only full biography available and was widely
reprinted and in part because readers thrilled at the thought of reading works by an "evil" man.[76] Letters that
Griswold presented as proof of this depiction of Poe were later revealed as forgeries.[77]

Literary style and themes

Genres
Poe's best known fiction works are Gothic,[78] a genre he followed to
appease the public taste.[79] His most recurring themes deal with
questions of death, including its physical signs, the effects of
decomposition, concerns of premature burial, the reanimation of the
dead, and mourning.[80] Many of his works are generally considered
part of the dark romanticism genre, a literary reaction to
transcendentalism,[81] which Poe strongly disliked.[82] He referred to
followers of the movement as "Frogpondians" after the pond on Boston
Common.[83] and ridiculed their writings as "metaphor-run", lapsing
into "obscurity for obscurity's sake" or "mysticism for mysticism's
[84]
sake." Poe once wrote in a letter to Thomas Holley Chivers that he
did not dislike Transcendentalists, "only the pretenders and sophists
among them."[85]

Beyond horror, Poe also wrote satires, humor tales, and hoaxes. For 1860s portrait by Oscar Halling after an 1849
comic effect, he used irony and ludicrous extravagance, often in an daguerreotype
[79]
attempt to liberate the reader from cultural conformity. In fact,
"Metzengerstein", the first story that Poe is known to have published,[86] and his first foray into horror, was
originally intended as a burlesque satirizing the popular genre.[87] Poe also reinvented science fiction, responding in
his writing to emerging technologies such as hot air balloons in "The Balloon-Hoax".[88]

Poe wrote much of his work using themes specifically catered for mass market tastes.[89] To that end, his fiction
often included elements of popular pseudosciences such as phrenology[90] and physiognomy.[91]
Edgar Allan Poe 792

Literary theory
Poe's writing reflects his literary theories, which he presented in his criticism and also in essays such as "The Poetic
Principle".[92] He disliked didacticism[93] and allegory,[94] though he believed that meaning in literature should be an
undercurrent just beneath the surface. Works with obvious meanings, he wrote, cease to be art.[95] He believed that
quality work should be brief and focus on a specific single effect.[92] To that end, he believed that the writer should
carefully calculate every sentiment and idea.[96] In "The Philosophy of Composition", an essay in which Poe
describes his method in writing "The Raven", he claims to have strictly followed this method. It has been questioned,
however, if he really followed this system. T. S. Eliot said: "It is difficult for us to read that essay without reflecting
that if Poe plotted out his poem with such calculation, he might have taken a little more pains over it: the result
hardly does credit to the method."[97] Biographer Joseph Wood Krutch described the essay as "a rather highly
ingenious exercise in the art of rationalization".[98]

Legacy

Literary influence
During his lifetime, Poe was mostly recognized as a literary critic.
Fellow critic James Russell Lowell called him "the most
discriminating, philosophical, and fearless critic upon imaginative
works who has written in America", though he questioned if he
occasionally used prussic acid instead of ink.[99] Poe was also known
as a writer of fiction and became one of the first American authors of
the 19th century to become more popular in Europe than in the United
States.[100] Poe is particularly respected in France, in part due to early
translations by Charles Baudelaire. Baudelaire's translations became
definitive renditions of Poe's work throughout Europe.[101]

Poe's early detective fiction tales starring the fictitious C. Auguste

Dupin laid the groundwork for future detectives in literature. Sir Arthur
Conan Doyle said, "Each [of Poe's detective stories] is a root from
which a whole literature has developed.... Where was the detective
story until Poe breathed the breath of life into it?"[102] The Mystery
Writers of America have named their awards for excellence in the Illustration by French impressionist Édouard
[103] Manet for the Stéphane Mallarmé translation of
genre the "Edgars". Poe's work also influenced science fiction,
"The Raven", 1875. Digitally restored.
notably Jules Verne, who wrote a sequel to Poe's novel The Narrative
of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket called An Antarctic Mystery, also
known as The Sphinx of the Ice Fields.[104] Science fiction author H. G. Wells noted, "Pym tells what a very
intelligent mind could imagine about the south polar region a century ago."[105]

Like many famous artists, Poe's works have spawned innumerable imitators.[106] One interesting trend among
imitators of Poe, however, has been claims by clairvoyants or psychics to be "channeling" poems from Poe's spirit.
One of the most notable of these was Lizzie Doten, who in 1863 published Poems from the Inner Life, in which she
claimed to have "received" new compositions by Poe's spirit. The compositions were re-workings of famous Poe
poems such as "The Bells", but which reflected a new, positive outlook.[107]
Edgar Allan Poe 793

Even so, Poe has received not only praise, but criticism as well. This is
partly because of the negative perception of his personal character and
its influence upon his reputation.[100] William Butler Yeats was
occasionally critical of Poe and once called him "vulgar".[108]
Transcendentalist Ralph Waldo Emerson reacted to "The Raven" by
saying, "I see nothing in it"[109] and derisively referred to Poe as "the
jingle man".[110] Aldous Huxley wrote that Poe's writing "falls into
vulgarity" by being "too poetical"—the equivalent of wearing a
diamond ring on every finger.[111]

It is believed that only 12 copies of Poe's first book, Tamerlane and

Other Poems, have survived. In December 2009, one copy sold at
Christie's, New York for $662,500, a record price paid for a work of
American literature.[112]
Edgar Allan Poe photographed circa 1849.
Physics and cosmology
Eureka: A Prose Poem, an essay written in 1848, included a cosmological theory that presaged the Big Bang theory
by 80 years,[113] [114] as well as the first plausible solution to Olbers' paradox.[115] [116] Poe eschewed the scientific
method in Eureka and instead wrote from pure intuition.[117] For this reason, he considered it a work of art, not
science,[117] but insisted that it was still true[118] and considered it to be his career masterpiece.[119] Even so, Eureka
is full of scientific errors. In particular, Poe's suggestions opposed Newtonian principles regarding the density and
rotation of planets.[120]

Cryptography
Poe had a keen interest in cryptography. He had placed a notice of his abilities in the Philadelphia paper Alexander's
Weekly (Express) Messenger, inviting submissions of ciphers, which he proceeded to solve.[121] In July 1841, Poe
had published an essay called "A Few Words on Secret Writing" in Graham's Magazine. Realizing the public
interest in the topic, he wrote "The Gold-Bug" incorporating ciphers as part of the story.[122] Poe's success in
cryptography relied not so much on his knowledge of that field (his method was limited to the simple substitution
cryptogram), as on his knowledge of the magazine and newspaper culture. His keen analytical abilities, which were
so evident in his detective stories, allowed him to see that the general public was largely ignorant of the methods by
which a simple substitution cryptogram can be solved, and he used this to his advantage.[121] The sensation Poe
created with his cryptography stunt played a major role in popularizing cryptograms in newspapers and
magazines.[123]
Poe had an influence on cryptography beyond increasing public interest in his lifetime. William Friedman, America's
foremost cryptologist, was heavily influenced by Poe.[124] Friedman's initial interest in cryptography came from
reading "The Gold-Bug" as a child—interest he later put to use in deciphering Japan's PURPLE code during World
War II.[125]
Edgar Allan Poe 794

Poe in popular culture

Poe as a character
The historical Edgar Allan Poe has appeared as a fictionalized character, often representing the "mad genius" or
"tormented artist" and exploiting his personal struggles.[126] Many such depictions also blend in with characters from
his stories, suggesting Poe and his characters share identities.[127] Often, fictional depictions of Poe use his
mystery-solving skills in such novels as The Poe Shadow by Matthew Pearl.[128]

Preserved homes, landmarks, and museums

No childhood home of Poe is still standing, including the Allan family's
Moldavia estate. The oldest standing home in Richmond, the Old Stone House, is
in use as the Edgar Allan Poe Museum, though Poe never lived there. The
collection includes many items Poe used during his time with the Allan family
and also features several rare first printings of Poe works. The dorm room Poe is
believed to have used while studying at the University of Virginia in 1826 is
preserved and available for visits. Its upkeep is now overseen by a group of
students and staff known as the Raven Society.[129]

The earliest surviving home in which Poe lived is in Baltimore, preserved as the
Edgar Allan Poe House and Museum. Poe is believed to have lived in the home
at the age of 23 when he first lived with Maria Clemm and Virginia (as well as
his grandmother and possibly his brother William Henry Leonard Poe).[130] It is The Edgar Allan Poe National
Historic Site in Philadelphia is one of
open to the public and is also the home of the Edgar Allan Poe Society. Of the
several preserved former residences
several homes that Poe, his wife Virginia, and his mother-in-law Maria rented in of Poe
Philadelphia, only the last house has survived. The Spring Garden home, where
the author lived in 1843–1844, is today preserved by the National Park Service as the Edgar Allan Poe National
Historic Site.[131] Poe's final home is preserved as the Edgar Allan Poe Cottage in the Bronx, New York.[60]

Other Poe landmarks include a building in the Upper West Side, where Poe temporarily lived when he first moved to
New York. A plaque suggests that Poe wrote "The Raven" here. In Boston, a plaque hangs near the building where
Poe was born once stood. Believed to have been located at 62 Carver Street (now Charles Street), the plaque is
possibly in an incorrect location.[132] [133] The bar in which legend says Poe was last seen drinking before his death
still stands in Fells Point in Baltimore, Maryland. Now known as The Horse You Came In On, local lore insists that
a ghost they call "Edgar" haunts the rooms above.[134]

Poe Toaster
Adding to the mystery surrounding Poe's death, an unknown visitor affectionately referred to as the "Poe Toaster"
paid homage to Poe's grave annually beginning in 1949. As the tradition carried on for more than 60 years, it is likely
that the "Poe Toaster" was actually several individuals, though the tribute was always the same. Every January 19, in
the early hours of the morning, the person made a toast of cognac to Poe's original grave marker and left three roses.
Members of the Edgar Allan Poe Society in Baltimore helped protect this tradition for decades. On August 15, 2007,
Sam Porpora, a former historian at the Westminster Church in Baltimore where Poe is buried, claimed that he had
started the tradition in the 1960s. Porpora said the claim that the tradition began in 1949 was a hoax in order to raise
money and enhance the profile of the church. His story has not been confirmed,[135] and some details he gave to the
press have been pointed out as factually inaccurate.[136] For the first year since 1949, the Poe Toaster did not appear
on January 19, 2010,[137] leading to local speculation that the Toaster himself may have passed on.
Edgar Allan Poe 795

Selected list of works

Tales Poetry
• "The Black Cat" • "Al Aaraaf"
• "The Cask of Amontillado" • "Annabel Lee"
• "A Descent into the Maelström" • "The Bells"
• "The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar" • "The City in the Sea"
• "The Fall of the House of Usher" • "The Conqueror Worm"
• "The Gold-Bug" • "A Dream Within a
• "Hop-Frog" Dream"
• "Ligeia" • "Eldorado"
• "The Masque of the Red Death" • "Eulalie"
• "The Murders in the Rue Morgue" • "The Haunted Palace"
• "The Mystery of Marie Rogêt" • "To Helen"
• "The Oval Portrait" • "Lenore"
• "The Pit and the Pendulum" • "Tamerlane"
• "The Premature Burial" • "The Raven"
• "The Purloined Letter" • "Ulalume"
• "The System of Doctor Tarr and Professor Fether"
• "The Tell-Tale Heart"

Other works
• Politian (1835) – Poe's only play
• The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket (1838) – Poe's only complete novel
• "The Balloon-Hoax" (1844) – A journalistic hoax printed as a true story
• "The Philosophy of Composition" (1846) – Essay
• Eureka: A Prose Poem (1848) – Essay
• "The Poetic Principle" (1848) – Essay
• "The Light-House" (1849) – Poe's last incomplete work

See also
• Edgar Allan Poe and music
• List of coupled cousins
• USS E.A. Poe (IX-103)

References
• Foye, Raymond (editor) (1980). The Unknown Poe (Paperback ed.). San Francisco, CA: City Lights.
ISBN 0872861104.
• Frank, Frederick S.; Anthony Magistrale (1997). The Poe Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
ISBN 0313277680.
• Hoffman, Daniel (1998). Poe Poe Poe Poe Poe Poe Poe (Paperback ed.). Baton Rouge, La.: Louisiana State
University Press. ISBN 0807123218.
• Krutch, Joseph Wood (1926). Edgar Allan Poe: A Study in Genius. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
• Meyers, Jeffrey (1992). Edgar Allan Poe: His Life and Legacy (Paperback ed.). New York: Cooper Square Press.
ISBN 0815410387.
• Quinn, Arthur Hobson (1941). Edgar Allan Poe: A Critical Biography. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc..
ISBN 0801857309.
• Rosenheim, Shawn James (1997). The Cryptographic Imagination: Secret Writing from Edgar Poe to the
Internet. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9780801853326.
Edgar Allan Poe 796

• Silverman, Kenneth (1991). Edgar A. Poe: Mournful and Never-Ending Remembrance (Paperback ed.). New
York: Harper Perennial. ISBN 0060923318.
• Sova, Dawn B. (2001). Edgar Allan Poe: A to Z (Paperback ed.). New York: Checkmark Books.
ISBN 081604161X.
• Whalen, Terence (2001). "Poe and the American Publishing Industry". in J. Kennedy. A Historical Guide to
Edgar Allan Poe. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195121503.

Further reading
• Ackroyd, Peter (2008). Poe: A Life Cut Short. London: Chatto & Windus. ISBN 9780701169886.
• Bittner, William (1962). Poe: A Biography. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.
• Hutchisson, James M. (2005). Poe. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 1-57806-721-9.
• Poe, Harry Lee (2008). Edgar Allan Poe: An Illustrated Companion to His Tell-Tale Stories. New York: Metro
Books. ISBN 978-1-4351-0469-3.

External links
• Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site [138]
• Edgar Allan Poe Society in Baltimore [139]
• Poe Museum in Richmond, Virginia [140]
• Works by or about Edgar Allan Poe [141] in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
• Edgar Allan Poe's Collection [142] at the Harry Ransom Center at The University of Texas at Austin
• 'Funeral' honours Edgar Allan Poe [143] BBC News (with video) 2009-10-11
• Selected Stories [144] from American Studies at the University of Virginia
• Works by Edgar Allan Poe [145] at Project Gutenberg
• Works by Edgar Allan Poe [146], available at Internet Archive. Scanned illustrated books.
Authority control: PND: 11859527X [147] | LCCN: n79029745 [148] | VIAF: 60351476 [149]

References
[1] Stableford, Brian. "Science fiction before the genre." The Cambridge Companion to Science Fiction, Eds. Edward James and Farah
Mendlesohn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. pp. 18–19.
[2] Meyers, 138
[3] Meyers, 256
[4] Allen, Hervey. "Introduction". The Works of Edgar Allan Poe, New York: P. F. Collier & Son, 1927.
[5] Nelson, Randy F. The Almanac of American Letters. Los Altos, California: William Kaufmann, Inc., 1981: 65. ISBN 086576008X
[6] Canada, Mark, ed. " Edgar Allan Poe Chronology (http:/ / www. uncp. edu/ home/ canada/ work/ allam/ 17841865/ lit/ poe. htm)". Canada's
America. 1997. Retrieved on June 3, 2007.
[7] Meyers, 8
[8] Meyers, 9
[9] Quinn, 61
[10] Silverman, 16–18
[11] "News and Events" (http:/ / www. poemuseum. org/ news_and_events/ archive_2006. html). PoeMuseum.org. . Retrieved 2010-07-07.
[12] Meyers, 20
[13] Silverman, 27–28
[14] Silverman, 29–30
[15] Meyers, 21–22
[16] Silverman, 32–34
[17] Meyers, 32
[18] Silverman, 41
[19] Cornelius, Kay. "Biography of Edgar Allan Poe", Bloom's BioCritiques: Edgar Allan Poe, Ed. Harold Bloom, Philadelphia: Chelsea House
Publishers, 2002. p. 13 ISBN 0791061736
[20] Meyers, 33–34
Edgar Allan Poe 797

[21] Meyers, 35
[22] Silverman, 43–47
[23] Meyers, 38
[24] Cornelius, Kay. "Biography of Edgar Allan Poe", Bloom's BioCritiques: Edgar Allan Poe, Ed. Harold Bloom, Philadelphia: Chelsea House
Publishers, 2002. pp. 13–14 ISBN 0791061736
[25] Sova, 5
[26] Krutch, 32
[27] Cornelius, Kay. "Biography of Edgar Allan Poe", Bloom's BioCritiques: Edgar Allan Poe, Ed. Harold Bloom, Philadelphia: Chelsea House
Publishers, 2002. p. 14 ISBN 0791061736
[28] Meyers, 54–55
[29] Hecker, William J. Private Perry and Mister Poe: The West Point Poems. Louisiana State University Press, 2005. pp. 49–51
[30] Meyers, 50–51
[31] Hecker, William J. Private Perry and Mister Poe: The West Point Poems. Louisiana State University Press, 2005. pp. 53–54
[32] Quinn, 187–188
[33] Whalen, 64
[34] Quinn, 305
[35] Silverman, 247
[36] Whalen, 74
[37] Silverman, 99
[38] Whalen, 82
[39] Meyers, 139
[40] Sova, 162
[41] Sova, 225
[42] Meyers, 73
[43] Meyers, 85
[44] Silverman, 124
[45] Silverman, 137
[46] Meyers, 113
[47] Sova, 39, 99
[48] Meyers, 119
[49] Silverman, 159
[50] Quinn, 321–322
[51] Silverman, 186
[52] Meyers, 144
[53] Silverman, 187
[54] Silverman, 188
[55] Silverman, 179
[56] Sova, 34
[57] Quinn, 455
[58] Hoffman, 80
[59] Ostrom, John Ward. "Edgar A. Poe: His Income as Literary Entrepreneur", Poe Studies 5.1 (1982): 5
[60] "Edgar Allan Poe Cottage" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071011072300/ http:/ / bronxhistoricalsociety. org/ about/ poecottage. html).
Bronx Historical Society. Archived from the original (http:/ / bronxhistoricalsociety. org/ about/ poecottage. html) on October 11, 2007. .
Retrieved October 13, 2007.
[61] Weekes, Karen. "Poe's feminine ideal," The Cambridge Companion to Edgar Allan Poe, Ed. Kevin J. Hayes. Cambridge University Press,
2002. p. 149. ISBN 0521797276
[62] Benton, Richard P. "Friends and Enemies: Women in the Life of Edgar Allan Poe", Myths and Reality: The Mysterious Mr. Poe. Baltimore:
Edgar Allan Poe Society, 1987. p. 19 ISBN 0961644915
[63] Quinn, 628
[64] Quinn, 638
[65] Meyers, 255
[66] Bramsback, Birgit (1970). "The Final Illness and Death of Edgar Allan Poe: An Attempt at Reassessment", Studia Neophilologica
(University of Uppsala), XLII. p. 40
[67] Silverman, 435–436
[68] Silverman, 435
[69] Walsh, John Evangelist (2000). Midnight Dreary: The Mysterious Death of Edgar Allan Poe (Paperback ed.). New York: St. Martin's
Minotaur. pp. 32–33. ISBN 0312227329.
[70] "Death Suspicion Cholera" (http:/ / www. crimelibrary. com/ notorious_murders/ celebrity/ edgar_allan_poe/ 5. html). Crimelibrary.com. .
Retrieved May 9, 2008.
Edgar Allan Poe 798

[71] Benitez, Dr. R. Michael, "A 39-year-old man with mental status change", Maryland Medical Journal, 45 (1996): 765–769.
[72] Meyers, 259. To read Griswold's full obituary, see Edgar Allan Poe obituary at Wikisource.
[73] Hoffman, 14
[74] Quinn, 693
[75] Sova, 101
[76] Meyers, 263
[77] Quinn, 699
[78] Meyers, 64
[79] Royot, Daniel (2002). "Poe's Humor", The Cambridge Companion to Edgar Allan Poe. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521797276. p.
57.
[80] Kennedy, J. Gerald (1987). Poe, Death, and the Life of Writing. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300037732. p. 3.
[81] Koster, Donald N. (2002). "Influences of Transcendentalism on American Life and Literature", Literary Movements for Students Vol. 1.
David Galens, ed. Detroit: Thompson Gale. p. 336.
[82] Ljunquist, Kent (2002). "The poet as critic", The Cambridge Companion to Edgar Allan Poe, Kevin J. Hayes, ed. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0521797276 p. 15
[83] Royot, Daniel. "Poe's humor," as collected in The Cambridge Companion to Edgar Allan Poe, Kevin J. Hayes, ed. Cambridge University
Press, 2002. pp. 61–62. ISBN 0521797276
[84] Ljunquist, Kent. "The poet as critic" collected in The Cambridge Companion to Edgar Allan Poe, Kevin J. Hayes, ed. Cambridge University
Press, 2002. p. 15. ISBN 0521797276
[85] Silverman, 169
[86] Silverman, 88
[87] Fisher, Benjamin Franklin (1993). "Poe's 'Metzengerstein': Not a Hoax", On Poe: The Best from "American Literature. Durham, NC: Duke
University Press. p. 142, 149
[88] Tresch, John (2002). "Extra! Extra! Poe invents science fiction!", The Cambridge Companion to Edgar Allan Poe, Kevin J. Hayes, ed.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521797276. p. 114.
[89] Whalen, 67
[90] Edward Hungerford (1930). "Poe and Phrenology", American Literature Vol. 1. p. 209–31.
[91] Erik Grayson (2005). "Weird Science, Weirder Unity: Phrenology and Physiognomy in Edgar Allan Poe", Mode Vol. 1 p. 56–77.
[92] Krutch, 225
[93] Kagle, Steven E. "The Corpse Within Us", Poe and His Times: The Artist and His Milieu, Ed. Benjamin Franklin Fisher IV. Baltimore: The
Edgar Allan Poe Society, Inc., 1990. ISBN 0961644923. p. 104
[94] Poe, Edgar A.. "Tale-Writing — Nathaniel Hawthorne" (http:/ / www. eapoe. org/ works/ CRITICSM/ GLB47HN1. HTM). Godey's Lady's
Book, November 1847, pp. 252–256. . Retrieved March 24, 2007.
[95] Wilbur, Richard (1967). "The House of Poe", Poe: A Collection of Critical Essays, Ed. Robert Regan. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
Inc. p. 99
[96] Jannaccone, Pasquale (translated by Peter Mitilineos) (1974). " The Aesthetics of Edgar Poe (http:/ / www. eapoe. org/ pstudies/ ps1970/
p1974101. htm)", Poe Studies Vol. 7.1. p. 3.
[97] Hoffman, 76
[98] Krutch, 98
[99] Quinn, 432
[100] Meyers, 258
[101] Harner, Gary Wayne. "Edgar Allan Poe in France: Baudelaire's Labor of Love", Poe and His Times: The Artist and His Milieu, Ed.
Benjamin Franklin Fisher IV. Baltimore: The Edgar Allan Poe Society, 1990. p. 218. ISBN 0961644923
[102] Poe Encyclopedia, 103
[103] Neimeyer, Mark. "Poe and Popular Culture," Ed. Kevin J. Hayes. The Cambridge Companion to Edgar Allan Poe. Cambridge University
Press, 2002. ISBN 0521797276 p. 206
[104] Poe Encyclopedia, 364
[105] Poe Encyclopedia, 372
[106] Meyers, 281
[107] Carlson, Eric Walter (1996). A Companion to Poe Studies (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=nMHFGbxYhEMC& pg=PA476&
lpg=PA476& dq="lizzie+ doten"+ poe). Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 476. ISBN 0-313-26506-2. .
[108] Meyers, 274
[109] Silverman, 265
[110] "Emerson's Estimate of Poe" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ abstract. html?res=9A03E5D91630E033A25753C2A9639C94659ED7CF).
The New York Times. May 20, 1894. . Retrieved March 2, 2008.
[111] Huxley, Aldous. "Vulgarity in Literature," Poe: A Collection of Critical Essays, Ed. Robert Regan, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall
Inc., 1967. p. 32
[112] "Edgar Allan Poe's first book from 1827 sells for $662,500; record price for American literature" (http:/ / www. nydailynews. com/ money/
2009/ 12/ 05/ 2009-12-05_rare_poe_book_scares_up_662g. html). New York Daily News. December 5, 2009. . Retrieved December 24, 2009.
Edgar Allan Poe 799

[113] Cappi, Alberto. " Edgar Allan Poe's Physical Cosmology (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ full/ 1994QJRAS. . 35. . 177C)", "Quarterly Journal
of the Royal Astronomical Society". 1994, vol.35, p.177-192
[114] Rombeck, Terry. " Poe's little-known science book reprinted (http:/ / www2. ljworld. com/ news/ 2005/ jan/ 22/ poes_littleknown_science/
)", Lawrence Journal-World & News. January 22, 2005
[115] Harrison, Edward. Darkness at Night: A Riddle of the Universe. 1987, Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674192706.
[116] Smoot, George and Keay Davidson. Wrinkles in Time. Harper Perennial, Reprint edition (October 1, 1994) ISBN 0-380-72044-2
[117] Meyers, 214
[118] Silverman, 399
[119] Meyers, 219
[120] Sova, 82
[121] Silverman, 152
[122] Rosenheim, 2, 6
[123] Friedman, William F. "Edgar Allan Poe, Cryptographer", On Poe: The Best from "American Literature". Durham, NC: Duke University
Press, 1993. p. 40–41
[124] Rosenheim, 15
[125] Rosenheim, 146
[126] Neimeyer, Mark. "Poe and Popular Culture", The Cambridge Companion to Edgar Allan Poe. Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN
0521797276 p. 209
[127] Gargano, James W. "The Question of Poe's Narrators," Poe: A Collection of Critical Essays, Ed. Robert Regan. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967. p. 165
[128] Maslin, Janet (June 6, 2006). "The Poe Shadow" (http:/ / www. iht. com/ articles/ 2006/ 06/ 06/ features/ bookwed. php). International
Herald Tribune. . Retrieved October 13, 2007.
[129] Raven Society Homepage (http:/ / www. uvaravensociety. com/ ). University of Virginia. Retrieved on December 16, 2007.
[130] "The Baltimore Poe House and Museum" (http:/ / www. eapoe. org/ balt/ poehse. htm). Edgar Allan Poe Society of Baltimore. . Retrieved
October 13, 2007.
[131] Burns, Niccole (November 15, 2006). "Poe wrote most important works in Philadelphia" (http:/ / com. miami. edu/ parks/ philapoeauthor.
htm). School of Communication — University of Miami. . Retrieved October 13, 2007.
[132] Van Hoy, David C. "The Fall of the House of Edgar" (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ local/ articles/ 2007/ 02/ 18/
the_fall_of_the_house_of_edgar/ ). The Boston Globe, February 18, 2007
[133] Glenn, Joshua. The house of Poe -- mystery solved! (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ globe/ ideas/ brainiac/ 2007/ 04/ _a_globe_reader.
html) The Boston Globe April 9, 2007
[134] Lake, Matt. Weird Maryland. Sterling Publishing, New York, 2006. ISBN 1402739060 p. 195.
[135] Hall, Wiley. " Poe Fan Takes Credit for Grave Legend (http:/ / www. breitbart. com/ article. php?id=2007-08-15_D8R1O6LO0&
show_article=1& cat=breaking)," Associated Press, August 15, 2007.
[136] Associated Press (August 15, 2007). "Man Reveals Legend of Mystery Visitor to Edgar Allan Poe's Grave" (http:/ / www. foxnews. com/
story/ 0,2933,293413,00. html). FoxNews.com. . Retrieved December 15, 2007.
[137] Nevermore? Mystery Visitor Misses Poe's Birthday (http:/ / wjz. com/ local/ poe. grave. visitor. 2. 1435320. html)
[138] http:/ / www. nps. gov/ edal/
[139] http:/ / www. eapoe. org/
[140] http:/ / www. poemuseum. org/
[141] http:/ / worldcat. org/ identities/ lccn-n79-29745
[142] http:/ / research. hrc. utexas. edu:8080/ hrcxtf/ view?docId=ead/ 00109. xml& query=edgar%20allen%20poe& query-join=and
[143] http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ americas/ 8301128. stm
[144] http:/ / xroads. virginia. edu/ ~HYPER/ POE/ cover. html
[145] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ author/ Edgar_Allan_Poe
[146] http:/ / www. archive. org/ search. php?query=creator%3Aedgar%20poe%20-contributor%3Agutenberg%20AND%20mediatype%3Atexts
[147] http:/ / d-nb. info/ gnd/ 11859527X
[148] http:/ / errol. oclc. org/ laf/ n79029745. html
[149] http:/ / viaf. org/ viaf/ 60351476
Steven Poole 800

Steven Poole
Steven Poole (born in 1972) is a British author and journalist.

Biography
Poole studied English at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and has subsequently written for publications including
The Independent, The Guardian, The Times Literary Supplement, The Sunday Times, and the New Statesman. He has
published two books and currently writes a weekly nonfiction book-review column in the Saturday Guardian called
Et Cetera, as well as regular longer book reviews, plus a monthly column in Edge magazine.[1] Poole was invited to
deliver the opening keynote address at the 2006 Sydney Writers' Festival,[2] and also gave a keynote at the 2008
Future and Reality of Gaming conference in Vienna.[3]

Books

Trigger Happy
Trigger Happy was published in 2000 by 4th Estate in the UK (with the subtitle "The Inner Life of Videogames")
and by Arcade Publishing in the US (with the subtitle "Videogames and the Entertainment Revolution"). It is an
investigation of the aesthetics of videogames, that notes similarities and differences with other artforms such as
cinema, painting and literature, and finally offers a description of games as semiotic systems that may provoke
"aesthetic wonder". Reviews called the book "seminal", "eloquent", "delightful and insightful", "academically
worthy, thoroughly contemporary and eminently readable"[4] , and said that "his views are probably the most refined
of any game critic" [5] . In 2007, Poole released a PDF version of the book for free download on his website, calling
it an "experiment" in the tip-jar model for writers.[6] The French newspaper Libération noted this under the headline
"Trigger King".[7]

Unspeak
Unspeak was published in 2006 by Little, Brown in the UK, and by Grove Press in the US. The second UK edition
(2007) has the subtitle "Words Are Weapons". It is a book about language in contemporary politics, structured
around buzzphrases such as "community", "climate change", and "war on terror". The book was shortlisted for Index
on Censorship's T.R. Fyvel Award in 2006.[8] According to the author, "unspeak" is related to framing: it is a
rhetorical way of naming an issue so as to avoid having to argue one's position, and to render the opposing position
inexpressible.[9] Reviews called the book "compelling reading",[10] "in the best sense a stimulus and a
provocation",[11] and "important... constantly stimulating and entertaining"[12] . Slate magazine said the book
"should be required reading for reporters and editors everywhere".[13] Unspeak received a hostile review in the
Guardian from former British government communications chief Alastair Campbell, who wrote: "I am not quite sure
what Poole is trying to say." [14] A subsequent reader's letter read: "I'll just pinch myself. Can it be that you got the
government's chief agent of spin to review a book about spin? Surprise, surprise, he trashes it, eloquently dismissing
it as 'crap from start to finish'. Straight to the top of my reading list."[15] Since publication of the book, the author has
continued to discuss new examples of Unspeak at the book's dedicated blog.[16]
Steven Poole 801

Journalism
Poole writes book reviews and literary and cultural essays for numerous publications. Notable articles have included
his long obituary of Jean Baudrillard for the Guardian[17] , an appreciation of Denis Johnson's Tree of Smoke for the
New Statesman[18] , a review-essay about Prince[19] , and a critique of the work of Alain de Botton[20] .

Media
In 2004, Poole presented a television documentary for BBC Four called "Trigger Happy: The Invincible Rise of the
Video Game", based on his book.[21] He also appeared in the documentary Thumb Candy, and has guested on BBC
Radio 4 and other outlets in numerous discussions about language, including an appearance on the Today
programme in 2009 talking about the term "swine flu".[22]

Other activities
Poole is also a composer of music for documentary and short films,[23] [24] , including the short film EVOL.[25] [26]

External links
• Steven Poole's official website [27]
• Unspeak blog [28]
• Steven Poole's articles for the Guardian [29]
• Review of Unspeak in the Washington Post [30]
• Review of Unspeak at Slate [31]
• Trigger Happy download page [32]

References
[1] http:/ / www. edge-online. com/ users/ steven-poole
[2] http:/ / www. smh. com. au/ news/ books/ literary-festival-unveils-luminous-lineup/ 2006/ 03/ 30/ 1143441276031. html
[3] http:/ / bupp. at/ frog/ frog-archive/ frog08-english/ program/
[4] http:/ / www. arcadepub. com/ book/ ?GCOI=55970100070370& fa=reviews
[5] http:/ / metrotimes. com/ arts/ review. asp?rid=5957
[6] http:/ / www. boingboing. net/ 2008/ 01/ 15/ steven-pooles-book-o. html
[7] http:/ / www. ecrans. fr/ Le-roi-de-la-gachette,2850. html
[8] http:/ / newwritinginternational. com/ 2006/ 03/ 31/ french-journalist-wins-tr-fyvel-book-award/
[9] http:/ / unspeak. net/ introduction/
[10] http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ arts/ main. jhtml?xml=/ arts/ 2006/ 02/ 19/ bopoo219. xml
[11] http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ incomingFeeds/ article670177. ece
[12] http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ arts/ main. jhtml?xml=/ arts/ 2006/ 02/ 19/ bopoo19. xml
[13] http:/ / www. slate. com/ id/ 2158154/
[14] http:/ / books. guardian. co. uk/ review/ story/ 0,,1706247,00. html
[15] http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ books/ 2006/ feb/ 18/ featuresreviews. guardianreview13
[16] http:/ / unspeak. net
[17] http:/ / stevenpoole. net/ articles/ transfini/
[18] http:/ / www. newstatesman. com/ books/ 2007/ 11/ war-novel-johnson-colonel
[19] http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ books/ 2007/ may/ 19/ featuresreviews. guardianreview13
[20] http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ books/ 2004/ mar/ 27/ highereducation. shopping
[21] http:/ / stevenpoole. net/ blog/ trigger-happy-the-movie/
[22] http:/ / unspeak. net/ media/
[23] Steven Poole (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm2265142/ ) at the Internet Movie Database
[24] Music (http:/ / stevenpoole. net/ music/ ), StevenPoole.net
[25] EVOL (http:/ / www. chrisvincze. info/ evol/ ), ChrisVincze.info
[26] EVOL (2006) (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0804471/ ) at the Internet Movie Database
[27] http:/ / stevenpoole. net
Steven Poole 802

[28] http:/ / www. unspeak. net

[29] http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ profile/ stevenpoole
[30] http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2006/ 05/ 22/ AR2006052201526. html
[31] http:/ / www. slate. com/ id/ 2158035/
[32] http:/ / stevenpoole. net/ blog/ trigger-happier/

Anthony Quinn
For other people named Anthony Quinn see Anthony Quinn (disambiguation)

Anthony Quinn

Anthony Quinn in 1988

Born Antonio Rodolfo Quinn Oaxaca

April 21, 1915
Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico

Died June 3, 2001 (aged 86)

Boston, Massachusetts,
United States

Occupation Actor, Painter, Writer, Film director

Years 1936–2001
active

Spouse(s) Katherine DeMille (1937–1965)

5 Children
Jolanda Addolori (1966–1997)
3 Children
Kathy Benvin (1997–2001)
2 Children

Partner Friedel Dunbar2 Children

Anthony Quinn 803

Children Christopher (b. 1939, d. 1941)

Christina, b. December 1, 1941
Catalina, b. November 21, 1942
Duncan, b. August 4, 1945
Valentina, b. December 26, 1952
Francesco, b. March 22, 1962
Daniele, b. April 16, 1964
Lorenzo, b. April 7, 1966
Sean, b. February 7, 1973
Alexander, b. December 30, 1976
Antonia, b. July 23, 1993
Ryan, b. July 5, 1996

Anthony Quinn (April 21, 1915 – June 3, 2001) was a Mexican-born American actor, as well as a painter and
writer. He starred in numerous critically acclaimed and commercially successful films, including Zorba the Greek,
Lawrence of Arabia, The Guns of Navarone, The Message and Federico Fellini's La strada. He won the Academy
Award for Best Supporting Actor twice; for Viva Zapata! in 1952 and Lust for Life in 1956.

Early life
Quinn was born Antonio Rodolfo Quinn Oaxaca in Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico, during the Mexican
Revolution. His mother, Manuela "Nellie" Oaxaca, was of Aztec ancestry.[1] [2] His father, Francisco Quinn, of Irish
Mexican ancestry, was born in Mexico. Frank Quinn rode with Pancho Villa, then later moved to Los Angeles and
became an assistant cameraman at a movie studio. In Quinn's autobiography The Original Sin: A Self-Portrait by
Anthony Quinn he denied being the son of an "Irish adventurer" and attributed that tale to Hollywood publicists.[3]
When he was six years old, Quinn attended a Catholic church (even thinking he wanted to become a priest). At age
eleven, however, he joined the Pentecostals in the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel (the Pentecostal
followers of Aimee Semple McPherson).[4]
Quinn grew up first in El Paso, Texas, and later the Boyle Heights and the Echo Park areas of Los Angeles,
California. He attended St. Hammel Elementary School, Belvedere Junior High School, Polytechnic High School
and finally Belmont High School with future baseball player and General Hospital star, John Beradino, but left
before graduating. Tucson High School in Arizona, many years later, awarded him an honorary high school diploma.
As a young man Quinn boxed professionally to earn money, then studied art and architecture under Frank Lloyd
Wright, both at Wright's Arizona residence and his Wisconsin studio, Taliesin. The two very different men became
friends. When Quinn mentioned he was drawn to acting, Wright encouraged him. Quinn said he had been offered
$800 a week by a film studio and didn't know what to do. Wright replied, "Take it, you'll never make that much with
me."
In a rerun of an interview done with Anthony Quinn in 1999 for Turner Classic Movies' "Private Screenings with
Robert Osborne" (repeated 21 April 2009), Mr. Quinn said that the contract was for $300 a week.

Career
After a short time performing on the stage, Quinn launched his film career performing character roles in the 1936
films Parole (his debut) and The Milky Way. He played "ethnic" villains in Paramount films such as Dangerous to
Know (1938) and Road to Morocco, and played a more sympathetic Crazy Horse in They Died With Their Boots On
with Errol Flynn. By 1947, he had appeared in over 50 films and had played Indians, Mafia dons, Hawaiian chiefs,
Filipino freedom-fighters, Chinese guerrillas, and Arab sheiks, but was still not a major star. He returned to the
theater, even playing Stanley Kowalski in A Streetcar Named Desire on Broadway.
In 1947, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States.[2] He came back to Hollywood in the early 1950s,
specializing in tough roles. He was cast in a series of B-adventures such as Mask of the Avenger (1951). His big
Anthony Quinn 804

break came from playing opposite Marlon Brando in Elia Kazan's Viva Zapata! (1952). Quinn wanted to play the
lead role of Zapata but Brando coming off his recent success in the film Streetcar Named Desire was Kazan's first
choice. However his supporting role as Zapata's brother won Quinn an Oscar while Brando lost the Oscar for Best
Actor to Gary Cooper in "High Noon." He was the first Mexican-American to win any Academy Award. He
appeared in several Italian films starting in 1953, turning in one of his best performances as a dim-witted, thuggish
and volatile strongman in Federico Fellini's La strada (1954) opposite Giulietta Masina. Quinn won his second Oscar
for Best Supporting Actor by portraying the painter Gauguin in Vincente Minnelli's Van Gogh biopic, Lust for Life
(1956). The award was remarkable as he was onscreen for only 8 minutes. The following year, he received an Oscar
nomination for his part in George Cukor's Wild Is the Wind. In The River's Edge (1957), he played the husband of the
former girlfriend (played by Debra Paget) of a killer (Ray Milland), who turns up with a stolen fortune and forces
Quinn and Paget at gunpoint to guide him safely to Mexico. Quinn starred in The Savage Innocents 1959 (film) as
Inuk, an Eskimo who finds himself caught between two clashing cultures.
As the decade ended, Quinn allowed his age to show and began his
transformation into a major character actor. His physique filled out, his
hair grayed, and his once smooth, swarthy face weathered and became
more rugged. He played a Greek resistance fighter in The Guns of
Navarone (1961), an ideal ex-boxer in Requiem for a Heavyweight, and
a natural for the role of Auda ibu Tayi in Lawrence of Arabia (both
1962). That year he also played the title role in Barabbas, based on a
novel by Pär Lagerkvist. The success of Zorba the Greek in 1964 was
the high water mark of his career and resulted in another Oscar
nomination. Other films include La Vingt-cinquième heure (1967, The
Twenty Fifth Hour), with Virna Lisi; The Magus (1968), with Michael
Caine and Candice Bergen, and based on the novel by John Fowles; La
Bataille de San Sebastian (Guns for San Sebastian) with Charles
Bronson; and The Shoes of the Fisherman, where he played a Russian
pope. In 1969, he starred in The Secret of Santa Vittoria with Anna Quinn circa 1970s
Magnani.

He appeared on Broadway to great acclaim in Becket, as King Henry II

to Laurence Olivier's Thomas Becket in 1960. An erroneous story
arose in later years that during the run, Quinn and Olivier switched
roles and Quinn played Becket to Olivier's King. In fact, Quinn left the
production for a film, never having played Becket, and director Peter
Glenville suggested a road tour with Olivier as Henry. Olivier happily
acceded and Arthur Kennedy took on the role of Becket for the tour
and brief return to Broadway.[5] [6]

In 1971, after the success of a TV movie named The City, where Quinn As Wogan in the trailer for The Black Swan
played Albuquerque Mayor Thomas Jefferson Alcala, he starred in the (1942)
short-lived (1-season) television drama spin-off The Man in the City.
His subsequent television appearances were sporadic (among them Jesus of Nazareth).
In 1977, he starred in the movie Mohammad, Messenger of God (also known as The Message), about the origin of
Islam, as Hamzah, a highly revered warrior instrumental in the early stages of Islam. In 1982, he starred in the Lion
of the Desert, together with Irene Papas, Oliver Reed, Rod Steiger, and John Gielgud. Quinn played the real-life
Bedouin leader Omar Mukhtar who fought Benito Mussolini's Italian troops in the deserts of Libya. The film,
Anthony Quinn 805

produced and directed by Moustapha Akkad, is now critically acclaimed, but performed poorly at the box office
because of negative publicity in the West at the time of its release, stemming from its having been partially funded
by Libya's Muammar al-Gaddafi. In 1983, he reprised his most famous role, playing Zorba the Greek for 362
performances in a successful revival of the Kander and Ebb musical Zorba. Quinn performed in this musical both on
Broadway in New York City and at the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C,
His film career slowed during the 1990s, but Quinn nonetheless continued to work steadily, appearing in Revenge
(1990), Jungle Fever (1991), Last Action Hero (1993), A Walk in the Clouds (1995) and Seven Servants (1996). In
1994, he played Zeus in the five TV movies that led to the syndicated series Hercules: The Legendary Journeys.
(However, he did not continue in the actual series, and the role was eventually filled by several other actors).
Quinn made an appearance at the John Gotti trial, according to John H. Davis, author of Mafia Dynasty: The Rise
and Fall of the Gambino Crime Family. He told reporters he wanted to play Paul Castellano, the boss of the
Gambino family after Carlo Gambino. Gotti had Castellano murdered, becoming the boss of the Gambino family
thereafter. Gotti was on trial concerning a variety of felony charges when Quinn visited the court room. Although he
tried to shake hands with Gotti, federal marshals prevented him from doing so, Davis says. The actor interpreted the
testimony of Sammy ("The Bull") Gravano, Gotti's underboss, against Gotti as "a friend who betrays a friend." He
hadn't come to "judge" Gotti, Quinn insisted, but because he wanted to portray Castellano, who inspired the actor
because he had had a "thirty-year-old" mistress, which Quinn believed was "a beautiful thing." He would later
portray Gambino family underboss Aniello Dellacroce in the 1996 HBO film Gotti. Armand Assante portrayed John
Gotti and Richard C. Sarafian portrayed Paul Castellano. Quinn was nominated for a Golden Globe for his
performance as Dellacroce.

As Manolo de Palma in the trailer for Blood and

Sand (1941)
Anthony Quinn 806

Painting and writing

Art critic Donald Kuspit, explains, "examining Quinn's many
expressions of creativity together—his art and acting—we can see that
he was a creative genius..."[7]
Early in life Quinn had interest in painting and drawing. Throughout
his teenage years he won various art competitions in California and
focused his studies at Polytechnic High School in Los Angeles on
drafting. Later, Quinn studied briefly under Frank Lloyd Wright
through the Taliesin Fellowship—an opportunity created by winning
first prize in an architectural design contest. Through Wright's
recommendation, Quinn took acting lessons as a form of post-operative as Eufemio Zapata with Marlon Brando's
Emiliano Zapata in the trailer for Viva Zapata!
speech therapy, which led to an acting career that spanned over six
(1952)
decades.

Apart from art classes taken in Chicago during the 1950s, Quinn never attended art school; nonetheless, taking
advantage of books, museums, and amassing a sizable collection, he managed to give himself an effective education
in the language of modern art. Although Quinn remained mostly self-taught, intuitively seeking out and exploring
new ideas, there is observable history in his work because he had assiduously studied the modernist masterpieces on
view in the galleries of New York, Mexico City, Paris, and London. When filming on location around the world,
Quinn was exposed to regional contemporary art styles exhibited at local galleries and studied art history in each
area.

In an endless search for inspiration, he was influenced by his Mexican ancestry, decades of residency in Europe, and
lengthy stays in Africa and the Middle East while filming in the 1970s and 1980s.
By the early 1980s, his work had caught the eyes of various gallery owners and was exhibited internationally, in
New York, Los Angeles, Paris, and Mexico City. His work is now represented in both public and private collections
throughout the world.
He wrote two memoirs, The Original Sin (1972) and One Man Tango (1997), a number of scripts, and a series of
unpublished stories currently in the collection of his archive.
Anthony Quinn 807

Personal life
Quinn's personal life was as volatile and passionate as the characters he played in
films. His first wife was the adopted daughter of Cecil B. DeMille, the actress
Katherine DeMille, whom he married in 1937. The couple had five children:
Christopher (born 1939), Christina (born December 1, 1941), Catalina (born
November 21, 1942), Duncan (born August 4, 1945), and Valentina (born
December 26, 1952).[8] One of their sons, Christopher, age 2, drowned in the
swimming pool of next-door neighbor W.C. Fields.[8] Quinn and DeMille were
divorced in 1965.

The following year, he married costume designer Iolanda Quinn (Jolanda

Addolori). They had three children: Francesco (born March 22, 1962), Danny
(born April 16, 1964), and Lorenzo (born May 7, 1966). The union ended in
1997, after Quinn fathered a child with his secretary, Kathy Benvin. He then
married Benvin, with whom he had two children, Antonia (born July 23, 1993)
Quinn with his son Lorenzo at the
and Ryan Nicholas (born July 5, 1996).[9] Quinn and Benvin remained together
40th Annual Emmy Awards, August
28, 1988
until his death.

Quinn also fathered two other children with Friedel Dunbar: Sean Quinn (born
February 7, 1973), a New Jersey real estate agent, and Alexander Anthony Quinn (born December 30, 1976), an
event producer in Los Angeles,CA .[9] [10]
Quinn spent his last years in Bristol, Rhode Island. He died aged 86 in Boston, Massachusetts from pneumonia and
respiratory failure while suffering from throat cancer shortly after completing his role in his last film, Avenging
Angelo (2002).
His funeral was held in the First Baptist Church in America in the College Hill section of Providence, Rhode Island;
late in life, he had joined the Foursquare evangelical Christian community. He is buried in a family plot in Bristol,
Rhode Island.

Tributes
On January 5, 1982, the Belvedere County Public Library in East Los
Angeles was renamed in honor of Anthony Quinn. The present library
sits on the site of his family's former home.[11]
There is an Anthony Quinn Bay and Beach in Rhodes, Dodecanese,
Greece, just 2.7 miles (4.3 km) south of the village of Faliraki (aka
Falirakion or Falirákion).[12] [13] The land was bought by Quinn during
the filming of The Guns of Navarone in Rhodes; however, it was
reclaimed by the Greek government in 1984 due to a change in
property law.[14]
Anthony Quinn, hand & footprints outside the
The National Council of La Raza gives the Anthony Quinn Award for Grauman's Chinese Theatre

excellence in motion pictures as an ALMA Award.

Anthony Quinn 808

Filmography

Year Film Role Notes

1952 Viva Zapata! Eufemio Zapata Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor
1956 Lust for Life Paul Gauguin Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor
Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture

1957 Wild Is the Wind Gino Nominated — Academy Award for Best Actor

1964 Zorba the Greek Alexis Zorba National Board of Review Award for Best Actor
Nominated — Academy Award for Best Actor
Nominated — BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Actor
Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama

• Night Waitress (1936)
• The Milky Way (1936)
• Parole (1936)
• Sworn Enemy (1936)
• The Plainsman (1936)
• Swing High, Swing Low •
(1937)
• Waikiki Wedding
(1937)
• Under Strange Flags
(1937)
• The Last Train from
Madrid (1937)
• Partners in Crime
(1937)
• Daughter of Shanghai
(1937)
• The Buccaneer (1938)
• Dangerous to Know
(1938)
• Tip-Off Girls (1938)
• Hunted Men (1938)
• Bulldog Drummond in
Africa (1938)
• King of Alcatraz (1938) •
• King of Chinatown
(1939)
• Union Pacific (1939)
• Island of Lost Men
(1939)
• Television Spy (1939)
• The Black Swan (1942)
• The Ox-Bow Incident
(1943)
• Guadalcanal Diary
(1943)
• Buffalo Bill (1944)
• Ladies of Washington
(1944)
Roger Touhy, Gangster
(1944)
• Irish Eyes Are Smiling
(1944)
• China Sky (1945)
• Where Do We Go from
Here? (1945)
• Back to Bataan (1945)
• California (1946)
• Sinbad the Sailor
(1947)
• The Imperfect Lady
(1947)
• Black Gold (1947)
• Tycoon (1947)
• The Brave Bulls (1951)
Mask of the Avenger
(1951)
• Viva Zapata! (1952)
• The Brigand (1952)
• The World in His Arms
(1952)
• Against All Flags
(1952)
• Seven Cities Of Gold
(1955)
• Lust for Life (1956)
• Man from Del Rio
(1956)
• The Hunchback of Notre •
Dame (1956)
• The Wild Party (1956)
• The River's Edge (1957)
• The Ride Back (1957)
• Wild Is the Wind (1957)
• Hot Spell (1958)
• The Black Orchid
(1958)
• Warlock (1959)
• Last Train from Gun
Hill (1959)
• Heller in Pink Tights
(1960)
• The Savage Innocents
(1960)
• Portrait in Black (1960)
• The Guns of Navarone
(1961)
• Barabbas (1961)
• Requiem for a
Heavyweight (1962)
• Lawrence of Arabia
(1962)
• The Visit (1964)
• Behold a Pale Horse
(1964)
• A Walk in the Spring Rain (1970)
• R. P. M. (1970)
• Flap (1970)
Deaf Smith & Johnny Ears (1972)
• Arruza (1972) (documentary) (narrator)
• Across 110th Street (1972)
• The Don Is Dead (1973)
• The Marseille Contract (1974)
• Target of an Assassin (1976)
• The Con Artists (1976)
• The Inheritance (1976)
• The Message (1976)
• Jesus of Nazareth (1977 television)
• The Greek Tycoon (1978)
• Caravans (1978)
• The Children of Sanchez (1978)
• The Passage (1979)
• The Salamander (1981)
• Crosscurrent (1981)
• Lion of the Desert (1981)
• High Risk (1981)
Anthony Quinn 809

• Emergency Squad
(1940)
• Parole Fixer (1940)
• Road to Singapore
(1940)
• The Ghost Breakers
(1940)
• City for Conquest
(1940)
• The Texas Rangers
Ride Again (1940)
• Knockout (1941)
• Thieves Fall Out (1941) •
• Blood and Sand (1941)
• Bullets for O'Hara
(1941)
• They Died with Their
Boots On (1941)
• The Perfect Snob
(1941)
• Larceny, Inc. (1942)
• Road to Morocco
(1942)
• Funniest Show on Earth • Zorba the Greek (1964) • Regina Roma (1982)
(1953)
• Cavalleria rusticana • A High Wind in Jamaica • Valentina (1982)
(1953) (1965)
• City Beneath the Sea • Marco the Magnificent • L'isola del tesoro (Treasure Island in space) (1987)
(1953) (1965)
• Seminole (1953) • Lost Command (1966) • Stradivari (1989)
• Ride, Vaquero! (1953) • The Rover (1967) • A Man of Passion (1989)
• East of Sumatra (1953) • The 25th Hour (1967) • Ghosts Can't Do It (1990)
• Blowing Wild (1953) • Guns for San Sebastian • Revenge (1990)
(1967)
Angels of Darkness • The Shoes of the • A Star for Two (1991)
(1954) Fisherman (1968)
• The Long Wait (1954) • The Magus (1968) • Only the Lonely (1991)
• La strada (1954) • The Secret of Santa • Jungle Fever (1991)
Vittoria (1969)
• Ulysses (1954) • A Dream of Kings • Mobsters (1991)
(1969)
• Attila (1954) • Last Action Hero (1993)
• The Magnificent • Somebody to Love (1994)
Matador (1955)
• The Naked Street • A Walk in the Clouds (1995)
(1955)
• Gotti (1995)
• The Mayor (1996)
• Seven Servants (1996)
• Land Guns (1999)
• Oriundi (1999)
• From Russia to Hollywood: The 100-Year Odyssey of
Chekhov and Shdanoff (2002) (documentary)
• Avenging Angelo (2001)

Short subjects
• Van Gogh: Darkness Into Light (1956)
• San Sebastian 1746 in 1968 (1968)
• The Voice of La Raza (1972) (narrator)
• The Assassination of Julius Caesar (1972)

Academy Awards
Anthony Quinn 810

Year Award Film Winner

1952 Best Supporting Actor Viva Zapata! Won

1956 Best Supporting Actor Lust for Life Won

1957 Best Actor Wild Is the Wind Alec Guinness – The Bridge on the River
Kwai

1964 Best Actor Zorba the Greek Rex Harrison – My Fair Lady

External links
• "Anthony Quinn" [15]. Find a Grave. Retrieved August 9, 2010.
• The Estate of Anthony Quinn [16]
• Anthony Quinn's artwork [17]
• Anthony Quinn [18] at the TCM Movie Database
• Anthony Quinn [19] at the Internet Movie Database
• Anthony Quinn [20] at the Internet Broadway Database
• Directing Anthony Quinn [21] and article by Josh Becker
• The Making of Lawrence of Arabia [22], Digitised BAFTA Journal, Winter 1962-3
• Unquelled Persona: encountering the artwork of Anthony Quinn [23] 2008 ArtsEditor.com article

References
[1] "Actor Anthony Quinn Dies" (http:/ / www. wired. com/ culture/ lifestyle/ news/ 2001/ 06/ 44264). Reuters in Wired. June 3, 2001. .
Retrieved 2009-06-19. "Anthony Rudolph Quinn Oaxaca was born on April 21, 1915, in Chihuahua, Mexico, where his Irish Mexican father
Francisco (Frank) Quinn had married a Mexican girl of Aztec Indian ancestry, Manuela, while fighting for revolutionary leader Pancho Villa."
[2] "Anthony Quinn Biography (1915–2001)". (http:/ / www. filmreference. com/ film/ 58/ Anthony-Quinn. html) - Film Reference.com.
[3] "Anthony: The Mighty Quinn" (http:/ / newsvote. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ americas/ 948702. stm). - BBC News. - June 3, 2001.
[4] Anthony Quinn (http:/ / www. adherents. com/ people/ pq/ Anthony_Quinn. html). - Adherents.com
[5] "Henry the Second" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ printout/ 0,8816,874346,00. html). - Time. - April 7, 1961.
[6] Spoto, Donald. - Laurence Olivier: A Biography. - New York: HarperCollins. - pp. 360–368.
[7] Exhibitions: Feedback (http:/ / www. anthonyquinn. net/ h04/ 04_03. html). - AnthonyQuinn.net
[8] "Chronology of Anthony Quinn and Related World Events" (http:/ / www. anthonyquinn. com/ h09/ Quinn_Chronology. pdf). -
AnthonyQuinn.com - (Adobe Acrobat *.PDF document)
[9] "Anthony Quinn April 21, 1915–June 3, 2001" (http:/ / www. tedstrong. com/ anthonyquinn. html). - TedStrong.com - (compilation of
Associated Press articles, biography from Leonard Maltin's Movie Encyclopedia, & IMDb)
[10] Transcript: "Remembering Anthony Quinn". (http:/ / transcripts. cnn. com/ TRANSCRIPTS/ 0106/ 04/ lkl. 00. html) - Larry King Live. -
CNN - June 4, 2001. - Accessed 2008-05-12.
[11] Los Angeles County Anthony Quinn Public Library (http:/ / www. colapublib. org/ libs/ quinn/ )
[12] Beach page (http:/ / worldbeachlist. com/ World/ Greece/ Dodecanese/ Rhodes/ Anthony-Quinn-Bay-Beach. html). - World Beach List
[13] Beach page (http:/ / www. rhodos-travel. com/ quinn. htm). - Rhodos-Travel.com
[14] Quinn's widow adopts legal battle (http:/ / www. contactmusic. com/ news. nsf/ story/ quinns-widow-adopts-legal-battle_1025921)
[15] http:/ / www. findagrave. com/ cgi-bin/ fg. cgi?page=gr& GRid=22714
[16] http:/ / www. anthonyquinn. com/
[17] http:/ / www. bristolhousepress. com/
[18] http:/ / tcmdb. com/ participant/ participant. jsp?participantId=156555
[19] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0000063/
[20] http:/ / www. ibdb. com/ person. asp?ID=56761
[21] http:/ / www. beckerfilms. com/ quinn. html
[22] http:/ / www. bafta. org/ archive/ david-lean/ lawrence-of-arabia-journal,8,BAA. html
[23] http:/ / www. artseditor. com/ html/ features/ 0408_quinn. shtml
Anne Rice 811

Anne Rice
Anne Rice

Born Howard Allen O'Brien

4 October 1941
1
New Orleans, Louisiana, United States

Occupation Novelist, Author

Genres Gothic, Horror, Erotica, Christian fiction, Mystery, Romance,

Fantasy

[1]
Official website

Anne Rice (born Howard Allen O'Brien on October 4, 1941) is a best-selling American author of gothic, erotic,
and religious-themed books from New Orleans, Louisiana. She was married to poet and painter Stan Rice for 41
years until his death from cancer in 2002. Her books have sold nearly 100 million copies, making her one of the most
widely read authors in modern history.[2] [3] [4] [5]

Early years
Rice spent most of her early life in New Orleans, Louisiana, which forms the background against which most of her
stories take place. She was the second daughter in a Catholic Irish-American family; Rice's sister, the late Alice
Borchardt, also became a noted genre author. About her unusual given name, Rice said: "My birth name is Howard
Allen because apparently my mother thought it was a good idea to name me Howard. My father's name was Howard,
she wanted to name me after Howard, and she thought it was a very interesting thing to do."
Rice became "Anne" on her first day of school, when a nun asked her what her name was. She told the nun "Anne,"
which she considered a pretty name. Her mother, who was with her, let it go without correcting her, knowing how
self-conscious her daughter was of her real name. From that day on, everyone she knew addressed her as "Anne."[6]
[7]

In 1958, when Rice was 16, her father moved the family to north Texas, taking up residence in Richardson. Her
mother had died three years before of alcoholism. Rice met her future husband, Stan Rice, while they were both
students at Richardson High School. Rice graduated from Richardson High School, in 1959 and then began college
Anne Rice 812

at Texas Woman's University in Denton and later North Texas State College. She then relocated with Stan to San
Francisco for a year where Anne attended San Francisco State University and obtained a B.A. in Political Science.
During this time she also worked as an insurance claims examiner. Anne returned to Denton to marry Stan. He
became an instructor at San Francisco State shortly after receiving his M.A. there, and Anne lived and worked in the
San Francisco Bay Area from 1962 to 1988, experiencing the birth of the Hippie Revolution first hand as they lived
in the soon to be fabled Haight-Ashbury district. "I'm a totally conservative person," she later told the New York
Times (November 7, 1988). "In the middle of Haight-Ashbury in the 1960s, I was typing away while everybody was
dropping acid and smoking grass. I was known as my own square." She would not return to New Orleans until 1989.
Anne's daughter Michele was born on September 21, 1966, and died of leukemia on August 5, 1972. She returned to
the Catholic Church in 1998 after several years of describing herself as an "atheist." She announced she would now
use her life and talent of writing to glorify her belief in God but has not expressly renounced her earlier works. Her
son Christopher Rice was born in Berkeley, California, in 1978 and is a best selling author.[8]
On January 30, 2004, having already put the largest of her three homes up for sale, Rice announced her plans to
leave New Orleans. She cited living alone since the death of her husband as the reason. "Simplifying my life, not
owning so much, that's the chief goal", said Rice. "I'll no longer be a citizen of New Orleans in the true sense." Rice
had left New Orleans prior to the events of Hurricane Katrina in August 2005, and none of her former New Orleans
properties were flooded. She remains a vocal advocate for the city and related relief projects.[9]
After leaving New Orleans, Rice settled in Rancho Mirage, California, allowing her to be closer to her son, who lives
in Los Angeles.[10]

Writing career
She completed her first book, Interview with the Vampire, in 1973 and published it in 1976. This book would be the
first in Rice's popular Vampire Chronicles series, which now includes over a dozen novels, including 1985's The
Vampire Lestat and 1988's The Queen of the Damned. Along with several non-series works, Rice has written three
novels in the Lives of the Mayfair Witches sequence. Additionally, Rice wrote three erotic novels under the
pseudonym "A. N. Roquelaure."[11]
In October 2004, Rice announced in a Newsweek article that she would henceforth "write only for the Lord." Her
subsequent book, Christ the Lord: Out of Egypt, she calls the beginning of a series chronicling the life of Jesus. The
second volume, Christ the Lord: The Road to Cana, was published in March 2008.

Return to Roman Catholicism

In 2005, Newsweek reported, "[Rice] came close to death last year, when she had surgery for an intestinal blockage,
and also back in 1998, when she went into a sudden diabetic coma; that same year she returned to the Roman
Catholic Church, which she'd left at 18." [12] . Her return has not come with a full embrace of the Church's stances on
social issues; Rice remains a supporter of equality for gay men and lesbians (including marriage rights), as well as
abortion rights and birth control.[13] Rice has written extensively on the matter.
In the Author's Note from Christ the Lord: Out of Egypt, Rice states:
I had experienced an old fashioned, strict Roman Catholic childhood in the 1940s and 1950s… we attended
daily Mass and communion in an enormous and magnificently decorated church … Stained glass windows, the
Latin Mass, the detailed answers to complex questions on good and evil—these things were imprinted on my
soul forever…
I left this church at age 18... I wanted to know what was happening, why so many seemingly good people
didn’t believe in any organized religion yet cared passionately about their behavior and value of their lives… I
broke with the church violently and totally... I wrote many novels that without my being aware of it reflected
my quest for meaning in a world without God. [14]
Anne Rice 813

In her memoir Called Out of Darkness, Rice also states:

In the moment of surrender, I let go of all the theological or social questions which had kept me from
[God] for countless years. I simply let them go. There was the sense, profound and wordless, that if He
knew everything I did not have to know everything, and that, in seeking to know everything, I’d been,
all of my life, missing the entire point. No social paradox, no historic disaster, no hideous record of
injustice or misery should keep me from Him. No question of Scriptural integrity, no torment over the
fate of this or that atheist or gay friend, no worry for those condemned and ostracized by my church or
any other church should stand between me and Him. The reason? It was magnificently simple: He knew
how or why everything happened; He knew the disposition of every single soul. He wasn’t going to let
anything happen by accident! Nobody was going to go to Hell by mistake. [15]

Exit from organized religion

On July 29, 2010, Rice publicly renounced her dedication to her Roman Catholic faith, while remaining committed
to Christ, on her Facebook page:
"For those who care, and I understand if you don’t: Today I quit being a Christian. I’m out. I remain
committed to Christ as always but not to being “Christian” or to being part of Christianity. It’s simply
impossible for me to “belong” to this quarrelsome, hostile, disputatious, and deservedly infamous group.
For ten years, I’ve tried. I’ve failed. I’m an outsider. My conscience will allow nothing else." [16]
A few hours later she added the following:
“In the name of Christ, I refuse to be anti-gay. I refuse to be anti-feminist. I refuse to be anti-artificial
birth control. I refuse to be anti-Democrat. I refuse to be anti-secular humanism. I refuse to be
anti-science. I refuse to be anti-life. In the name of Christ, I quit Christianity and being Christian.
Amen.” [16]
She reaffirmed her faith in Christ with stance of non-adherence to organized Christianity an hour or so later:
"My faith in Christ is central to my life. My conversion from a pessimistic atheist lost in a world I didn't
understand, to an optimistic believer in a universe created and sustained by a loving God is crucial to
me. But following Christ does not mean following His followers. Christ is infinitely more important
than Christianity and always will be, no matter what Christianity is, has been, or might become." [17]
Subsequently, in an interview, Rice further clarified her statements:
My commitment to Christ remains at the heart and center of my life. Transformation in Him is radical
and ongoing. That I feel now that I am called to be an outsider for Him, to step away from the words,
"Christian" and "Christianity" is something that my conscience demands of me. I feel that my faith in
Him demands this of me. I know of no other way to express how I must remove myself from those
things which seek to separate me from Him. [18]
In an August 7, 2010 interview with the Los Angeles Times, she elaborated on her view regarding being a member of
a Christian church: "I feel much more morally comfortable walking away from organized religion. I respect that
there are all kinds of denominations and all kinds of churches, but it's the entire controversy, the entire conversation
that I need to walk away from right now."[19] In response to the question, "[H]ow do you follow Christ without a
church?" Rice replied: "I think the basic ritual is simply prayer. It's talking to God, putting things in the hands of
God, trusting that you're living in God's world and praying for God's guidance. And being absolutely faithful to the
core principles of Jesus' teachings.[19]
Anne Rice 814

Personal quotes
Excerpts from Anne's Profession of Faith
In 1998 I returned to the Catholic Church…
I realized that the greatest thing I could do to show my complete love for Him was to consecrate my work to
Him—to use any talent I had acquired as a writer, as a storyteller, as a novelist—for Him and for Him alone...
Thence began my journey into intense Biblical study, intense historical research, and intense effort to write
novels about the Jesus of Scripture, the Jesus of Faith, in His own vibrant First Century World...
[20]

Excerpts from Essay On Earlier Works

My vampire novels and other novels I’ve written... are attempting to be transformative stories… All these
novels involve a strong moral compass. Evil is never glorified in these books; on the contrary, the continuing
battle against evil is the subject of the work. The search for the good is the subject of the work…
Interview with the Vampire... is about the near despair of an alienated being who searches the world for some
hope that his existence can have meaning. His vampire nature is clearly a metaphor for human consciousness
or moral awareness. The major theme of the novel is the misery of this character because he cannot find
redemption and does not have the strength to end the evil of which he knows himself to be a part. This book
reflects for me a protest against the post World War II nihilism to which I was exposed in college from 1960
through 1972. It is an expression of grief for a lost religious heritage that seemed at that time beyond
recovery...
One thing which unites [my books] is the theme of the moral and spiritual quest. A second theme, key to most
of them, is the quest of the outcast for a context of meaning, whether that outcast is an 18th century castrato
opera singer, or a young boy of mixed blood coming of age in ante-bellum New Orleans, or a person forced
into a monstrous predatory existence like the young vampire, Lestat…
In 1976, I felt that the vampire was the perfect metaphor for the outcast in all of us, the alienated one in all of
us, the one who feels lost in a world seemingly without God. In 1976, I felt I existed in such a world, and I was
searching for God. I never dreamed that the word, vampire, would prevent people from examining this book as
a metaphysical work. I thought the use of the word was a powerful device...
The entire body of my earlier work reflects a movement towards Jesus Christ. In 2002, I consecrated my work
to Jesus Christ. This did not involve a denunciation of works that reflected the journey. It was rather a
statement that from then on I would write directly for Jesus Christ. I would write works about salvation, as
opposed to alienation.[21]

Amazon.com reviews
On amazon.com Rice has written reviews on some of her favorite artists, recordings, books and films. Her reviews
cover artists such as violinists Hilary Hahn and Leila Josefowicz, books from scholars such as Prof. Ellis Rivkin,
N.T. Wright (the Bishop of Durham), films such as The Nun's Story starring Audrey Hepburn and The Bourne
Supremacy starring Matt Damon.[22] For Kenneth Branagh's Hamlet, Rice wrote:
"This is one of the greatest productions of Shakespeare I've ever seen... [Branagh] delivers
Shakespeare's glorious lines in a way that makes them clear, and brings them to life with incalculable
power... This is one of those feasts for the eyes and ears like Amadeus or Immortal Beloved, or the Red
Shoes."[22]
Anne Rice 815

Adaptations

Film
In 1994, Neil Jordan directed a relatively faithful motion picture adaptation of Interview with the Vampire, from
Rice's own screenplay. The movie starred Tom Cruise as Lestat, Brad Pitt as the guilt-ridden Louis and was a
breakout role for young Kirsten Dunst as the deceitful child vampire Claudia.
A second film adaptation, Queen of the Damned, was released in February 2002. Starring Stuart Townsend as the
vampire Lestat and singer Aaliyah as Akasha, Queen of the Vampires, the movie combined incidents from the
second and third books in the series: The Vampire Lestat and The Queen of the Damned. Produced on a budget of
$35 million, the film only recouped $30 million at the domestic(US) box office[23] .
A 1994 film titled Exit to Eden, based loosely on the book Rice published as Anne Rampling, starred Rosie
O'Donnell and Dan Aykroyd. The work transformed from a love story into a police comedy, possibly due to the
explicit S&M themes of the book. The film was a box office flop.
A film version of Christ the Lord: Out of Egypt was planned but later cancelled.

Television
In 1997, she wrote a television pilot entitled Rag and Bone starring Dean Cain and Robert Patrick, which featured
many of the common themes of her work.
The Feast of All Saints was made into a miniseries in 2001 by director Peter Medak.
Plans to adapt Rice's Lives of the Mayfair Witches trilogy into a twelve-hour miniseries to be aired on NBC were
dropped after a change of studio head and subsequent loss of interest in the project.

Theatre
In 1997, a ballet adaptation of Interview with the Vampire, premiered in Prague.
On April 25, 2006, the musical Lestat, based on Rice's Vampire Chronicles books, opened at the Palace Theatre on
Broadway after having its world premiere in San Francisco, California in December 2005. With music by Elton John
and lyrics by Bernie Taupin, it was the inaugural production of the newly established Warner Brothers Theatre
Ventures.
Despite Rice's own overwhelming approval and praise,[24] the show received mostly poor reviews by critics and
disappointing attendance. Lestat closed a month later on May 28, 2006, after just 33 previews and 39 regular
performances.

Comics
Anne Rice's books have been adapted over the years into comics. Below is a list of known adaptations and issue
runs; along with publisher and year.
• Anne Rice's The Mummy or Ramses the Damned #1-12 by Millennium Comics (1990)
• Anne Rice's Interview with the vampire #1-12 by Innovation Comics (1992)
• Anne Rice's Queen of the Damned #1-11 (#12 was never published) by Innovation Comics (1991)
• Anne Rice's The Tale of the Body Thief #1-4 (#'s 5-12 were never published) by Sicilian Dragon (1999)
• Anne Rice's The Vampire Companion #1-3 by Innovation Comics (1991)
• Anne Rice's The Master of Rampling Gate (one shot) by Innovation Comics (1991)
• Anne Rice's Vampire Lestat #1-14 by Innovation Comics (1990)
• Anne Rice's The Witching Hour #1-5 by Millennium Publishing (1992)
Anne Rice 816

Fan fiction
Rice has an adamant stance against fan fiction based on her work, releasing a statement on April 7, 2000, that
prohibited all such efforts.[25] This caused the removal of thousands of "fanfics" from the FanFiction.Net website.

Music
Cradle of Filth briefly includes Lestat in the song "Libertina Grimm" as "Count Lestat".
Guitarist Steve Vai states in liner notes for his album The Elusive Light and Sound volume 1, that his song
"Loveblood" was inspired by the film and the fact that he wished he was an actor so he could play the role.
Alternative rock band Concrete Blonde's song "Bloodletting (the Vampire Song)", the title track from the
Bloodletting CD, is based on Rice's The Vampire Lestat.
Sting released a song on the album The Dream of the Blue Turtles entitled "Moon Over Bourbon Street", after
reading Interview with the Vampire.
The Australian pop band Savage Garden found their name in The Vampire Lestat, in which Lestat describes the
world as "the savage garden."
Swedish heavy metal band Tad Morose recorded a song entitled "Servant of the Bones" about the book of the same
name on their 2000 album Undead.
The metalcore band Atreyu declares in the song "The Crimson", "I'm an Anne Rice novel come to life."
Punk/goth band The Damned recorded a song called "The Dog" about the child vampire Claudia from Interview with
the Vampire on their 1982 album Strawberries.
The Italian band Theatres des Vampires is named after a location featured in several books of The Vampire
Chronicles. Their 1999 album is called The Vampire Chronicles.
Malice Mizer, a Japanese rock band based heavily on French culture, uses the phrase "Drink from me and live
forever" in their song "Transylvania." "Drink from me and live forever" is a phrase from the first book Interview
With the Vampire.
Mexican band Santa Sabina dedicates a song to Rice's vampire character Louis: "Una canción para Louis."
Psytrance project Talamasca was named after the secret society in both the Vampire chronicles and the Mayfair
Witches series. This is a solo project by the French musician Cedric Dassulle, who also calls himself DJ Lestat.
Japanese visual kei metal band Versailles first album, Noble, is subtitled "Vampires Chronicle." Furthermore, the
sixth song is entitled "After Cloudia", insinuating a relationship with Claudia from the series. The lead singer,
Kamijo has stated he models himself after Rice's character, Lestat de Lioncourt.
Italian gothic rock group Last Minute's first album, Burning Theater, was conceived as an unofficial soundtrack for
Interview with the Vampire, including the title track and two others, all focusing heavily on the death of Claudia.
Anne Rice 817

Bibliography

The Vampire Chronicles

• Interview with the Vampire (1976)
• The Vampire Lestat (1985)
• The Queen of the Damned (1988)
• The Tale of the Body Thief (1992)
• Memnoch the Devil (1995)
• The Vampire Armand (1998)
• Merrick (2000)
• Blood and Gold (2001)
• Blackwood Farm (2002)
• Blood Canticle (2003)

New Tales of the Vampires

• Pandora (1998)
• Vittorio the Vampire (1999)

The Lives of the Mayfair Witches

• The Witching Hour (1990)
• Lasher (1993)
• Taltos (1994)

Vampire/Mayfair crossover
In these novels the Mayfair Witches become part of the Vampire Chronicles world.
• Merrick (2000)
• Blood and Gold (2001)
• Blackwood Farm (2002)
• Blood Canticle (2003)

The Life of Christ

• Christ the Lord: Out of Egypt (2005)
• Christ the Lord: The Road to Cana (2008)
• Christ the Lord: The Kingdom of Heaven (date not announced)

Songs of the Seraphim

• Angel Time (October 2009)
• Of Love and Evil (November 30, 2010)[26]
Anne Rice 818

Miscellaneous novels
• The Feast of All Saints (1979)
• Cry to Heaven (1982)
• The Mummy (1989)
• Servant of the Bones (1996)
• Violin (1997)

Short fiction
• October 4, 1948 (1965)
• Nicholas and Jean (first ch. 1966)
• The Master of Rampling Gate (Vampire Short Story) (1982)

Non-fiction
• Called Out of Darkness: A Spiritual Confession (2008) (autobiographical)

Under the pseudonym Anne Rampling

• Exit to Eden (1985)
• Belinda (1986)

Under the pseudonym A.N. Roquelaure

• The Claiming of Sleeping Beauty (1983)
• Beauty's Punishment (1984)
• Beauty's Release (1985)

See also
• List of bestselling novels in the United States
• List of best-selling fiction authors

References
[1] http:/ / www. annerice. com
[2] Anne Rice (http:/ / www. fantasticfiction. co. uk/ r/ anne-rice/ )
[3] Goodreads | Anne Rice (http:/ / www. goodreads. com/ author/ show/ 7577. Anne_Rice)
[4] http:/ / www. mahalo. com/ Anne_Rice
[5] Author Anne Rice on Conversion | PreachingToday.com (http:/ / preachingtoday. com/ illustrations/ weekly/ 08-03-24/ 10032408. html)
[6] Interview for Called Out Of Darkness (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=OhzKP9SxSLQ& feature=channel_page)
[7] Anne Rice website biography (http:/ / www. annerice. com/ Chamber-Biography. html)
[8] Christopher Rice (http:/ / gaylife. about. com/ od/ gaycelebrityprofiles/ p/ christopherrice. htm)
[9] Anne's New Orleans: Hurricane Katrina|http:/ / www. annerice. com/ NewOrleans-HurricaneKatrina. html
[10] Dean, Jennifer. Q&A with Anne Rice on "Angel Time" (http:/ / www. pe. com/ localnews/ rivcounty/ stories/ PE_News_Local_S_webrice.
3a134da. html), The Press-Enterprise, 12 December 2009. Retrieved 13 December 2009.
[11] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ The_Claiming_of_Sleeping_Beauty
[12] "The Gospel According to Anne" by David Gates (http:/ / www. newsweek. com/ id/ 50735)
[13] "Twists of faith; Anne Rice's vision of Christianity is reflected in her new book" by Anne-Marie O'Connor (http:/ / articles. latimes. com/
2005/ dec/ 26/ entertainment/ et-rice26)
[14] Christ the Lord: Out of Egypt, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, ISBN 0-375-41201-8, pp. 305–307
[15] Called Out of Darkness: A Spiritual Confession, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, ISBN 978-0-307-268-27-3, p. 183
[16] Anne Rice no longer Christian on publishednow.net (http:/ / www. publishednow. net/ 2010/ anne-rice-no-longer-christian/ )
[17] "Anne Rice leaves Christianity" on CNN's Marquee Blog (http:/ / marquee. blogs. cnn. com/ 2010/ 07/ 30/ anne-rice-leaves-christianity/
?iref=NS1)
Anne Rice 819

[18] "Anne Rice: 'I Must Be An Outsider for Christ'" on CBN.com (http:/ / blogs. cbn. com/ ScottRoss/ archive/ 2010/ 08/ 05/
anne-rice-i-must-be-an-outsider-for-christ. aspx)
[19] Mitchell Landsberg, "Anne Rice discusses her decision to quit Christianity." (http:/ / www. latimes. com/ news/ local/
la-me-beliefs-anne-rice-20100807,0,5152082. story) Los Angeles Times. August 7, 2010.
[20] Anne's Profession of Faith on annerice.com (http:/ / www. annerice. com/ ChristTheLord-Profession. html)
[21] Essay On Earlier Works on annerice.com (http:/ / www. annerice. com/ Bookshelf-EarlierWorks. html)
[22] Anne Rice Amazon reviews (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ gp/ cdp/ member-reviews/ AB4F6UHL20U95?display=public)
[23] Box Office Mojo (http:/ / boxofficemojo. com/ movies/ ?id=queenofthedamned. htm)
[24] Lestat on Broadway on annerice.com (http:/ / www. annerice. com/ Lestat-TheMusical. html)
[25] Anne Rice. "Important Message from Anne on Fan Fiction" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20000510114743/ http:/ / www. annerice. com/
) from the Wayback Machine's archives of AnneRice.com; updated May 5, 2000
[26] Of Love and Evil on Amazon (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Love-Evil-Songs-Seraphim/ dp/ 1400043549/ ref=pd_sim_b_6)

Uncited references
• Rice, Anne (2005), "Author's Note" in Christ the Lord: Out of Egypt, Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN
0-375-41201-8
• Rice, Anne (2008), Called Out of Darkness: A Spiritual Confession, Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN
978-0-307-268-27-3

External links
• Anne Rice's official website (http://www.annerice.com)
• Anne Rice's spiritual journey site (http://www.iamsecond.com/#/seconds/Anne_Rice/)
Hunter S. Thompson 820

Hunter S. Thompson
Hunter S. Thompson

Hunter S. Thompson at the Miami Book Fair International of 1988

Born Hunter Stockton Thompson

July 18, 1937
Louisville, Kentucky

Died February 20, 2005 (aged 67)

Woody Creek, Colorado

Occupation Journalist, author

Genres Gonzo journalism

Literary movement New Journalism

Notable work(s) Hell's Angels

Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas
Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail
'72

Hunter Stockton Thompson (July 18, 1937 – February 20, 2005) was an American journalist and author, most
famous for his seminal works Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas and Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72.
He is credited as the creator of Gonzo journalism, a style of reporting where reporters involve themselves in the
action to such a degree that they become central figures of their stories. He was also known for his unrepentant
lifelong use of alcohol, LSD, mescaline, and cocaine (among other substances); his love of firearms, his
long-standing hatred of Richard Nixon,[1] and his iconoclastic contempt for authoritarianism. After a long bout of
health problems, he committed suicide at age 67 in 2005.

Early years
Thompson was born in Louisville, Kentucky, the first of three sons born to Jack Robert Thompson (September 4,
1893 - July 3, 1952), a public insurance adjuster and a World War I veteran from Horse Cave, Kentucky, and
Virginia Ray Davison (1908 - March 20, 1998), a reference librarian from Louisville, Kentucky. His parents met
after being introduced by a mutual friend from Jack's fraternity at the University of Kentucky in late 1934, and
married on November 2, 1935.[2]
Hunter S. Thompson 821

The Thompson family resided in the Cherokee Triangle neighborhood of The Highlands in Louisville. Two weeks
before Hunter was 15 years old, his father died of myasthenia gravis, a neuromuscular disease, on July 3, 1952, and
his sons Hunter Stockton, Davison (born 1940), and James Garnet (February 2, 1949 – March 25, 1993)[3] were
raised by their mother. Contemporaries indicated that after the death of her husband, Virginia became a "heavy
drinker".[2] [4]

Education
Interested in sports and athletically inclined from a young age, Thompson joined Louisville's Castlewood Athletic
Club, a sports club for teenagers that prepared them for high-school sports, where he excelled in baseball, though he
never joined any sports teams in high school, where he was constantly in trouble.[2]
Thompson attended the I.N. Bloom Elementary School, and then Highland Middle School, then Atherton High
School, transferring to Louisville Male High School in 1952 following the death of his father. That same year he was
accepted as a member of the Athenaeum Literary Association, a school-sponsored literary and social club that had
been founded at Male High in 1862. Its members at the time, generally drawn from Louisville's wealthy upper-class
families, included Porter Bibb, who became the first publisher of Rolling Stone.
As an Athenaeum member, Thompson contributed articles and helped edit the club's yearbook The Spectator;
however, the group ejected Thompson from its membership in 1955, citing his legal problems.[2] Charged as an
accessory to robbery after having been in a car with the person who committed the robbery, Thompson was
sentenced to serve 60 days in Kentucky's Jefferson County Jail. He served 30 days of his sentence, and joined the
U.S. Air Force a week after his release.[2]

Military career
Thompson did his basic training at Lackland Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas, and later transferred to Scott Air
Force Base in Illinois to study electronics. He applied to become a pilot but was rejected by the Air Force's
aviation-cadet program. In 1956, he transferred to Eglin Air Force Base, near Pensacola, Florida. There he worked in
the information-services department and became the sports editor of the base's newspaper, The Command Courier. In
this capacity, he covered the Eglin Eagles, a base football team that included such future professional stars as Max
McGee and Zeke Bratkowski. Thompson traveled with the team around the U.S., covering its games. In 1957, he
also wrote a sports column anonymously for The Playground News, a local newspaper in Fort Walton Beach,
Florida.[2]
Thompson left the Air Force in 1958 as an Airman First Class, having been recommended for an early honorable
discharge by his commanding officer. "In summary, this airman, although talented, will not be guided by policy",
Col. William S. Evans, chief of information services wrote to the Eglin personnel office. "Sometimes his rebel and
superior attitude seems to rub off on other airmen staff members." Thompson claimed in a mock press release he
wrote about the end of his duty to have been issued a "totally unclassifiable" status.[5]

Early journalism career

After the Air Force, he worked as sports editor for a newspaper in Jersey Shore, Pennsylvania[6] before moving to
New York City. There he attended Columbia University's School of General Studies part-time on the G.I. Bill, taking
classes in short-story writing.[7]
Thompson's friends and letters from this period note he was an avid reader of the Beat Generation during his early
years as a writer and that he associated himself with the Beat culture while living in New York City. He would later
befriend such Beat authors as Allen Ginsberg and William S. Burroughs.[8]
During this time he worked briefly for Time, as a copy boy for $51 a week. While working, he used a typewriter to
copy F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby and Ernest Hemingway's A Farewell to Arms in order to learn about the
Hunter S. Thompson 822

writing styles of the authors. In 1959, Time fired him for insubordination.[7] Later that year, he worked as a reporter
for The Middletown Daily Record in Middletown, New York. He was fired from this job after damaging an office
candy machine and arguing with the owner of a local restaurant who happened to be an advertiser with the paper.[7]
In 1960 Thompson moved to San Juan, Puerto Rico, to take a job with the sporting magazine El Sportivo, which
soon folded after his arrival. Thompson had first applied for a job with the Puerto Rico English-language daily The
San Juan Star, but its managing editor, future novelist William J. Kennedy, declined Thompson's request.
Nonetheless, the two became friends and after the demise of El Sportivo, Thompson worked as a stringer for the New
York Herald Tribune and a few stateside papers on Caribbean issues with Kennedy working as his editor.[9] [10] After
returning to the States, Hunter lived in California, working as a security guard and caretaker at the Big Sur Hot
springs for an eight-month period in 1961, just before it became the Esalen Institute. While there, he was able to
publish his first magazine feature in the nationally distributed Rogue magazine on the artisan and bohemian culture
of Big Sur. The unwanted publicity generated from the article got him fired from his job as a caretaker.
During this period, Thompson wrote two novels, Prince Jellyfish and The Rum Diary, and submitted many short
stories to publishers with little success. The Rum Diary, which fictionalized Thompson's experiences in Puerto Rico,
was eventually published in 1998, long after Thompson had become famous.
From May 1962 to May 1963, Thompson traveled to South America as a correspondent for a Dow Jones-owned
weekly newspaper, the National Observer. In Brazil, he spent several months working also as a reporter on the
Brazil Herald, the country's only English-language daily, published in Rio de Janeiro. His longtime girlfriend Sandra
Dawn Conklin (aka Sandy Conklin Thompson, now Sondi Wright) later joined him in Rio.
Thompson and Conklin were married on May 19, 1963, shortly after they returned to the United States. They briefly
relocated to Aspen, Colorado, and had one son, Juan Fitzgerald Thompson, born March 23, 1964. The couple
conceived five more times together. Three of the pregnancies were miscarried, and the other two pregnancies
produced infants who died shortly after birth. Hunter and Sandy divorced in 1980 but remained close friends until
Thompson's death.
In 1964 the Thompson family then moved to Glen Ellen, California, where Thompson continued to write for the
National Observer on an array of domestic subjects, including a story about his 1964 visit to Ketchum, Idaho, in
order to investigate the reasons for Ernest Hemingway's suicide.[11] While working on the story, Thompson
symbolically stole a pair of elk antlers hanging above the front door of Hemingway's cabin. Thompson and the
editors at the Observer eventually had a falling out after the paper refused to print Thompson's review of Tom
Wolfe's 1965 essay collection The Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline Baby,[12] and he moved to San
Francisco, immersing himself in the drug and hippie culture that was taking root in the area. About this time he
began writing for the Berkeley underground paper The Spyder.[13]

Hells Angels
In 1965, Carey McWilliams, editor of The Nation, offered Thompson the opportunity to write a story based on his
experience with the California-based Hells Angels motorcycle gang. After The Nation published the article (May 17,
1965), Thompson received several book offers and spent the next year living and riding with the Hell's Angels. The
relationship broke down when the bikers suspected that Thompson was only friends with them so he could make
money from his writing. The gang demanded a share of the profits and after an argument at a party Thompson ended
up with a savage beating, or "stomping" as the Angels referred to it. Random House published the hard cover Hell's
Angels: The Strange and Terrible Saga of the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs in 1966. A reviewer for The New York
Times praised it as an "angry, knowledgeable, fascinating and excitedly written book", that shows the Hells Angels
"not so much as dropouts from society but as total misfits, or unfits — emotionally, intellectually and educationally
unfit to achieve the rewards, such as they are, that the contemporary social order offers." The reviewer also praised
Thompson as a "spirited, witty, observant and original writer; his prose crackles like motorcycle exhaust."[14]
Hunter S. Thompson 823

Following the success of Hells Angels, Thompson was able to publish articles in a number of well-known magazines
during the late 1960s, including The New York Times Magazine, Esquire, Pageant, and others. In the Times
Magazine article, published in 1967, shortly before the "Summer of Love", and entitled "The Hashbury is the Capital
of the Hippies", Thompson wrote in-depth about the Hippies of San Francisco, deriding a culture that began to lack
the political convictions of the New Left and the artistic core of the Beats, instead becoming overrun with
newcomers lacking any purpose other than obtaining drugs.[15] It was an observation on the 60s' counterculture that
Thompson would further examine in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas and other articles.
According to Thompson's letters and his later writings, at this time he planned to write a book called The Joint Chiefs
about "the death of the American Dream." He used a $6,000 advance from Random House to travel on the 1968
Presidential campaign trail and attend the 1968 Democratic Convention in Chicago for research purposes. From his
hotel room in Chicago, Thompson watched the clashes between police and protesters, which he wrote had a great
effect on his political views. The planned book was never finished, but the theme of the death of the American dream
would be carried over into his later work, and the contract with Random House was eventually fulfilled with the
1972 book Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas.[16]
Thompson also signed a deal with Ballantine Books in 1968 to write a satirical book called The Johnson File about
Lyndon B. Johnson. A few weeks after the contract was signed, however, Johnson announced that he would not
stand for re-election, and the deal was canceled.[16]
By late 1967, Thompson and his family moved back to Colorado and rented a house in Woody Creek, a small
mountain hamlet outside Aspen. In early 1969, Thompson finally received a $15,000 royalty check for the paperback
sales of Hells Angels and used two-thirds of the money for a down payment on a modest home and property where
he would live for the rest of his life.[17] He named the house Owl Farm and often described it as his "fortified
compound."

Middle years
In 1970 Thompson ran for sheriff of Pitkin County, Colorado, as part of a group of citizens running for local offices
on the "Freak Power" ticket. The platform included promoting the decriminalization of drugs (for personal use only,
not trafficking, as he disapproved of profiteering), tearing up the streets and turning them into grassy pedestrian
malls, banning any building so tall as to obscure the view of the mountains, and renaming Aspen "Fat City" to deter
investors. Thompson, having shaved his head, referred to his opponent as "my long-haired opponent", as the
Republican candidate had a crew cut.
With polls showing him with a slight lead in a three-way race, Thompson appeared at Rolling Stone magazine
headquarters in San Francisco with a six-pack of beer in hand and declared to editor Jann Wenner that he was about
to be elected the next sheriff of Aspen, Colorado, and wished to write about the Freak Power movement.[18] Thus,
Thompson's first article in Rolling Stone was published as The Battle of Aspen with the byline "By: Dr. Hunter S.
Thompson (Candidate for Sheriff)." Despite the publicity, Thompson ended up narrowly losing the election. While
actually carrying the city of Aspen, he garnered only 44% of the county-wide vote in what became a two-way race as
the Republican candidate for sheriff agreed to withdraw from the contest a few days before the election in order to
consolidate the anti-Thompson votes, in return for the Democrats withdrawing their candidate for county
commissioner. Thompson later remarked that the Rolling Stone article mobilized his opposition far more than his
supporters.[19]
Hunter S. Thompson 824

Birth of Gonzo
Also in 1970, Thompson wrote an article entitled The Kentucky Derby Is Decadent and Depraved for the short-lived
new journalism magazine Scanlan's Monthly. Although it was not widely read at the time, the article is the first of
Thompson's to use techniques of Gonzo journalism, a style he would later employ in almost every literary endeavor.
The manic first-person subjectivity of the story was reportedly the result of sheer desperation; he was facing a
looming deadline and started sending the magazine pages ripped out of his notebook. Ralph Steadman, who would
later collaborate with Thompson on several projects, contributed expressionist pen-and-ink illustrations.
The first use of the word Gonzo to describe Thompson's work is credited to the journalist Bill Cardoso. Cardoso had
first met Thompson on a bus full of journalists covering the 1968 New Hampshire primary. In 1970, Cardoso (who,
by this time had become the editor of The Boston Globe Sunday Magazine) wrote to Thompson praising the
"Kentucky Derby" piece in Scanlan's Monthly as a breakthrough: "This is it, this is pure Gonzo. If this is a start, keep
rolling." Thompson took to the word right away, and according to illustrator Ralph Steadman said, "Okay, that's
what I do. Gonzo."[20]
Thompson's first published use of the word Gonzo appears in a passage in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas: A
Savage Journey to the Heart of the American Dream: "Free Enterprise. The American Dream. Horatio Alger gone
mad on drugs in Las Vegas. Do it now: pure Gonzo journalism."

Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas

The book for which Thompson gained most of his
fame had its genesis during the research for
Strange Rumblings in Aztlan, an exposé for Rolling
Stone on the 1970 killing of the
Mexican-American television journalist Rubén
Salazar. Salazar had been shot in the head at close
range with a tear gas canister fired by officers of
the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department
during the National Chicano Moratorium March
against the Vietnam War. One of Thompson's
sources for the story was Oscar Zeta Acosta, a
prominent Mexican-American activist and
attorney. Finding it difficult to talk in the racially
tense atmosphere of Los Angeles, Thompson and Thompson (left), with Oscar Acosta, at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, 1971
Acosta decided to travel to Las Vegas, Nevada,
and take advantage of an assignment by Sports Illustrated to write a 250-word photograph caption on the Mint 400
motorcycle race held there.

What was to be a short caption quickly grew into something else entirely. Thompson first submitted to Sports
Illustrated a manuscript of 2,500 words, which was, as he later wrote, "aggressively rejected." Rolling Stone
publisher Jann Wenner was said to have liked "the first 20 or so jangled pages enough to take it seriously on its own
terms and tentatively scheduled it for publication — which gave me the push I needed to keep working on it",
Thompson later wrote.[21]
The result of the trip to Las Vegas became the 1972 book Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas which first appeared in
the November 1971 issues of Rolling Stone as a two-part series. It is written as a first-person account by a journalist
named Raoul Duke on a trip to Las Vegas with Dr. Gonzo, his "300-pound Samoan attorney", to cover a narcotics
officers' convention and the "fabulous Mint 400". During the trip, Duke and his companion (always referred to as
"my attorney") become sidetracked by a search for the American Dream, with "...two bags of grass, seventy-five
Hunter S. Thompson 825

pellets of mescaline, five sheets of high-powered blotter acid, a salt shaker half full of cocaine, and a whole galaxy of
multi-colored uppers, downers, screamers, laughers [...] and also a quart of tequila, a quart of rum, a case of
Budweiser, a pint of raw ether, and two dozen amyls."
Coming to terms with the failure of the 1960s countercultural movement is a major theme of the novel, and the book
was greeted with considerable critical acclaim, including being heralded by the New York Times as "by far the best
book yet written on the decade of dope".[22] "The Vegas Book", as Thompson referred to it, was a mainstream
success and introduced his Gonzo journalism techniques to the masses.

Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail, 1972

Within the next year, Thompson wrote extensively for Rolling Stone while covering the election campaigns of
President Richard Nixon and his unsuccessful opponent, Senator George McGovern. The articles were soon
combined and published as Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72. As the title suggests, Thompson spent
nearly all of his time traveling the "campaign trail", focusing largely on the Democratic Party's primaries (Nixon, as
an incumbent, performed little campaign work) in which McGovern competed with rival candidates Edmund Muskie
and Hubert Humphrey. Thompson was an early supporter of McGovern, and it could be argued that his unflattering
coverage of the rival campaigns in the increasingly widely read Rolling Stone played a role in the senator's
nomination.
Thompson went on to become a fierce critic of Nixon, both during and after his presidency. After Nixon's death in
1994, Thompson famously described him in Rolling Stone as a man who "could shake your hand and stab you in the
back at the same time" and said "his casket [should] have been launched into one of those open-sewage canals that
empty into the ocean just south of Los Angeles. He was a swine of a man and a jabbering dupe of a president. [He]
was an evil man—evil in a way that only those who believe in the physical reality of the Devil can understand it."[23]
The one passion they shared was a love of football, which is discussed in Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail
'72.
Thompson was to provide Rolling Stone similar coverage for the 1976 Presidential Campaign that would appear in a
book published by the magazine. Reportedly, as Thompson was waiting for a $75,000 advance cheque to arrive, he
learned that Rolling Stone publisher Jann Wenner had pulled the plug on the endeavor without telling Thompson.[18]
Wenner then asked Thompson to travel to Vietnam to report on what appeared to be the closing of the Vietnam War.
Thompson accepted, and left for Saigon immediately. He arrived with the country in chaos, just as the United States
was preparing to evacuate and other journalists were scrambling to find transportation out of the region. While there,
Thompson learned that Wenner had pulled the plug on this excursion as well, and Thompson found himself in
Vietnam without health insurance or additional financial support. Thompson's story about the fall of Saigon would
not be published in Rolling Stone until ten years later.[18]
These two incidents severely strained the relationship between the author and the magazine, and Thompson
contributed far less to the publication in later years.

Later years
The year 1980 marked both his divorce from Sandra Conklin and the release of Where the Buffalo Roam, a loose
film adaptation of situations from Thompson's early 1970s work, with Bill Murray starring as the author. Murray
would go on to become one of Thompson's only trusted friends . After the lukewarm reception of the film,
Thompson temporarily relocated to Hawaii to work on a book, The Curse of Lono, a Gonzo-style account of a
marathon held in that state. Extensively illustrated by Ralph Steadman, the piece first appeared in Running magazine
in 1981 as "The Charge of the Weird Brigade" and was excerpted in Playboy in 1983.[24]
Hunter S. Thompson 826

On July 21, 1981, in Aspen, Colorado, Thompson was pulled over for
running a stop sign at 2 a.m., and began to "rave" at a state trooper. He
also refused to submit to intoxication tests. Consequently he was
arrested, but the drunk-driving charges against him were later dropped.
In 1983, he covered the U.S. invasion of Grenada but would not
discuss these experiences until the publication of Kingdom of Fear 20
years later. Later that year he authored a piece for Rolling Stone called
"A Dog Took My Place", an exposé of the scandalous Roxanne
Pulitzer divorce and what he termed the "Palm Beach lifestyle." The
article contained dubious insinuations of bestiality (among other
things) but was considered to be a return to proper form by many.

Shortly thereafter, Thompson accepted an advance to write about

"couples pornography" for Playboy. As part of his research, in the
spring of 1985 he spent evenings at the Mitchell Brothers O'Farrell
The Curse of Lono, with cover art by Ralph
Theater striptease club in San Francisco and his experience there
Steadman eventually evolved into a full-length nonfiction novel tentatively titled
The Night Manager. Neither the novel nor the article has been
published.

At the behest of old friend and editor Warren Hinckle, Thompson became a media critic for the San Francisco
Examiner from the mid-1980s until the end of that decade. Thompson's editor at the Examiner, David McCumber
(who would write a Mitchell brothers biography not long after Jim Mitchell fatally shot his brother Art in 1991), was
reportedly deeply disappointed in the quality of Thompson's Examiner columns.
In 1990 former porn director Gail Palmer visited Thompson's home in Woody Creek. She later accused him of
sexual assault, claiming that he twisted her breast when she refused to join him in the hot tub. She also described
cocaine use to authorities. A six person 11 hour search of Thompson's home turned up various kinds of drugs and a
few sticks of dynamite.[25] All charges were dismissed after a pre-trial hearing. Thompson would later describe this
experience at length in Kingdom of Fear.
By the early 1990s Thompson was said to be working on a novel called Polo Is My Life, which was briefly excerpted
in Rolling Stone in 1994, and which Thompson himself described in 1996 as "...a sex book — you know, sex, drugs
and rock and roll. It's about the manager of a sex theater who's forced to leave and flee to the mountains. He falls in
love and gets in even more trouble than he was in the sex theater in San Francisco".[26] The novel was slated to be
released by Random House in 1999, and was even assigned ISBN 0-679-40694-8, but was not published.
Thompson continued to contribute irregularly to Rolling Stone. "Fear and Loathing in Elko", published in 1992, was
a well-received fictional rallying cry against Clarence Thomas, while "Mr. Bill's Neighborhood" was a largely
non-fictional account of an interview with Bill Clinton in an Arkansas diner. Rather than embarking on the campaign
trail as he had done in previous presidential elections, Thompson monitored the proceedings from cable television;
Better Than Sex: Confessions of a Political Junkie, his account of the 1992 Presidential Election campaign, is
composed of reactionary faxes sent to Rolling Stone. A decade later, he contributed "Fear and Loathing, Campaign
2004"—an account of a road jaunt with John Kerry during his presidential campaign that would be Thompson's final
magazine feature.
Thompson was named a Kentucky Colonel by the Governor of Kentucky in a December 1996 tribute ceremony
where he also received keys to the city of Louisville.[27]
Hunter S. Thompson 827

The Gonzo Papers

Despite publishing a novel and numerous newspaper and magazine articles, the majority of Thompson's literary
output after the late 1970s took the form of a 4-volume series of books called The Gonzo Papers. Beginning with
The Great Shark Hunt in 1979 and ending with Better Than Sex in 1994, the series is largely a collection of rare
newspaper and magazine pieces from the pre-gonzo period, along with almost all of his Rolling Stone short pieces,
excerpts from the Fear and Loathing... books, and so on.
By the late 1970s Thompson received complaints from critics, fans and friends that he was regurgitating his past
glories without much new on his part;[28] these concerns are alluded to in the introduction of The Great Shark Hunt,
where Thompson suggested that his "old self" committed suicide.
Perhaps in response to this, as well as the strained relationship with Rolling Stone, and the failure of his marriage,
Thompson became more reclusive after 1980. He would often retreat to his compound in Woody Creek and reject
assignments or refuse to complete them. Despite the dearth of new material, Wenner kept Thompson on the Rolling
Stone masthead as chief of the "National Affairs Desk", a position he would hold until his death.

Fear and Loathing Redux

Thompson's work was popularized again with the 1998 release of the film Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, which
opened to considerable fanfare. The novel was reprinted to coincide with the film, and Thompson's work was
introduced to a new generation of readers.
Soon thereafter, Thompson's "long lost" novel The Rum Diary was published, as were the first two volumes of his
collected letters, which were greeted with critical acclaim.
Thompson's next, and penultimate, collection, Kingdom of Fear, was a combination of new material, selected
newspaper clippings, and some older works. Released in 2003, it was perceived by critics to be an angry, vitriolic
commentary on the passing of the American Century and the state of affairs after the September 2001 attacks.
Hunter married Anita Bejmuk, his long-time assistant, on April 23, 2003.
Thompson ended his journalism career in the same way it had begun: writing about sports. Thompson penned a
weekly column called "Hey, Rube" for ESPN.com's "Page 2". The column ran from 2000 to shortly before his death
in 2005. Simon & Schuster bundled many of the columns from the first few years and released it in mid-2004 as Hey
Rube: Blood Sport, the Bush Doctrine, and the Downward Spiral of Dumbness - Modern History from the Sports
Desk.

Death
Thompson died at his self-described "fortified compound" known as "Owl Farm" in Woody Creek, Colorado, at 5:42
p.m. on February 20, 2005, from a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head.
Thompson's son (Juan), daughter-in-law (Jennifer Winkel Thompson) and grandson (Will Thompson) were visiting
for the weekend at the time of his suicide. Will and Jennifer were in the adjacent room when they heard the gunshot.
Mistaking the shot for the sound of a book falling, they continued with their activities for a few minutes before
checking on him. The police report concerning his death stated that in a typewriter in front of Thompson, they found
"a piece of paper carrying the date 'Feb 22 '05' and the single word 'counselor'."[29]
They reported to the press that they do not believe his suicide was out of desperation, but was a well-thought out act
resulting from Thompson's many painful and chronic medical conditions. Thompson's wife, Anita, who was at a gym
at the time of her husband's death, was on the phone with him when he ended his life.
What family and police describe as a suicide note was written by Thompson four days before his death, and left for
his wife. It was later published by Rolling Stone. Titled "Football Season Is Over", it read:
Hunter S. Thompson 828

"No More Games. No More Bombs. No More Walking. No More Fun. No More Swimming. 67. That is 17
years past 50. 17 more than I needed or wanted. Boring. I am always bitchy. No Fun — for anybody. 67. You
are getting Greedy. Act your old age. Relax — This won't hurt."[30]
Artist and friend Ralph Steadman wrote:
"...He told me 25 years ago that he would feel real trapped if he didn't know that he could commit suicide at
any moment. I don't know if that is brave or stupid or what, but it was inevitable. I think that the truth of what
rings through all his writing is that he meant what he said. If that is entertainment to you, well, that's OK. If
you think that it enlightened you, well, that's even better. If you wonder if he's gone to Heaven or Hell, rest
assured he will check out them both, find out which one Richard Milhous Nixon went to — and go there. He
could never stand being bored. But there must be Football too — and Peacocks..."[31]

Funeral
On August 20, 2005, in a private ceremony, Thompson's ashes were fired from a cannon atop a 153-foot (47 m)
tower of his own design (in the shape of a double-thumbed fist clutching a peyote button) to the tune of Norman
Greenbaum's "Spirit in the Sky" and Bob Dylan's Mr. Tambourine Man.[32] Red, white, blue, and green fireworks
were launched along with his ashes. As the city of Aspen would not allow the cannon to remain for more than a
month, the cannon has been dismantled and put into storage until a suitable permanent location can be found.
According to his widow Anita, Thompson's funeral was financed by actor Johnny Depp, a close friend of Thompson.
Depp told the Associated Press, "All I'm doing is trying to make sure his last wish comes true. I just want to send my
pal out the way he wants to go out."[32]
Other famous attendees at the funeral included U.S. Senator John Kerry and former U.S. Senator George McGovern;
60 Minutes correspondent Ed Bradley and Charlie Rose; actors Jack Nicholson, Bill Murray, Benicio del Toro, Sean
Penn, and Josh Hartnett; singers Lyle Lovett, John Oates and numerous other friends. An estimated 280 people
attended the funeral.
The plans for this monument were initially drawn by Thompson and Ralph Steadman and were shown as part of an
Omnibus program on the BBC entitled Fear and Loathing in Gonzovision (1978). It is included as a special feature
on the second disc of the 2003 Criterion Collection DVD release of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (labeled on the
DVD as "Fear and Loathing on the Road to Hollywood"). The video footage of Steadman and Thompson drawing
the plans and outdoor footage showing where he wanted the cannon constructed were planned prior to the unveiling
of his cannon at the funeral.

Legacy

Writing style
Thompson is often credited as the creator of Gonzo journalism, a style of writing that blurs distinctions between
fiction and nonfiction. His work and style are considered to be a major part of the New Journalism literary
movement of the 1960s and 1970s, which attempted to break free from the purely objective style of mainstream
reportage of the time. Thompson almost always wrote in the first person, while extensively using his own
experiences and emotions to color "the story" he was trying to follow. His writing aimed to be humorous, colorful
and bizarre, and he often exaggerated events to be more entertaining.
The term Gonzo has since been applied in kind to numerous other forms of highly subjective artistic expression.
Despite his having personally described his work as "Gonzo", it fell to later observers to articulate what the phrase
actually meant. While Thompson's approach clearly involved injecting himself as a participant in the events of the
narrative, it also involved adding invented, metaphoric elements, thus creating, for the uninitiated reader, a
seemingly confusing amalgam of facts and fiction notable for the deliberately blurred lines between one and the
Hunter S. Thompson 829

other. Thompson, in a 1974 Interview in Playboy addressed the issue himself, saying "Unlike Tom Wolfe or Gay
Talese, I almost never try to reconstruct a story. They’re both much better reporters than I am, but then, I don’t think
of myself as a reporter." Tom Wolfe would later describe Thompson's style as "...part journalism and part personal
memoir admixed with powers of wild invention and wilder rhetoric."[33] Or as one description of the differences
between Thompson and Wolfe's styles would elaborate, "While Tom Wolfe mastered the technique of being a fly on
the wall, Thompson mastered the art of being a fly in the ointment."[34]
The majority of Thompson's most popular and acclaimed work appeared within the pages of Rolling Stone magazine.
Along with Joe Eszterhas and David Felton, Thompson was instrumental in expanding the focus of the magazine
past music criticism; indeed, Thompson was the only staff writer of the epoch never to contribute a music feature to
the magazine. Nevertheless, his articles were always peppered with a wide array of pop music references ranging
from Howlin' Wolf to Lou Reed. Armed with early fax machines wherever he went, he became notorious for
haphazardly sending sometimes illegible material to the magazine's San Francisco offices as an issue was about to go
to press.
Robert Love, Thompson's editor of 23 years at Rolling Stone, wrote that "the dividing line between fact and fancy
rarely blurred, and we didn’t always use italics or some other typographical device to indicate the lurch into the
fabulous. But if there were living, identifiable humans in a scene, we took certain steps....Hunter was close friends
with many prominent Democrats, veterans of the ten or more presidential campaigns he covered, so when in doubt,
we’d call the press secretary. 'People will believe almost any twisted kind of story about politicians or Washington,'
he once said, and he was right."
Discerning the line between the fact and the fiction of Thompson's work presented a practical problem for editors
and fact-checkers of his work. Love called fact-checking Thompson's work "one of the sketchiest occupations ever
created in the publishing world", and "for the first-timer ... a trip through a journalistic fun house, where you didn’t
know what was real and what wasn’t. You knew you had better learn enough about the subject at hand to know when
the riff began and reality ended. Hunter was a stickler for numbers, for details like gross weight and model numbers,
for lyrics and caliber, and there was no faking it."[35]

Persona
Thompson often used a blend of fiction and fact when portraying himself in his writing as well, sometimes using the
name Raoul Duke as an author surrogate whom he generally described as a callous, erratic, self-destructive journalist
who constantly drank alcohol and took hallucinogenic drugs. Fantasizing about causing bodily harm to others was
also a characteristic in his work used to comedic effect and an example of his brand of humor.
In the late sixties, Thompson obtained his famous title of "Doctor" from the Universal Life Church.[36] He later
preferred to be called Dr. Thompson, and his "alter-ego" Raoul Duke called himself a "doctor of journalism".
Thompson was as fond of personae as W.C. Fields: besides "Raoul Duke", Thompson also toyed with the idea of
taking the names "Jefferson Rank", "Gene Skinner", and "Sebastian Owl" for various purposes literary and
non-literary, naming his "compound" in Woody Creek, Colorado, "Owl Farm" after the last of these.
A number of critics have commented that as he grew older the line that distinguished Thompson from his literary self
became increasingly blurred.[37] [38] [39] Thompson himself admitted during a 1978 BBC interview that he
sometimes felt pressured to live up to the fictional self that he had created, adding "I'm never sure which one people
expect me to be. Very often, they conflict — most often, as a matter of fact. ...I'm leading a normal life and right
along side me there is this myth, and it is growing and mushrooming and getting more and more warped. When I get
invited to, say, speak at universities, I'm not sure if they are inviting Duke or Thompson. I'm not sure who to be."[40]
Thompson's writing style and eccentric persona gave him a cult following in both literary and drug circles, and his
cult status expanded into broader areas after being twice portrayed in major motion pictures. Hence, both his writing
style and persona have been widely imitated, and his likeness has even become a popular costume choice for
Halloween.[41]
Hunter S. Thompson 830

Political beliefs
In the documentary Breakfast With Hunter, Hunter S. Thompson is seen in several scenes wearing different Che
Guevara t-shirts. Additionally, actor and friend Benicio del Toro has stated that Thompson kept a "big" picture of
Che in his kitchen.[42]
Thompson wrote passionately on behalf of African American rights and the African American Civil Rights
Movement.[43] He strongly criticised the dominance in American society of, what he called, "white power
structures".[44] He was a proponent of the right to bear arms and privacy rights.[45] A member of the National Rifle
Association,[46] Thompson was also co-creator of "The Fourth Amendment Foundation", an organization to assist
victims in defending themselves against unwarranted search and seizure.[47]
Part of his work with The Fourth Amendment Foundation centered around support of Lisl Auman, a Colorado
woman who was sentenced for life in 1997 under felony murder charges for the death of police officer Bruce
VanderJagt, despite contradictory statements and dubious evidence. Thompson organized rallies, provided legal
support, and co-wrote an article in the June 2004 issue of Vanity Fair, outlining the case. The Colorado Supreme
Court eventually overturned Auman's sentence in March 2005, shortly after Thompson's death, and Auman is now
free. Auman's supporters claim Thompson's support and publicity resulted in the successful appeal.[48]
Thompson was a firearms and explosives enthusiast (in his writing and in real life) and owned a vast collection of
handguns, rifles, shotguns, and various automatic and semi-automatic weapons, along with numerous forms of
gaseous crowd control and many other homemade devices.
Thompson was also an ardent supporter of drug legalization and became known for his less-than-shy accounts of his
own drug usage. He was an early supporter of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws and
served on the group's advisory board for over 30 years until his death.[49] He told an interviewer in 1997 that drugs
should be legalized "Across the board. It might be a little rough on some people for a while, but I think it's the only
way to deal with drugs. Look at Prohibition: all it did was make a lot of criminals rich."[50]
After the September 11, 2001 attacks, Thompson voiced skepticism regarding the official story on who was
responsible for the attacks. He suggested to several interviewers that it may have been conducted by the U.S.
Government or with the government's assistance.[51] [52] In 2002, Thompson told a radio show host "You sort of
wonder when something like that happens, well, who stands to benefit? Who had the opportunity and the motive?
You just kind of look at these basic things [...] I saw that the US government was going to benefit, and the White
House people, the Republican administration to take the mind of the public off the crashing economy. [...] And I
have spent enough time on the inside of, well in the White House and you know, campaigns and I've known enough
people who do these things, think this way, to know that the public version of the news or whatever event, is never
really what happened."[52]
In 2004 Thompson, regarding politics, wrote: "Nixon was a professional politician, and I despised everything he
stood for — but if he were running for president this year against the evil Bush–Cheney gang, I would happily vote
for him."[53]

Works

Letters
Thompson wrote many letters and they were his primary means of personal conversation. Thompson made carbon
copies of all his letters, usually typed, a habit that began in his teenage years. His letters were sent to friends, public
officials and reporters.
Some of his letters have begun to be published in a series of books called The Fear and Loathing Letters. The first
volume, The Proud Highway: Saga of a Desperate Southern Gentleman 1955 - 1967, is over 650 pages, while the
second volume Fear and Loathing in America: The Brutal Odyssey of an Outlaw Journalist passed 700. Douglas
Brinkley, who edits the letter series, said that for every letter included, fifteen were cut. Brinkley estimated
Hunter S. Thompson 831

Thompson's own archive to contain over 20,000 letters. According to Amazon.com, the last of the three planned
volumes of Thompson's letters was allegedly to be published on January 1, 2007 as The Mutineer: Rants, Ravings,
and Missives from the Mountaintop 1977-2005. Anita Thompson has said on her blog [54] that the collection will be
released sometime in February. Amazon.com currently lists the publication date on its site as February 1, 2011.
Many biographies have been written about Thompson, although he did not write an autobiography. But his letters
contained "asides" to "his biographers" that he assumed could be "reading in" on his collected letters. Some of these
letters were already bundled into Thompson's Kingdom of Fear, though it is not considered an autobiography.

Illustrations
Accompanying the eccentric and colorful writing of Hunter Thompson, illustrations by British artist Ralph Steadman
offer visual representations of the Gonzo style. Steadman and Thompson developed a close friendship, and often
traveled together. Though his illustrations occur in most of Thompson's books, they are conspicuously featured in
full page color in Thompson's The Curse of Lono, set in Hawaii.

Photography
Thompson was an avid amateur photographer throughout his life and his photos have been exhibited since his death
at art galleries in the United States and United Kingdom. In late 2006, AMMO Books published a limited-edition
224 page collection of Thompson photos called GONZO, with an introduction by Johnny Depp. Thompson's
snapshots were a combination of the subjects he was covering, stylized self-portraits, and artistic still life photos.
The London Observer called the photos "astonishingly good" and that "Thompson's pictures remind us, brilliantly in
every sense, of very real people, real colours".[55]

Films
The film Where the Buffalo Roam (1980) depicts Thompson's attempts at writing stories for both the Super Bowl and
the 1972 U.S. presidential election. It stars Bill Murray as Thompson and Peter Boyle as Thompson's attorney Oscar
Acosta, referred to in the movie as Carl Lazlo, Esq.
The 1998 film adaptation of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas was directed by Monty Python veteran Terry Gilliam,
and starred Johnny Depp (who moved into Hunter's basement to 'study' Thompson's persona before assuming his
role in the film) as "Hunter Thompson/Raoul Duke" and Benicio del Toro as Oscar Acosta, referred to in the movie
as "Dr. Gonzo". The film has achieved something of a cult following.
A film is currently in production based on Thompson's novel The Rum Diary. It is scheduled for a 2010 release,
starring Johnny Depp as the main character, Paul Kemp. The novel's premise was inspired by Thompson's own
experiences in Puerto Rico. Bruce Robinson is directing.

Documentaries
"Fear and Loathing on the Road to Hollywood" (1978) is an extended television profile by the BBC. It can be found
on disc 2 of "Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas" The Criterion Collection edition.
The Mitchell brothers, owners of the O'Farrell Theatre in San Francisco, made a documentary about Thompson in
1988 called Hunter S. Thompson: The Crazy Never Die.
Wayne Ewing created three documentaries about Thompson. The film Breakfast With Hunter (2003) was directed
and edited by Ewing. It documents Thompson's work on the movie Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, his arrest for
drunk driving, and his subsequent fight with the court system. When I Die (2005) is a video chronicle of making
Thompson's final farewell wishes a reality, and documents the send-off itself. Free Lisl: Fear and Loathing in
Denver (2006) chronicles Thompson efforts in helping to free Lisl Auman who was sentenced to life in prison
without parole for the shooting of a police officer, a crime she didn't commit. All three films are only available
online.[56]
Hunter S. Thompson 832

In Come on Down: Searching for the American Dream[57] (2004) Thompson gives director Adamm Liley insight
into the nature of the American Dream over drinks at the Woody Creek Tavern.
Buy The Ticket, Take The Ride: Hunter S. Thompson On Film (2006) was directed by Tom Thurman, written by Tom
Marksbury, and produced by the Starz Entertainment Group. The original documentary features interviews with
Thompson's inner circle of family and friends, but the thrust of the film focuses on the manner in which his life often
overlapped with numerous Hollywood celebrities who became his close friends, such as Johnny Depp, Benicio del
Toro, Bill Murray, Sean Penn, John Cusack, Thompson's wife Anita, son Juan, former Senators George McGovern
and Gary Hart, writers Tom Wolfe and William F. Buckley, actors Gary Busey and Harry Dean Stanton, and the
illustrator Ralph Steadman among others.
"Blasted!!! The Gonzo Patriots of Hunter S. Thompson" (2006), produced, directed, photographed and edited by
Blue Kraning, is a documentary about the scores of fans who volunteered their privately owned artillery to fire the
ashes of the late author, Hunter S Thompson. Blasted!!! premiered at the 2006 Starz Denver International Film
Festival, part of a tribute series to Hunter S. Thompson held at the Denver Press Club.
In 2008, Academy Award-winning documentarian Alex Gibney (Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room, Taxi to the
Dark Side) wrote and directed a documentary on Thompson, entitled Gonzo: The Life and Work of Dr. Hunter S.
Thompson. The film premiered on January 20, 2008 at the Sundance Film Festival. Gibney uses intimate,
never-before-seen home videos, interviews with friends, enemies and lovers, and clips from films adapted from
Thompson's material to document his turbulent life.

Theatre
GONZO: A Brutal Chrysalis is a one-man show about Hunter S.Thompson written by Paul Addis. Set in the writing
den of Thompson's Woody Creek home, the show presents the life of Hunter during the years between 1968 and
1971. Addis played the role of Hunter during the show's original run until his arrest for the Burning Man early
torching on August 28, 2007.[58]

Accolades and tributes

• Author Tom Wolfe has called Thompson the greatest American comic writer of the 20th century.[59]
• The 2006 documentary film Fuck, which features Hunter S Thompson commenting on the usage of that word, is
dedicated to his memory.[60]
• Thompson appeared on the cover of the 1,000th issue of Rolling Stone (May 18 - June 1, 2006) as a devil playing
the guitar next to the two "L"'s in the word "Rolling". Johnny Depp also appeared on the cover.
• The Thompson-inspired character Uncle Duke appears on a recurring basis in Doonesbury, the daily newspaper
comic strip by Garry Trudeau. When the character was first introduced, Thompson protested, quoted in an
interview as saying that he would set Trudeau on fire if the two ever met,[61] although it was reported that he liked
the character in later years. Between March 7, 2005 (roughly two weeks after Thompson's suicide) and March 12,
2005, Doonesbury ran a tribute to Hunter, with Uncle Duke lamenting the death of the man he called his
"inspiration." The first of these strips featured a panel with artwork similar to that of Ralph Steadman, and later
strips featured various non sequiturs (with Duke variously transforming into a monster, melting, shrinking to the
size of an empty drinking glass, or people around him turning into animals) which seemed to mirror some of the
effects of hallucinogenic drugs described in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas.
• Besides Uncle Duke, Thompson served as the inspiration for two other comic strip characters. Underground
comix creator turned animation/cartooning historian Scott Shaw! used an anthropomorphic dog named "Pointer
X. Toxin" in a number of his works. Matt Howarth has created a number of comic books in his "Bugtown"
universe with a Thompson-inspired character named "Monseiuer Boche", as well as a musician named "Savage
Henry", the name of a drug dealer (or "scag baron") mentioned in Fear and Loathing In Las Vegas.
Hunter S. Thompson 833

• Spider Jerusalem, the gonzo journalist protagonist of Warren Ellis's Transmetropolitan, is largely based on
Thompson.
• Adult Swim's animated series The Venture Bros. featured a character named Hunter Gathers (who looks and acts
much like Thompson) employed by the fictional Office of Secret Intelligence as a trainer.[62] [63]
• Flying Dog Brewery is a self-proclaimed "gonzo brewery" started by Hunter's long time friend and neighbor
George Stranahan. Flying Dog's Gonzo Imperial Porter is a tribute to Hunter. All the bottle labels are designed by
Ralph Steadman.
• Los Angeles based indie rock band Fat City Reprise's name is a tribute to Thompson's failed bid for sheriff of
Pitkin County, Colorado in 1970.[64]
• American heavy metal band Avenged Sevenfold wrote their song Bat Country in tribute to Thompson. It was
featured on their 2005 album City of Evil and uses the quote "He who makes a beast out of himself gets rid of the
pain of being a man".

External links
• Chat with Director Alex Gibney about his documentary "Gonzo: The Life and Work of Dr. Hunter S. Thompson."
[65]

• "Shotgun Golf With Bill Murray", Thompson's final column [66] for ESPN.com's Page 2.
• "Audio interview with Thompson's former assistant", Interview for Men's Vogue [67]
• "Fear and Earning", a remembrance by screenwriter and novelist Lucian K. Truscott IV [68], published in The
New York Times, February 25, 2005.
• "Bedtime For Gonzo", A Review of Thompson's 2003 Autobiography Kingdom Of Fear, [69] by Jack Schafer in
The New York Times Book Review, February 23, 2003.
• The Doctor Hunter S. Thompson Bulletin Board & All-Nite Shooting Range [70] - The Doctor Hunter S.
Thompson Bulletin Board & All-Nite Shooting Range"
• "All Aboard The Hell-Bound Train: An Interview With Hunter S. Thompson Claimed as Thompson's Final
Interview [71]. By Jess Hopsicker, from The College Crier.
• Hunter S. Thompson [72] at the Internet Movie Database
• A collection of articles on Thompson from The Guardian [73]
• Excerpt from Jean Carroll, E (1993). "Hunter: The Strange and Savage Live Of Hunter S. Thompson [74].
ISBN 9780525935681. Archived from the original [75] on 2007-12-14., by E. Jean Carroll, first published in
Esquire Magazine, February, 1993
• Article about the funeral with photo of memorial tower [76]
• Promo site for Starz Documentary [77] Buy The Ticket, Take The Ride — Hunter S. Thompson on Film
• Hunter S. Thompson: The Crazy Never Die [78], 1988 documentary by the Mitchell brothers
• '"Blasted!!! The Gonzo Patriots of Hunter S. Thompson" [79], 2006 documentary
• Hunter S. Thompson Shrine on Snowmass Mountain in Colorado [80]
• Works by or about Hunter S. Thompson [81] in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
Hunter S. Thompson 834

Legacy and obituaries

• "Death Of A Comic", An essay critical of Thompson [82] by William F. Buckley, Jr. in National Review, March 1,
2005.
• "A Tribute to The Great Gonzo Gonzo," Seattle Times. [83] by Michael A. Stusser, February 24, 2005.
• "Gonzo Nights", an essay by Rich Cohen [84], a contributing editor for Rolling Stone published in The New York
Times, April 17, 2005.
• "Going, Going, Gonzo" A remembrance by journalist [85] Arik Hesseldahl from the Summer 2005 issue of
Oregon Quarterly recalling a February, 1991 lecture by Thompson at the University of Oregon.
• "Gonzo In His Life As In His Work", A Tribute to Thompson [86] by Tom Wolfe in The Wall Street Journal,
February 22, 2005.
• Owl Farm Blog [54]- Anita Thompson's blog dealing with her late husband's legacy
• Gonzo Store [87]- Operated by the family of Hunter Thompson; profits go to protect and preserve Thompson's
home at Owl Farm.
• "Hunter Thompson: The Minuteman Of The Rockies", Tribute to Thompson [88] by Christopher Hitchens in Slate,
February 22, 2005.
• "Hunter's Fear", "A Eulogy To Thompson" [89]. Archived from the original [90] on 2007-12-11. by D.A. Blyler
from The Raw Story.
• "Hunter S. Thompson's Counselor", "Thompson's Final "Counselor"" [91]. Archived from the original [92] on
2007-12-11. by D.A. Blyler in The Raw Story.
• "Odi et Amo in Aspen", A Gonzo-style obituary [93] by Kit Boyes on the BBC Web site H2G2, June 10, 2005.
• A Hero of Our Time: Hunter S. Thompson 1937-2005 [94] Obituary from Moscow alternative newspaper The
eXile written by John Dolan

Source material
• "American Collection" [95]. Archived from the original [96] on 2008-02-08.
• BookRags [97]
• An Image Gallery of Thompson's photography [98]

References
[1] Bradshaw, Nick (14 December 2008). "Hunter S. Thompson: Trust him, he's a doctor" (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ arts-entertainment/
books/ features/ hunter-s-thompson-trust-him-hes-a-doctor-1063841. html). The Independent. . Retrieved 4 September 2010.
[2] Whitmer, Peter O. (1993). When The Going Gets Weird: The Twisted Life and Times of Hunter S. Thompson (First ed.). Hyperion. pp. 23–27.
ISBN 1562828568.
[3] "James Garnet Thompson" (http:/ / www. findagrave. com/ cgi-bin/ fg. cgi?page=gr& GRid=11188338). Find A Grave. 2005-06-17. .
Retrieved 2010-07-30.
[4] Hunter S Thompson Biography and Notes. "Books by Hunter S. Thompson - biography and notes" (http:/ / www. biblio. com/
hunter-s-thompson~142810~author). Biblio.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-30.
[5] Rolfsen, Jeff (February 21, 2005) Writer Hunter S. Thompson commits suicide (http:/ / www. airforcetimes. com/ legacy/ new/
1-292925-675022. php). Air Force Times. . Retrieved February 22, 2007.
[6] Thompson, Hunter (2002). Songs of the Doomed (Reprint ed.). Simon and Schuster. pp. 29–32. ISBN 0743240995.
[7] Thompson, Hunter (1998). Douglas Brinkley. ed. The Proud Highway: Saga of a Desperate Southern Gentleman (1st ed.). Ballantine Books.
p. 139. ISBN 0-345-37796-6.
[8] Wills, D. 'Hunter S. Thompson and the Beats', in Wills, D. (ed.) Beatdom Vol. 4 (Mauling Press: Dundee, 2009) (http:/ / www. beatdom.
com/ hst__the_beats. htm)
[9] Hunter S. Thompson: "Proud Highway" (http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/ dmg/ dmg. php?prgCode=ATC& showDate=07-Aug-1997&
segNum=10& NPRMediaPref=RAM) NPR Interview 7 August 1997
[10] New York State Writers Institute William Kennedy Biography (http:/ / www. albany. edu/ writers-inst/ wjkennedybio. html).
[11] Brinkley, Douglas (March 24, 2005) "Last Days at Owl Farm" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071018060554/ http:/ / www. rollingstone.
com/ news/ story/ 7092353/ the_final_days_at_owl_farm) Rolling Stone.
[12] Brinkley, Douglas or Sadler, Shelby. Thompson, Hunter (2000). Douglas Brinkley. ed. Fear and Loathing in America (1st ed.). Simon &
Schuster. p. 784. ISBN 0-684-87315-X. Introduction to letter to Tom Wolfe, p.43.
Hunter S. Thompson 835

[13] Louison, Cole This is skag folks, pure skag: Hunter Thompson (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060903032602/ http:/ / www. ithaca. edu/
buzzsaw/ archive_skag. htm) Buzzsaw Haircut'.' Retrieved October 12, 2006.
[14] Fremont-Smith, Eliot (February 23, 1967) "Books of The Times; Motorcycle Misfits—Fiction and Fact." The New York Times, p.33.
[15] Thompson, Hunter S. "The Hashbury Is the Capital of the Hippie", The New York Times Magazine May 17, 1967
[16] Thompson, Hunter (2001). Fear and Loathing in America (2nd ed.). Simon & Schuster. p. 784. ISBN 978-0684873169.
[17] Thompson, Hunter (2006). Fear and Loathing in America (Paperback ed.). Simon & Schuster. p. 784. ISBN 978-0684873169.
[18] Anson, Robert Sam (December 10, 1976) Rolling Stone Pt. 2: Hunter Thompson Meets Fear and Loathing Face to Face (http:/ / www.
gonzo. org/ hst/ interviews. asp?ID=7) New Times
[19] Thompson, Hunter S. (2003) Kingdom of Fear Simon & Schuster. p.95.
[20] Martin, Douglas, (March 16, 2006) Bill Cardoso, 68, Editor Who Coined 'Gonzo', Is Dead (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 03/ 16/
national/ 16cardoso. html?ei=5088& en=c7b5fe5f62a5d95e& ex=1300165200& partner=rssnyt& emc=rss& pagewanted=print). The New
York Times.
[21] Thompson, Hunter (1979). The Great Shark Hunt: Strange Tales from a Strange Time (1st ed.). Summit Books. pp. 105–109.
ISBN 0-671-40046-0.
[22] Woods, Crawford (July 23, 1972) The New York Times Book Review (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1972/ 07/ 23/ books/
thompson-1972-vegar. html).
[23] Thompson, Hunter S. (June 15, 1994) He Was A Crook (http:/ / www. michaelmoore. com/ words/ latestnews/ index. php?id=1507) Rolling
Stone
[24] The Great Thompson Hunt — Books — The Curse of Lono (http:/ / www. gonzo. org/ books/ cl/ ). Gonzo.org. . Retrieved 2009-07-13.
[25] Aspen Journal; New Fear and Loathing: Gonzo Writer on Trial (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1990/ 05/ 22/ us/
aspen-journal-new-fear-and-loathing-gonzo-writer-on-trial. html), The New York Times, May 22, 1990
[26] Sara Nelson 1996 Interview with Hunter S. Thompson (http:/ / www. fargonebooks. com/ hunter. html) The Book Report
[27] Whitehead, Ron. Hunter S. Thompson, Kentucky Colonel Reykjaviks Magazine March 11, 2005 http:/ / www. grapevine. is/ Home/
ReadArticle/ Hunter-S-Thompson-1937-2005
[28] Error on call to Template:Cite interview: Parameter subject (or last) must be specified Retrieved on 2009-07-13.
[29] "Citizen Thompson — Police report of death scene reveals gonzo journalist's "rosebud"" (http:/ / www. thesmokinggun. com/ documents/
crime/ citizen-thompson). The Smoking Gun. 2005-09-08. . Retrieved 2008-10-13.
[30] Douglas Brinkley (2005-09-08). "Football Season Is Over Dr. Hunter S. Thompson's final note . . . Entering the no more fun zone" (http:/ /
web. archive. org/ web/ 20080619074031/ http:/ / www. rollingstone. com/ news/ story/ 7605448/ football_season_is_over). Rolling Stone.
Archived from the original (http:/ / www. rollingstone. com/ news/ story/ 7605448/ football_season_is_over) on 2008-06-19. . Retrieved
2008-10-13.
[31] Steadman, Ralph (February 2005). "Hunter S. Thompson 1937-2005" (http:/ / www. ralphsteadman. com/ ). Retrieved March 19, 2005.
[32] Up for Discussion Jump to Forums. "Hunter Thompson Blown Sky High" (http:/ / www. billboard. com/ news/ hot-product-1001018730.
story#/ news/ hot-product-1001018730. story). Billboard.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-30.
[33] Wolfe, Tom (February 22, 2005) As Gonzo in Life as in His Work (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050222142331/ http:/ / www.
opinionjournal. com/ la/ ?id=110006325)
[34] "Better Than Sex by Hunter S. Thompson - Trade Paperback" (http:/ / www. randomhouse. com/ catalog/ display. pperl/ 9780345396358.
html). Random House. 1995-08-22. . Retrieved 2010-07-30.
[35] Love, Robert. (May-June 2005) "A Technical Guide For Editing Gonzo" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080126234542/ http:/ / www.
cjr. org/ issues/ 2005/ 3/ hst. asp). Columbia Journalism Review.. May-June 2005. Archived from the original (https:/ / www. entrepreneur.
com/ tradejournals/ article/ 132678871. html) on 2008-01-26. . Retrieved 2009-03-18.
[36] "The Great Thompson Hunt — HST & Friends — Who Is (Dr.) Hunter S. Thompson?" (http:/ / www. gonzo. org/ hst/ hst. asp?ID=0).
Gonzo.org. . Retrieved 2009-07-13.
[37] Cohen, Rich "Gonzo Nights (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9805E2DF173EF934A25757C0A9639C8B63& sec=&
spon=& partner=permalink& exprod=permalink) The New York Times April 17, 2005
[38] Hart, Stephen Hunter S. Thompson (http:/ / theopinionmill. wordpress. com/ 2006/ 12/ 26/ hunter-s-thompson-22305/ ) The Opinion Mill
December 26, 2005.
[39] Clifford, Peggy A love song for Hunter S. Thompson (http:/ / www. smmirror. com/ MainPages/ DisplayArticleDetails. asp?eid=157) Santa
Monica Mirror'.' Retrieved March 28, 2007.
[40] BBC 1978 Fear and Loathing in Gonzovision (http:/ / thenewishjournalism. blogspot. com/ 2007/ 10/ fear-and-loathing-in-gonzovision.
html)
[41] "hunter s thompson halloween" (http:/ / images. google. com/ images?hl=en& hs=293& safe=off& client=firefox-a& rls=org.
mozilla:en-US:official& sa=N& resnum=0& q=hunter s thompson halloween& spell=1& ie=UTF-8& oe=UTF-8& tab=wi).
Images.google.com. 2006-10-31. . Retrieved 2010-07-30.
[42] Hunter S Thompson: The Movie (http:/ / entertainment. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ arts_and_entertainment/ film/ article5324264. ece) by Alex
Gibney, The Sunday Times, December 14, 2008
[43] Hunter S. Thompson, The Great Shark Hunt, (London 1980), page 43-51
[44] Hunter S. Thompson, The Great Shark Hunt, (London 1980), page 44-50
Hunter S. Thompson 836

[45] Glassie, John Interview with Hunter S. Thompson (http:/ / dir. salon. com/ story/ news/ feature/ 2003/ 02/ 03/ thompson/ index. html?pn=2)
Salon.com. Accessed Monday, March 5, 2007
[46] Susman, Tina Writer's Death Shocks Friends (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071127024140/ http:/ / www. newsday. com/ news/
nationworld/ nation/ ny-ushunt224153856feb22,0,4715271. story?coll=ny-nationalnews-headlines) Newsday February 22, 2005
[47] Higgins, Matt THE GONZO KING An interview with Hunter S. Thompson (http:/ / hightimes. com/ entertainment/ mhiggins/ 970) High
Times September 2, 2003.
[48] Mosely, Matt. "Lisl Released From Tooley Hall" www.lisl.com April 26, 2006
[49] NORML 2007 Aspen Legal Seminar Afternoon Cookout at Owl Farm (http:/ / www. norml. org/ index. cfm?Group_ID=6823).
[50] Far Gone Books Transcript of Hunter S. Thompson Interview (http:/ / www. fargonebooks. com/ hunter. html)
[51] Bulger, Adam (March 9, 2004) Interview with Hunter S. Thompson (http:/ / www. freezerbox. com/ archive/ article. php?id=287) Freezer
Box Magazine
[52] O'Regan, Mike. "Interview with Hunter S. Thompson" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080203143053/ http:/ / www. libertythink. com/
2005/ 02/ hunter-s-thompson-thought-911-inside. html). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. infowars. com/ articles/ sept11/
hunter_s_thompson_911_inside_job. htm) on 2008-02-03. ., August 2002.
[53] Fear and Loathing, Campaign 2004, Rolling Stone (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080714132156/ http:/ / www. rollingstone. com/
politics/ story/ 6562575/ fear_and_loathing_campaign_2004/ ).
[54] http:/ / www. owlfarmblog. com/
[55] Ferguson, Euan Hunter Gets Captured By The Frame (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ artanddesign/ 2007/ feb/ 04/ photography. features)
The Observer (London), February 4, 2007
[56] "Hunter Thompson Films" (http:/ / www. hunterthompsonfilms. com/ ). Hunter Thompson Films. . Retrieved 2010-07-30.
[57] "Manifestation.tv" (http:/ / www. manifestation. tv/ ). Manifestation.tv. . Retrieved 2010-07-30.
[58] "A Fiery Q&A With Paul Addis, the Prankster Accused of Burning the Man" (http:/ / www. wired. com/ culture/ lifestyle/ news/ 2007/ 08/
addis). . Retrieved 2007-08-30.
[59] "As Gonzo in Life as in His Work: Hunter S. Thompson died as he lived." (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050222142331/ http:/ / www.
opinionjournal. com/ la/ ?id=110006325) Tuesday, February 22, 2005 - Wall Street Journal, Opinion Journal.
[60] "Fuck" (http:/ / www. premiere. com/ Review/ Movies/ Fuck). Premiere. 2006-11-10. . Retrieved 2009-07-13.
[61] "Hunter S. Thompson dead at 67" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080316134223/ http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2005/ SHOWBIZ/ books/ 02/
21/ thompson. obit/ index. html). 2005-05-19. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 7005168/ ) on 2008-03-16. .
[62] Seymour, Corey (2007). Gonzo: the life of Hunter S. Thompson : an oral biography. Little, Brown. pp. 94, 116, 140. ISBN 9780316005272.
[63] "[adult swim] : Interactive Video Commentary — The Venture Bros. - ORB" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5io028lup). Archived from the
original (http:/ / www. adultswim. com/ shows/ venturebros/ extras/ ivc/ ep29/ ) on 2009-08-05. . Retrieved 2009-03-13.
[64] "South Philly Review Interview 2" (http:/ / www. southphillyreview. com/ news/ lifestyles/ 79678772. html). Southphillyreview.com.
2008-04-10. . Retrieved 2010-07-30.
[65] http:/ / telluride. plumtv. com/ stories/ alex_gibney_and_story_hunter_s_thompson
[66] http:/ / sports. espn. go. com/ espn/ page2/ story?id=1992213
[67] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080108102754/ http:/ / www. mensvogue. com/ magazine/ articles/ 2007/ 12/ hunter_thompson_audio1
[68] http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9E06E3D8173DF936A15751C0A9639C8B63& sec=health& spon=&
partner=permalink& exprod=permalink
[69] http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2003/ 02/ 23/ books/ bedtime-for-gonzo.
html?n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fPeople%2fT%2fThompson%2c%20Hunter%20S%2e
[70] http:/ / hst. 9pointzero. com/
[71] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080602130354/ http:/ / www. collegecrier. com/ interviews/ int-0003. asp
[72] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0860219/
[73] http:/ / books. guardian. co. uk/ news/ page/ 0,8097,1419505,00. html
[74] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071214210725/ http:/ / www. literati-magazine. com/ magazine_features/ spring05/ commentary/ caroll/
huntesq. htm
[75] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Ka5ZAAAAMAAJ
[76] http:/ / media. www. dailylobo. com/ media/ paper344/ news/ 2005/ 08/ 25/ Culture/ Impressions. Of. Dr. Gonzo-969927.
shtml?sourcedomain=www. dailylobo. com& MIIHost=media. collegepublisher. com
[77] http:/ / www. starz. com/ appmanager/ seg/ s?_nfpb=true& _pageLabel=template& template_dir=/ features/ buytheticket/ &
template_file=content. html
[78] http:/ / video. google. com/ videoplay?docid=-7866174144124486320
[79] http:/ / www. gonzopatriots. com/
[80] http:/ / www. aspensnowmassshrines. com/ index. php?id=1,26,0,0,1,0/
[81] http:/ / worldcat. org/ identities/ lccn-n50-8356
[82] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060619085434/ http:/ / www. nationalreview. com/ script/ printpage. p?ref=/ buckley/ wfb200503011513.
asp
[83] http:/ / seattletimes. nwsource. com/ html/ entertainment/ 2002188205_thompson24. html
Hunter S. Thompson 837

[84] http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9805E2DF173EF934A25757C0A9639C8B63& sec=& spon=& partner=permalink&
exprod=permalink
[85] http:/ / arik. org/ 2006/ 04/ the-oq-peice-on-hst/
[86] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050222142331/ http:/ / www. opinionjournal. com/ la/ ?id=110006325
[87] http:/ / www. gonzostore. com/
[88] http:/ / www. slate. com/ id/ 2113865/
[89] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071211090910/ http:/ / www. rawstory. com/ exclusives/ blyler/ hunter_thompson_eulogy_22105. htm
[90] http:/ / www. rawstory. com/ exclusives/ blyler/ hunter_thompson_eulogy_22105. htm
[91] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071211090907/ http:/ / www. rawstory. com/ exclusives/ blyler/ hst_counselor_081405. htm
[92] http:/ / www. rawstory. com/ exclusives/ blyler/ hst_counselor_081405. htm
[93] http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ dna/ h2g2/ A4177280
[94] http:/ / www. exile. ru/ articles/ detail. php?ARTICLE_ID=7654& IBLOCK_ID=35
[95] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080208123425/ http:/ / www. ncteamericancollection. org/ litmap/ thompson_hunter_s_ky. htm
[96] http:/ / www. ncteamericancollection. org/ litmap/ thompson_hunter_s_ky. htm
[97] http:/ / www. bookrags. com/ biography/ hunter-stockton-thompson/
[98] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080609052730/ http:/ / www. mbfala. com/ artists/ _Hunter+ S. + Thompson/ _other+ works/
 838

Foreign

Phonetic
Phonetics (from the Greek: φωνή, phōnē, "sound, voice", pronounced /fəˈnetɪks/) is a branch of linguistics that
comprises the study of the sounds of human speech.[1] It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds
(phones): their physiological production, acoustic properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiological status.
Phonology, on the other hand, is concerned with abstract, grammatical characterization of systems of sounds.There
are 44 vowels which can be studied deeply with the help of phonetics.

History
Phonetics was studied as early as 2500 years ago in ancient India, with Pāṇini's account of the place and manner of
articulation of consonants in his 5th century BC treatise on Sanskrit. The major Indic alphabets today order their
consonants according to Pāṇini's classification. The Ancient Greeks are credited as the first to base a writing system
on a phonetic alphabet. Modern phonetics began with Alexander Melville Bell, whose Visible Speech (1867)
introduced a system of precise notation for writing down speech sounds.[2]

Subfields
Phonetics as a research discipline has three main branches:
• articulatory phonetics is concerned with the articulation of speech: The position, shape, and movement of
articulators or speech organs, such as the lips, tongue, and vocal folds.
• acoustic phonetics is concerned with acoustics of speech: The spectro-temporal properties of the sound waves
produced by speech, such as their frequency, amplitude, and harmonic structure.
• auditory phonetics is concerned with speech perception: the perception, categorization, and recognition of speech
sounds and the role of the auditory system and the brain in the same.

Transcription
Phonetic transcription is a system for transcribing sounds that occur in spoken language or signed language. The
most widely known system of phonetic transcription, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), uses a one-to-one
mapping between phones and written symbols.[3] [4] The standardized nature of the IPA enables its users to
transcribe accurately and consistently the phones of different languages, dialects, and idiolects.[3] [5] [6] The IPA is a
useful tool not only for the study of phonetics, but also for language teaching, professional acting, and speech
pathology.[7]
Phonetic 839

Applications
Application of phonetics include:
• forensic phonetics: the use of phonetics (the science of speech) for forensic (legal) purposes.
• Speech Recognition: the analysis and transcription of recorded speech by a computer system.

Relation to phonology
In contrast to phonetics, phonology is the study of how sounds and gestures pattern in and across languages, relating
such concerns with other levels and aspects of language. Phonetics deals with the articulatory and acoustic properties
of speech sounds, how they are produced, and how they are perceived. As part of this investigation, phoneticians
may concern themselves with the physical properties of meaningful sound contrasts or the social meaning encoded in
the speech signal (e.g. gender, sexuality, ethnicity, etc.). However, a substantial portion of research in phonetics is
not concerned with the meaningful elements in the speech signal.
While it is widely agreed that phonology is grounded in phonetics, phonology is a distinct branch of linguistics,
concerned with sounds and gestures as abstract units (e.g., features, phonemes, mora, syllables, etc.) and their
conditioned variation (via, e.g., allophonic rules, constraints, or derivational rules).[8] Phonology relates to phonetics
via the set of distinctive features, which map the abstract representations of speech units to articulatory gestures,
acoustic signals, and/or perceptual representations.[9] [10] [11]

See also
• Index of phonetics articles
• International Phonetic Alphabet
• Speech processing
• Acoustics
• Biometric word list
• Phonetics departments at universities
• X-SAMPA
• ICAO spelling alphabet
• Buckeye Corpus

References
• O'Grady, William, et al. (2005). Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction (5th ed.). Bedford/St. Martin's.
ISBN 0312419368.

External links
• IPA Trainer [12] Online application to practice phonetics.
• Translate English texts into IPA phonetics with PhoTransEdit. [13]
• the Web Site of the Phonetic Sciences Laboratory of the Université de Montréal. [14]
• The International Society of Phonetic Sciences (ISPhS) [15]
• A little encyclopedia of phonetics [16], Peter Roach, Professor of Phonetics, University of Reading, UK. (pdf)
• The sounds and sound patterns of language [17] U Penn
• UCLA lab data [18]
• UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive [19]
• EGG and Voice Quality [20] (electroglottography, phonation, etc.)
• IPA handbook [21]
Phonetic 840

• IPA-SAM Phonetic Fonts [22]

• Speech Analysis Tutorial [23]
• Lecture materials in German on phonetics & phonology, university of Erfurt [24]
• Real-time MRI video of the articulation of speech sounds, from the USC Speech Articulation and kNowledge
(SPAN) Group [25]
• Beginner's course in phonetics, with some exercises [26]
• Praat - Phonetic analysis software [27]
• SID- Speech Internet Dictionary [28]
• Extensive collection of phonetics resources on the Web [29] (University of North Carolina)
• Phonetics and Phonology [30] (University of Osnabrueck)

References
[1] O'Grady (2005) p.15
[2] Alexander Melville Bell 1819-1905 (http:/ / www. acsu. buffalo. edu/ ~duchan/ new_history/ hist19c/ subpages/ mbell. html). University at
Buffalo, The State University of New York.
[3] O'Grady (2005) p.17
[4] International Phonetic Association (1999) Handbook of the International Phonetic Association. Cambridge University Press.
[5] Ladefoged, Peter (1975) A Course in Phonetics. Orlando: Harcourt Brace. 5th ed. Boston: Thomson/Wadsworth 2006.
[6] Ladefoged, Peter & Ian Maddieson (1996) The Sounds of the World’s Languages. Oxford: Blackwell.
[7] Ladefoged, Peter (1975) A Course in Phonetics. Orlando: Harcourt Brace. 5th ed. Boston: Thomson/Wadsworth 2006.
[8] Kingston, John. 2007. The Phonetics-Phonology Interface, in The Cambridge Handbook of Phonology (ed. Paul DeLacy), Cambridge
University Press.
[9] Halle, Morris. 1983. On Distinctive Features and their articulatory implementation, Natural Language and Linguistic Theory, p. 91 - 105
[10] Jakobson, Roman, Gunnar Fant, and Morris Halle. 1976. Preliminaries to Speech Analysis: The Distinctive Features and their Correlates,
MIT Press.
[11] Hall, T. Allen. 2001. Phonological representations and phonetic implementation of distinctive features, Mouton de Gruyter.
[12] http:/ / www. ipatrainer. com
[13] http:/ / www. photransedit. com
[14] http:/ / www. phonetique. info
[15] http:/ / www. isphs. org/ main. htm
[16] http:/ / www. cambridge. org/ elt/ peterroach/ resources/ Glossary. pdf
[17] http:/ / www. ling. upenn. edu/ courses/ Summer_2004/ ling001/ lecture2. html
[18] http:/ / hctv. humnet. ucla. edu/ departments/ linguistics/ VowelsandConsonants/
[19] http:/ / archive. phonetics. ucla. edu/
[20] http:/ / www. ims. uni-stuttgart. de/ phonetik/ EGG/ page1. htm
[21] http:/ / web. uvic. ca/ ling/ resources/ ipa/ handbook. htm
[22] http:/ / www. phon. ucl. ac. uk/ home/ wells/ fonts. htm
[23] http:/ / www. ling. lu. se/ research/ speechtutorial/ tutorial. html
[24] http:/ / www. uni-erfurt. de/ sprachwissenschaft/ personal/ lehmann/ CL_Lehr/ PhonPhon/ Phon_Index. html
[25] http:/ / sail. usc. edu/ span/ video. php
[26] http:/ / www. ic. arizona. edu/ ~lsp/ Phonetics. html
[27] http:/ / www. fon. hum. uva. nl/ praat/
[28] http:/ / www. phon. ucl. ac. uk/ home/ johnm/ sid/ sidhome. htm
[29] http:/ / www. unc. edu/ ~jlsmith/ pht-url. html
[30] http:/ / www. elloandfriends. uni-osnabrueck. de/ wikis/ 1/ show?n=PhoneticsandPhonology. PhoneticsandPhonology
French language 841

French language
French
Français

Pronunciation [fʁɑ̃sɛ]

Spoken in 29 countries where used officially, plus seven where

commonly used but not officially

Region Europe, the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Oceania

Total speakers [1] [2] [3]

200 million (2005) (first and second language speakers) and by an estimated 500 million francophones
[4] [5] [6]
worldwide, (2000)

Ranking [7] [8] [9] [10]

14 (native), 4 (total)

Language family Indo-European

• Italic
• Romance
• Italo-Western
• Western Romance
• Gallo-Iberian
• Gallo-Romance
• Gallo-Rhaetian
• Oïl
• French

Writing system Latin alphabet (French variant)

Official status

Official language Numerous international organisations

in

Regulated by Académie française (French Academy)

Language codes

ISO 639-1 fr

ISO 639-2 fre (B) fra (T)

ISO 639-3 [11]

fra

 Regions where it is mother tongue      Regions where it is official language      Regions where it is second language      Regions
where it is a minority language
French language 842

This article is part of the series

on:
French language

• Langues d'Oïl
• Dialects
• Creoles
• Francophonie
• History
• Oaths of Strasbourg
• Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts
• Anglo-Norman
• Grammar
• Adverbs
• Articles and determiners
• Pronouns
• Personal pronouns
• Verbs
• Conjugation
• Verb morphology
• Orthography
• Alphabet
• Reforms
• Use of the circumflex
• Phonology
• Elision
• Liaison
• Aspirated h

French (français, French pronunciation: [fʁɑ̃sɛ]) is a Romance language spoken as a first language by about 136 million
people worldwide.[1] [4] A total of 200 million speak it as a first and second language[12] [13] [14] . French speaking
communities are present in 57 countries and territories.[5] Most native speakers of the language live in France, where
the language originated. The rest live essentially in Canada, particularly Quebec, New Brunswick and Ontario, as
well as Belgium, Switzerland, Luxembourg, and certain places in the U.S. states of Maine[15] and Louisiana.[16]
Most second-language speakers of French live in Francophone Africa, arguably exceeding the number of native
speakers.[17]
French is a descendant of the Latin language of the Roman Empire, as are national languages such as Italian,
Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian and Catalan, and minority languages ranging from Occitan to Neapolitan and many
more. Its closest relatives however are the other langues d'oïl and French-based creole languages. Its development
was also influenced by the native Celtic languages of Roman Gaul and by the (Germanic) Frankish language of the
post-Roman Frankish invaders.
It is an official language in 29 countries, most of which form what is called, in French, La Francophonie, the
community of French-speaking countries. It is an official language of all United Nations agencies and a large
number of international organizations. According to the European Union, 129 million (or 26% of the Union's total
population), in 27 member states speak French, of which 65 million are native speakers and 69 million claim to
speak French either as a second language or as a foreign language, making it the third most spoken second language
in the Union, after English and German. Twenty-percent of non-Francophone Europeans know how to speak French,
totaling roughly 145.6 million people.[18]
French language 843

In addition, from the 17th century to the mid 20th century, French served as the pre-eminent international language
of diplomacy and international affairs as well as a lingua franca among the educated classes of Europe.[19] The
dominant position of French language has only been overthrown recently by English.[20] [21] French is the only
language, with English, to be spoken on the five continents.[22]
As a result of France's extensive colonial ambitions between the 17th and 20th centuries, French was introduced to
America, Africa, Polynesia, East Asia, and the Caribbean.

Geographic distribution

Europe

Legal status in France

According to the Constitution of France, French has been the official language since 1992.[23] (although previous
legal texts have made it official since 1539, see ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts). France mandates the use of French in
official government publications, public education except in specific cases (though these dispositions are often
ignored) and legal contracts; advertisements must bear a translation of foreign words.
In addition to French, there are also a variety of regional languages and dialects. France has signed the European
Charter for Regional Languages, but has not ratified it since that would go against the 1958 Constitution.

Switzerland
French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland (along with German, Italian and Romansh) and is spoken
in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. The language divisions in
Switzerland do not coincide with political subdivisions and some cantons enjoy bilingual status. French is the native
language of about 20% of the Swiss population.
Most of Swiss French is mutually compatible with the standard French spoken in France, but it is often used with
small differences, such as those involving some numbers.

Belgium

In Belgium, French is the official language of Wallonia (excluding

the East Cantons, which are German-speaking) and one of the two
official languages—along with Dutch—of the Brussels-Capital
Region where it is spoken by the majority of the population,
though often not as their primary language.[24] French and German
are not official languages nor recognized minority languages in the
Flemish Region, although along borders with the Walloon and
Brussels-Capital regions, there are a dozen municipalities with
language facilities for French speakers. A mirror situation exists
Bilingual signs in Brussels.
for the Walloon Region with respect to the Dutch and German
languages. In total, native French speakers make up about 40% of
the country's population, while the remaining 60% speak Dutch as a first language. Of the latter, 59% claim to speak
French as a second language, meaning that about three quarters of the Belgian population can speak French.[25] [26]
French language 844

Monaco and Andorra

Although Monégasque is the national language of the Principality of Monaco, French is the only official language,
and French nationals make up some 47% of the population.
Catalan is the only official language of Andorra; however, French is commonly used because of the proximity to
France. French nationals make up 7% of the population.

Italy

French is also an official language, along with Italian, in

the small region of Aosta Valley, Italy,[28] although most
people speak the Franco-Provençal language, they use
standard French to write. That is because the international
recognition of Franco-Provençal as a separated language
(as opposed to a dialect or patois of French) was quite
recent.

Luxembourg

French is one of three official languages of the Grand

Duchy of Luxembourg, alongside German and
Luxembourgish, the natively spoken language of
Luxembourg. Luxembourg's education system is
trilingual: the first years of primary school are in
Knowledge of French in the European Union and candidate
Luxembourgish, before changing to German; while in [27]
countries
secondary school, the language of instruction changes to
French.

The United Kingdom and the Channel Islands

French is a large minority language and immigrant language in the UK, with over 300,000 French-born people in the
UK. It is also the most popular foreign language. French is understood by 23% of the UK population.[29]
A large portion of words of the English language (originating in Great Britain) are of French root or origin. This is
mostly due to the Norman Conquest of 1066, which led to Norman French becoming the language of administration
and the use of French by the aristocracy and upper classes for a 300 year period following the Conquest (while the
peasants and lower classes spoke an Anglo-Saxon language).
French is an official language in Jersey and Guernsey, the two bailiwicks collectively referred to as the Channel
Islands, although they are separate entities. Both use French to some degree, mostly in an administrative or
ceremonial capacity. Jersey Legal French is the standardized variety used in Jersey. However, Norman (in its local
forms, Guernésiais and Jèrriais) is the historical vernacular of the islands.
French language 845

Americas

Canada

French is the second most common language in Canada, after English,

and both are official languages at the federal level. French is the sole
official language in the province of Quebec, being the mother tongue
for some 6.8 million people, or almost 80.1 % (2006 Census) of the
Province. About 95.0 % of the people of Quebec speak French as
either their first or second language, and for some as their third
language. Quebec is also home to the city of Montreal, which is the
world's second largest French speaking city, by number of first
language speakers. New Brunswick, where about a third of the
population is francophone, is the only officially bilingual province.
Portions of Eastern Ontario, Northeastern Ontario, Nova Scotia and
Manitoba have sizable French minorities, but its prescription as an
official language in those jurisdictions and the level of francophone
services varies. Smaller pockets of French speakers exist in all other
provinces. 10,170,000 Canadians can speak French as either a first or The "arrêt" signs (French for "stop") are used in
second language, or 30.6% of the country. Due to the increased Quebec while the international stop is used in the
bilingual school programs and French Immersion Classes in English European French-speaking countries.

Canada, the portion of Canadians proficient in French has risen

significantly in the past two decades, and is still rising.

The difference between French spoken in Quebec and French spoken in France is similar to American and British
English. In Quebec, where the majority of French-speaking Canadians live, the Office québécois de la langue
française (English: Quebec Board of the French language) regulates Quebec French and ensures the Charter of the
French Language (Bill 101) is respected. As Québécois live near to English-speaking regions, they are more
sensitive about the language situation than the European French speakers are, and many object to the use of English
words in French (anglicisms).

The Office québécois de la langue française determined that "stop" is a valid French word, however it is observed
that stop signs reading "ARRÊT" predominate in French-speaking areas, and "STOP" can be found in majority
English-speaking areas.

Haiti
French is one of the official languages of Haiti, in which it is spoken by the educated because of the school system,
while Haitian Creole (a French-based creole language) is more widely spoken as the common language and about
75-85% have the ability to speak French.

French overseas departments and territories in the Americas

French is also the official language in France's overseas departments and territories of French Guiana, Guadeloupe,
Martinique, Saint Barthélemy, St. Martin and Saint-Pierre and Miquelon.
French language 846

The United States

French is the fourth[30] [31] most-spoken language in the United States,

after English, Spanish and Chinese, and the second most-spoken in the
states of Louisiana, Maine, Vermont and New Hampshire. Louisiana is
home to many distinct dialects, of which Cajun French has the largest
number of speakers. According to the 2000 US Census, there are over
194,000 people in Louisiana who speak French at home, the most of
any state if Creole French is excluded.[31]

Brazil

The French language in Brazil was spoken in brief period at the

French language spread in the United States.
Counties marked in yellow are those where
6–12% of the population speak French at home;
brown, 12–18%; red, over 18%. French-based
creole languages are not included.
colonial attempts in France antarctique and France ecquinociale. Also,
the language was used by the community of French immigrants and
expatriates in the Nineteenth and Twentieth centuries, and by the
Brazilian public education system.
Today the Karipuna indigenous community (nearly 30,000 people) of
Amapá in North Brazil speaks a French creole, the Lanc-Patuá,
possibly related to the French Guiana Creole.

Africa
A majority of the world's French-speaking
population lives in Africa. According to the
2007 report by the Organisation
internationale de la Francophonie, an
estimated 115 million African people spread
across 31 Francophone African countries
can speak French as either a first or a second
language.[17] This number does not include
the people living in non-Francophone
African countries who have learnt French as
a foreign language.[17]

French is mostly a second language in

Africa, but it has become a first language in
some areas, such as the region of Abidjan,
Supermarket sign in French in Dakar, Senegal.
Côte d'Ivoire[34] and in Libreville,
Gabon.[35] It is not possible to speak of a
single form of African French, but rather of diverse forms of African French which have developed because of the
contact with many indigenous African languages.[36]

In the territories of the Indian Ocean, the French language is often spoken alongside
French language 847

French-derived creole languages, the major

exception being Madagascar. There, a
Malayo-Polynesian language (Malagasy) is
spoken alongside French.
Sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the
French language is most likely to expand,
because of the expansion of education and
rapid demographic growth.[37] It is also
where the language has evolved the most in
recent years.[38] [39] Some vernacular forms
of French in Africa can be difficult to
understand for French speakers from other
countries,[40] but written forms of the
language are very closely related to those of
the rest of the French-speaking world.

French is an official language in many

African countries, most of them former
French or Belgian colonies:
• Benin  Countries usually considered as Francophone Africa. These countries had
[32]
• Burkina Faso a population of 344 million in 2010. Their population is projected to
[33] [32]
reach between 684 million and 732 million in 2050.      Countries
• Burundi sometimes considered as Francophone Africa
• Cameroon
• Central African Republic
• Chad
• Comoros
• Congo (Brazzaville)
• Côte d'Ivoire
• Democratic Republic of the Congo
• Djibouti
• Equatorial Guinea (former colony of Spain)
• Gabon
• Guinea
• Madagascar
• Mali
• Niger
• Rwanda
• Senegal
• Seychelles
• Togo
In addition, French is an administrative language and commonly used, though not on an official basis, in Mauritius
and in the Maghreb states:
• Algeria
• Mauritania
• Morocco
• Tunisia
French language 848

Algeria
Most urban Algerians have some working knowledge of French, and a high (though unknown) percentage speak it
fluently. In their everyday spoken language, they intermix French words and expressions with their native Arabic or
Berber. Much of the educated intelligentsia in the capital speaks both French and Arabic in everyday life, a classic
situation of diglossia. A small percentage of the urban elite speaks French as a first language.
However, because of the country's colonial past, the predominance of French has long been politically fraught.
Numerous reforms have been implemented in recent decades to improve the status of Arabic in relation to French,
especially in education. For this reason, although Algeria is certainly one of the most Francophone countries in the
world outside of France, and has perhaps the largest number of French speakers, it does not participate in the
Francophonie association.

Egypt
While the predominant European language in Egypt is English, French is learned by some elements of the Egyptian
upper and upper-middle classes; for this reason, some highly educated Egyptians will learn French in addition to
English at some point in his or her education. Egypt participates in La Francophonie.

French overseas departments and territories in Africa

French is also the official language of Mayotte and Réunion, two overseas territories of France located in the
southwest Indian Ocean.

Asia

Lebanon

Arabic is the official language of Lebanon, while a special law shall

regulate the use of French. French is considered a second language by
the Lebanese people and is used on bank notes (along with Arabic) and
on official buildings. French is widely used by the Lebanese, especially
for administrative purposes, and is taught in many schools as a
secondary language along with Arabic and English. A Lebanese "mille livres" (thousand-pound) bank
note

Syria
Like Lebanon, French was official in Syria until 1943. But in contrast to Lebanon, the language is not official, but
still spoken by educated groups, both elite and middle-class.

Israel
There are a significant number of second-language French-speakers in Israel who trace their origins to the Jewish
communities of North Africa and Romania. Also, there has been considerable immigration of native French speakers
from France in recent years.
French language 849

Southeast Asia
French is an administrative language in Laos and Cambodia, although its influence has waned in recent years.[41] In
colonial Vietnam, the elites spoke French, and many who worked for the French spoke a French creole known as
"Tây Bồi" (now extinct). The language was also spoken by the elite in the leased territory Guangzhouwan in
southern China. (See also: French Indochina) In Singapore, the language has no official status but students are given the
option of taking French as a third language for the GCE Ordinary Level as well as the GCE Advanced Level
examination.

India
French has de-jure official status in the Indian Union Territory of Puducherry, along with the regional languages
Tamil and Telugu. Some students of Tamil Nadu opt for French as their second or third language (usually behind
English and Tamil).
French is commonly taught as a third language in secondary schools in most cities of Maharashtra, including
Mumbai (Bombay), as part of the preparation for secondary school (X-SSC) and higher secondary school (XII-HSC)
certificate examinations. Certain high-profile schools affiliated with the CBSE in the NCR offer French as an option
as early as grade 4.
French is also taught in schools in Chandannagar (a former French colony in West Bengal). Students also have the
option for having French as an additional subject in the secondary school (WBBSE) and higher secondary school
(WBCHSE) certificate examinations. Nevertheless, French is taught throughout India as an optional Foreign
language and is very popular subject among students. See also: French India

Oceania
French is an official language of the Pacific Island nation of Vanuatu where 45% of the population can speak
French.[42] In the French territory of New Caledonia, 97% of the population can speak, read and write French,
whereas only 1% have no knowledge of French.[43] In French Polynesia, 95% of the population can speak, read and
write French, whereas only 2% have no knowledge of French.[44] In the French territory of Wallis and Futuna, 78%
of the population can speak, read and write French, whereas 17% have no knowledge of French.[45]

Dialects
• Acadian French
• African French
• Aostan French
• Belgian French
• Cajun French
• Cambodian French
• Canadian French
• French-based creole languages
• Guyana French
• Indian French
• Jersey Legal French
• Lao French
• Levantine French (most commonly referred to as Lebanese French)
• Louisiana Creole French
• Mauritian Creole
• Maghreb French (see also North African French)
• Meridional French
French language 850

• Metropolitan French
• New Caledonian French
• Newfoundland French
• Oceanic French
• Quebec French
• South East Asian French
• Swiss French
• Vietnamese French
• West Indian French

Phonology
Although there are many French regional accents, foreign learners normally study only one version of the language,
which has no commonly used special name.
• There are 16 vowels in French, not all of which are used in every dialect: /a/, /ɑ/, /e/, /ɛ/, /ə/, /i/, /o/, /ɔ/, /y/, /u/,
/œ/, /ø/, plus the nasalized vowels /ɑ̃/, /ɛ̃/, /ɔ̃/ and /œ̃/. In France, the vowels /ɑ/ and /œ̃/ are tending to be replaced
by /a/ and /ɛ̃/ in many people's speech.
• Voiced stops (i.e. /b d ɡ/) are typically produced fully voiced throughout.
• Voiceless stops (i.e. /p t k/) are unaspirated.
• Nasals: The velar nasal /ŋ/ can occur in final position in borrowed (usually English) words: parking, camping,
swing but the palatal nasal often substitute it. The palatal nasal /ɲ/ can occur in word initial position (e.g. gnon),
but it is most frequently found in intervocalic, onset position or word-finally (e.g. montagne).
• Fricatives: French has three pairs of homorganic fricatives distinguished by voicing, i.e. labiodental /f/–/v/, dental
/s/–/z/, and palato-alveolar /ʃ/–/ʒ/. Notice that /s/–/z/ are dental, like the plosives /t/–/d/, and the nasal /n/.
• French has one rhotic whose pronunciation varies considerably among speakers and phonetic contexts. In general
it is described as a voiced uvular fricative as in [ʁu] roue, "wheel" . Vowels are often lengthened before this
segment. It can be reduced to an approximant, particularly in final position (e.g. fort) or reduced to zero in some
word-final positions. For other speakers, a uvular trill is also common, and an apical trill [r] occurs in some
dialects.
• Lateral and central approximants: The lateral approximant /l/ is unvelarised in both onset (lire) and coda position
(il). In the onset, the central approximants [w], [ɥ], and [j] each correspond to a high vowel, /u/, /y/, and /i/
respectively. There are a few minimal pairs where the approximant and corresponding vowel contrast, but there
are also many cases where they are in free variation. Contrasts between /j/ and /i/ occur in final position as in /pɛj/
paye, "pay", vs. /pɛi/ pays, "country".
French pronunciation follows strict rules based on spelling, but French spelling is often based more on history than
phonology. The rules for pronunciation vary between dialects, but the standard rules are:
• final consonants: Final single consonants, in particular s, x, z, t, d, n,f,g and m, are normally silent. A consonants
is final when no vowel follow it even though one or more consonants follow it. (The final letters c,k,q and l,
however, are normally pronounced.) For the r, usually it's silent when it follow an e in a word of two or more
syllables and pronounced in other case. The t is pronounced when it follow a c.
• When the following word begins with a vowel, however, a silent consonant may once again be pronounced, to
provide a liaison or "link" between the two words. Some liaisons are mandatory, for example the s in les
amants or vous avez; some are optional, depending on dialect and register, for example the first s in deux cents
euros or euros irlandais; and some are forbidden, for example the s in beaucoup d'hommes aiment. The t of et
is never pronounced and the silent final consonant of a noun is only pronounced in the plural and in set phrases
like pied-à-terre.
French language 851

• Doubling a final n and adding a silent e at the end of a word (e.g. chien → chienne) makes it clearly
pronounced. Doubling a final l and adding a silent e (e.g. gentil → gentille) adds a [j] sound if the l is preceded
by the letter i.
• elision or vowel dropping: Some monosyllabic function words ending in a or e, such as je and que, drop their
final vowel when placed before a word that begins with a vowel sound (thus avoiding a hiatus). The missing
vowel is replaced by an apostrophe. (e.g. je ai is instead pronounced and spelled → j'ai). This gives, for example,
the same pronunciation for l'homme qu'il a vu ("the man whom he saw") and l'homme qui l'a vu ("the man who
saw him"). However, for Belgian French the sentences are pronounced differently; in the first sentence the
syllable break is as "qu'il-a", while the second breaks as "qui-l'a". It can also be noted that, in Quebec French, the
second example (l'homme qui l'a vu) is more emphasized on l'a vu.

Writing system

Alphabet
French is written with the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet, with four diacritics appearing on vowels (circumflex
accent, acute accent, grave accent, diaeresis) and the cedilla appearing in ‹ç›.
There are two ligatures, ‹œ› and ‹æ›.

Orthography
French spelling, like English spelling, tends to preserve obsolete pronunciation rules. This is mainly due to extreme
phonetic changes since the Old French period, without a corresponding change in spelling (see Vocabulary below) .
Moreover, some conscious changes were made to restore Latin orthography:
• Old French doit > French doigt "finger" (Latin digitus)
• Old French pie > French pied "foot" (Latin pes (stem: ped-))
As a result, it is difficult to predict the spelling based on the sound alone. Final consonants are generally silent,
except when the following word begins with a vowel. For example, all of these words end in a vowel sound: pied,
aller, les, finit, beaux. The same words followed by a vowel, however, may sound the consonants, as they do in these
examples: beaux-arts, les amis, pied-à-terre.
On the other hand, a given spelling will usually lead to a predictable sound, and the Académie française works hard
to enforce and update this correspondence. In particular, a given vowel combination or diacritic predictably leads to
one phoneme.
French writing, as with any language, is affected by the spoken language. In Old French, the plural for animal was
animals. The /als/ sequence was unstable and was turned into a diphthong /aus/. This change was then reflected in
the orthography: animaus. The us ending, very common in Latin, was then abbreviated by copists monks by the
letter x, resulting in a written form animax. As the French language further evolved, the pronunciation of au turned
into /o/ so that the u was reestablished in orthography for consistency, resulting in modern French animaux
(pronounced first /animos/ before the final /s/ was dropped in contemporary French). The same is true for cheval
pluralized as chevaux and many others. In addition, castel pl. castels became château pl. châteaux.
• Nasal: n and m. When n or m follows a vowel or diphthong, the n or m becomes silent and causes the preceding
vowel to become nasalized (i.e. pronounced with the soft palate extended downward so as to allow part of the air
to leave through the nostrils). Exceptions are when the n or m is doubled, or immediately followed by a vowel.
The prefixes en- and em- are always nasalized. The rules are more complex than this but may vary between
dialects.
• Digraphs: French uses not only diacritics to specify its large range of vowel sounds and diphthongs, but also
specific combinations of vowels, sometimes with following consonants, to show which sound is intended.
French language 852

• Gemination: Within words, double consonants are generally not pronounced as geminates in modern French (but
geminates can be heard in the cinema or TV news from as recently as the 1970s, and in very refined elocution
they may still occur). For example, illusion is pronounced [ilyzjɔ̃] and not [ilːyzjɔ̃]. But gemination does occur
between words. For example, une info ("a news item" or "a piece of information") is pronounced [ynɛ̃fo], whereas
une nympho ("a nymphomaniac") is pronounced [ynːɛ̃fo].
• Accents are used sometimes for pronunciation, sometimes to distinguish similar words, and sometimes for
etymology alone.
• Accents that affect pronunciation
• The acute accent (l'accent aigu), é (e.g. école—school), means that the vowel is pronounced /e/ instead of
the default /ə/.
• The grave accent (l'accent grave), è (e.g. élève—pupil) means that the vowel is pronounced /ɛ/ instead of
the default /ə/.
• The circumflex (l'accent circonflexe) ê (e.g. forêt—forest) shows that an e is pronounced /ɛ/ and that an ô is
pronounced /o/. In standard French, it also signifies a pronunciation of /ɑ/ for the letter â, but this
differentiation is disappearing. In the late 19th century, the circumflex was used in place of s after a vowel,
where that letter s was not to be pronounced. Thus, forest became forêt and hospital became hôpital.
• The diaeresis (le tréma) (e.g. naïf—naive, Noël—Christmas) as in English, specifies that this vowel is
pronounced separately from the preceding one, not combined, and is not a schwa.
• The cedilla (la cédille) ç (e.g. garçon—boy) means that the letter ç is pronounced /s/ in front of the hard
vowels a, o and u (c is otherwise /k/ before a hard vowel). C is always pronounced /s/ in front of the soft
vowels e, i, and y, thus ç is never found in front of soft vowels.
• Accents with no pronunciation effect
• The circumflex does not affect the pronunciation of the letters i or u, and in most dialects, a as well. It
usually indicates that an s came after it long ago, as in île (island, compare with English isle). The
explanation is that some words share the same orthograph, and the circumflex is put here to spot the
difference between the two words. For example, dites (you say) / dîtes (you said), or even du (of the) / dû
(past for the verb devoir = must, have to, owe; in this case, the circumflex splits at the plural and the
feminine)
• All other accents are used only to distinguish similar words, as in the case of distinguishing the adverbs là
and où ("there", "where") from the article la ("the" fem. sing.) and the conjunction ou ("or") respectively.
Some proposals exist to simplify the existing writing system, but they still fail to gather interest. [46] [47] [48]

Grammar
French grammar shares several notable features with most other Romance languages, including:
• the loss of Latin's declensions
• only two grammatical genders
• the development of grammatical articles from Latin demonstratives
• new tenses formed from auxiliaries
French declarative word order is Subject Verb Object, although if the object is a pronoun, it precedes the verb. Some
types of sentences allow for or require different word orders, in particular inversion of the subject and verb.
French language 853

Vocabulary
The majority of French words derive from Vulgar Latin or were constructed from Latin or Greek roots. In many
cases a single etymological root appears in French in a "popular" or native form, inherited from Vulgar Latin, and a
learned form, borrowed later from Classical Latin. The following pairs consist of a native noun and a learned
adjective:
• brother: frère / fraternel < from Latin frater
• finger: doigt / digital < from Latin digitum
• faith: foi / fidèle < from Latin fidem
• eye: œil / oculaire < from Latin oculum
There are also noun-noun and adjective-adjective pairs:
• thing/cause: chose / cause < from Latin causa
• cold: froid / frigide < from Latin frigidum
It can be difficult to identify the Latin source of native French words, because in the evolution from Vulgar Latin,
unstressed syllables were severely reduced and the remaining vowels and consonants underwent significant
modifications.
It is estimated that 12% (4,200) of common French words found in a typical dictionary such as the Petit Larousse or
Micro-Robert Plus (35,000 words) are of foreign origin (where Greek and Latin learned words are not seen as
foreign). About 25% (1,054) of these foreign words come from English and are fairly recent borrowings. The others
are some 707 words from Italian, 550 from ancient Germanic languages, 481 from other Gallo-Romance languages,
215 from Arabic, 164 from German, 160 from Celtic languages, 159 from Spanish, 153 from Dutch, 112 from
Persian and Sanskrit, 101 from Native American languages, 89 from other Asian languages, 56 from other
Afro-Asiatic languages, 55 from Slavic languages and Baltic languages, 10 from Basque and 144 (about 3%) from
other languages.[49]

Numerals
The French counting system is partially vigesimal: twenty (vingt) is used as a base number in the names of numbers
from 60 to 99. The French word for 80 is quatre-vingt, literally "four twenty", and the word for 75 is
soixante-quinze, literally "sixty-fifteen". This reform arose after the French Revolution to unify the different
counting systems (mostly vigesimal near the coast, because of Celtic (via Breton) and Viking influences). This
system is comparable to the archaic English use of score, as in "fourscore and seven" (87), or "threescore and ten"
(70). In Old French (during the Middle Ages), all numbers from 30 to 99 could be said in either base 10 or base 20,
e.g. vint et doze (twenty and twelve) for 32, dous vinz et diz (two twenties and ten) for 50, uitante for 80, or nonante
for 90.[50]
Belgian French, Swiss French and the French used in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi
are different in this respect. In Belgium and Switzerland 70 and 90 are septante and nonante. In Switzerland,
depending on the local dialect, 80 can be quatre-vingts (Geneva, Neuchâtel, Jura) or huitante (Vaud, Valais,
Fribourg). Octante had been used in Switzerland in the past, but is now considered archaic.[51] In Belgium and in its
former African colonies, however, quatre-vingts is universally used.
It should also be noted that French uses a period (also called a full stop) or a space to separate thousands where
English uses a comma or (more recently) a space. The comma is used in French numbers as a decimal point: 2,5 =
deux virgule cinq.
Cardinal numbers in French from 1 to 20 are as follows:
• One: un/une /œ̃/ - /yn/
• Two: deux /dø/
• Three: trois /tʁwa/
French language 854

• Four: quatre /katʁ/

• Five: cinq /sɛ̃k/
• Six: six /sis/
• Seven: sept /sɛt/
• Eight: huit /ɥit/
• Nine: neuf /nœf/
• Ten: dix /dis/
• Eleven: onze /ɔ̃z/
• Twelve: douze /duz/
• Thirteen: treize /tʁɛz/
• Fourteen: quatorze /katɔʁz/
• Fifteen: quinze /kɛ̃z/
• Sixteen: seize /sɛz/
• Seventeen: dix-sept /dis.sɛt/
• Eighteen: dix-huit /di.z‿ɥit/
• Nineteen: dix-neuf /diz.nœf/
• Twenty: vingt /vɛ̃/

Examples
The "Canadian" audio samples here are not necessarily from speakers of Quebec French, which has distinct regional
pronunciations of certain words.references needed

English French IPA pronunciation IPA pronunciation

(Canadian accent) (French accent)

French Français /fʀɑ̃ˈsɛ/ /fʁɑ̃sɛ/

English Anglais /ɑ̃ɡlɛ/ /ɑ̃ɡlɛ/

Yes Oui (si when countering an assertion or a question expressed in /wi/ /wi/
the negative)

No Non /nɔ̃/ /nɔ̃/

Hello! Bonjour ! (formal) or Salut ! (informal) or "Allô" (Canada or /bɔ̃ˈʒuːʀ/ /bɔ̃ʒuʁ/

when answering on the telephone)

Good evening! Bonsoir ! /bɔ̃swɑːʀ/ /bɔ̃swaːʁ/

Good night! Bonne nuit ! /bɔnnɥi/ /bɔn nɥi/

Goodbye! Au revoir ! /ɔʀˈvwɑːʀ/ /ɔʁ vwaːʀ/

Have a nice day! Bonne journée ! /bɔn ʒuʀˈne/ /bɔn ʒuʁne/

Please S’il vous plaît (formal) or S’il te plaît (informal) /sɪlvuplɛ/ /sil vu plɛ/

Thank you Merci /mɛʀˈsi/ /mɛʁsi/

You are welcome De rien (informal) or Ce n’est rien (formal) ("it is nothing") or /də ʁiɛ̃/
Je vous en prie (formal) or Je t’en prie (informal)

I am sorry Pardon or Je suis désolé (if male) / Je suis désolée (if female) /paʁdɔ̃/ / /dezɔle/ /paʁdɔ̃/ /
or Excuse-moi (informal) / Excusez-moi (formal) / "Je regrette" /dezɔle/

Who? Qui ? /ki/ /ki/

What? Quoi ? (←informal; used as "What?" in English)) or Comment /kwa/ /kwa/

? (←formal; used the same as "Pardon me?" in English)

When? Quand ? /kɑ̃/ /kɑ̃/

French language 855

Where? Où ? /u/ /u/

Why? Pourquoi ? /puʀkwa/ /puʁkwɑ/

What is your name? Comment vous appelez-vous ? (formal) or Comment /kɔmɑ̃ vu‿zap le vu/
t’appelles-tu ? (informal)

Because Parce que / Car /paʀs(ə)kə/ /paʁs kǝ/

Because of à cause de

Therefore Donc /dɔñk/ /dɔ̃k/

How? Comment ? /kɔmɑ̃/ /kɔmɑ̃/

How much? Combien ? /kɔ̃ˈbjɛ̃/ /kɔ̃ bjɛ̃/

I do not understand. Je ne comprends pas. /ʒə nə kɔ̃pʀɑ̃ pɑ/ /ʒə nə kɔ̃pʁɑ̃ pa/

Yes, I understand. Oui, je comprends. Except when responding to a negatively /wi ʒə kɔ̃pʀɑ̃/ /wi, ʒə kɔ̃ pʁɑ̃/
posed question, in which case Si is used preferentially over Oui

I agree Je suis d’accord. D’accord can be used without je suis.

Help! Au secours ! (à l’aide !) /o səˈkuʀ/ /o səku:ʁ/

Can you help me please? Pouvez-vous m’aider s’il vous plaît ? / Pourriez-vous m’aider
s’il vous plaît ? (formal) or Peux-tu m’aider s’il te plaît ? /
Pourrais-tu m’aider s’il te plaît (informal)

Where are the toilets? Où sont les toilettes ? /u sɔ̃ le twalɛt/ /u sɔ̃ le twa.lɛt/

Do you speak English? Parlez-vous anglais ? /paʀle vu ɑ̃ɡlɛ/ /paʁ le vu ɑ̃ɡ lɛ/

I do not speak French. Je ne parle pas français. /ʒə nə paʀlə pɑ /ʒə nə paʁl pa fʁɑ̃sɛ/
fʀɑ̃sɛ/

I do not know. Je ne sais pas. /ʒə (nə) se pa/

I know. Je sais. /ʒə sɛ/

I am thirsty. J’ai soif. (literally, "I have thirst") /ʒɛ swaf/

I am hungry. J’ai faim. (literally, "I have hunger") /ʒɛ fɛ̃/

How are you? / How are things Comment allez-vous? (formal) or Ça va? / Comment ça va ?
going? / How is everything? (informal)

I am (very) well / Things are Je vais (très) bien (formal) or Ça va (très) bien. / Tout va (très)
going (very) well // Everything bien (informal)
is (very) well

I am (very) bad / Things are Je vais (très) mal (formal) or Ça va (très) mal / Tout va (très)
(very) bad / Everything is (very) mal (informal)
bad

I am all right/so-so / Everything Assez bien or Ça va comme ci, comme ça or simply Ça va..
is all right/so-so (Sometimes said: « Couci, couça. », informal: "bof") i.e. «
Comme ci, comme ça. »)

I am fine. Je vais bien. /ʒə vɛ bjɛ̃/

French language 856

See also
• Académie française
• Alliance française
• Francophonie
• French language in Canada
• French language in the United States
• French proverbs
• French-based creole languages
• History of French
• List of countries where French is an official language
• List of English words of French origin
• List of French loanwords in Persian
• List of French words and phrases used by English speakers
• List of pseudo-French words adapted to English
• Louchébem
• Office québécois de la langue française
• Quebec French
• Reforms of French orthography
• Varieties of French
• Verlan

External links
• French is spreading, especially in Africa [52] Radio France Internationale in English

Courses and tutorials

• A non-free online French course provided by an Indian company with support of the French embassy in India [53]
(culture, vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation)
• Learn French [54] BBC
• français interactif [55] University of Texas at Austin
• Tex's French Grammar [56] University of Texas at Austin
• Learn French at About [57] (including French gestures)
• Learn French at Target Language [58] (Ab initio)

Online dictionaries
• Comprehensive list of the best French dictionaries [59]

Vocabulary
• Swadesh list in English and French
• A Two-Page PDF Reference Guide of the 681 Most Common French/English Verbs [60]

References
[1] "Estimation du nombre de francophones dans le monde en 2005" (http:/ / www. tlfq. ulaval. ca/ axl/ francophonie/
OIF-francophones-est2005. htm). Tlfq.ulaval.ca. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[2] Jacques Leclerc. "Francophonie (Qu'est-ce que la?)" (http:/ / www. tlfq. ulaval. ca/ axl/ francophonie/ francophonie. htm). Tlfq.ulaval.ca. .
Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[3] http:/ / www. francophonie. org/ English. html
French language 857

[4] Jacques Leclerc. "Francophonie" (http:/ / www. tlfq. ulaval. ca/ axl/ francophonie/ francophonie. htm). Tlfq.ulaval.ca. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[5] Université de Laval. "Qu'est-ce que la Francophonie?" (http:/ / www. tlfq. ulaval. ca/ axl/ francophonie/ francophonie. htm). . Retrieved
2009-10-03.
[6] ethnologue (2000). "French: a language of France" (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ 14/ show_language. asp?code=FRN). Ethnologue:
Languages of the World. .
[7] Qu'est-ce que la Francophonie? (http:/ / www. tlfq. ulaval. ca/ axl/ francophonie/ francophonie. htm) Université Laval'.' Retrieved 2010-3-07.
[8] 230 million French speakers in the world (http:/ / www. ambafrance-au. org/ france_australie/ spip. php?article2223) Embassy of France'.'
Retrieved 2010-3-07.
[9] FRENCH: a language of France (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ 14/ show_language. asp?code=FRN) Ethnologue: Languages of the World,
14th Edition '.' Retrieved 2010-3-07.
[10] Cheer up French speakers, you’re not alone (http:/ / www. france24. com/ en/
20081018-cheer-french-speakers-francophone-francophonie-nadeau) France 24'.' Retrieved 2010-3-07.
[11] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=fra
[12] http:/ / www. francophonie. org/ English. html
[13] http:/ / www. tlfq. ulaval. ca/ axl/ francophonie/ OIF-francophones-est2005. htm
[14] http:/ / www. krysstal. com/ spoken. html
[15] Maine's French Communities (http:/ / www. francomaine. org/ English/ Pres/ Pres_intro. html) FrancoMaine'.' Retrieved 2010-3-07.
[16] "The Cajun language ''La Louisiane francaise'' Retrieved 2010-3-07" (http:/ / www. louisiane. culture. fr/ en/ hier/ hier_fran_lang. html).
Louisiane.culture.fr. 2003-08-21. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[17] (French) La Francophonie dans le monde 2006–2007 (http:/ / www. amazon. fr/ dp/ 2098821778) published by the Organisation
internationale de la Francophonie. Nathan (http:/ / www. nathan. fr), Paris, 2007.
[18] "Why learn French" (http:/ / cpfont. on. ca/ nav/ faq/ Why learn French/ default. htm). Cpfont.on.ca. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[19] ls the French obsession with "cultural exception" declining? (http:/ / www. franceinlondon. co. uk/
en-Article-335-Is-the-French-obsession-with-cultural-exception-declininge-Culture--london-language. htm) France in London
[20] http:/ / www. diplomacy. edu/ language/ Translation/ default. htm
[21] Why Is French Considered the Language of Diplomacy? (http:/ / www. legallanguage. com/ legal-articles/ language-of-diplomacy/ )
[22] Why study French (http:/ / www. fll. vt. edu/ French/ whyfrench. html)
[23] (French) Loi constitutionnelle 1992 (http:/ / www. languefrancaise. net/ dossiers/ dossiers. php?id_dossier=50) — C'est à la loi
constitutionnelle du 25 juin 1992, rédigée dans le cadre de l'intégration européenne, que l'on doit la première déclaration de principe sur le
français, langue de la République.
[24] Van Parijs, Philippe, Professor of economic and social ethics at the UCLouvain, Visiting Professor at Harvard University and the
KULeuven. "Belgium's new linguistic challenge" (http:/ / www. statbel. fgov. be/ studies/ ac699_en. pdf) (pdf 0.7 MB). KVS Express
(supplement to newspaper De Morgen) March–April 2006: Article from original source (pdf 4.9 MB) (http:/ / www. kvs. be/ kvs_express/
KVS_EXPRESS_13_WEB. pdf) pages 34–36 republished by the Belgian Federal Government Service (ministry) of Economy —
Directorate-general Statistics Belgium. . Retrieved 2007-05-05. — The linguistic situation in Belgium (and in particular various estimations of
the population speaking French and Dutch in Brussels) is discussed in detail.
[25] (French) "La dynamique des langues en Belgique" (http:/ / regards. ires. ucl. ac. be/ Archives/ RE042. pdf) (PDF). Regards économiques,
Publication préparée par les économistes de l'Université Catholique de Louvain (Numéro 42). June 2006. . Retrieved 7 May 2007. "Les
enquêtes montrent que la Flandre est bien plus multilingue, ce qui est sans doute un fait bien connu, mais la différence est considérable : alors
que 59 % et 53 % des Flamands connaissent le français ou l'anglais respectivement, seulement 19 % et 17 % des Wallons connaissent le
néerlandais ou l'anglais. ... 95 pour cent des Bruxellois déclarent parler le français, alors que ce pourcentage tombe à 59 pour cent pour le
néerlandais. Quant à l’anglais, il est connu par une proportion importante de la population à Bruxelles (41 pour cent)".
[26] 40%+60%*59%=75.4%
[27] Source: EUROPA (http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ public_opinion/ archives/ ebs/ ebs_243_en. pdf), data for EU25, published before 2007
enlargement.
[28] "Vda.it" (http:/ / www. regione. vda. it/ turismo/ la_tradizione/ lingue_f. asp). Regione.vda.it. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[29] "EUROPA" (http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ public_opinion/ archives/ ebs/ ebs_243_en. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[30] National Virtual Translation Center (http:/ / www. nvtc. gov/ lotw/ months/ november/ USlanguages. html) — Languages Spoken in the
U.S.
[31] U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000 Summary File 3 (http:/ / factfinder. census. gov/ servlet/ QTTable?_bm=y& -geo_id=D&
-qr_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U_QTP16& -ds_name=D& -_lang=en) — Language Spoken at Home: 2000.
[32] Population Reference Bureau. "2010 World Population Data Sheet" (http:/ / www. prb. org/ pdf10/ 10wpds_eng. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved
2010-08-21.
[33] United Nations. "World Population Prospects — The 2008 Revision" (http:/ / www. un. org/ esa/ population/ publications/ wpp2008/
wpp2008_highlights. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2009-10-11.
[34] (French) Le français à Abidjan : Pour une approche syntaxique du non-standard (http:/ / www. amazon. fr/ dp/ 2271059682) by Katja
Ploog, CNRS Editions, Paris, 2002.
[35] (French) "De plus, le français est également devenu la langue maternelle de plus de 30 % des Librevillois et il est de plus en plus perçu
comme une langue gabonaise." (http:/ / www. tlfq. ulaval. ca/ axl/ afrique/ Gabon. htm)
French language 858

[36] (French) "En Afrique, il est impossible de parler d'une forme unique du français mais..." (http:/ / www. cecif. com/
?page=la_francophonie#francaisafrique)
[37] France-Diplomatie (http:/ / www. diplomatie. gouv. fr/ en/ France-priorities_1/ francophony-french-language_1113/ french-language_1934/
french-language-in-the-world_3441/ the-french-language-in-the-world-an-expanding-community_4289. html) "Furthermore, the demographic
growth of Southern hemisphere countries leads us to anticipate a new increase in the overall number of French speakers."
[38] (French) "Le français, langue en évolution. Dans beaucoup de pays francophones, surtout sur le continent africain, une proportion
importante de la population ne parle pas couramment le français (même s'il est souvent la langue officielle du pays). Ce qui signifie qu'au fur
et à mesure que les nouvelles générations vont à l'école, le nombre de francophones augmente : on estime qu'en 2015, ceux-ci seront deux fois
plus nombreux qu'aujourd'hui. (http:/ / www. cecif. com/ ?page=la_francophonie)"
[39] (French) c) Le sabir franco-africain (http:/ / www. cecif. com/ ?page=la_francophonie#francaisafrique): "C'est la variété du français la
plus fluctuante. Le sabir franco-africain est instable et hétérogène sous toutes ses formes. Il existe des énoncés où les mots sont français mais
leur ordre reste celui de la langue africaine. En somme, autant les langues africaines sont envahies par les structures et les mots français, autant
la langue française se métamorphose en Afrique, donnant naissance à plusieurs variétés."
[40] (French) République centrafricaine (http:/ / www. tlfq. ulaval. ca/ axl/ afrique/ centrafrique. htm): Il existe une autre variété de français,
beaucoup plus répandue et plus permissive : le français local. C'est un français très influencé par les langues centrafricaines, surtout par le
sango. Cette variété est parlée par les classes non instruites, qui n'ont pu terminer leur scolarité. Ils utilisent ce qu'ils connaissent du français
avec des emprunts massifs aux langues locales. Cette variété peut causer des problèmes de compréhension avec les francophones des autres
pays, car les interférences linguistiques, d'ordre lexical et sémantique, sont très importantes. (One example of a variety of African French that
is difficult to understand for European French speakers).
[41] French Declines in Indochina, as English Booms (http:/ / www. iht. com/ articles/ 1993/ 10/ 16/ lang. php), International Herald Tribune, 16
October 1993: "In both Cambodia and Laos, French remains the official second language of government."
[42] Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. "Estimation du nombre de francophones dans le monde1" (http:/ / 20mars. francophonie.
org/ IMG/ pdf/ FICHE_03_Nombre_de_francophones. pdf). . Retrieved 2009-10-03.
[43] (French) INSEE, Government of France. "P9-1 - Population de 14 ans et plus selon la connaissance du français, le sexe, par commune,
"zone" et par province de résidence" (http:/ / www. insee. fr/ fr/ ppp/ ir/ rpnc04/ dd/ excel/ rpnc04_P9-1. xls) (XLS). . Retrieved 2009-10-03.
[44] (French) Institut Statistique de Polynésie Française (ISPF). "Recensement 2007 - Langues : Chiffres clés" (http:/ / www. ispf. pf/ ISPF/
EnqRep/ Recensement/ Recens2007/ Themes/ Langues. aspx). . Retrieved 2009-10-03.
[45] (French) INSEE, Government of France. "Tableau Pop_06_1 : Population selon le sexe, la connaissance du français et l'âge décennal"
(http:/ / www. insee. fr/ fr/ ppp/ bases-de-donnees/ irweb/ rpwf08/ dd/ excel/ rpwf08_Pop_06. xls) (XLS). . Retrieved 2009-10-03.
[46] (French) Ortofasil writing system proposal (http:/ / sites. google. com/ site/ ortofasil/ ).
[47] (French) Alfograf writing system proposal (http:/ / www. alfograf. net/ ).
[48] (French) Ortograf.net writing system proposal (http:/ / ortograf. net/ ).
[49] Walter & Walter 1998.
[50] Einhorn, E. (1974). Old French: A Concise Handbook. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 110. ISBN 0521098386.
[51] (French) "Septante, octante (huitante), nonante" (http:/ / www. langue-fr. net/ spip. php?article202). langue-fr.net. .. See also the English
Wikipedia article on Welsh language, especially the section "Counting system" and its note on the influence of Celtic in the French counting
system.
[52] http:/ / www. english. rfi. fr/ africa/ 20100319-french-language-growing-especially-africa
[53] http:/ / www. clickonfrench. com/
[54] http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ languages/ french/
[55] http:/ / www. laits. utexas. edu/ fi/
[56] http:/ / www. laits. utexas. edu/ tex/
[57] http:/ / french. about. com/
[58] http:/ / www. targetlanguage. co. uk/
[59] http:/ / frenchprofessor. org/ english-french-dictionaries. htm
[60] http:/ / www. dudziak. com/ verbs. php
German language 859

German language
German
Deutsch

Pronunciation German pronunciation: [ˈdɔʏtʃ]

Spoken in Primarily in German-speaking Europe, as a minority language and amongst the German
diaspora worldwide

Total speakers [1] [2]

Native speakers: ca. 120 million
[1]
Non-native speakers: ca. 80 million

Ranking 10

Language family Indo-European

• Germanic
• West Germanic
• High German
• German

Writing system Latin alphabet (German variant)

Official status

Official language in European Union

(official and working language)

Austria
Belgium
Italy (Province of Bolzano-Bozen)
Germany
Liechtenstein
Luxembourg
Switzerland
Recognised minority [3]
Czech Republic
language in [4]
Hungary
[5] [6]
Namibia (National language; official language 1984–90)
[7]
Poland (Auxiliary language in 22 municipalities in Opole Voivodeship)
[8]
Romania
[1] [9] [9]
Slovakia (Official municipal language of Krahule/Blaufuß)
[10]
 Vatican City (Administrative and commanding language of the Swiss Guard)

Regulated by No official regulation

Language codes

ISO 639-1 de

ISO 639-2 ger (B) deu (T)

German language 860

ISO 639-3 variously:

[11]
deu  – New High German
[12]
gmh  – Middle High German
[13]
goh  – Old High German
[14]
gct  – Alemán Coloniero
[15]
bar  – Austro-Bavarian
[16]
cim  – Cimbrian
[17]
geh  – Hutterite German
[18]
ksh  – Kölsch
[19]
nds  – Low German
[20]
sli  – Lower Silesian
[21]
ltz  – Luxembourgish
[22]
vmf  – Main-Franconian
[23]
mhn  – Mócheno
[24]
pfl  – Palatinate German
[25]
pdc  – Pennsylvania German
[26]
pdt  – Plautdietsch
[27]
swg  – Swabian German
[28]
gsw  – Swiss German
[29]
uln  – Unserdeutsch
[30]
sxu  – Upper Saxon
[31]
wae  – Walser German
[32]
wep  – Westphalian

Nations where German is spoken.

 Official language      Widely spoken and understood and/or National language      Spoken in a regional level

German (Deutsch, [ˈdɔʏtʃ] Wikipedia:Media helpFile:de-Deutsch.ogg) is a West Germanic language, thus related
to and classified alongside English and Dutch. It is one of the world's major languages and the most widely spoken
first language in the European Union. Globally, German is spoken by approximately 120 million native speakers and
also by about 80 million non-native speakers. Standard German is widely taught in schools, universities and Goethe
Institutes worldwide.
German language 861

Geographic distribution

Europe
German is primarily spoken in Germany (where it is the first language for more than 95% of the population), Austria
(89%) and Switzerland (65%). German is also spoken by the majority of the populations of Luxembourg and
Liechtenstein.
Other European German-speaking communities are found in Northern Italy (in the Province of Bolzano-Bozen and
in some municipalities in other provinces), in the East Cantons of Belgium, in the French regions of Alsace and
Lorraine, and in some border villages of the former South Jutland County (in German, Nordschleswig, in Danish,
Sønderjylland) of Denmark.
German-speaking communities can also be found in parts of the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland,
Romania, Serbia, Russia and Kazakhstan. In Russia, forced expulsions after World War II and massive emigration to
Germany in the 1980s and 1990s have depopulated most of these communities. German is also spoken by foreign
populations and some of their descendants in Bosnia, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Croatia, Egypt, Greece, Israel, Morocco,
Netherlands, Portugal, Scandinavia, Slovenia, Spain, Turkey, and the United Kingdom.

Overseas
Outside of Europe and the former Soviet Union, the largest
German-speaking communities are to be found in the United States,
Canada, Brazil and in Argentina where millions of Germans migrated
in the last 200 years; but the vast majority of their descendants no
longer speak German. German Americans form the largest
self-reported ancestry group in the United States, outnumbering the
Irish and English.[33] Additionally, German-speaking communities can
be found in the former German colony of Namibia independent from
Examples of German language in Namibian
South Africa since 1990, as well as in the other countries of German
everyday life
emigration such as Canada, Mexico, Dominican Republic, Paraguay,
Uruguay, Chile, Peru, Venezuela (where the dialect Alemán Coloniero
developed), South Africa and Australia. In Namibia, German Namibians retain German educational institutions.

South America
In Brazil the largest concentrations of German speakers are in Rio Grande do Sul (where Riograndenser
Hunsrückisch developed), Santa Catarina, Paraná, São Paulo and Espírito Santo. There are also important
concentrations of German-speaking descendants in Argentina (5 million), Venezuela, Paraguay and Chile (3
million). In the 20th century, over 100,000 German political refugees and invited entrepreneurs settled in Latin
America, in countries such as Costa Rica, Panama, Venezuela, and the Dominican Republic, to establish
German-speaking enclaves, and reportedly there is a small German immigration to Puerto Rico. Nearly all
inhabitants of the city of Pomerode in the state of Santa Catarina in Brazil can speak German.
German language 862

North America

German in the United States is the fifth most spoken language at home
(~ 1.4 million) after English, Spanish, Chinese, and French according
to the 2000 U.S. Census.[34] The United States, therefore, has one of
the largest concentrations of German speakers outside Europe. The
states of North Dakota and South Dakota are the only states where
German is the most common language spoken at home after English
(the second most spoken language in other states is either Spanish or
French).[34] An indication of the German presence can be found in the
names of such places as New Ulm and many other towns in Minnesota;
Bismarck (state capital), Munich, Karlsruhe, and Strasburg in North
Dakota; New Braunfels and Muenster in Texas; and Kiel, Berlin and
Germantown in Wisconsin. Over the course of the 20th century many
of the descendants of 18th century and 19th century immigrants ceased
German-language newspapers in North America
speaking German at home, but small populations of elderly (as well as
in 1922
some younger) speakers can be found in Pennsylvania (Amish,
Hutterites, Dunkards and some Mennonites historically spoke Hutterite
German and a West Central German variety of Pennsylvania Dutch), Kansas (Mennonites and Volga Germans),
North Dakota (Hutterite Germans, Mennonites, Russian Germans, Volga Germans, and Baltic Germans), South
Dakota, Montana, Texas (Texas German), Wisconsin, Indiana, Oregon, Louisiana and Oklahoma. A significant
group of German Pietists in Iowa formed the Amana Colonies and continue to practice speaking their heritage
language. Early twentieth century immigration was often to St. Louis, Chicago, New York, Milwaukee, Pittsburgh
and Cincinnati.

In Canada, there are 622,650 speakers of German according to the most recent census in 2006,[35] while people of
German ancestry (German Canadians) are found throughout the country. German-speaking communities are
particularly found in British Columbia (118,035) and Ontario (230,330).[35] There is a large and vibrant community
in the city of Kitchener, Ontario, which was at one point named Berlin. German immigrants were instrumental in the
country's three largest urban areas: Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver; while post-Second World War immigrants
managed to preserve a fluency in the German language in their respective neighborhoods and sections. In the first
half of the 20ᵗʰ century, over a million German-Canadians made the language Canada's third most spoken after
French and English.
In Mexico there are also large populations of German ancestry, mainly in the cities of: Mexico City, Puebla,
Mazatlán, Tapachula, and larger populations scattered in the states of Chihuahua, Durango, and Zacatecas. German
ancestry is also said to be found in neighboring towns around Guadalajara, Jalisco and much of Northern Mexico,
where German influence was immersed into the Mexican culture. Standard German is spoken by the affluent
German communities in Puebla, Mexico City, Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí and Quintana Roo.

Dialects in North America

The dialects of German which are or were primarily spoken in colonies or communities founded by
German-speaking people resemble the dialects of the regions the founders came from. For example, Pennsylvania
German resembles Palatinate German dialects, and Hutterite German resembles dialects of Carinthia. Texas German
is a dialect spoken in the areas of Texas settled by the Adelsverein, such as New Braunfels and Fredericksburg. In
the Amana Colonies in the state of Iowa, Amana German is spoken. Plautdietsch is a large minority language spoken
in Northern Mexico by the Mennonite communities, and is spoken by more than 200,000 people in Mexico.
Pennsylvania Dutch is a dialect of German spoken by the Amish population of Pennsylvania, Indiana, and Ohio.
German language 863

Hutterite German is an Upper German dialect of the Austro-Bavarian variety of the German language, which is
spoken by Hutterite communities in Canada and the United States. Hutterite is spoken in the U.S. states of
Washington, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Minnesota; and in the Canadian provinces of Alberta,
Saskatchewan and Manitoba. Its speakers belong to some Schmiedleit, Lehrerleit, and Dariusleit Hutterite groups,
but there are also speakers among the older generations of Prairieleit (the descendants of those Hutterites who chose
not to settle in colonies). Hutterite children who grow up in the colonies learn and speak first Hutterite German
before learning English in the public school, the standard language of the surrounding areas. Many colonies, though,
continue with German Grammar School, separate from the public school, throughout a student's elementary
education.

Oceania
In Australia, the state of South Australia experienced a pronounced wave of Germans arriving in the 1840s from
Prussia (particularly the Silesia region). With the prolonged isolation from other German speakers and contact with
Australian English some have suggested a unique dialect formed known as Barossa German spoken predominantly
in the Barossa Valley near Adelaide. Usage sharply declined with the advent of World War I, the prevailing
anti-German sentiment in the population and related government action. It continued to be used as a first language
into the twentieth century but now its use is limited to a few older speakers.
There is also an important German creole being studied and recovered, named Unserdeutsch, spoken in the former
German colony of Papua New Guinea, across Micronesia and in northern Australia (i.e. coastal parts of Queensland
and Western Australia), by a few elderly people. The risk of its extinction is serious and efforts to revive interest in
the language are being implemented by scholars.

Internet
According to Global Reach (2004), 6.9% of the Internet population is German.[36] [37] According to Netz-tipp
(2002), 7.7% of webpages are written in German,[38] making it second only to English in the European language
group. They also report that 12% of Google's users use its German interface.[38]
Some older statistics included in 1998 Babel found somewhat similar demographics.[39] FUNREDES[40] (1998) and
Vilaweb[41] (2000) both found that German is the third most popular language used by websites, after English and
Japanese.
German language 864

History

Origins
The history of the language begins with the High German
consonant shift during the migration period, separating Old High
German dialects from Old Saxon. The earliest testimonies of Old
High German are from scattered Elder Futhark inscriptions,
especially in Alemannic, from the 6th century AD; the earliest
glosses (Abrogans) date to the 8th; and the oldest coherent texts
(the Hildebrandslied, the Muspilli and the Merseburg Incantations)
to the 9th century. Old Saxon at this time belongs to the North Sea
Germanic cultural sphere, and Low Saxon should fall under
German rather than Anglo-Frisian influence during the Holy
Roman Empire.

As Germany was divided into many different states, the only force
The Germanic-speaking area of the Holy Roman
working for a unification or standardization of German during a
Empire around 962.
period of several hundred years was the general preference of
writers trying to write in a way that could be understood in the
largest possible area.

Modern German
When Martin Luther translated the Bible (the New Testament in 1522 and the Old Testament, published in parts and
completed in 1534), he based his translation mainly on the bureaucratic standard language used in Saxony
(sächsische Kanzleisprache), also known as Meißner-Deutsch (German from the city of Meissen). This language was
based on Eastern Upper and Eastern Central German dialects and preserved much of the grammatical system of
Middle High German (unlike the spoken German dialects in Central and Upper Germany, which already at that time
began to lose the genitive case and the preterit). In the beginning, copies of the Bible had a long list for each region,
which translated words unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics rejected Luther's
translation in the beginning and tried to create their own Catholic standard (gemeines Deutsch) — which, however,
only differed from "Protestant German" in some minor details. It took until the middle of the 18th century to create a
standard that was widely accepted, thus ending the period of Early New High German.
Until about 1800, standard German was almost only a written
language. At this time, people in urban northern Germany, who spoke
dialects very different from Standard German, learned it almost like a
foreign language and tried to pronounce it as closely to the spelling as
possible. Prescriptive pronunciation guides used to consider northern
German pronunciation to be the standard. However, the actual
pronunciation of Standard German varies from region to region.

German was the language of commerce and government in the

Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and
Ethno-linguistic map of Austria–Hungary, 1910.
Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century it was essentially the
language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire. It indicated
that the speaker was a merchant, an urbanite, not their nationality.
German language 865

Some cities, such as Prague (German: Prag) and Budapest (Buda,

German: Ofen), were gradually Germanized in the years after their
incorporation into the Habsburg domain. Others, such as Bratislava
(German: Pressburg), were originally settled during the Habsburg
period and were primarily German at that time. A few cities such as
Milan (German: Mailand) remained primarily non-German. However,
most cities were primarily German during this time, such as Prague,
Budapest, Bratislava, Zagreb (German: Agram), and Ljubljana
German language and ethnicity in central Europe,
(German: Laibach), though they were surrounded by territory that 1929.
spoke other languages.

In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a complete standardization of German language in its
written form while the Deutsche Bühnensprache (literally, German stage language) had already established rules for
German three years earlier, which were later to become obligatory for general German pronunciation.
Media and written works are now almost all produced in Standard German (often called Hochdeutsch in German)
which is understood in all areas where German is spoken.
The first dictionary of the Brothers Grimm, the 16 parts of which were issued between 1852 and 1860, remains the
most comprehensive guide to the words of the German language. In 1860, grammatical and orthographic rules first
appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, this was declared the standard definition of the German language.
Official revisions of some of these rules were not issued until 1998, when the German spelling reform of 1996 was
officially promulgated by governmental representatives of all German-speaking countries. Since the reform, German
spelling has been in an eight-year transitional period during which the reformed spelling is taught in most schools,
while traditional and reformed spellings co-exist in the media. See German spelling reform of 1996 for an overview
of the public debate concerning the reform, with some major newspapers and magazines and several known writers
refusing to adopt it.

Reform of 1996 and beyond

The German spelling reform of 1996 led to public controversy and considerable dispute. Some state parliaments
(Bundesländer) would not accept it (North Rhine Westphalia and Bavaria). The dispute landed at one point in the
highest court, which made a short issue of it, claiming that the states had to decide for themselves and that only in
schools could the reform be made the official rule—everybody else could continue writing as they had learned it.
After 10 years, without any intervention by the federal parliament, a major yet incomplete revision was installed in
2006, just in time for the coming school year. In 2007, some traditional spellings were finally invalidated even
though they caused little or no trouble. The only sure and easily recognizable symptom of a text's being in
compliance with the reform is the -ss at the end of words, such as dass and muss. Classic spelling forbade this
ending, instead using daß and muß. The cause of the controversy evolved around the question of whether a language
is part of the culture which must be preserved or a means of communicating information which has to allow for
growth.
German language 866

Standard German
Standard German originated not as a
traditional dialect of a specific region,
but as a written language. However,
there are places where the traditional
regional dialects have been replaced by
standard German; this is the case in
vast stretches of Northern Germany,
but also in major cities in other parts of
the country.

Standard German differs regionally,

between German-speaking countries,
in vocabulary and some instances of
pronunciation, and even grammar and [42]
The national and regional standard varieties of the Geman language.
orthography. This variation must not
be confused with the variation of local
dialects. Even though the regional varieties of standard German are only to a certain degree influenced by the local
dialects, they are very distinct. German is thus considered a pluricentric language.

In most regions, the speakers use a continuum of mixtures from more dialectal varieties to more standard varieties
according to situation.
In the German-speaking parts of Switzerland, mixtures of dialect and standard are very seldom used, and the use of
standard German is largely restricted to the written language. Therefore, this situation has been called a medial
diglossia. Swiss Standard German is used in the Swiss, Austrian Standard German officially in the Austrian
education system.

Official status
Standard German is the only official language in Liechtenstein; it shares official status in Germany (with Danish,
Frisian and Sorbian as minority languages), in Austria (with Slovene, Croatian, and Hungarian), Switzerland (with
French, Italian and Romansh), Belgium (with Dutch (Flemish) and French) and Luxembourg (with French and
Luxembourgish). It is used as a local official language in Italy (Province of Bolzano-Bozen), as well as in the cities
of Sopron (Hungary), Krahule (Slovakia) and several cities in Romania. It is the official language (with Italian) of
the Vatican Swiss Guard.
German has an officially recognized status as regional or auxiliary language in Denmark (South Jutland region), Italy
(Gressoney valley), Namibia, Poland (Opole region), and Russia (Asowo and Halbstadt).
German is one of the 23 official languages of the European Union. It is the language with the largest number of
native speakers in the European Union, and, just behind English and ahead of French, the second-most spoken
language in Europe.
German language 867

German as a foreign language

Knowledge of the German language in Europe.
German is the third-most taught foreign
language in the English-speaking world,
after French and Spanish .
German is the main language of about
90–95 million people in Europe (as of
2004), or 13.3% of all Europeans, being the
second most spoken native language in
Europe after Russian, above French (66.5
million speakers in 2004) and English (64.2
million speakers in 2004). It is therefore the
most spoken first language in the EU. It is
the second most known foreign language in
the EU.[43] It is one of the official languages
of the European Union, and one of the three
working languages of the European
Commission, along with English and
French. Thirty-two percent of citizens of the
EU-15 countries say they can converse in
German (either as a mother tongue or as a
second or foreign language).[44] This is
assisted by the widespread availability of
German TV by cable or satellite.

German was once, and still remains to some

extent, a lingua franca in Central, Eastern,
and Northern Europe .

Dialects
German is a member of the western branch
Knowledge of German as a foreign language (second language in Luxembourg) in of the Germanic family of languages, which
the EU member states (+Croatia and Turkey), in per cent of the adult population in turn is part of the Indo-European
(+15), 2005.
language family. The German dialect
continuum is traditionally divided most
broadly into High German and Low German.

The variation among the German dialects is considerable, with only the neighboring dialects being mutually
intelligible. Some dialects are not intelligible to people who only know standard German. However, all German
dialects belong to the dialect continuum of High German and Low Saxon languages.
German language 868

Low German
Middle Low German was the lingua franca of the
Hanseatic League. It was the predominant language in
Northern Germany. This changed in the 16th century,
when in 1534 the Luther Bible by Martin Luther was
printed. This translation is considered to be an
important step towards the evolution of the Early New
High German. It aimed to be understandable to a broad
audience and was based mainly on Central and Upper
German varieties. The Early New High German
language gained more prestige than Low Saxon and
became the language of science and literature. Other
factors were that around the same time, the Hanseatic
league lost its importance as new trade routes to Asia
and the Americas were established, and that the most
powerful German states of that period were located in
By the High German consonant shift, the map of German dialects is
Middle and Southern Germany. divided into Upper German (green), Central German (blue), and the
Low German (yellow). The main isoglosses and the Benrath and
The 18th and 19th centuries were marked by mass Speyer lines are marked black.
education of Standard German in schools. Slowly, Low
Saxon was pushed back and back until it was nothing
but a language spoken by the uneducated and at home.
Today Low Saxon can be divided in two groups: Low
Saxon varieties with a reasonable standard German
influx and varieties of Standard German with a Low
Saxon influence known as Missingsch. Sometimes,
Low Saxon and Low Franconian varieties are grouped
together because both are unaffected by the High
German consonant shift. However, the part of the
population capable of speaking and responding to it, or
of understanding it has decreased continuously since
World War II.

High German
High German is divided into Central German and
Upper German. Central German dialects include
Ripuarian, Moselle Franconian, Rhine Franconian,
Central Hessian, East Hessian, North Hessian,
Thuringian, Silesian German, High Franconian, Distribution of the native speakers of major continental
West-Germanic dialectal varieties.
Lorraine Franconian, Mittelalemannisch, North Upper
Saxon, High Prussian, Lausitzisch-Neumärkisch and
Upper Saxon. It is spoken in the southeastern Netherlands, eastern Belgium, Luxembourg, parts of France, and parts
of Germany approximately between the River Main and the southern edge of the Lowlands. Modern Standard
German is mostly based on Central German, but it should be noted that the common (but not linguistically correct)
German term for modern Standard German is Hochdeutsch, that is, High German.
German language 869

The Moselle Franconian varieties spoken in Luxembourg have been officially standardised and institutionalised and
are therefore usually considered a separate language known as Luxembourgish.
Upper German dialects include Northern Austro-Bavarian, Central Austro-Bavarian, Southern Austro-Bavarian,
Swabian, East Franconian, High Alemannic German, Highest Alemannic German, Alsatian and Low Alemannic
German. They are spoken in parts of the Alsace, southern Germany, Liechtenstein, Austria, and the
German-speaking parts of Switzerland and Italy.
Wymysorys is a High German dialect of Poland, and Sathmarisch and Siebenbürgisch are High German dialects of
Romania. The High German varieties spoken by Ashkenazi Jews (mostly in the former Soviet Union) have several
unique features, and are usually considered as a separate language, Yiddish. It is the only Germanic language that
does not use the Latin alphabet as its standard script.

German dialects versus varieties of standard German

In German linguistics, German dialects are distinguished from varieties of standard German.
• The German dialects are the traditional local varieties. They are traditionally traced back to the different German
tribes. Many of them are hardly understandable to someone who knows only standard German, since they often
differ from standard German in lexicon, phonology and syntax. If a narrow definition of language based on
mutual intelligibility is used, many German dialects are considered to be separate languages (for instance in the
Ethnologue). However, such a point of view is unusual in German linguistics.
• The varieties of standard German refer to the different local varieties of the pluricentric standard German. They
only differ slightly in lexicon and phonology. In certain regions, they have replaced the traditional German
dialects, especially in Northern Germany.

Grammar

German grammar
Nouns
Verbs
Articles
Adjectives
Pronouns
Adverbial phrases
Conjugation
Sentence structure
Declension
Modal particle

German is an inflected language with three grammatical genders; as such, there can be a large number of words
derived from the same root, albeit, there are other languages that are much more inflected.

Noun inflection
German nouns inflect into:
• one of four cases: nominative, genitive, dative, and accusative.
• one of three genders: masculine, feminine, or neuter. Word endings sometimes reveal grammatical gender; for
instance, nouns ending in ...ung (ing), ...schaft (-ship), ...keit or ...heit (-hood) are feminine, while nouns ending in
...chen or ...lein (diminutive forms) are neuter and nouns ending in ...ismus (-ism) are masculine. Others are
controversial, sometimes depending on the region in which it is spoken. Additionally, ambiguous endings exist,
such as ...er (-er), e.g. Feier (feminine), Eng. celebration, party, Arbeiter (masculine), Eng. labourer, and Gewitter
(neuter), Eng. thunderstorm.
German language 870

• two numbers: singular and plural

Although German is usually cited as an outstanding example of a highly inflected language, the degree of inflection
is considerably less than in Old German or in other old Indo-European languages such as Latin, Ancient Greek, or
Sanskrit, or, for instance, in modern Icelandic or Russian. The three genders have collapsed in the plural, which now
behaves, grammatically, somewhat as a fourth gender. With four cases and three genders plus plural there are 16
distinct possible combinations of case and gender/number, but presently there are only six forms of the definite
article used for the 16 possibilities. Inflection for case on the noun itself is required in the singular for strong
masculine and neuter nouns in the genitive and sometimes in the dative. Both of these cases are losing way to
substitutes in informal speech. The dative ending is considered somewhat old-fashioned in many contexts and often
dropped, but it is still used in sayings and in formal speech or in written language. Weak masculine nouns share a
common case ending for genitive, dative and accusative in the singular. Feminines are not declined in the singular.
The plural does have an inflection for the dative. In total, seven inflectional endings (not counting plural markers)
exist in German: -s, -es, -n, -ns, -en, -ens, -e.
In the German orthography, nouns and most words with the syntactical function of nouns are capitalised, which is
supposed to make it easier for readers to find out what function a word has within the sentence (Am Freitag ging ich
einkaufen. — "On Friday I went shopping."; Eines Tages kreuzte er endlich auf. — "One day he finally showed up.")
This convention is almost unique to German today (shared perhaps only by the closely related Luxemburgish
language and several insular dialects of the North Frisian language), although it was historically common in other
languages such as Danish and English.
Like most Germanic languages, German forms noun compounds where the first noun modifies the category given by
the second, for example: Hundehütte (Eng. dog hut; specifically: doghouse). Unlike English, where newer
compounds or combinations of longer nouns are often written in open form with separating spaces, German (like the
other German languages) nearly always uses the closed form without spaces, for example: Baumhaus (Eng. tree
house). Like English, German allows arbitrarily long compounds, but these are rare. (See also English compounds.)
The longest German word verified to be actually in (albeit very limited) use is
Rindfleischetikettierungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz, which, literally translated, is "beef labelling
supervision duty assignment law" [from Rind (cattle), Fleisch (meat), Etikettierung(s) (labelling), Überwachung(s)
(supervision), Aufgaben (duties), Übertragung(s) (assignment), Gesetz (law)].

Verb inflection
Standard German verbs inflect into:
• one of primarily two conjugation classes, weak and strong (as in English). Additionally, there is actually a third
class, known as mixed verbs, which exhibit inflections combining features of both the strong and weak patterns.
• three persons: 1st, 2nd, 3rd.
• two numbers: singular and plural
• three moods: indicative, imperative, subjunctive
• two voices: active and passive; the passive being composed and dividable into static and dynamic.
• two non-composed tenses (present, preterite) and four composed tenses (perfect, pluperfect, future and future
perfect)
• distinction between grammatical aspects is rendered by combined use of subjunctive and/or preterite marking;
thus: neither of both is plain indicative voice, sole subjunctive conveys second-hand information, subjunctive plus
preterite marking forms the conditional state, and sole preterite is either plain indicative (in the past), or functions
as a (literal) alternative for either second-hand-information or the conditional state of the verb, when one of them
may seem indistinguishable otherwise.
• distinction between perfect and progressive aspect is and has at every stage of development been at hand as a
productive category of the older language and in nearly all documented dialects, but, strangely enough, is
German language 871

nowadays rigorously excluded from written usage in its present normalised form.
• disambiguation of completed vs. uncompleted forms is widely observed and regularly generated by common
prefixes (blicken - to look, erblicken - to see [unrelated form: sehen - to see]).

Verb prefixes
There are also many ways to expand, and sometimes radically change, the meaning of a base verb through a
relatively small number of prefixes. Some of those prefixes have a meaning themselves (Example: zer- refers to the
destruction of things, as in zerreißen = to tear apart, zerbrechen = to break apart, zerschneiden = to cut apart), others
do not have more than the vaguest meaning in and of themselves (Example: ver- , as in versuchen = to try,
vernehmen = to interrogate, verteilen = to distribute, verstehen = to understand). More examples: haften = to stick,
verhaften = to imprison; kaufen = to buy, verkaufen = to sell; hören = to hear, aufhören = to cease; fahren = to drive,
erfahren = to get to know, to hear about something.

Separable prefixes
Many German verbs have a separable prefix, often with an adverbial function. In finite verb forms this is split off
and moved to the end of the clause, and is hence considered by some to be a "resultative particle". For example,
mitgehen meaning "to go with" would be split, giving Gehen Sie mit? (Literal: "Go you with?" ; Formal: "Are you
going along"?; a closer equivalent in colloquial English would be "Are you coming with?").
Indeed, several parenthetical clauses may occur between the prefix of a finite verb and its complement; e.g.
Er kam am Freitagabend nach einem harten Arbeitstag und dem üblichen Ärger, der ihn schon seit Jahren
immer wieder an seinem Arbeitsplatz plagt, mit fraglicher Freude auf ein Mahl, das seine Frau ihm, wie er
hoffte, bereits aufgetischt hatte, endlich zu Hause an .
A literal translation of this example might look like this:
He -rived on Friday evening, after a hard day at work and the usual annoyances that had been repeatedly
troubling him for years now at his workplace, with questionable joy, to a meal which, as he hoped, his wife
had already served him, finally ar- at home.

Word order
Word order is generally less rigid than in Modern German. There are two common word orders: one is for main
clauses and another for subordinate clauses. In normal affirmative sentences the inflected verb always has position 2.
In polar questions, exclamations and wishes it always has position 1. In subordinate clauses the verb is supposed to
occur at the very end, but in speech this rule is often disregarded.
German requires that a verbal element (main verb or auxiliary verb) appear second in the sentence. The verb is
preceded by the topic of the sentence. The element in focus appears at the end of the sentence. For a sentence
without an auxiliary this gives, amongst other options:
Der alte Mann gab mir gestern das Buch. (The old man gave me yesterday the book; normal order)
Das Buch gab mir gestern der alte Mann. (The book gave [to] me yesterday the old man)
Das Buch gab der alte Mann mir gestern. (The book gave the old man [to] me yesterday)
Gestern gab mir der alte Mann das Buch. (Yesterday gave [to] me the old man the book, normal order)
Mir gab der alte Mann das Buch gestern. ([To] me gave the old man the book yesterday (entailing: as for you,
it was another date))
The position of a noun in a German sentence has no bearing on its being a subject, an object, or another argument. In
a declarative sentence in English if the subject does not occur before the predicate the sentence could well be
misunderstood. This is not the case in German.
German language 872

Auxiliary verbs
When an auxiliary verb is present, the auxiliary appears in second position, and the main verb appears at the end.
This occurs notably in the creation of the perfect. Many word orders are still possible, e.g.:
Der alte Mann hat mir heute das Buch gegeben. (The old man has given me the book today.)
Das Buch hat der alte Mann mir heute gegeben. (The book has the old man given me today.)
Heute hat der alte Mann mir das Buch gegeben. (Today the old man has given me the book.)

Modal verbs
Sentences using modal verbs place the infinitive at the end. For example, the sentence in Modern English "Should he
go home?" would be rearranged in German to say "Should he (to) home go?" (Soll er nach Hause gehen?). Thus in
sentences with several subordinate or relative clauses the infinitives are clustered at the end. Compare the similar
clustering of prepositions in the following English sentence: "What did you bring that book which I don't like to be
read to out of up for?"

Multiple infinitives
German subordinate clauses have all verbs clustered at the end. Given that auxiliaries encode future, passive,
modality, and the perfect, this can lead to very long chains of verbs at the end of the sentence. In these constructions,
the past participle in ge- is often replaced by the infinitive.
Man nimmt an, dass der Deserteur wohl erschossenV wordenpsv seinperf solltemod
One suspects that the deserter probably shot became be should
("It is suspected that the deserter probably should have been shot")
The order at the end of such strings is subject to variation, though the latter version is unusual.
Er wusste nicht, dass der Agent einen Nachschlüssel hatte machen lassen
He knew not that the agent a picklock had make let
Er wusste nicht, dass der Agent einen Nachschlüssel machen lassen hatte
He knew not that the agent a picklock make let had
("He did not know that the agent had had a picklock made")

Vocabulary
Most German vocabulary is derived from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, although
there are significant minorities of words derived from Latin and Greek, and a smaller amount from French[45] and
most recently English.[46] At the same time, the effectiveness of the German language in forming equivalents for
foreign words from its inherited Germanic stem repertory is great. Thus, Notker Labeo was able to translate
Aristotelian treatises in pure (Old High) German in the decades after the year 1000. Overall, German has fewer
Romance-language loanwords than English or even Dutch.
The coining of new, autochthonous words gave German a vocabulary of an estimated 40,000 words as early as the
ninth century. In comparison, Latin, with a written tradition of nearly 2,500 years in an empire which ruled the
Mediterranean, has grown to no more than 45,000 words today.
Even today, many low-key non-academic movements try to promote the Ersatz (substitution) of virtually all foreign
words with ancient, dialectal, or neologous German alternatives.[47] It is claimed that this would also help in
spreading modern or scientific notions among the less educated, and thus democratise public life, too.
The modern German scientific vocabulary has nine million words and word groups (based on the analysis of 35
million sentences of a corpus in Leipzig, which as of July 2003 included 500 million words in total).[48]
German language 873

Orthography
German is written in the Latin alphabet. In addition to the 26 standard letters, German has three vowels with Umlaut,
namely ä, ö and ü, as well as the Eszett or scharfes s (sharp s), ß.
Written texts in German are easily recognisable as such by distinguishing features such as umlauts and certain
orthographical features—German is the only major language that capitalizes all nouns—and the frequent occurrence
of long compounds (the longest German word is made of 63 characters).

Present
Before the German spelling reform of 1996, ß replaced ss after long vowels and diphthongs and before consonants,
word-, or partial-word-endings. In reformed spelling, ß replaces ss only after long vowels and diphthongs. Since
there is no capital ß, it is always written as SS when capitalization is required. For example, Maßband (tape measure)
is capitalized MASSBAND. An exception is the use of ß in legal documents and forms when capitalizing names. To
avoid confusion with similar names, a "ß" is to be used instead of "SS". (So: "KREßLEIN" instead of
"KRESSLEIN".) A capital ß has been proposed and included in Unicode, but it is not yet recognized as standard
German. In Switzerland, ß is not used at all.
Umlaut vowels (ä, ö, ü) are commonly transcribed with ae, oe, and ue if the umlauts are not available on the
keyboard used (but see below regarding the use of non-German QWERTY keyboards to type umlauted characters
and the Eszett). In the same manner ß can be transcribed as ss. German readers understand those transcriptions
(although they look unusual), but they are avoided if the regular umlauts are available because they are considered a
makeshift, not proper spelling. (In Westphalia and Schleswig-Holstein, city and family names exist where the extra e
has a vowel lengthening effect, e.g. Raesfeld German pronunciation: [ˈraːsfɛlt], Coesfeld [ˈkoːsfɛlt] and Itzehoe
[ɪtsəˈhoː], but this use of the letter e after a/o/u does not occur in the present-day spelling of words other than proper
nouns.)
There is no general agreement on where these umlauts occur in the sorting sequence. Telephone directories treat
them by replacing them with the base vowel followed by an e. Some dictionaries sort each umlauted vowel as a
separate letter after the base vowel, but more commonly words with umlauts are ordered immediately after the same
word without umlauts. As an example in a telephone book Ärzte occurs after Adressenverlage but before
Anlagenbauer (because Ä is replaced by Ae). In a dictionary Ärzte comes after Arzt, but in some dictionaries Ärzte
and all other words starting with "Ä" may occur after all words starting with "A". In some older dictionaries or
indexes, initial Sch and St are treated as separate letters and are listed as separate entries after S, but they are usually
treated as S+C+H and S+T.
It is possible for those using Microsoft Windows programmes on PCs that have non-German QWERTY keyboards
to type letters with umlauts, be they capitalized or lower-case, as well as the Eszett (ß), by following a convention
pre-programmed via the number keys as well as the number lock (Num Lock) and Alt keys. (There may be
alternatives, depending upon the software being used, see e.g., the article on the Eszett, ß). Ensuring that the Num
Lock key light is on above the said key on the right-hand side, one can depress the Alt key either side of the spacebar
and then simultaneously enter a four-digit number using the number keys. The character will be revealed on screen
immediately after the Alt key is released.
The sequence for the lower-case letter “a” with an umlaut (that is, ä) would therefore involve typing in the four-digit
number 0228, i.e., Num Lock (light on) + Alt (depressed) + 0228 (manually entered) + release of Alt Key. The
four-digit numbers and other characters are therefore: 0196 for an umlauted upper-case A (Ä), 0214 for an umlauted
upper-case O (Ö), 0220 for an umlauted upper-case U (Ü), 0223 for the Eszett (ß), 0246 for an umlauted lower-case
o (ö), and 0252 for an umlauted lower-case u (ü).
Such a convention can also be used for the opening inverted commas (quotation marks) that appear in the guise of a
“99” on the bottom of the line (rather than as a “66” at the top as in English) at the beginning of a sentence or clause
German language 874

by using the four-digit number 0132, as in „Guten Morgen!”.

Past
Until the early 20th century, German was mostly printed in blackletter typefaces (mostly in Fraktur, but also in
Schwabacher) and written in corresponding handwriting (for example Kurrent and Sütterlin). These variants of the
Latin alphabet are very different from the serif or sans serif Antiqua typefaces used today, and particularly the
handwritten forms are difficult for the untrained to read. The printed forms however were claimed by some to be
actually more readable when used for printing Germanic languages.[49] The Nazis initially promoted Fraktur and
Schwabacher since they were considered Aryan, although they later abolished them in 1941 by claiming that these
letters were Jewish. The Fraktur script remains present in everyday life through road signs, pub signs, beer brands
and other forms of advertisement, where it is used to convey a certain rusticality and oldness.
A proper use of the long s, (langes s), ſ, is essential to write German text in Fraktur typefaces. Many Antiqua
typefaces include the long s, also. A specific set of rules applies for the use of long s in German text, but it is rarely
used in Antiqua typesetting, recently. Any lower case "s" at the beginning of a syllable would be a long s, as opposed
to a terminal s or short s (the more common variation of the letter s), which marks the end of a syllable; for example,
in differentiating between the words Wachſtube (=guard-house) and Wachstube (=tube of floor polish). One can
decide which "s" to use by appropriate hyphenation, easily ("Wach-ſtube" vs. "Wachs-tube"). The long s only
appears in lower case.

Phonology

Vowels
German vowels (excluding diphthongs; see below) come in short and long varieties, as detailed in the following
table:

A Ä E I O Ö U Ü

short /a/ /ɛ/ /ɛ/, /ɪ/ /ɔ/ /œ/ /ʊ/ /ʏ/

/ǝ/

long /aː/ /ɛː/ /eː/ /iː/ /oː/ /øː/ /uː/ /yː/

Short /ɛ/ is realised as [ɛ] in stressed syllables (including secondary stress), but as [ǝ] in unstressed syllables. Note
that stressed short /ɛ/ can be spelled either with e or with ä (hätte 'would have' and Kette 'chain', for instance, rhyme).
In general, the short vowels are open and the long vowels are closed. The one exception is the open /ɛː/ sound of
long Ä; in some varieties of standard German, /ɛː/ and /eː/ have merged into [eː], removing this anomaly. In that
case, pairs like Bären/Beeren 'bears/berries' or Ähre/Ehre 'spike (of wheat)/honour' become homophonous.
In many varieties of standard German, an unstressed /ɛr/ is not pronounced [ər], but vocalised to [ɐ].
Whether any particular vowel letter represents the long or short phoneme is not completely predictable, although the
following regularities exist:
• If a vowel (other than i) is at the end of a syllable or followed by a single consonant, it is usually pronounced long
(e.g. Hof [hoːf]).
• If the vowel is followed by a double consonant (e.g. ff, ss or tt), ck, tz or a consonant cluster (e.g. st or nd), it is
nearly always short (e.g. hoffen [ˈhɔfǝn]). Double consonants are used only for this function of marking preceding
vowels as short; the consonant itself is never pronounced lengthened or doubled, in other words this is not a
feeding order of gemination and then vowel shortening.
Both of these rules have exceptions (e.g. hat [hat] 'has' is short despite the first rule; Mond [moːnt], 'moon' is long
despite the second rule). For an i that is neither in the combination ie (making it long) nor followed by a double
German language 875

consonant or cluster (making it short), there is no general rule. In some cases, there are regional differences: In
central Germany (Hessen), the o in the proper name "Hoffmann" is pronounced long while most other Germans
would pronounce it short; the same applies to the e in the geographical name "Mecklenburg" for people in that
region. The word Städte 'cities', is pronounced with a short vowel [ˈʃtɛtə] by some (Jan Hofer, ARD Television) and
with a long vowel [ˈʃtɛːtə] by others (Marietta Slomka, ZDF Television). Finally, a vowel followed by ch can be
short (Fach [fax] 'compartment', Küche [ˈkʏçe] 'kitchen') or long (Suche [ˈzuːxǝ] 'search', Bücher [ˈbyːçər] 'books')
almost at random. Thus, Lache is homographous: (Lache) [laːxe] 'puddle' and (lache) [laxe] 'manner of laughing'
(coll.), 'laugh!' (Imp.).
German vowels can form the following digraphs (in writing) and diphthongs (in pronunciation); note that the
pronunciation of some of them (ei, äu, eu) is very different from what one would expect when considering the
component letters:

spelling ai, ei, ay, ey au äu,

eu

pronunciation /aɪ̯/ /aʊ̯/ /ɔʏ̯/

Additionally, the digraph ie generally represents the phoneme /iː/, which is not a diphthong. In many varieties, an /r/
at the end of a syllable is vocalised. However, a sequence of a vowel followed by such a vocalised /r/ is not
considered a diphthong: Bär [bɛːɐ̯] 'bear', er [eːɐ̯] 'he', wir [viːɐ̯] 'we', Tor [toːɐ̯] 'gate', kurz [kʊɐ̯ts] 'short', Wörter
[vœɐ̯tɐ] 'words'.
In most varieties of standard German, word stems that begin with a vowel are preceded by a glottal stop [ʔ].

Consonants
With approximately 25 phonemes, the German consonant system exhibits an average number of consonants in
comparison with other languages. One of the more noteworthy ones is the unusual affricate /p͡f/. The consonant
inventory of the standard language is shown below.

Bilabial Labiodental Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal

Plosive p  b t  d k  ɡ

Affricate p͡f t͡s t͡ʃ  d͡ʒ

Fricative f  v s  z ʃ  ʒ x h

Nasal m n ŋ

Approximant l j

Rhotic r

• /x/ has two allophones, [x] and [ç], after back and front vowels, respectively.
• /r/ has three allophones in free variation: [r], [ʁ] and [ʀ]. In the syllable coda, the allophone [ɐ] is found in many
varieties.
• The voiceless stops /p/, /t/, /k/ are aspirated except when preceded by a sibilant.
• The voiced stops /b/, /d/, /ɡ/ are devoiced to /p/, /t/, /k/, respectively, in word-final position.
• Where a stressed syllable has an initial vowel, it is preceded by [ʔ]. As its presence is predictable from context,
[ʔ] is not considered a phoneme.
• /d͡ʒ/ and /ʒ/ occur only in words of foreign origin.
German language 876

Consonant spellings
• c standing by itself is not a German letter. In borrowed words, it is usually pronounced [t͡s] (before ä, äu, e, i, ö, ü,
y) or [k] (before a, o, u, and consonants). The combination ck is, as in English, used to indicate that the preceding
vowel is short.
• ch occurs most often and is pronounced either [ç] (after ä, ai, äu, e, ei, eu, i, ö, ü and consonants; in the diminutive
suffix -chen; and at the beginning of a word) or [x] (after a, au, o, u). Ch never occurs at the beginning of an
originally German word. In borrowed words with initial Ch there is no single agreement on the pronunciation. For
example, the word "Chemie" (chemistry) can be pronounced [keːˈmiː], [çeːˈmiː], or [ʃeːˈmiː] depending on
dialect.
• dsch is pronounced [d͡ʒ] (like j in Jungle) but appears in a few loanwords only.
• f is pronounced [f] as in "father".
• h is pronounced [h] as in "home" at the beginning of a syllable. After a vowel it is silent and only lengthens the
vowel (e.g. "Reh" = roe deer).
• j is pronounced [j] in Germanic words ("Jahr" [jaːɐ]). In younger loanwords, it follows more or less the
respective languages' pronunciations.
• l is always pronounced [l], never *[ɫ] (the English "dark L").
• q only exists in combination with u and appears in both Germanic and Latin words ("quer"; "Qualität"). The
digraph qu is pronounced [kv].
• r is usually pronounced in a guttural fashion (a voiced uvular fricative [ʁ] or uvular trill [ʀ]) in front of a vowel or
consonant ("Rasen" [ˈʁaːzən]; "Burg" [buʁk]). In spoken German, however, it is commonly vocalised after a
vowel ("er" being pronounced rather like [ˈɛɐ]—"Burg" [buɐk]). In some varieties, the r is pronounced as a
"tongue-tip" r (the alveolar trill [r]).
• s in Germany, is pronounced [z] (as in "Zebra") if it forms the syllable onset (e.g. Sohn [zoːn]), otherwise [s] (e.g.
Bus [bʊs]). In Austria and Switzerland, it is always pronounced [s]. A ss [s] indicates that the preceding vowel is
short. st and sp at the beginning of words of German origin are pronounced [ʃt] and [ʃp], respectively.
• ß (a letter unique to German called "scharfes S" or "Eszett") was a ligature of a double s and of a sz and is always
pronounced [s]. Originating in Blackletter typeface, it traditionally replaced ss at the end of a syllable (e.g. "ich
muss" → "ich muß"; "ich müsste" → "ich müßte"); within a word it contrasts with ss [s] in indicating that the
preceding vowel is long (compare "in Maßen" [in ˈmaːsən] "with moderation" and "in Massen" [in ˈmasən] "in
loads"). The use of ß has recently been limited by the latest German spelling reform and is no longer used for ss
after a short vowel (e.g. "ich muß" and "ich müßte" were always pronounced with a short U/Ü); Switzerland and
Liechtenstein already abolished it in 1934.[50]
• sch is pronounced [ʃ] (like "sh" in "Shine").
• tion in Latin loanwords is pronounced [tsion].
• v is pronounced [f] in words of Germanic origin (e.g. "Vater" [ˈfaːtɐ]) and [v] in most other words (e.g. "Vase"
[ˈvaːzǝ]).
• w is pronounced [v] as in "vacation" (e.g. "was" [vas]).
• y only appears in loanwords and is traditionally considered a vowel.
• z is always pronounced [t͡s] (e.g. "zog" [t͡soːk]). A tz indicates that the preceding vowel is short.

Consonant shifts
German does not have any dental fricatives (as English th). The th sounds, which the English language still has,
survived on the continent up to Old High German and then disappeared in German with the consonant shifts between
the 8th and the 10th centuries.[51] It is sometimes possible to find parallels between English and German by replacing
the English th with d in German: "Thank" → in German "Dank", "this" and "that" → "dies" and "das", "thou" (old
2nd person singular pronoun) → "du", "think" → "denken", "thirsty" → "durstig" and many other examples.
German language 877

Likewise, the gh in Germanic English words, pronounced in several different ways in modern English (as an f, or not
at all), can often be linked to German ch: "to laugh" → "lachen", "through" and "thorough" → "durch", "high" →
"hoch", "naught" → "nichts", etc.

Cognates with English

A sizable fraction of English vocabulary is cognate with German words, although the common ancestry may be
somewhat obscured by various shifts in phonetics (e.g. the High German consonant shift), meaning and orthography.
For example:
• the High German consonant shift *p→ff led to such cognates as German Schiff with English ship.
• Ger. Baum (meaning "tree") is cognate with the English word beam, as may be seen in the name of trees such as
the hornbeam and the whitebeam.

Words borrowed by English

For a list of German loanwords in English, see Category:German loanwords
English has taken many loanwords from German, often without any change of spelling:

German word English loanword Meaning of German word

Abseilen abseil to descend by rope / to fastrope

Angst angst fear

Ansatz ansatz onset / entry / math. approach

Anschluss anschluss connection / access / annexation

Automat automat automation / machine

Bildungsroman bildungsroman novel concerned with the personal development or education of the protagonist

Blitz Blitz flash / lightning

Delikatessen delikatessen/delicatessen delicate / delicious food items

Doppelgänger doppelgänger look-alike of somebody

Edelweiß edelweiss edelweiss flower

Fest fest feast / celebration

Gedankenexperiment Gedankenexperiment thought experiment

Geländesprung gelandesprung ski jumping for distance on alpine equipment

Gemütlichkeit gemuetlichkeit snug feeling, cosiness, good nature, geniality

Gestalt Gestalt form or shape / creature / scheme; refers to a concept of 'wholeness'

Gesundheit! Gesundheit! (Amer.) health / bless you! (when someone sneezes)

Heiligenschein heiligenschein meteo. "holy shine"

Hinterland hinterland lit. mil. "area behind the front-line": interior / backwoods

kaputt kaput (ethymology unclear, possibly French, Yiddish or Latin) out of order, not working

Katzenjammer katzenjammer lit. "cats' lament": hangover, crapulence

Kindergarten kindergarten lit. "childrens' garden" - nursery or preschool

Kitsch kitsch fake art, something produced exclusively for sale

Kraut kraut herb, cabbage in some dialects

Leitmotiv leitmotif guiding theme

German language 878

plündern (v.) to plunder lit. "taking goods by force" (original meaning "to take away furniture" shifted in German and was
borrowed by English both during the Thirty Years War)

Poltergeist poltergeist lit. "rumbling ghost" (artificial compound, not originally German)

Realpolitik realpolitik diplomacy based on practical objectives rather than ideals

Reich reich German and occasionally foreign imperialism

Rucksack rucksack backpack

Schadenfreude schadenfreude taking pleasure in someone else's misfortune

Sprachraum sprachraum area where a certain language is spoken

Übermensch ubermensch superhuman

verklemmt verklemmt lit. "jammed": inhibited, uptight

Waldsterben waldsterben lit. "forest dieback", dying floral environment

Wanderlust wanderlust desire, pleasure, or inclination to travel or walk

Weltanschauung weltanschauung lit. "perception of the world": ideology

Wunderkind wunderkind lit. "wonder child": child prodigy, whiz kid

Zeitgeist zeitgeist lit. "spirit of the times": the spirit of the age; the trend at that time

Promotion of the German language

The use and learning of the German language are promoted by a number of organisations. The government-backed
Goethe Institut [52] (named after the famous German author Johann Wolfgang von Goethe) aims to enhance the
knowledge of German culture and language within Europe and the rest of the world. This is done by holding
exhibitions and conferences with German-related themes, and providing training and guidance in the learning and
use of the German language. For example the Goethe Institut teaches the Goethe-Zertifikat German language
qualification.
The German state broadcaster Deutsche Welle is the equivalent of the British BBC World Service and provides radio
and television broadcasts in German and a variety of other languages across the globe. Its German language services
are tailored for German language learners by being spoken at slow speed.

See also
• Deutsch
• Category:German loanwords
• German as a minority language
• German exonyms
• German family name etymology
• German in the United States
• German language literature
• German name
• German placename etymology
• German spelling reform of 1996
• Germanism (linguistics)
• List of German expressions in English
• List of pseudo-German words adapted to English
• Missingsch
• Names for the German language
German language 879

• Umlaut, ß
• Various terms used for Germans

References

General references
• Fausto Cercignani, The Consonants of German: Synchrony and Diachrony, Milano, Cisalpino, 1979.</ref>
• Michael Clyne, The German Language in a Changing Europe (1995) ISBN 0521499704
• George O. Curme, A Grammar of the German Language (1904, 1922) — the most complete and authoritative
work in English
• Anthony Fox, The Structure of German (2005) ISBN 0199273995
• W.B. Lockwood, German Today: The Advanced Learner's Guide (1987) ISBN 0198158505
• Ruth H. Sanders. German: Biography of a Language (Oxford University Press; 2010) 240 pages. Combines
linguistic, anthropological, and historical perspectives in a "biography" of German in terms of six "signal events"
over millennia, including the Battle of Kalkriese, which blocked the spread of Latin-based language north.

External links
• German (language) [53] at the Open Directory Project
• The Goethe Institute [52]: German Government sponsored organisation for the promotion of the German language
and culture.
• Learn to Speak German [54] Student Resource
• Free German Language Course [55]
• The Leo Dictionaries [56]: A German language portal featuring German-English, German-French,
German-Spanish, German-Italian, German-Chinese and German-Russian dictionaries, with forums and a search
function
• Texts on Wikisource:
• “German language,” Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed., 1911
• Mark Twain, The Awful German Language, 1880
• Carl Schurz, The German Mothertongue, 1897

References
[1] National Geographic Collegiate Atlas of the World. Willard, Ohio: R.R Donnelley & Sons Company. April 2006. pp. 257–270.
ISBN Regular:0-7922-3662-9, 978-0-7922-3662-7. Deluxe:0-7922-7976-X, 978-0-7922-7976-1.
[2] SIL Ethnologue (2006). 95 million speakers of Standard German; 95 million including Middle and Upper German dialects; 120 million
including Low Saxon and Yiddish.
[3] EUROPA - Allgemeine & berufliche Bildung - Regional- und Minderheitensprachen der Europäischen Union - Euromosaik-Studie (http:/ /
ec. europa. eu/ education/ policies/ lang/ languages/ langmin/ euromosaic/ cz1_de. html)
[4] EC.europa.eu (http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ education/ policies/ lang/ languages/ langmin/ euromosaic/ hu_de. pdf)
[5] "Deutsch in Namibia" (http:/ / www. az. com. na/ fileadmin/ pdf/ 2007/ deutsch_in_namibia_2007_07_18. pdf) (in German) (PDF).
Supplement of the Allgemeine Zeitung. 2007-08-18. . Retrieved 2008-06-23.
[6] "CIA World Fact book Profile: Namibia" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ wa. html) cia.gov'.'
Retrieved 2008-11-30.
[7] "Map on page of Polish Ministry of Interior and Administration (MSWiA)" (http:/ / www2. mswia. gov. pl/ download. php?s=1& id=944). .
Retrieved 2010-03-15.
[8] "SbZ - Deutsche Minderheit in Rumänien: "Zimmerpflanze oder Betreuungs-Objekt" - Informationen zu Siebenbürgen und Rumänien" (http:/
/ www. siebenbuerger. de/ zeitung/ artikel/ alteartikel/ 223-deutsche-minderheit-in-rumaenien. html). Siebenbuerger.de. . Retrieved
2010-03-15.
[9] EUROPA - Allgemeine & berufliche Bildung - Regional- und Minderheitensprachen der Europäischen Union - Euromosaik-Studie (http:/ /
ec. europa. eu/ education/ policies/ lang/ languages/ langmin/ euromosaic/ slok1_de. html)
German language 880

[10] Verein Deutsche Sprache e.V. (2006-06-15). "Verein Deutsche Sprache e.V. - Prominente Mitglieder und Ehrenmitglieder" (http:/ / www.
vds-ev. de/ verein/ aha/ aha. php). Vds-ev.de. . Retrieved 2010-03-15.
[11] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=deu
[12] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=gmh
[13] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=goh
[14] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=gct
[15] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=bar
[16] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=cim
[17] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=geh
[18] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=ksh
[19] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=nds
[20] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=sli
[21] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=ltz
[22] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=vmf
[23] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=mhn
[24] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=pfl
[25] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=pdc
[26] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=pdt
[27] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=swg
[28] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=gsw
[29] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=uln
[30] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=sxu
[31] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=wae
[32] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=wep
[33] "US Census Factfinder" (http:/ / factfinder. census. gov/ servlet/ ADPTable?_bm=y& -geo_id=01000US&
-ds_name=ACS_2006_EST_G00_& -_lang=en& -_caller=geoselect& -format=). . The 2006 census gives 17% of the U.S. population, or 50
million. The 1990 census had 23.4% or 57.9 million.
[34] "Table 5. Detailed List of Languages Spoken at Home for the Population 5 Years and Over by State: 2000" (http:/ / www. census. gov/
population/ cen2000/ phc-t20/ tab05. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2010-03-15.
[35] "Statistics Canada 2006" (http:/ / www12. statcan. ca/ english/ census06/ data/ topics/ RetrieveProductTable. cfm?ALEVEL=3&
APATH=3& CATNO=& DETAIL=0& DIM=& DS=99& FL=0& FREE=0& GAL=0& GC=99& GK=NA& GRP=1& IPS=& METH=0&
ORDER=1& PID=89189& PTYPE=88971& RL=0& S=1& ShowAll=No& StartRow=1& SUB=705& Temporal=2006& Theme=70&
VID=0& VNAMEE=& VNAMEF=& GID=837928). 2.statcan.ca. 2010-01-06. . Retrieved 2010-03-15.
[36] Global Statistics (http:/ / global-reach. biz/ globstats/ index. php3), Global Reach (http:/ / global-reach. biz. / ).
[37] Internet Languages (http:/ / www. nvtc. gov/ lotw/ months/ november/ internetLanguages. htm), NVTC (http:/ / www. nvtc. gov/ ).
[38] "Distribution of languages on the Internet" (http:/ / www. netz-tipp. de/ languages. html). Netz-tipp.de. . Retrieved 2010-03-15.
[39] Palmares (http:/ / alis. isoc. org/ palmares. en. html), Internet Society (http:/ / isoc. org. / ).
[40] Funredes (http:/ / funredes. org/ lc2005/ english/ L3. html).
[41] Vilaweb (http:/ / www. clickz. com/ stats/ sectors/ demographics/ article. php/ 408521).
[42] Ulrich Ammon, Hans Bickel, Jakob Ebner, et al.: Variantenwörterbuch des Deutschen. Die Standardsprache in Österreich, der Schweiz und
Deutschland sowie in Liechtenstein, Luxemburg, Ostbelgien und Südtirol. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2004.
[43] After English; "Europeans and Language" (http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ public_opinion/ archives/ ebs/ ebs_237. en. pdf) (PDF). European
Commission. 2005. . Retrieved 2007-12-08.
[44] "Languages in Europe" (http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ education/ policies/ lang/ languages/ index_en. html). European Commission. 2007. .
Retrieved 2008-02-12.
[45] some of which might be reborrowings from Germanic Frankish
[46] a phenomenon known in German as Denglisch or in English as Germish or Denglisch
[47] Verein Deutsche Sprache e.V.. "Verein Deutsche Sprache e.V. - Der Anglizismen-Index" (http:/ / vds-ev. de/ anglizismenindex). Vds-ev.de.
. Retrieved 2010-03-15.
[48] "Ein Hinweis in eigener Sache" (http:/ / wortschatz. informatik. uni-leipzig. de/ html/ inhalt_next. html).
Wortschatz.informatik.uni-leipzig.de. 2003-01-07. . Retrieved 2010-03-15.
[49] Adolf Reinecke, Die deutsche Buchstabenschrift: ihre Entstehung und Entwicklung, ihre Zweckmäßigkeit und völkische Bedeutung, Leipzig,
Hasert, 1910
[50] "Mittelschulvorbereitung Deutsch" (http:/ / www. mittelschulvorbereitung. ch/ index. php?SUBJECT=& actualid=5).
Mittelschulvorbereitung.ch. . Retrieved 2010-03-15.
[51] For a history of the German consonants see Fausto Cercignani, The Consonants of German: Synchrony and Diachrony, Milano, Cisalpino,
1979.
[52] http:/ / www. goethe. de/ enindex. htm
[53] http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Science/ Social_Sciences/ Linguistics/ Languages/ Natural/ Indo-European/ Germanic/ German/
German language 881

[54] http:/ / www. learntospeakgerman. net

[55] http:/ / www. populearn. com/ german/
[56] http:/ / www. leo. org/ index_en. html

Italian language
Italian
Italiano

Pronunciation Italian pronunciation: [itaˈljano]

Spoken in  Italy
 Switzerland
 San Marino
 Vatican City
Regional in Slovenia and
Croatia
Region Southern Europe

Total speakers 70 million native

125 million as second language

Ranking 20

Language family Indo-European

• Italic
• Romance
• Italo-Western
• Italo-Dalmatian
• Italian

Writing system Latin alphabet

Official status

Official language in  European Union

 Italy
 Switzerland
 San Marino
 Vatican City
Sovereign Military Order of Malta
 Croatia (Istria County)
 Slovenia (Istria)

Regulated by not officially by Accademia della Crusca

Language codes

ISO 639-1 it

ISO 639-2 ita

ISO 639-3 [1]

ita

Italian (italiano, or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken as a native language by about 70 million people
in Italy, San Marino and parts of Switzerland, Croatia, Slovenia and France.[2] In addition, it is spoken by an
additional 120 to 150 million people as a non-native language.[3] Most native speakers are native bilinguals of both
standardised Italian and regional varieties.[4]
Italian language 882

In Switzerland, Italian is one of four official languages, spoken mainly in the Swiss cantons of Grigioni and Ticino.
It is also the official language of San Marino, as well as the primary language of Vatican City.[5] The Italian
language adopted by the state after the unification of Italy is based on the Tuscan dialect, which beforehand was only
available to upper class Florentine society.[6] Its development was also influenced by other Italian dialects and by the
Germanic language of the post-Roman invaders.
Italian derives diachronically from Latin and is the closest national language to Latin. Unlike most other Romance
languages, Italian retains Latin's contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress
is distinctive. In particular, among the Romance languages, Italian is the closest to Latin in terms of vocabulary.[7]
Lexical similarity is 89% with French, 87% with Sardinian, 85% with Catalan, 82% with Spanish, 78% with
Rhaeto-Romance and 77% with Romanian.[2] [8]

History
The Italian language has a long history, but the modern standard of the language was largely shaped by relatively
recent events. The earliest surviving texts that can definitely be called Italian (or more accurately, vernacular, as
distinct from its predecessor Vulgar Latin) are legal formulae from the region of Benevento that date from
960-963.[9] What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the first years of the 14th century
through the works of Dante Alighieri, who mixed southern Italian languages, especially Sicilian, with his native
Florentine in his epic poems known collectively as the Commedia, to which Giovanni Boccaccio later affixed the
title Divina. Dante's much-loved works were read throughout Italy and his written dialect became the "canonical
standard" that all educated Italians could understand. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language
and, thus, the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the official language of Italy.
Italian was often an official language of the various Italian states pre-dating unification, slowly usurping Latin, even
when ruled by foreign powers (such as the Spanish in the Kingdom of Naples, or the Austrians in the Kingdom of
Lombardy-Venetia), even though the masses spoke primarily vernacular languages and dialects. Italian was also one
of the many recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Italy has always had a distinctive dialect for each city since the cities were, until recently, thought of as city-states.
Those dialects now have considerable variety, however. As Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy,
features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. The most
characteristic differences, for instance, between Roman Italian and Milanese Italian are the gemination of initial
consonants and the pronunciation of stressed "e", and of "s" in some cases (e.g. va bene "all right": is pronounced [va
ˈbːɛne] by a Roman (and by any standard-speaker, like a Florentine), [va ˈbene] by a Milanese (and by any speaker
whose native dialect lies to the north of La Spezia-Rimini Line); a casa "at home": Roman and standard [a ˈkːasa],
Milanese and generally northern [a ˈkaza]). (See Raddoppiamento fonosintattico).
In contrast to the Northern Italian language, southern Italian dialects and languages were largely untouched by the
Franco-Occitan influences introduced to Italy, mainly by bards from France, during the Middle Ages but, after the
Norman conquest of southern Italy, Sicily became the first Italian land to adopt Occitan lyric moods (and words) in
poetry. Even in the case of Northern Italian language, however, scholars are careful not to overstate the effects of
outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages. (See La Spezia-Rimini Line).
The economic might and relatively advanced development of Tuscany at the time (Late Middle Ages), gave its
dialect weight, though Venetian language remained widespread in medieval Italian commercial life, as well as
Ligurian (or Genoese) remained in use in maritime trade alongside the Mediterranean. Also, the increasing political
and cultural relevance of Florence during the periods of the rise of Medici's bank, Humanism and the Renaissance
made its dialect, or rather a refined version of it, a standard in the arts.
Italian language 883

Middle Ages
The re-discovery of Dante's De vulgari eloquentia and a renewed interest in linguistics in the 16th century sparked a
debate that raged throughout Italy concerning the criteria that should govern the establishment of a modern Italian
literary and spoken language. Scholars divided into three factions:
• The purists, headed by Pietro Bembo (who in his Gli Asolani claimed the language might only be based on the
great literary classics...notably, Petrarch and Boccaccio). The purists thought the Divine Comedy not dignified
enough because it used elements from non-lyric registers of the language.
• Niccolò Machiavelli and other Florentines preferred the version spoken by ordinary people in their own times.
• The courtiers, like Baldassarre Castiglione and Gian Giorgio Trissino, insisted that each local vernacular must
contribute to the new standard.
A fourth faction claimed the best Italian was the one the papal court adopted. Eventually, Bembo's ideas prevailed,
and led to publication of the first Italian dictionary in 1612 and the foundation of the Accademia della Crusca in
Florence (1582-3), the official legislative body of the Italian language.

Modern era
Two notable defining moments in the history of the Italian language came between 1500 and 1850. Both events were
invasions. The rulers of Spain invaded and occupied Italy down to Rome and the Vatican in the mid-16th century
(see the aftermath of the Italian Wars). This occupation left a lasting influence upon the formerly irregular Italian
grammar, simplifying it to conform more with the dominant Spanish language. The second was the conquest and
occupation of Italy by Napoleon in the early 19th century (who was himself of Italian-Corsican descent). This
conquest propelled the unification of Italy, and pushed the Italian language into a lingua franca. The increased unity
among people on the Italian peninsula weakened many regional languages.

Contemporary times
Italian literature's first modern novel, I Promessi Sposi (The Betrothed), by Alessandro Manzoni further defined the
standard by "rinsing" his Milanese "in the waters of the Arno" (Florence's river), as he states in the Preface to his
1840 edition.
After unification a huge number of civil servants and soldiers recruited from all over the country introduced many
more words and idioms from their home languages ("ciao" is Venetian, "panettone" is in the Milanese dialect of the
Lombard language etc.). Only 2.5% of Italy’s population could speak Italian language when the nation unified in
1861.[10]
Italian language 884

Classification
Italian is most closely related to the other two Italo-Dalmatian languages, Sicilian and the extinct Dalmatian. The
three are part of the Italo-Western grouping of the Romance languages, which are a subgroup of the Italic branch of
Indo-European.

Geographic distribution
The list below shows the geographical
distribution of the Italian language
around the world. The total number of
native speakers of Italian are between
65 and 75 million people.[11] [12] Those
who speak Italian as a second or
cultural language are estimated to be
between 120 and 150 million
people.[12]

Official:
•  European Union
Knowledge of Italian in Europe
•  Italy
•  San Marino
• Sovereign Military Order of
Malta
•  Switzerland
•  Vatican City
•  Slovenia (Only in Slovenian
Littoral)
•  Croatia (Only in Istria County)
Historical Significance in:
•  France (in Corsica, Savoy and
Nice) The geographic distribution of the Italian language in the world: large Italian-speaking
•  Albania communities are shown in green; light blue indicates areas where Italian language was
used as official during the italian colonial period
•  Croatia (Istria,
Kvarner,Dalmatia)
•  Malta
•  Monaco
•  Montenegro
•  Greece (In Dodecanese 1912-1943)
Historically official:
•  Eritrea (1890–1941)
•  Somalia (Italian Somaliland 1895-1960)
•  China (In Tientsin 1901-1944)
•  Libya (1912–1943)
•  Croatia (In the Free State of Fiume 1920-1924)
•  Greece (In Dodecanese 1912-1943 and in the Ionian Islands during the Septinsular Republic 1800-1807 and
the United States of the Ionian Islands 1815-1864)
Italian language 885

•  Albania (1938–1945)
•  Malta (until 1934)
•  Tunisia (1942–1943)
• Austria-Hungary (until 1918)
Used by some immigrant communities in:
•  Brazil 1,500,000[13]
•  Argentina 1,500,000[14]
•  Uruguay
•  Mexico
•  USA 1,008,370[15]
•  France 500,000-1,000,000
•  Canada 661,000[16]
•  Germany 548,000[17]
•  Switzerland over 500,000
•  Venezuela 400,000[18]
•  Australia 353,605[19]
•  Belgium 250,000
•  UK 200,000[20]
•  Egypt 72,400[21]
Italian is the official language of Italy and San Marino, and one of the official languages of Switzerland, spoken
mainly in the cantons of Ticino and part of Graubünden (Grigioni in Italian), which together are a region referred to
as Italian Switzerland. It is also the official language with Croatian and Slovenian in some areas of Istria, where an
Italian minority exists. In the cities of Santa Teresa and Vila Velha it enjoys official status alongside Portuguese,
being "knighted" as an ethnic language. It is the primary language of the Vatican City and is widely used and taught
in Monaco and Malta. It served as Malta's official language until the Maltese language was enshrined in the 1934
Constitution. It is also spoken to a significant extent in France, with over 1,000,000 speakers [22] (especially in
Corsica and the County of Nice, areas that historically spoke Italian dialects before annexation to France), and it is
understood by large parts of the populations of Albania and coastal Montenegro, reached by many Italian TV
channels.
Italian is also spoken by some in former Italian colonies in Africa (Libya and Eritrea). However, its use has sharply
dropped off since the colonial period. In Eritrea, Italian is widely understood.[23] In fact, for 50 years, during the
colonial period, Italian was the language of education, but as of 1997, there is only one Italian-language school
remaining, with 470 pupils. The name of the only Italian-language school in Eritrea is Scuola Italiana di Asmara,[24]
which was also the only Italian-language school in Ethiopia, when Eritrea was a province of Ethiopia.[25] The
number of Italian speakers may increase a little when the number of students at that school increases and because it
is still spoken in commerce,[26] and Eritrea will be the only African nation where Italian is widely spoken and
understood. In Libya, Italian has been wiped out by the Libyan Revolution's Arabization programs in education and
media. In Egypt and Tunisia, it is mostly spoken by Italian Egyptians and Italian Tunisians and some professionals
of non-Italian descent. In all of the above former Italian African colonies, most of the fluent Italian speakers are
people who grew up in officially Italian-speaking nations, most especially Italy, and returned to Africa.
Italian and Italian dialects are widely used by Italian immigrants and many of their descendants (see Italians) living
throughout Western Europe (especially France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and
Luxembourg), the United States, Canada, Australia, and Latin America (especially Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, and
Venezuela).
In the United States, Italian speakers are most commonly found in five cities: Boston (7,000),[27] Chicago
(12,000),[28] the Miami region (27,000),[29] New York City (140,000),[30] and Philadelphia (15,000).[31] According
Italian language 886

to the United States Census in 2000, over 1 million Italian Americans spoke Italian at home, with the largest
concentrations—and nearly half of the total—found in the states of New York (294,271) and New Jersey
(116,365).[32] In Canada, Italian is the fourth most commonly spoken language, with 661,000 speakers (or about
2.1% of the population) according to the 2006 Census. Particularly large Italian-speaking communities are found in
Montreal (c. 179,000) and Toronto (c. 262,000).[16] Italian is also strongly visible in the Hamilton area. Italian is the
second most commonly spoken language in Australia, where 353,605 Italian Australians, or 1.9% of the population,
reported speaking Italian at home in the 2001 Census.[33] In 2001 there were 130,000 Italian speakers in
Melbourne,[34] and 90,000 in Sydney.[35]

Italian language education

Italian is widely taught in many schools around the world, but rarely as the first foreign language; in fact, Italian
generally is the fourth or fifth most taught foreign language in the world.[36]
In the United States, Italian is the fifth most taught foreign language after Spanish, French, German, and American
Sign Language, respectively.[37] Throughout the world, Italian is the fifth most taught foreign language, after
English, Spanish, French, and German.[38]
In the European Union, Italian is spoken as a mother tongue by 13% of the population or 65 million people,[39]
mainly in Italy. In all of the EU, it is spoken as a second language by 3% of the population or by 14 million people.
In addition, among EU states, the Italian language is most likely to be learned as a second language in Malta by 61%
of the population, as well as in Croatia by 14% of the population, Slovenia by 12% of the population, Austria by
11% of the population, Romania by 8% of the population, and by France and Greece by 6% of the population.[39]
Italian is also one of the national languages of Switzerland, which is not a part of the European Union.[40] Italian
language is also well known and studied in Albania, another non-EU member, due to the historical and geographical
proximity between the two countries.

Influence and derived languages

From the late 19th to the mid 20th century, thousands of Italians settled in Argentina, Uruguay, southern Brazil, and
Venezuela, where they formed a very strong physical and cultural presence (see the Italian diaspora).
In some cases, colonies were established where variants of Italian dialects were used, and some continue to use a
derived dialect. An example is Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, where Talian is used, and in the town of Chipilo near
Puebla, Mexico; each continuing to use a derived form of Venetian dating back to the 19th century. Another example
is Cocoliche, an Italian-Spanish pidgin once spoken in Argentina and especially in Buenos Aires, and Lunfardo.
Rioplatense Spanish, and particularly the speech of the city of Buenos Aires, has intonation patterns that resemble
those of Italian dialects, due to the fact that Argentina has had a continuous large influx of Italian settlers since the
second half of the 19th century; initially primarily from Northern Italy; then, since the beginning of the twentieth
century, mostly from Southern Italy.

Italian as a lingua franca

Starting in late medieval times, Italian language variants replaced Latin to become the primary commercial language
in much of Europe and the Mediterranean Sea (especially the Tuscan and Venetian variants). This was consolidated
during the Renaissance with the strength of Italian and the rise of humanism in the arts.
During the Renaissance, Italy held artistic sway over the rest of Europe. All educated European gentlemen were
expected to make the Grand Tour, visiting Italy to see its great historical monuments and works of art. It thus
became expected that educated Europeans would learn at least some Italian; the English poet John Milton, for
instance, wrote some of his early poetry in Italian. In England, Italian became the second most common modern
language to be learned, after French (though the classical languages, Latin and Greek, came first). However, by the
Italian language 887

late 18th century, Italian tended to be replaced by German as the second modern language in the curriculum. Yet
Italian loanwords continue to be used in most other European languages in matters of art and music.
Within the Catholic church, Italian is known by a large part of the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and is used in substitution
for Latin in some official documents. The presence of Italian as the primary language in the Vatican City indicates
use, not only within the Holy See, but also throughout the world where an episcopal seat is present. It continues to be
used in music and opera. Other examples where Italian is sometimes used as a means of communication is in some
sports (sometimes in football and motorsports) and in the design and fashion industries.

Dialects
In Italy, all Romance languages spoken as the
vernacular, other than standard Italian and other
unrelated, non-Italian languages, are termed "Italian
dialects".
Many Italian dialects may be considered as historical
languages in their own right.[41] These include
recognized language groups such as Friulian,
Neapolitan, Sardinian, Sicilian, Ligurian, Piedmontese,
Venetian, and others, and regional variants of these
languages such as Calabrian. The distinction between
dialect and language has been made by scholars (such
as Francesco Bruni): on the one hand are the languages
that made up the Italian koine; and on the other, those
that had little or no part in it, such as Albanian, Greek,
German, Ladin, and Occitan, which some minorities
still speak.

Regional differences can be recognized by various

factors: the openness of vowels, the length of the
consonants, and influence of the local dialect (for
Italian dialects
example, in informal situations the contraction annà
replaces andare in the area of Rome for the infinitive
"to go" and "nare" is what Venetians say for the infinitive "to go").

Writing system
The Italian alphabet has only 21 letters. The letters ‹j, k, w, x, y› are excluded. They appear in loanwords such as
jeans, whisky and taxi. The letter ‹x› has become common in standard Italian with the prefix extra-. The letter ‹j› is an
archaic orthographic variant of ‹i›. It appears in the first name Jacopo and in some Italian place names, such as
Bajardo, Bojano, Joppolo, Jerzu, Jesolo, Jesi, Ajaccio, among numerous others. It also appears in Mar Jonio, an
alternative spelling of Mar Ionio (the Ionian Sea). The letter ‹j› may appear in dialectal words, but its use is
discouraged in contemporary standard Italian. The foreign letters can be substituted with phonetically equivalent
native Italian letters and digraphs: ‹gi› or ‹i› for ‹j›; ‹c› or ‹ch› for ‹k› (including in the standard prefix kilo-); ‹u› or ‹v›
for ‹w›; ‹s›, ‹ss›, or ‹cs› for ‹x›; and ‹i› for ‹y›.
• The acute accent is used over ‹e› to indicate a front close-mid vowel, as in perché "why, because". The grave
accent is used over ‹e› to indicate a front open-mid vowel, as in tè "tea". The grave accent is used over any vowel
to indicate word-final stress, as in gioventù "youth". The penultimate syllable is typically stressed. If non-final
syllables are stressed, the accent is not mandatory (unlike in Spanish or in Greek) and virtually always omitted.
Italian language 888

When a word is potentially ambiguous, the accent is sometimes used for disambiguation, as for prìncipi "princes"
and princìpi "principles" and for è "is" and e "and". The accent on monosyllabic words, excluding function words,
is compulsory. Rare, polysyllabic words can have doubtful stress. Istanbul can be accented on the first (Ìstanbul)
or second syllable (Istànbul). The U.S. state name Florida is pronounced in Italian as in Spanish with stress on the
second syllable (Florìda). Because of an Italian word with the same spelling but different stress (flòrida
"flourishing") and because of the English pronunciation, most Italians pronounce Florida with stress on the first
syllable. Dictionaries give the latter as an alternative pronunciation.[42]
• The letter ‹h› distinguishes ho, hai, ha, hanno (present indicative of avere "to have") from o ("or"), ai ("to the"), a
("to"), anno ("year"). In the spoken language, the letter is always silent. The ‹h› in ho additionally marks the
contrasting open pronunciaton of the ‹o›. The letter ‹h› is also used in combinations with other letters (see below).
No phoneme [h] exists in Italian. In nativised foreign words, the ‹h› is silent. For example, hotel and hovercraft
are pronounced /oˈtɛl/ and /ˈɔverkraft/ respectively.
• The letters ‹s› and ‹z› can symbolize voiced or voiceless consonants. ‹z› symbolizes /dz/ or /ts/ depending on
context, with few minimal pairs. For example: zanzara /dzanˈdzaːra/ "mosquito" and nazione /natˈtsjoːne/
"nation". ‹s› symbolizes /s/ word-initially before a vowel, when clustered with a voiceless consonant (‹p, f, c, ch›),
and when doubled; it symbolizes /z/ when between vowels and when clustered with voiced consonants.
Intervocalic ‹s› varies regionally between /s/ and /z/.
• The letters ‹c› and ‹g› vary in pronunciation between plosives and affricates depending on following vowels. The
letter ‹c› symbolizes /k/ when word-final and before the back vowels ‹a, o, u›. It symbolizes /tʃ/ as in chair before
the front vowels ‹e, i›. The letter ‹g› symbolizes /g/ when word-final and before the back vowels ‹a, o, u›. It
symbolizes /dʒ/ as in gem before the front vowels ‹e, i›. French, Spanish, Romanian and, to a lesser extent,
English have similar variations for ‹c, g›. Swedish and Norwegian have similar variations for ‹k, g›. (See also
palatalization.)
• The digraphs ‹ch› and ‹gh› indicate or preserve hardness (/k/ and /g/) before ‹i, e›. The digraphs ‹ci› and ‹gi›
indicate or preserve softness (/tʃ/ and /dʒ/) before ‹a, o, u›. For example:

Before back vowel (A, O, U) Before front vowel (I, E)

Plosive C caramella /karaˈmɛlla/ candy CH china /ˈkina/ India ink

G gallo /ˈɡallo/ rooster GH ghiro /ˈɡiro/ edible dormouse

Affricate CI ciaramella /tʃaraˈmɛlla/ C Cina /ˈtʃina/ China

shawm

GI giallo /ˈdʒallo/ yellow G giro /ˈdʒiro/ round, tour

Note: ‹h› is silent in the digraphs ‹ch›, ‹gh›; and ‹i› is silent in the digraphs ‹ci› and ‹gi› before ‹a, o, u› unless the
‹i› is stressed. For example, it is silent in ciao /ˈtʃa.o/ and cielo /ˈtʃɛ.lo/, but it is pronounced in farmacia
/ˌfar.maˈtʃi.a/ and farmacie /ˌfar.maˈtʃi.e/.
• There are three other special digraphs in Italian: ‹gn›, ‹gl› and ‹sc›. The digraph ‹gn› represents /ɲ/. ‹gl› represents
/ʎ/ before ‹i›, and never at the beginning of a word, except in the personal pronoun and definite article gli.
(Compare with Spanish ‹ñ› and ‹ll›, Portuguese ‹nh› and ‹lh›.) ‹sc› represents a fricative /ʃ/ before ‹e, i›. Except in
the speech of some Northern Italians, all of these are normally geminate between vowels.
• In general, there is a clear one-to-one correspondence between letters or digraphs and phonemes, As in Spanish;
in standard varieties of Italian, there is little allophonic variation. The most notable exceptions are assimilation of
/n/ in point of articulation before consonants, assimilatory voicing of /s/ to following voiced consonants, and
vowel length (vowels are long in stressed open syllables – except at the end of words, and short elsewhere) —
compare with the enormous number of allophones of the English phoneme /t/. Spelling is mostly phonemic and
usually difficult to mistake, given a clear pronunciation. Exceptions exist, especially in foreign borrowings. There
are fewer cases of dyslexia than among speakers of languages such as English,[43] and the concept of a spelling
Italian language 889

bee is strange to Italians.

Common variations
Some variations in the usage of the writing system may be present in practical use. These are scorned by educated
people, but they are so common in certain contexts that knowledge of them may be useful.
• Usage of x instead of per "for". This is common among teenagers and in SMS abbreviations. The multiplication
operator is read "per" in Italian. For example, per te ("for you") is shortened to x te (compare with English 4 u).
The per in words can also have it replaced with x. For example: perché ("why, because") to xché or xké (see
below). This usage is useful shorthand in quick notes or in SMS, but it is unacceptable in formal writing.
• Usage of foreign letters such as ‹k›, ‹j› and ‹y›, especially in nicknames and SMS languag: ke instead of che, Giusy
instead of Giuseppina (or sometimes Giuseppe). This is mirrored in the usage of i in English names such as Staci
instead of Stacey or in the usage of c in Northern Europe (Jacob instead of Jakob). The use of ‹k› instead of ‹ch› or
‹c› to represent a plosive sound is documented in some historical texts from before the standardization of the
Italian language. The usage is no longer standard in Italian. The letter ‹k› has sometimes been used in satire to
suggest a political figure is an authoritarian or even a "pseudo-nazi". For example, Francesco Cossiga was
famously nicknamed Kossiga by rioting students during his tenure as minister of internal affairs. Compare the
politicized spelling Amerika in the USA. While not a letter in the standard Italian alphabet, the letter ‹j› is found in
many of the languages of southern Italy, including Neapolitan and Sicilian. In modern texts written in any such
language, the ‹j› is often replaced with ‹i›.
• The following abbreviations are limited to electronic-communications media: nn for non "not"; cmq for comunque
"anyway, however"; cm for come "how, like, as"; d for di "of"; (io/loro) sn for (io/loro) sono "I am, they are"; (io)
dv for (io) devo "I must, I have to" or for dove "where"; (tu) 6 for (tu) sei "you are".
• Whenever non-ASCII characters are unavailable or unreliable (as in e-mail), accents may be replaced with
adjacent apostrophes. For example: in perche' instead of perché. The practice was standard on manual typewriters
that had no accents and is still common for uppercase accented letters. Uppercase ‹È› is rare and is absent from the
Italian keyboard layout. It's often substituted with ‹E›, even though there are several ways of producing the
uppercase È on a computer.

Sounds

Vowels
Italian has seven vowel phonemes: /a/, /e/, /ɛ/, /i/, /o/, /ɔ/, /u/, represented by five letters: "a, e, i, o, u". The pairs
/e/-/ɛ/, and /o/-/ɔ/ are seldom distinguished in writing and often confused, even though most varieties of Italian
employ both phonemes consistently. Compare, for example standard "perché" [perˈke] (why, because) and "senti"
[ˈsɛnti] (you hear), as pronounced by most central and southern speakers, with [perˈkɛ] and [ˈsenti], employed by
most northern speakers. As a result, the usage is strongly indicative of a person's origin. The standard (Tuscan) usage
of these vowels is listed in vocabularies, and employed outside Tuscany mainly by specialists, especially actors and
very few (television) journalists. These are truly different phonemes, however: compare /ˈpeska/ (fishing) and
/ˈpɛska/ (peach), both spelled pesca (listen). Similarly /ˈbotte/ ('barrel') and /ˈbɔtte/ ('beatings'), both spelled botte,
discriminate /o/ and /ɔ/ (listen).
In general, vowel combinations usually pronounce each vowel separately. Diphthongs exist (e.g. uo, iu, ie, ai), but
are limited to an unstressed u or i before or after a stressed vowel.
The unstressed u in a diphthong approximates the English semivowel w, and the unstressed i approximates the
semivowel y. E.g.: buono [ˈbwɔːno], ieri [ˈjɛːri].
Triphthongs exist in Italian as well, like "continuiamo" ("we continue"). Three vowel combinations exist only in the
form semiconsonant (/j/ or /w/), followed by a vowel, followed by a desinence vowel (usually /i/), as in miei, suoi, or
Italian language 890

two semiconsonants followed by a vowel, as the group -uia- exemplified above, or -iuo- in the word aiuola.[44]

Mobile diphthongs
Many Latin words with a short e or o have Italian counterparts with a mobile diphthong (ie and uo respectively).
When the vowel sound is stressed, it is pronounced and written as a diphthong; when not stressed, it is pronounced
and written as a single vowel.
So Latin focus gave rise to Italian fuoco (meaning both "fire" and "optical focus"): when unstressed, as in focale
("focal") the "o" remains alone. Latin pes (more precisely its accusative form pedem) is the source of Italian piede
(foot): but unstressed "e" was left unchanged in pedone (pedestrian) and pedale (pedal). From Latin jocus comes
Italian giuoco ("play", "game"), though in this case gioco is more common: giocare means "to play (a game)". From
Latin homo comes Italian uomo (man), but also umano (human) and ominide (hominid). From Latin ovum comes
Italian uovo (egg) and ovaie (ovaries). (The same phenomenon occurs in Spanish: juego (play, game) and jugar (to
play), nieve (snow) and nevar (to snow)).

Consonants
Two symbols in a table cell denote the voiceless and voiced consonant, respectively.

Consonants of Italian[45]
Bilabial Labio- Alveolar Post- Palatal Velar
dental alveolar

Nasal m n ɲ

Plosive p, b t̪, d̪ k, ɡ

Affricate t̪s̪, d̪z̪ tʃ, dʒ

Fricative f, v s, z ʃ, (ʒ)

Trill r

Lateral l ʎ

Approximant j w

Nasals undergo assimilation when followed by a consonant, e.g., when preceding a velar (/k/ or /ɡ/) only [ŋ] appears,
etc.
Italian has geminate, or double, consonants, which are distinguished by length. Length is distinctive for all
consonants except for /ʃ/, /ts/, /dz/, /ʎ/ /ɲ/, which are always geminate, and /z/, which is always single. Geminate
plosives and affricates are realised as lengthened closures. Geminate fricatives, nasals, and /l/ are realized as
lengthened continuants. The flap consonant /ɾ/ is typically dialectal. The correct standard pronunciation is [r].
Of special interest to the linguistic study of Italian is the gorgia toscana, or "Tuscan Throat", the weakening or
lenition of certain intervocalic consonants in Tuscan dialects. See also Syntactic doubling.
The voiced postalveolar fricative /ʒ/ is only present in loanwords. For example, garage [ɡaˈraːʒ].
Italian language 891

Assimilation
Italian has few diphthongs, so most unfamiliar diphthongs that are heard in foreign words (in particular, those
beginning with vowel "a", "e", or "o") will be assimilated as the corresponding diaeresis (i.e., the vowel sounds will
be pronounced separately). Italian phonotactics do not usually permit verbs and polysyllabic nouns to end with
consonants, excepting poetry and song, so foreign words may receive extra terminal vowel sounds.

Examples

Conversation

English (inglese) Italian (italiano) Pronunciation

Yes Sì (listen) /si/

No No (listen) /nɔ/

Of course! Certo! / Certamente! / Naturalmente!

Hello! Ciao! (informal) / Salve! (general) (listen) /ˈtʃao/

Cheers! Salute! /saˈlute/

How are you? Come stai? (informal) / Come sta? (formal) / Come state? (plural) / Come va? (general) /ˈkomeˈstai/ ; /ˈkomeˈsta/

Good morning! Buon giorno! (= Good day!) /bwɔnˈdʒorno/

Good evening! Buona sera! /bwɔnaˈsera/

Good night! Buona notte! (for a good night sleeping) / Buona serata! (for a good night awake)

Have a nice day! Buona giornata! (formal)

Enjoy the meal! Buon appetito! /ˌbwɔn appeˈtito/

Goodbye! Arrivederci (general) / Arrivederla (formal) / Ciao! (informal) (listen) /arriveˈdertʃi/

Good luck! - Thank Buona fortuna! - Grazie! (general) / In bocca al lupo! - Crepi [il lupo]! (to wish someone
you! to overcome a difficulty, similar to "Break a leg!"; literally: "Into the mouth of the wolf!" -
"May the wolf die!"

I love you Ti amo (between lovers only) / Ti voglio bene (in the sense of "I am fond of you", between /ti ˈvɔʎʎo ˈbɛne/ ; /ti ˈamo/
lovers, friends, relatives etc.)

Welcome [to...] Benvenuto/-i (for male/males or mixed) / Benvenuta/-e (for female/females) [a / in...]

Please Per piacere / Per favore / Per cortesia (listen)

Thank you! Grazie! (general) / Ti ringrazio! (informal) / La ringrazio! (formal) / Vi ringrazio! (plural) (listen) /ˈɡrattsje/

You are welcome! Prego! /ˈprɛɡo/

Excuse me / I am sorry Mi dispiace (only "I am sorry") / Scusa(mi) (informal) / Mi scusi (formal) / Scusatemi (listen) /ˈskuzi/ ; /ˈskuza/ ;
(plural) / Sono desolato ("I am sorry", if male) / Sono desolata ("I am sorry", if female) /mi disˈpjatʃe/

Who? Chi?

What? Che cosa? / Cosa? / Che?

When? Quando? /ˈkwando/

Where? Dove? /ˈdove/

How? Come? /ˈkome/

Why / Because perché /perˈke/

Again di nuovo / ancora /di ˈnwɔvo/; /aŋˈkora/

Italian language 892

How much? / How Quanto? / Quanta? / Quanti? / Quante?

many?

What is your name? Come ti chiami? (informal) / Come si chiama? (formal)

My name is ... Mi chiamo ...

This is ... Questo è ... (masculine) / Questa è ... (feminine)

Yes, I understand. Sì, capisco. / Ho capito.

I do not understand. Non capisco. / Non ho capito. (listen)

Do you speak English? Parli inglese? (informal) / Parla inglese? (formal) / Parlate inglese? (plural) (listen) /parˈlate.iŋˈɡlese/

I do not understand Non capisco l'italiano. /noŋkaˈpiskolitaˈljano/

Italian.

Help me! Aiutami! (informal) / Mi aiuti! (formal) / Aiutatemi! (plural) / Aiuto! (general)

You are right/wrong! (Tu) hai ragione/torto! (informal) / (Lei) ha ragione/torto! (formal) / (Voi) avete
ragione/torto! (plural)

What time is it? Che ora è? / Che ore sono?

Where is the Dov'è il bagno? (listen)

bathroom?

How much is it? Quanto costa? /ˈkwanto ˈkɔsta/

The bill, please. Il conto, per favore.

The study of Italian Lo studio dell'italiano aguzza l'ingegno.

sharpens the mind.

Numbers

English Italian IPA

One uno /ˈuno/

Two due /ˈdue/

Three tre /tre/

Four quattro /ˈkwattro/

Five cinque /ˈtʃiŋkwe/

Six sei /ˈsɛi/

Seven sette /ˈsɛtte/

Eight otto /ˈɔtto/

Nine nove /ˈnɔve/

Ten dieci /ˈdjɛtʃi/

Italian language 893

English Italian IPA

Eleven undici /ˈunditʃi/

Twelve dodici /ˈdoditʃi/

Thirteen tredici /ˈtreditʃi/

Fourteen quattordici /kwatˈtorditʃi/

Fifteen quindici /ˈkwinditʃi/

Sixteen sedici /ˈseditʃi/

Seventeen diciassette /ditʃasˈsɛtte/

Eighteen diciotto /diˈtʃɔtto/

Nineteen diciannove /ditʃanˈnɔve/

Twenty venti /ˈventi/

English Italian IPA

Twenty-one ventuno /ventˈuno/

Twenty-two ventidue /ventiˈdue/

Twenty-three ventitre /ventiˈtre/

Twenty-four ventiquattro /ventiˈkwattro/

Twenty-five venticinque /ventiˈtʃiŋkwe/

Twenty-six ventisei /ventiˈsɛi/

Twenty-seven ventisette /ventiˈsɛtte/

Twenty-eight ventotto /ventˈɔtto/

Twenty-nine ventinove /ventiˈnɔve/

Thirty trenta /ˈtrenta/

Days of the week

English Italian IPA

Monday lunedì /luneˈdi/

Tuesday martedì /marteˈdi/

Wednesday mercoledì /merkoleˈdi/

Thursday giovedì /dʒoveˈdi/

Friday venerdì /venerˈdi/

Saturday sabato /ˈsabato/

Sunday domenica /doˈmenika/

Italian language 894

Sample texts
There is a recording of Dante's Divine Comedy read by Lino Pertile available at http:/ / etcweb. princeton. edu/
dante/pdp/

See also
• Accademia della Crusca
• CELI
• CILS (Qualification)
• Enciclopedia Italiana
• Guide to phonetic transliteration of Italian
• Italian alphabet
• Italian dialects
• Italian exonyms
• Italian grammar
• Italian honorifics
• The Italian Language Foundation (in the United States)
• Italian literature
• Italian musical terms
• Italian phonology
• Italian profanity
• Italian Sign Language
• Italian Wikipedia
• List of English words of Italian origin
• List of languages of Italy
• Sicilian School
• Veronese Riddle

Bibliography
• Rogers, Derek; d'Arcangeli, Luciana (2004). "Italian". Journal of the International Phonetic Association 34 (1):
117–121. doi:10.1017/S0025100304001628
• M. Vitale, Studi di Storia della Lingua Italiana, LED Edizioni Universitarie, Milano, 1992, ISBN 88-7916-015-X
• S. Morgana, Capitoli di Storia Linguistica Italiana, LED Edizioni Universitarie, Milano, 2003, ISBN
88-7916-211-X
• J. Kinder, CLIC: Cultura e Lingua d'Italia in Cd-rom / Culture and Language of Italy on Cd-rom, Interlinea,
Novara, 2008, ISBN 978-88-8212-637-7
Italian language 895

External links
• Swadesh list in English and Italian
• Italian proverbs
• The online edition (2007) of the Dizionario d'ortografia e di pronunzia (DOP), a pronouncing dictionary of
standard Italian [46], RAI
• "Learn Italian [47]," BBC
• Italian Grammar Primer [48]

References
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Italian language 896

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[37] Language-learning trends in the United States (http:/ / www. vistawide. com/ languages/ us_languages. htm) VistaWide Retrieved
2010-05-16
[38] "www.iic-colonia.de" (http:/ / www. iic-colonia. de/ italiano-2000/ Indice. htm). www.iic-colonia.de. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[39] Eurobarometer – Europeans and their languages (http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ public_opinion/ archives/ ebs/ ebs_243_sum_en. pdf)PDF (485 KB),
February 2006
[40] A language of Italy (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ show_language. asp?code=ita) Ethnologue Retrieved 2010-06-05
[41] "Ethnologue web reference for Italian" (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ 14/ show_language. asp?code=ITN). Ethnologue.com. . Retrieved
2010-04-21.
[42] (Italian) Dizionario d'ortografia e di pronunzia (http://www.dizionario.rai.it/poplemma.aspx?lid=56814&r=1715)
[43] E. Paulescu et al., Dyslexia - cultural diversity and biological unity, "Science", vol. 291, pp. 2165–2167.
[44] Serianni, Luca; Castelvecchi, Alberto (1997). Italiano. Garzanti. p. 15.
[45] Rogers & d'Arcangeli (2004:117)
[46] http:/ / www. dizionario. rai. it
[47] http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ languages/ italian/
[48] http:/ / mertsahinoglu. com/ research/ italian-language-primer/
Latin 897

Latin
Latin
Lingua Latina

Latin inscription in the

Colosseum

Pronunciation Latin pronunciation: [laˈtiːna]

Spoken in Roman Republic, Roman Empire, Medieval Europe, Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (as lingua
franca), Vatican City

Total speakers —

Language family Indo-European

• Italic
• Latino-Faliscan
• Latin

Official status

Official language in  Holy See

Regulated by [1]
Anciently, Roman schools of grammar and rhetoric. In contemporary time, Opus Fundatum
[2]
Latinitas.

Language codes

ISO 639-1 la

ISO 639-2 lat

ISO 639-3 [3]

lat
Latin 898

Greatest extent of the Roman Empire, the maximum range over which
Latin was spoken.

Latin (lingua latīna, IPA: [laˈtiːna]) or sometimes Roman is an Italic language[4] originally spoken in Latium and
Ancient Rome. Although often considered a dead language, in view of the fact that it has no native speakers, a small
number of scholars can fluently speak it and it continues to be taught in schools and universities[5] and has been, and
currently is, used in the process of new word production in modern languages from many different families,
including English. Latin and its daughter Romance languages are the only surviving branch of the Italic language
family. Other branches, known as Italic languages, are attested in documents surviving from early Italy, but were
assimilated during the Roman Republic. The one possible exception is Venetic, the language of the people who
settled Venetia, who in Roman times spoke their language in parallel with Latin.
The extensive use of elements from vernacular speech by the earliest authors and inscriptions of the Roman Republic
make it clear that the original, unwritten language of the Roman Monarchy was a colloquial form only partly
reconstructable called Vulgar Latin. By the late Roman Republic literate persons mainly at Rome had created a
standard form from the spoken language of the educated and empowered now called Classical Latin, then called
simply Latin or Latinity. The term Vulgar Latin came to mean the various dialects of the citizenry.[6] With the
Roman conquest, Latin spread to countries around the Mediterranean, and the vernacular dialects spoken in these
areas developed into the Romance languages, including Aragonese, Catalan, Corsican, French, Italian, Portuguese,
Romanian, Sardinian, and Spanish.[7] Classical Latin, however, continued to develop after the fall of the Roman
Empire and through the Middle Ages, and was used as the language of international communication, scholarship and
science until the 18th century, when it was supplanted by vernacular languages.
Latin is a highly inflected language, with three distinct genders, seven noun cases, four verb conjugations, six tenses,
six persons, three moods, two voices, two aspects and a distinction between singular and plural number. A dual
number is rare and archaic. One of the seven cases is the locative case, generally only used with place nouns. The
vocative is nearly identical to the nominative. There are only five fully productive cases; accordingly, different
authors list 5, 6 or 7 as the number of cases. Adjectives and adverbs are compared, and adjectives are inflected for
case, gender, and number. Although Latin has demonstrative pronouns indicating varying degree of closeness, it
lacks articles. Later Romance language articles developed from the demonstative pronouns; e.g., le and la from ille
and illa. Romance languages were created by simplification of this inflectional complexity in various ways; e.g.,
uninflected Italian oggi ("today") from the Latin ablative case, hoc die.
Latin 899

Legacy
The Latin heritage has been delivered in these broad genres:
• Inscriptions
• Latin literature
• Latin words and concepts in modern languages and scientific terminology
• An extensive tradition of instruction in the Latin language, including grammars and dictionaries

Inscriptions
Most inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed-upon, monumental, multi-volume series termed
the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary but the format is approximately the same:
volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance and relevant information. The reading
and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. There are approximately
180,000 known inscriptions.

Latin literature
The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial
works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology. They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. Their
works were published in manuscript form before the invention of printing and now exist in carefully annotated
printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library by Harvard University Press.

Influence on English
In the medieval period, much borrowing from Latin occurred through ecclesiastical usage established by Saint
Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century, or indirectly after the Norman Conquest, through the Anglo-Norman
language. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from
Latin and Greek words. These were dubbed "inkhorn terms", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these
words were used once by the author and then forgotten, but some were so useful that they survived, such as imbibe
and extrapolate. Many of the most common polysyllabic English words also are Latin forms adapted by way of Old
French.

Instruction in Latin

Formal support for the study of Latin

The Living Latin movement attempts to teach Latin in

the same way that modern living languages are taught,
i.e., as a means of both spoken and written
communication. Living Latin instruction is provided at
the Vatican, and at some institutions in the U.S., such
as the University of Kentucky and Iowa State
University. A major supplier of Latin textbooks at all
levels is Cambridge University Press, which publishes
the Cambridge Latin Course series. It includes a
subseries of children's texts in Latin by Bell & Forte,
using only the Latin language, describing the
adventures of a mouse called Minimus. A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the University Library of Graz
Latin 900

In the United Kingdom, the Classical Association encourages the study of classics by a variety of methods, such as
publications and grants. In the United States and Canada, The American Classical League supports any and every
approach to further study of the classics. Its subsidiaries: the National Junior Classical League (with more than
50,000 members) encourages high school students to pursue the study of Latin, and the National Senior Classical
League encourages college students to continue their studies of the language. The league also sponsors the National
Latin Exam, an educational tool.
Latin is taught as a (mandatory) subject in gymnasium and other "classical" high schools throughout Europe and
sometimes beyond. In the United States, although once offered nearly universally, Latin is currently an elective
available in some schools, either public or private, at the primary and secondary levels. The ordinary student can no
longer count on being able to take Latin, but resources are available to those who seek them. The College Board
examinations, an educational tool for the admission of students to colleges, still features one Latin examination on a
voluntary basis: Advanced Placement Latin: Vergil.

Latin translations of modern literature

Latin translations of modern literature such as Treasure Island, Robinson Crusoe, Paddington Bear, Winnie the
Pooh, Tintin, Asterix, Harry Potter, Walter the Farting Dog, Le Petit Prince, Max und Moritz, How the Grinch Stole
Christmas, and The Cat in the Hat and a book of fairy tales, "fabulae mirabiles", are intended to bolster interest in
the language. Additional resources include Phrasebooks or resources to render modern terms and concepts into Latin,
such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook.

Synthetic languages based on Latin

Many international auxiliary languages have been heavily influenced by Latin. Interlingua, which lays claim to a
sizeable following, is sometimes considered a simplified, modern version of the language. Latino sine Flexione,
popular in the early 20th century, is a language created from Latin with its inflections dropped.

History
Latin has been divided into historical phases, each of which is distinguished by minor differences in vocabulary,
usage, spelling, morphology and syntax. In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to the styles
used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church in all historical phases from Late Latin on.

Old, early or archaic Latin

The earliest known is Old Latin, a phase of the early and middle Roman republic attested in inscriptions and the
earliest surviving Latin works of literature. During this period, the Latin alphabet was first introduced into the
language, and the script evolved from right-to-left or boustrophedon[8] to a left-to-right script.[9] Old Latin is attested
in thousands of inscriptions of the Roman Republic and in the writings of older Roman authors, such as Plautus, the
first to leave a larger body of literature (several comedies).
Latin 901

Classical Latin
Old Latin was followed in the late republic and empire by Classical Latin, a conscious creation of the orators, poets,
historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature which were taught in the schools
of grammar and rhetoric. The concepts of today's instructional grammars originated in these schools, which served as
a sort of informal language academy to maintain and perpetuate the classical language.[10] [11]

Vulgar Latin
Philological analysis of Old Latin works, such as the plays of Plautus, which contain dialogue purporting to be the
speech of the common people, indicates that contemporaneous with the literary and official language was a spoken
language, which has from ancient times been called Vulgar Latin (sermo vulgi in Cicero), the language of the vulgus
or "common people." Since the vulgus spoke — but did not write — their language, it can only be known through
words and phrases cited by classical authors or in inscriptions.[12]
As vulgar Latin was not under the control or encouragement of the schools of rhetoric, there is no reason to expect
any uniformity of speech either diachronically or geographically. Just the opposite must have been true: European
populations learning Latin developed their own dialects of the language.[13] This is the situation that prevailed when
the Migration Period, ca. 300-700 AD, brought an end to the unity and peace of the Roman world and removed the
stabilizing influence of its institutions on the language. A post-classical phase of Latin appeared, Late Latin, in
which the spoken forms reappeared, and which is regionalized.
One of the tests as to whether a given Latin feature or usage was in the spoken language is to compare its reflex in a
Romance language with the equivalent structure in classical Latin. If it appeared in the Romance language but was
not preferred in classical Latin, then it passes the test as being vulgar Latin. For example, grammatical case in nouns
is present in classical Latin but not in the Romance languages, excluding Romanian. One might conclude that case
endings in regions other than Romania were already wholly or partly missing in the spoken language even while
being insisted upon in the written. Also, much of the vocabulary that went into the Romance languages came from
Vulgar Latin rather than classical. The following examples follow the formula, classical Latin word/vulgar Latin
word/ French word: ignis/focus/feu, equus/caballus/cheval, loquor/parabolare/parler, pulcher/bellus/bel (or belle).[14]
In each case French does not use the classical Latin word. The words actually used: focus, caballus, etc., must have
been in the Vulgar Latin vocabulary.
The expansion of the Roman Empire had spread Latin throughout Europe. Vulgar Latin began to diverge into
various dialects and many of these into distinct Romance languages by the 9th century at very latest, when the
earliest known writings appeared. These languages must already have been in place. These were, for many centuries,
only oral languages, Latin still being used for writing.
Latin 902

Medieval Latin
The term Medieval Latin refers to the written Latin in
use during that portion of the post-classical period
when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed. The
spoken language had developed into the various
incipient Romance Languages; however, in the
educated and official world Latin continued without its
natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into
lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the
Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful as a
means of international communication between the
member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies.
The language of Rome has had a profound impact on later cultures,
as demonstrated by this Latin Bible from 1407 Cut loose from its corrective spoken base and severed
from the vanished institutions of the Roman empire that
had supported its uniformity, medieval Latin lost the precise knowledge of correctness; for example, suus ("his/her
own"), sui ("his/her own") and eius ("his/her") are used almost interchangeably, a confusion not resolved until the
Renaissance, in works such as the tract of Lorenzo Valla, De reciprocatione suus et sui. In classical Latin sum and
eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin
might use fui and fueram instead.[15] Furthermore the meanings of many words have changed and new vocabulary
has been introduced from the vernacular.

While these minor changes are not enough to impair comprehension of the language, they introduce a certain
flexibility not in it previously. The style of each individual author is characterized by his own uses of classically
incorrect Latin to such a degree that one can identify him just by reading his Latin. In that sense medieval Latin is a
collection of individual Latins united loosely by the main structures of the language. Some are more classical, others
less so.[15] The majority of these writers were influential members of the Christian church: bishops, monks,
philosophers, etc.; however, the term "Ecclesiastical Latin" does not accurately apply. There was no uniform
language of the church. Late Latin is sometimes classified as medieval, sometimes not. Certainly many of the
individual Latins were influenced by the vernaculars of their authors.

Renaissance Latin
The Renaissance briefly reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken language, through its adoption by the
Renaissance Humanists. Often led by members of the clergy, they were shocked by the accelerated dismantling of
the vestiges of the classical world and the rapid loss of its literature. They strove to preserve what they could. It was
they who introduced the practice of producing revised editions of the literary works that remained by comparing
surviving manuscripts, and they who attempted to restore Latin to what it had been. They corrected medieval Latin
out of existence no later than the 15th century and replaced it with more formally correct versions supported by the
scholars of the rising universities, who attempted, through scholarship, to discover what the classical language had
been.
Latin 903

Phonology
Pronunciation of Latin by the Romans in ancient times has been reconstructed from a variety of data, such as the
evolution of features of the Romance languages, the representation of Latin words in other languages, such as Greek,
the metrical patterns of Latin poetry, and more.[16] The table below lists the consonant phonemes of Classical Latin.

Labial Dental Palatal Velar Glottal

plain labial

Plosive voiced b d ɡ

voiceless p t k kʷ

aspirated pʰ tʰ kʰ

Fricative voiced z

voiceless f s h

Nasal m n ŋ

Rhotic r

Approximant lɫ j w

Latin spelling seems to have been largely phonemic, with each letter corresponding to a specific phoneme in the
language, save for some exceptions. In particular, all vowels varied in pronunciation depending upon their vowel
length, the letter "n" represented either a dental nasal or a velar nasal, and the letters "i" and "u" represented either
consonants or vowels depending on context. Although Classical Latin did not have a distinction between either "i"
and "j" or "u" or "v," in later publications, "i" and "u" can represent solely the vowel form while "j" and "v" solely
the consonant form.
Most of the letters are pronounced the same as in English, but note the following:
Consonants:
• c = /k/ (never as in nice)
• g = /ɡ/ (never as in germ)
• j (consonantal i) = /j/ (like English y in you) The "i" is pronounced as a consonant if in the beginning of word
before a vowel or between two vowels.
• n = /n/ or /ŋ/ If "n" occurs before "g" or "x" directly after a "g,"[17] it is pronounced /ŋ/ ("ng" as in "sing").
Otherwise, it is pronounced /n/[18]
• t = /t/ (never as in English nation)
• v (consonantal u) = /w/ The "u" is pronounced as a consonant also if beginning a word and before a vowel or if
placed between two vowels.
• x = /ks/
Vowels:
• a = /a/ when short and /aː/ when long.
• e = /ɛ/ (as in pet) when short and /eː/ (somewhat as in English they) when long.
• i = /ɪ/ (as in pin) when short and /iː/ (as in machine) when long
• o = /ɔ/ (as in British English law) when short and /oː/ (somewhat as in holy) when long.
• u = /ʊ/1 (as in put) when short and /uː/ (as in true) when long.
1
Really a Close-mid back unrounded vowel, /ɤ/.

A vowel followed by an m or n (later in the life of Latin), either at the end of a word or before another consonant, is
nasal, as in monstrum /mõstrũ/.[19]
Latin 904

Orthography
Latin was written using the Latin Alphabet, derived
from the Old Italic alphabet, in turn drawn from the
Greek and ultimately the Phoenician alphabet.[20] This
alphabet has continued to be used throughout centuries
as the script for the Romance, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic,
Finnic, and some Slavic languages (Croatian and
Czech, for example), as well as for others as
Indonesian, Vietnamese, and Niger-Congo languages.

The Latin alphabet has varied in number of letters.

When it was first adopted from the Etruscan alphabet, it
contained only 21.[21] Later, “G”, representing /g/,
formerly included under “C”, was innovated to replace
“Z”, which was non-functional, as the language had no
voiced alveolar fricative at the time.[22] The letters “Y”
and “Z” were later added to represent the Greek Upsilon
and Zeta respectively in Greek loanwords.[22] “W” was
The Duenos Inscription, from the 6th century BC, is one of the
created in the 11th century from VV. It represented /w/
earliest known Old Latin texts.
in Germanic languages, not in Latin, which still uses
“V” for the purpose. “J” was distinguished from the
original “I” only during the late Middle Ages along with the letter “U” from “V”.[22] Although some dictionaries use
“J” it is for the most part eschewed for Latin text as non-original, although other languages use it.

Classical Latin did not contain punctuation, macrons (although apices were used to distinguish length in vowels),
lowercase letters,[23] or interword spacing (but the interpunct was used at times in Latin’s history). So, a sentence
originally written as:
LVGETEOVENERESCVPIDINESQVE
would be rendered in a modern edition as
Lugete, O Veneres Cupidinesque
or with macrons
Lūgēte, Ō Venerēs Cupīdinēsque.
and translated as
Mourn, O Venuses and Cupids
The Roman cursive script is commonly found on the
many wax tablets excavated at sites such as forts, an
especially extensive set having been discovered at
Vindolanda on Hadrian's Wall in Britain. Curiously
enough, most of the Vindolanda tablets show spaces
A replica of the Old Roman Cursive inspired by the Vindolanda
between words, though spaces were avoided in tablets
monumental inscriptions from that era.
Latin 905

Grammar
Latin is a synthetic, fusional language: affixes (often suffixes, which usually encode more than one grammatical
category) are attached to fixed stems to express gender, number, and case in adjectives, nouns, and pronouns—a
process called declension. Affixes are attached to fixed stems of verbs, as well, to denote person, number, tense,
voice, mood, and aspect—a process called conjugation.

Nouns
There are seven Latin noun cases. These mark a noun's syntactic role in the sentence, so word order is not as
important in Latin as it is in some other languages, such as English. Words can typically be moved around in a
sentence without significantly altering its meaning, although the emphasis may have been altered.
1. Nominative: used when the noun is the subject or a predicate nominative. The thing or person acting; e.g., the girl
ran: puella currebat, or currebat puella
2. Vocative: used when the noun is used in a direct address. The vocative form of a noun is the same as the
nominative except for second declension nouns ending in -us. The -us becomes an -e or if it ends in -ius (such as
filius) then the ending is just -i (fili) (as distinct from the plural nominative (filii)). (e.g., "Master!" shouted the
slave. "Domine!" servus clamavit.)
3. Accusative: used when the noun is the direct object of the sentence/phrase, with certain prepositions, or as the
subject of an infinitive. The thing or person having something done to them. (e.g., The slave woman carries the
wine. Ancilla vinum portat.) In addition, there are certain constructions where the accusative can be used for the
subject of a clause, one being the indirect statement.
4. Genitive: used when the noun is the possessor of an object (e.g., "the horse of the man", or "the man's horse"—in
both of these instances, the word man would be in the genitive case when translated into Latin). Also indicates
material of which something greater is made (e.g., "a group of people"; "a number of gifts"—people and gifts
would be in the genitive case). Some nouns are genitive with special verbs and adjectives too. (e.g., The cup is
full of wine. Poculum plenum vini est. The master of the slave had beaten him. Dominus servi eum verberaverat.)
5. Dative: used when the noun is the indirect object of the sentence, with special verbs, with certain prepositions,
and if used as agent, reference, or even possessor. (e.g., The merchant hands over the stola to the woman.
Mercator feminae stolam tradit.)
6. Ablative: used when the noun demonstrates separation or movement from a source, cause, agent, or instrument,
or when the noun is used as the object of certain prepositions; adverbial.
7. Locative, used to indicate a location and services (corresponding to the English "in" or "at"). This is far less
common than the other six cases of Latin nouns and usually applies to cities, small towns, and islands smaller
than the island of Rhodes, but not including Rhodes, along with a few common nouns. In the first and second
declension singular, its form coincides with the genitive (Roma becomes Romae, "in Rome"). In the plural, and in
the other declensions, it coincides with the dative and ablative (Athenae becomes Athenis, "at Athens").
Latin lacks definite and indefinite articles; thus puer currit can mean either "the boy is running" or "a boy is
running."

Verbs
Verbs in Latin are usually identified by four main conjugations, groups of verbs with similarly inflected forms. The
first conjugation is typified by active infinitive forms ending in -āre, the second by active infinitives ending in -ēre,
the third by active infinitives ending in -ere, and the fourth by active infinitives ending in -īre. However, there are
exceptions to these rules. Further, there is a subset of the 3rd conjugation, the -iō verbs, which behave somewhat like
the 4th conjugation. There are six general tenses in Latin (present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect, and future
perfect), three grammatical moods (indicative, imperative and subjunctive, in addition to the infinitive, participle,
gerund, gerundive and supine), three persons (first, second, and third), two numbers (singular and plural), two voices
Latin 906

(active and passive), and a few aspects. Verbs are described by four principal parts:
1. The first principal part is the first person (or third person for impersonal verbs) singular, present tense, indicative
mood, active voice form of the verb (or passive voice for verbs lacking an active voice).
2. The second principal part is the present infinitive active (or passive for verbs lacking an active) form.
3. The third principal part is the first person (or third person for impersonal verbs) singular, perfect indicative active
(or passive when there is no active) form.
4. The fourth principal part is the supine form, or alternatively, the nominative singular, perfect passive participle
form of the verb. The fourth principal part can show either one gender of the participle, or all three genders (-us
for masculine, -a for feminine, and -um for neuter). It can also be the future participle when the verb cannot be
made passive. Most modern Latin dictionaries, if only showing one gender, tend to show the masculine; however,
many older dictionaries will instead show the neuter. The fourth principal part is sometimes omitted for
intransitive verbs, although strictly in Latin these can be made passive if used impersonally.

Vocabulary
As Latin is an Italic language, most of its vocabulary is likewise Italic, deriving ultimately from PIE. However,
because of close cultural interaction, the Romans not only had adapted the Etruscan alphabet to form the Latin
alphabet, but also had borrowed some Etruscan words into their language, including persona (mask) and histrio
(actor).[24] Latin also included vocabulary borrowed from Oscan, another Italic language.
After the Fall of Tarentum (272 BC), the Romans began hellenizing, or adopting features of Greek culture, including
the borrowing of Greek words, such as camera (vaulted roof), sumbolum (symbol), and balineum (bath).[24] This
hellenization led to the addition of “Y” and “Z” to the alphabet to represent these Greek sounds.[25] Subsequently the
Romans transplanted Greek art, medicine, science and philosophy to Italy, paying almost any price to entice Greek
skilled and educated persons to Rome, and sending their youth to be educated in Greece. Thus, many Latin scientific
and philosophical words were Greek loanwords or had their meanings expanded by association with Greek words, as
ars (craft) for τεχνη.[24] .
Because of the Roman Empire’s expansion and subsequent trade with outlying European tribes, the Romans
borrowed some northern and central European words, such as beber (beaver), of Germanic origin, and bracae
(breeches), of Celtic origin.[24] The specific dialects of Latin across Latin-speaking regions of the former Roman
Empire after its fall were influenced by languages specific to the regions. These spoken Latins evolved into
particular Romance languages.
During and after the adoption of Christianity into Roman society, Christian vocabulary became a part of the
language, formed either from Greek or Hebrew borrowings, or as Latin neologisms.[26] Continuing into the Middle
Ages, Latin incorporated many more words from surrounding languages, including Old English and Germanic
languages.
Over the ages Latin-speaking populations produced new adjectives, nouns and verbs by affixing or compounding
meaningful segments.[27] For example, the compound adjective, omnipotens, "all-powerful," was produced from the
adjectives omnis, "all", and potens, "powerful", by dropping the final s of omnis and concatenating. Often the
concatenation changed the part of speech; i.e., nouns were produced from verb segments or verbs from nouns and
adjectives.[28]
Latin 907

Modern use
Latin lives in the form of Ecclesiastical Latin used for
edicts and papal bulls issued by the Catholic Church,
and in the form of a sparse sprinkling of scientific or
social articles written in it, as well as in numerous Latin
clubs. Latin vocabulary is used in science, academia,
and law. Classical Latin is taught in many schools often
combined with Greek in the study of Classics, though
its role has diminished since the early 20th century. The
Latin alphabet, together with its modern variants such
as the English, Spanish, French, Portuguese and
German alphabets, is the most widely used alphabet in
the world. Terminology deriving from Latin words and
concepts is widely used, among other fields, in
philosophy, medicine, biology, and law, in terms and
abbreviations such as subpoena duces tecum, q.i.d.
(quater in die: "four times a day"), and inter alia
(among other things). These Latin terms are used in
isolation, as technical terms. In scientific names for
organisms, Latin is typically the language of choice,
followed by Greek.

The largest organization that still uses Latin in official The signs at Wallsend Metro station are in English and Latin as a
tribute to Wallsend's role as one of the outposts of the Roman
and quasi-official contexts is the Roman Catholic
empire.
Church (particularly in the Latin Rite). The Tridentine
Mass uses Latin, although the Mass of Paul VI is
usually said in the local vernacular language; however, it can be and often is said in Latin, particularly in the
Vatican. Indeed, Latin is still the official standard language of the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, and the
Second Vatican Council merely authorized that the liturgical books be translated and optionally used in the
vernacular languages. Latin is the official language of the Holy See and the Vatican City-State. The Vatican City is
also home to the only ATM where instructions are given in Latin.[29]

Some films of relevant ancient settings, such as Sebastiane and The Passion of the Christ, have been made with
dialogue in Latin for purposes of realism. Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its association with
religion or philosophy, in such film/TV series as the Exorcist and Lost (Jughead). Subtitles are usually employed for
the benefit of audiences who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics.
Many organizations today have Latin mottos, such as "Semper Paratus" (always ready), the motto of the United
States Coast Guard, and "Semper Fidelis" (always faithful), the motto of the United States Marine Corps. Several of
the states of the United States also have Latin mottos, such as "Montani Semper Liberi" (Mountaineers are always
free), the state motto of West Virginia, and "Esse Quam Videri" (To be rather than to seem), that of North Carolina.
Latin grammar has been taught in most Italian schools since the 18th century: for example, in the Liceo classico and
Liceo scientifico, Latin is still one of the primary subjects. Latin is taught in many schools and universities around
the world as well.
Occasionally, some media outlets broadcast in Latin, which is targeted at the audience of enthusiasts. Notable
examples include Radio Bremen in Germany, YLE radio in Finland and Vatican Radio & Television; all of which
broadcast news segments and other material in Latin.[30] [31]
Latin 908

There are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts. The Latin Wikipedia has over 40,000
articles written in Latin.

References
• Allen, William Sidney (2004). Vox Latina — a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin (2nd ed.).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Bennett, Charles E. (1908). Latin Grammar. Chicago: Allyn and Bacon.
• Clark, Victor Selden (1900). Studies in the Latin of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Lancaster: The New
Era Printing Company.
• Diringer, David (1996) [1947]. The Alphabet - A Key to the History of Mankind. New Delhi: Munshiram
Manoharlal Publishers Private Ltd.. ISBN 81-215-0748-0.
• Herman, József; Wright, Roger (Translator) (2000). Vulgar Latin. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State
University Press.
• Holmes, Urban Tigner; Schultz, Alexander Herman (1938). A History of the French Language. New York:
Biblo-Moser. ISBN 0-8196-0191-8.
• Jenks, Paul Rockwell (1911). A Manual of Latin Word Formation for Secondary Schools. New York: D.C. Heath
& Co.
• Palmer, Frank Robert (1984). Grammar (2nd ed.). Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England; New York, N.Y.,
U.S.A.: Penguin Books.
• Vincent, N. (1990). "Latin". in Harris, M.. The Romance Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-520829-3
• Waquet, Françoise; Howe, John (Translator) (2003). Latin, or the Empire of a Sign: From the Sixteenth to the
Twentieth Centuries. Verso. ISBN 1-85984-402-2.
• Wheelock, Frederic (2005). Latin: An Introduction (6th ed.). Collins. ISBN 0-06-078423-7.

See also
• Latin Mnemonics
• Latin school
• List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English
• List of Latin abbreviations
• List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names
• List of Latin phrases
• List of Latin words with English derivatives
• List of Latinised names
• List of legal Latin terms
• Medical terminology
• Romanization (cultural)
• Toponymy
Latin 909

External links
Language tools
• Latin Dictionary Headword Search [32], at Perseus Hopper, Tufts University. Searches Lewis & Short's A Latin
Dictionary and Lewis's An Elementary Latin Dictionary
• Perseus Word Study Tool [33], a morphological analysis of inflected Latin words
• Latin Inflector [34] by Alan Aversa. Analyze inflected words in Latin sentences.
• Online conjugator [35] of Latin verbs, by Verbix
• Online interface to Words [36] by William Whittaker. Accepts English words or Latin phrases
• Latin Dictionaries [37] at the Open Directory Project
• Latin Composition Tool [38] by Marq Jefferson. Makes input of macrons much simpler, excellent for Latin
scansion exercises and beginning students

Courses
• Hatfield, Brent (2010). "Learn Latin Online Free" [39] (html,video). Free online Latin course utilizing youtube
videos and downloadable worksheets. Brent Hatfield. Retrieved 2 September 2010.
• Cherryh, CJ (1999). "Latin 1:the Easy Way" [40] (html). CJ Cherryh. Retrieved 24 June 2010.
• Byrne, Carol (1999). "Simplicissimus" [41] (html, pdf). The Latin Mass Society of England and Wales. Retrieved
24 June 2010.
• Harsch, Ulrich (1996-2010). "Ludus Latinus Cursus linguae latinae" [42] (in Latin) (html). Bibliotheca
Augustiana. Augsburg: University of Applied Sciences. Retrieved 24 June 2010.

Grammar and study

• Bennett, Charles E. (2005) [1908]. New Latin Grammar [43] (2nd ed.). Project Gutenberg.
• Batzarov, Zdravko (2000). "Latin Language (Lingua Latina)" [44] (html). Orbis Latinus. Retrieved 24 June 2010.
• Lehmann, Winifred P.; Slocum, Jonathan (2008). "Latin Online, Series Introduction" [45]. The University of
Texas at Austin. Retrieved 16 September 2009.
• Wilkinson, Hugh Everard (2010). "The World of Comparative and Historical Linguistics (A Historical Survey of
the Romance Languages)" [46] (html, pdf). Page ON Park. NTT Comminications. Retrieved 24 June 2010.

Phonetics
• "Latin Pronunciation - a Beginner's Guide" [47]. h2g2, BBC. 2001.
• Cui, Ray (2005). "Phonetica Latinae-How to pronounce Latin" [48] (html, audio). Ray Cui. Retrieved 25 June
2010.

References
[1] "Schools". Britannica (1911 ed.).
[2] Opus Fundatum Latinitas is an organ of the Roman Catholic Church, and regulates Latin with respect to its status as official language of the
Holy See and for use by Catholic clergy.
[3] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=lat
[4] Sandys, John Edwin (1910). A companion to Latin studies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 811–812.
[5] Hu, Winnie (October 6 2008). "A Dead Language That's Very Much Alive" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 10/ 07/ nyregion/ 07latin.
html). Nytimes.com. .
[6] Clark 1900, pp. 1–3
[7] Bryson, Bill (1996). The mother tongue: English and how it got that way. New York: Avon Books. pp. 33–34.
[8] Diringer 1947, pp. 533–4
[9] Sacks, David (2003). Language Visible: Unraveling the Mystery of the Alphabet from A to Z. London: Broadway Books. p. 80.
[10] Pope, Mildred K. From Latin to modern French with especial consideration of Anglo-Norman; phonology and morphology. Publications of
the University of Manchester, no. 229. French series, no. 6. Manchester: Manchester university press. p. 3.
Latin 910

[11] Monroe, Paul (1902). Source book of the history of education for the Greek and Roman period. London, New York: Macmillan & Co..
pp. 346–352.
[12] Herman 2000, pp. 17–18
[13] Herman 2000, p. 8
[14] Herman 2000, pp. 1–3
[15] Thorley, John (1998). Documents in medieval Latin. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. pp. 13–15.
[16] Allen 2004, pp. viii-ix Foreward to the First Edition.
[17] Lloyd, Paul M. (1987). From Latin to Spanish. Diane Publishing, p.81
[18] Allen 2004, p. 84
[19] Lloyd, Paul M. (1987). From Latin to Spanish. Diane Publishing, p.81
[20] Diringer 1947, pp. 451, 493, 530
[21] Diringer 1947, p. 536
[22] Diringer 1947, p. 538
[23] Diringer 1947, p. 540
[24] Holmes & Schultz 1938, p. 13
[25] Sacks, David (2003). Language Visible: Unraveling the Mystery of the Alphabet from A to Z. London: Broadway Books. p. 351.
[26] Norberg, Dag; Johnson, Rand H, Translator (2004). "Latin at the End of the Imperial Age" (http:/ / homepages. wmich. edu/ ~johnsorh/
MedievalLatin/ Norberg/ NORBINTR. html) (html). Manuel pratique de latin médiéval. University of Michigan. . Retrieved 14 July 2010
[27] Jenks 1911, pp. 3, 46
[28] Jenks 1911, pp. 35, 40
[29] Moore, Malcom (28 January 2007). "Pope's Latinist pronounces death of a language" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ worldnews/
1540843/ Popes-Latinist-pronounces-death-of-a-language. html). The Daily Telegraph. . Retrieved 16 September 2009.
[30] "Latein: Nuntii Latini mensis lunii 2010: Lateinischer Monats rückblick" (http:/ / www. radiobremen. de/ nachrichten/ latein/ ) (in Latin)
(html). Radio Bremen. . Retrieved 16 July 2010.
[31] "Nuntii Latini" (http:/ / www. yle. fi/ radio1/ tiede/ nuntii_latini/ ) (in Latin) (html). YLE Radio 1. . Retrieved 17 July 2010.
[32] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ resolveform?lang=la
[33] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ morph?lang=la
[34] http:/ / www. u. arizona. edu/ ~aversa/ latin/
[35] http:/ / www. verbix. com/ languages/ latin. shtml
[36] http:/ / lysy2. archives. nd. edu/ cgi-bin/ words. exe
[37] http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Reference/ Dictionaries/ World_Languages/ L/ Latin/ /
[38] http:/ / rubicon. commons. yale. edu
[39] http:/ / learnlatinonlinefree. com
[40] http:/ / www. cherryh. com/ www/ latin1. htm
[41] http:/ / www. latin-mass-society. org/ simplicissimus/
[42] http:/ / www. hs-augsburg. de/ ~harsch/ Ludus/ lud_port. html
[43] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 15665
[44] http:/ / www. orbilat. com/ Languages/ Latin/ index. html
[45] http:/ / www. utexas. edu/ cola/ centers/ lrc/ eieol/ latol-0-X. html
[46] http:/ / www6. ocn. ne. jp/ ~wil/
[47] http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ dna/ h2g2/ A657272
[48] http:/ / la. raycui. com/
Old English 911

Old English
Old English
Englisc, Anglisc, Ænglisc

Spoken in Modern England (except the extreme southwest and northwest), parts of modern Scotland south-east of the
Forth, and the eastern fringes of modern Wales.

Language developed into Middle English by the 12th century

extinction

Language family Indo-European

• Germanic
• West Germanic
• Anglo-Frisian
• Old English

Writing system Runic, later Latin alphabet (Old English variant).

Language codes

ISO 639-1 None

ISO 639-2 ang

ISO 639-3 [1]

ang

This article is part of a series

on:
Old English

Old English (Englisc, Anglisc, Ænglisc) or Anglo-Saxon[2] is an early form of the English language that was spoken
and written by the Anglo-Saxons and their descendants in parts of what are now England and south-eastern Scotland
between at least the mid-5th century and the mid-12th century. What survives through writing represents primarily
the literary register of Anglo-Saxon.
It is a West Germanic language and is closely related to Old Frisian. It also experienced heavy influence from Old
Norse, a member of the related North Germanic group of languages.

Development
Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of approximately 700 years[3] – from the Anglo-Saxon
migrations that created England in the 5th century to some time after the Norman Conquest of 1066 when the
language underwent a dramatic transition. During this early period it assimilated some aspects of the languages with
which it came in contact, such as the Celtic languages and the two dialects of Old Norse from the invading Vikings,
who occupied and controlled large tracts of land in northern and eastern England, which came to be known as the
Danelaw.
Old English 912

Germanic origins
The most important force in shaping Old English was its Germanic heritage in its vocabulary, sentence structure and
grammar, which it shared with its related languages in continental Europe. Some of these features are shared with the
other West Germanic languages with which Old English is grouped, while some other features are traceable to the
reconstructed Proto-Germanic language from which all Germanic languages are believed to derive.
Like other Germanic languages of the period, Old English was fully inflected with five grammatical cases
(nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and instrumental, though the instrumental was very rare), which had dual
plural forms for referring to groups of two objects (but only in the personal pronouns) in addition to the usual
singular and plural forms. It also assigned gender to all nouns, including those that describe inanimate objects: for
example, sēo sunne (the Sun) was feminine, while se mōna (the Moon) was masculine (cf. modern German die
Sonne and der Mond).

Latin influence
A large percentage of the educated and literate population of the time were competent in Latin, which was the
scholarly and diplomatic lingua franca of Europe at the time. It is sometimes possible to give approximate dates for
the entry of individual Latin words into Old English based on which patterns of linguistic change they have
undergone. There were at least three notable periods of Latin influence. The first occurred before the ancestral
Saxons left continental Europe for Britain. The second began when the Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity
and Latin speaking priests became widespread.
The third and largest single transfer of Latin-based words happened after the Norman Conquest of 1066, when an
enormous number of Norman words began to influence the language. Most of these Oïl language words were
themselves derived from Old French and ultimately from classical Latin, although a notable stock of Norse words
were introduced or re-introduced in Norman form. The Norman Conquest approximately marks the end of Old
English and the advent of Middle English.
One of the ways the influence of Latin can be seen is that many Latin words for activities came to also be used to
refer to the people engaged in those activities, an idiom carried over from Anglo-Saxon but using Latin words. This
can be seen in words like militia, assembly, movement, and service.
The language was further altered by the transition away from the runic alphabet (also known as futhorc or fuþorc) to
the Latin alphabet, which was also a significant factor in the developmental pressures brought to bear on the
language. Old English words were spelt as they were pronounced. The "silent" letters in many Modern English
words were pronounced in Old English: for example, the c in cniht, the Old English ancestor of the modern knight,
was pronounced. Another side-effect of spelling words phonetically was that spelling was extremely variable. A
word's spelling reflected differences in phonetics of the writer's regional dialect. Words also endured idiosyncratic
spelling choices of individual authors, some of whom varied spellings between works. Thus, for example, the word
and could be spelt either and or ond.
Old English 913

Norse influence
The second major source of loanwords to Old English
was the Scandinavian words introduced during the
Viking invasions of the 9th and 10th centuries. In
addition to a great many place names, these consist
mainly of items of basic vocabulary, and words
concerned with particular administrative aspects of the
Danelaw (that is, the area of land under Viking control,
which included extensive holdings all along the eastern
coast of England and Scotland).

The Vikings spoke Old Norse, a language related to

Old English in that both derived from the same
ancestral Proto-Germanic language. It is very common The approximate extent of Old Norse and related languages in the
for the intermixing of speakers of different dialects, early 10th century:       Old West Norse dialect       Old East

such as those that occur during times of political unrest, Norse dialect       Old Gutnish dialect       Crimean Gothic      
Old English       Other Germanic languages with which Old
to result in a mixed language, and one theory holds that Norse still retained some mutual intelligibility
exactly such a mixture of Old Norse and Old English
helped accelerate the decline of case endings in Old
English.

Apparent confirmation of this is the fact that simplification of the case endings occurred earliest in the north and
latest in the southwest, the area farthest away from Viking influence. Regardless of the truth of this theory, the
influence of Old Norse on the English language has been profound: responsible for such basic vocabulary items as
sky, leg, the pronoun they, the verb form are, and hundreds of other words.

Celtic influence
Traditionally, many maintain that the influence of Celtic on English has been small, citing the small number of
Celtic loanwords taken into the language. The number of Celtic loanwords is of a lower order than either Latin or
Scandinavian. However, a minority view is that distinctive Celtic traits can be discerned in syntax from the post-Old
English period.[4]

Dialects
Old English should not be regarded as a single monolithic entity just as Modern English is also not monolithic.
Within Old English, there was language variation. Thus it is misleading, for example, to consider Old English as
having a single sound system. Rather, there were multiple Old English sound systems. Old English has variation
along regional lines as well as variation across different times. For example, the language attested in Wessex during
the time of Æthelwold of Winchester, which is named Late West Saxon (or Æthelwoldian Saxon), is considerably
different from the language attested in Wessex during the time of Alfred the Great's court, which is named Early
West Saxon (or Classical West Saxon or Alfredian Saxon). Furthermore, the difference between Early West Saxon
and Late West Saxon is of such a nature that Late West Saxon is not directly descended from Early West Saxon
(despite what the similarity in name implies).
The four main dialectal forms of Old English were Mercian, Northumbrian, Kentish, and West Saxon.[5] Each of
those dialects was associated with an independent kingdom on the island. Of these, all of Northumbria and most of
Mercia were overrun by the Vikings during the 9th century. The portion of Mercia and all of Kent that were
successfully defended were then integrated into Wessex.
Old English 914

After the process of unification of the diverse Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in 878 by Alfred the Great, there is a marked
decline in the importance of regional dialects. This is not because they stopped existing; regional dialects continued
even after that time to this day, as evidenced both by the existence of Middle and Modern English dialects later on,
and by common sense—people do not spontaneously adopt another dialect when there is a sudden change of political
power.
However, the bulk of the surviving documents from the Anglo-Saxon
period are written in the dialect of Wessex, Alfred's kingdom. It seems
likely that with consolidation of power, it became necessary to
standardise the language of government to reduce the difficulty of
administering the more remote areas of the kingdom. As a result,
documents were written in the West Saxon dialect. Not only this, but
Alfred was passionate about the spread of the vernacular, and brought
many scribes to his region from Mercia to record previously unwritten
texts.[6]

The Church was affected likewise, especially since Alfred initiated an

ambitious programme to translate religious materials into English. To
retain his patronage and ensure the widest circulation of the translated
materials, the monks and priests engaged in the programme worked in
his dialect. Alfred himself seems to have translated books out of Latin
and into English, notably Pope Gregory I's treatise on administration,
Pastoral Care.

Because of the centralisation of power and the Viking invasions, there

is little or no written evidence for the development of non-Wessex The first page of the Beowulf manuscript

dialects after Alfred's unification.

Grammar

Phonology
The inventory of classical Old English (i.e. Late West Saxon) surface phones, as usually reconstructed, is as follows.

Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Glottal

Stop p  b t  d k  ɡ

Affricate tʃ  (dʒ)

Nasal m n (ŋ)

Fricative f  (v) θ  (ð) s  (z) ʃ (ç) (x)  (ɣ) h

Approximant r j w

Lateral approximant l

The sounds marked in parentheses in the chart above are allophones:

• [dʒ] is an allophone of /j/ occurring after /n/ and when geminated
• [ŋ] is an allophone of /n/ occurring before /k/ and /ɡ/
• [v, ð, z] are allophones of /f, θ, s/ respectively, occurring between vowels or voiced consonants
• [ç, x] are allophones of /h/ occurring in coda position after front and back vowels respectively
• [ɣ] is an allophone of /ɡ/ occurring after a vowel, and, at an earlier stage of the language, in the syllable onset.
Old English 915

Monophthongs Short Long

Front Back Front Back

Close i  y u iː  yː uː

Mid e  (ø) o eː  (øː) oː

Open æ ɑ æː ɑː

The front mid rounded vowels /ø(ː)/ occur in some dialects of Old English, but not in the best attested Late West
Saxon dialect.

Diphthongs Short (monomoraic) Long (bimoraic)

First element is close [7] iːy

iy

Both elements are mid eo eːo

Both elements are æɑ æːɑ

open

Morphology
Unlike modern English, Old English is a language rich with morphological diversity. It maintains several distinct
cases: the nominative, accusative, genitive, dative and (vestigially) instrumental, remnants of which survive only in a
few pronouns in modern English.

Syntax

Word order
The word order of Old English is widely believed to be subject-verb-object (SVO) as in modern English and most
Germanic languages. The word order of Old English, however, was not overly important because of the
aforementioned morphology of the language. As long as declension was correct, it did not matter whether you said,
"My name is..." as "Mīn nama is..." or "Nama mīn is..."
Old English 916

Questions
Because of its similarity with Old Norse, it is believed that the word order of Old English changed when asking a
question, from SVO to VSO; i.e. swapping the verb and the subject.
"I am..." becomes "Am I...?"
"Ic eom..." becomes "Eom ic...?"

Orthography
Old English was first written in runes (futhorc) but
shifted to a (minuscule) half-uncial script of the Latin
alphabet introduced by Irish Christian missionaries[8]
from around the 9th century. This was replaced by
insular script, a cursive and pointed version of the
half-uncial script. This was used until the end of the
12th century when continental Carolingian minuscule
(also known as Caroline) replaced the insular.

The letter yogh ‹ȝ› was adapted from Irish ecclesiastical

forms of Latin ‹g› ; the letter ðæt ‹ð› (called eth or edh
in modern English) was an alteration of Latin ‹d›, and
the runic letters thorn ‹þ› and wynn ‹ƿ› are borrowings
from futhorc. Also used was a symbol for the
conjunction and, a character similar to the number
The runic alphabet used to write Old English before the introduction
seven (‹⁊›, called a Tironian note), and a symbol for the
of the Latin alphabet.
relative pronoun þæt, a thorn with a crossbar through
the ascender (‹ꝥ›). Macrons ‹¯› over vowels were rarely
used to indicate long vowels. Also used occasionally were abbreviations for following m’s or n’s. All of the sound
descriptions below are given using IPA symbols.

Conventions of modern editions

A number of changes are traditionally made in published modern editions of the original Old English manuscripts.
Some of these conventions include the introduction of punctuation and the substitutions of symbols. The symbols ‹e›,
‹f›, ‹g›, ‹r›, ‹s› are used in modern editions, although their shapes in the insular script are considerably different. The
long s ‹ſ› is substituted by its modern counterpart ‹s›. Insular ‹ᵹ› is usually substituted with its modern counterpart ‹g›
(which is ultimately a Carolingian symbol).
Additionally, modern manuscripts often distinguish between a velar and palatal ‹c› and ‹g› with diacritic dots above
the putative palatals: ‹ċ›, ‹ġ›. The wynn symbol ‹ƿ› is usually substituted with ‹w›. Macrons are usually found in
modern editions to indicate putative long vowels, while they are usually lacking in the originals. In older printed
editions of Old English works, an acute accent mark was used to maintain cohesion between Old English and Old
Norse printing.
The alphabetical symbols found in Old English writings and their substitute symbols found in modern editions are
listed below:
Old English 917

Symbol Description and notes

a Short /ɑ/. Spelling variations like ‹land› ~ ‹lond› "land" suggest it may have had a rounded allophone [ɒ] before [n] in some cases)

ā Long /ɑː/. Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short ‹a› in modern editions.

æ Short /æ/. Before 800 the digraph ‹ae› is often found instead of ‹æ›. During the 8th century ‹æ› began to be used more frequently was
standard after 800. In 9th century Kentish manuscripts, a form of ‹æ› that was missing the upper hook of the ‹a› part was used. Kentish ‹æ›
may be either /æ/ or /e/ although this is difficult to determine.

ǣ Long /æː/. Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short ‹æ› in modern editions.

b Represented /b/. Also represented [v] in early texts before 800. For example, the word "sheaves" is spelled ‹scēabas› in an early text but
later (and more commonly) as ‹scēafas›.

c Except in the digraphs ‹sc›, ‹cg›, either /tʃ/ or /k/. The /tʃ/ pronunciation is sometimes written with a diacritic by modern editors: most
commonly ‹ċ›, sometimes ‹č› or ‹ç›. Before a consonant letter the pronunciation is always /k/; word-finally after ‹i› it is always /tʃ/.
Otherwise, a knowledge of the historical linguistics of the word is needed to predict which pronunciation is needed. (See The distribution
of velars and palatals in Old English for details.)

cg [ddʒ] (the surface pronunciation of geminate /jj/); occasionally also for /ɡɡ/

d Represented /d/. In the earliest texts, it also represented /θ/ but was soon replaced by ‹ð› and ‹þ›. For example, the word meaning "thought"
(lit. mood-i-think, with -i- as in "handiwork") was written ‹mōdgidanc› in a Northumbrian text dated 737, but later as ‹mōdgeþanc› in a
10th century West Saxon text.

ð Represented /θ/ and its allophone [ð]. Called ðæt in Old English (now called eth in Modern English), ‹ð› is found in alternation with thorn
‹þ› (both representing the same sound) although it is more common in texts dating before Alfred. Together with ‹þ› it replaced earlier ‹d›
and ‹th›. First attested (in definitely dated materials) in the 7th century. After the beginning of Alfred's time, ‹ð› was used more frequently
for medial and final positions while ‹þ› became increasingly used in initial positions, although both still varied. Some modern editions
[9]
attempt to regularise the variation between ‹þ› and ‹ð› by using only ‹þ›.

e Short /e/.

ę Either Kentish /æ/ or /e/ although this is difficult to determine. A modern editorial substitution for a form of ‹æ› missing the upper hook of
the ‹a› found in 9th century texts.

ē Long /eː/. Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short ‹e› in modern editions.

ea Short /æɑ/; after ‹ċ›, ‹ġ›, sometimes /æ/ or /ɑ/.

ēa Long /æːɑ/. Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short ‹ea› in modern editions. After ‹ċ›, ‹ġ›, sometimes /æː/.

eo Short /eo/; after ‹ċ›, ‹ġ›, sometimes /o/

ēo Long /eːo/. Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short ‹eo› in modern editions.

f /f/ and its allophone [v]

g /ɡ/ and its allophone [ɣ]; /j/ and its allophone [dʒ] (when after ‹n›). In Old English manuscripts, this letter usually took its insular form ‹ᵹ›.
The /j/ and [dʒ] pronunciations are sometimes written ‹ġ› by modern editors. Before a consonant letter the pronunciation is always [ɡ]
(word-initially) or [ɣ] (after a vowel). Word-finally after ‹i› it is always /j/. Otherwise a knowledge of the historical linguistics of the word
in question is needed to predict which pronunciation is needed. (See The distribution of velars and palatals in Old English for details.)

h /h/ and its allophones [ç, x]. In the combinations ‹hl›, ‹hr›, ‹hn›, ‹hw›, the second consonant was certainly voiceless.

i Short /i/.

ī Long /iː/. Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short ‹i› in modern editions.

ie Short /iy/; after ‹ċ›, ‹ġ›, sometimes /e/.

īe Long /iːy/. Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short ‹ie› in modern editions. After ‹ċ›, ‹ġ›, sometimes /eː/.

k /k/ (rarely used)

l /l/; probably velarised (as in Modern English) when in coda position.

m /m/

n /n/ and its allophone [ŋ]

Old English 918

o Short /o/.

ō Long /oː/. Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short ‹o› in modern editions.

oe Short /ø/ (in dialects with this sound).

ōe Long /øː/ (in dialects with this sound). Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short ‹oe› in modern editions.

p /p/

qu [10]
A rare spelling of /kw/, which was usually written as ‹cƿ› (= ‹cw› in modern editions).

r /r/; the exact nature of /r/ is not known. It may have been an alveolar approximant [ɹ] as in most modern accents, an alveolar flap [ɾ], or an
alveolar trill [r].

s /s/ and its allophone [z].

sc /ʃ/ or occasionally /sk/.

t /t/

th Represented /θ/ in the earliest texts but was soon replaced by ‹ð› and ‹þ›. For example, the word meaning "thought" was written
‹mōdgithanc› in a 6th century Northumbrian text, but later as ‹mōdgeþanc› in a 10th century West Saxon text.

þ An alternate symbol called thorn used instead of ‹ð›. Represents /θ/ and its allophone [ð]. Together with ‹ð› it replaced the earlier ‹d› and
‹th›. First attested (in definitely dated materials) in the 8th century. Less common than ‹ð› before Alfred's time, from then onward ‹þ› was
used increasingly more frequently than ‹ð› at the beginning of words while its occurrence at the end and in the middle of words was rare.
Some modern editions attempt to regularise the variation between ‹þ› and ‹ð› by using only ‹þ›.

u /u/ and /w/ in early texts of continental scribes. The /w/ ‹u› was eventually replaced by ‹ƿ› outside of the north of the island.

uu /w/ in early texts of continental scribes. Outside of the north, it was generally replaced by ‹ƿ›.

ū Long /uː/. Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short ‹u› in modern editions.

w /w/. A modern substitution for ‹ƿ›.

ƿ Runic wynn. Represents /w/, replaced in modern print by ‹w› to prevent confusion with ‹p›.

x /ks/ (but according to some authors, [xs ~ çs])

y Short /y/.

ȳ Long /yː/. Rarely found in manuscripts, but usually distinguished from short ‹y› in modern editions.

z /ts/. A rare spelling for ‹ts›. Example: /betst/ "best" is rarely spelled ‹bezt› for more common ‹betst›.

Doubled consonants are geminated; the geminate fricatives ‹ðð›/‹þþ›, ‹ff› and ‹ss› cannot be voiced.

Literature
Old English literature, though more abundant than literature of the continent before AD 1000, is nonetheless scant.
In his supplementary article to the 1935 posthumous edition of Bright's Anglo-Saxon Reader, Dr. James Hulbert
writes:
In such historical conditions, an incalculable amount of the writings of the Anglo-Saxon period
perished. What they contained, how important they were for an understanding of literature before the
Conquest, we have no means of knowing: the scant catalogs of monastic libraries do not help us, and
there are no references in extant works to other compositions....How incomplete our materials are can be
illustrated by the well-known fact that, with few and relatively unimportant exceptions, all extant
Anglo-Saxon poetry is preserved in four manuscripts.
Old English was one of the first vernacular languages to be written down. Some of the most important surviving
works of Old English literature are Beowulf, an epic poem; the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a record of early English
history; the Franks Casket, an early whalebone artifact; and Caedmon's Hymn, a Christian religious poem. There are
also a number of extant prose works, such as sermons and saints' lives, biblical translations, and translated Latin
Old English 919

works of the early Church Fathers, legal documents, such as laws and wills, and practical works on grammar,
medicine, and geography. Still, poetry is considered the heart of Old English literature. Nearly all Anglo-Saxon
authors are anonymous, with a few exceptions, such as Bede and Caedmon.

Comparison with other historical forms of English

Old English is often erroneously used to refer to any form of English other than Modern English. The term Old
English does not refer to varieties of Early Modern English such as are found in Shakespeare or the King James
Bible, nor does it refer to Middle English, the language of Chaucer and his contemporaries. The following timeline
helps place the history of the English language in context. The dates used are approximate dates. Language change is
gradual, and cannot be as easily demarcated as are historical or political events.
• 450–1100: Old English (Anglo-Saxon) – The language of Beowulf and Alfred the Great.
• 1100–1500: Middle English – The language of Chaucer.
• 1500–1650: Early Modern English (or Renaissance English) – The language of Shakespeare and the King James
Bible.
• 1650–present: Modern English (or Present-Day English) – The language as spoken today.

Examples

Beowulf
The first example is taken from the opening lines of the epic poem Beowulf. This passage describes how Hrothgar's
legendary ancestor Scyld was found as a baby, washed up on the shore, and adopted by a noble family. The
translation is quite literal and represents the original poetic word order. As such, it is not typical of Old English
prose. The modern cognates of original words have been used whenever practical to give a close approximation of
the feel of the original poem. The words in brackets are implied in the Old English by noun case and the bold words
in parentheses are explanations of words that have slightly different meanings in a modern context. Notice how what
is used by the poet where a word like lo or behold would be expected. This usage is similar to what-ho!, both an
expression of surprise and a call to attention.

Line Original Translation

[1] Hwæt! wē Gār-Dena in geār-dagum, What! We of Gare-Danes (lit. Spear-Danes) in yore-days,

[2] þeod-cyninga, þrym gefrunon, of thede(nation/people)-kings, did thrum (glory) frayne (learn about by asking),

[3] hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon. how those athelings (noblemen) did ellen (fortitude/courage/zeal) freme (promote).

[4] Oft Scyld Scefing sceaþena Oft did Scyld Scefing of scather threats (troops),
þreatum,

[5] monegum mægþum, meodosetla of many maegths (clans; cf. Irish cognate Mac-), of mead-settlements atee (deprive),
ofteah,

[6] egsode eorlas. Syððan ærest wearð [and] ugg (induce loathing in, terrify; related to "ugly") earls. Sith (since, as of when) erst (first)
[he] worthed (became)

[7] feasceaft funden, he þæs frofre [in] fewship (destitute) found, he of this frover (comfort) aboded,
gebad,

[8] weox under wolcnum, [and] waxed under welkin (firmament/clouds), [and amid] worthmint (honour/worship) threed
weorðmyndum þah, (thrived/prospered)

[9] oðþæt him æghwylc þara oth that (until that) him each of those umsitters (those "sitting" or dwelling roundabout)
ymbsittendra

[10] ofer hronrade hyran scolde, over whale-road (kenning for "sea") hear should,
Old English 920

[11] gomban gyldan. Þæt wæs god [and] yeme (heed/obedience; related to "gormless") yield. That was [a] good king!
cyning!

A semi-fluent translation in Modern English would be:

Lo! We have heard of majesty of the Spear-Danes, of those nation-kings in the days of yore, and how those
noblemen promoted zeal. Scyld Scefing took away mead-benches from bands of enemies, from many tribes; he
terrified earls. Since he was first found destitute (he gained consolation for that) he grew under the heavens,
prospered in honours, until each of those who lived around him over the sea had to obey him, give him tribute. That
was a good king!

The Lord's Prayer

This text of the Lord's Prayer is presented in the standardised West Saxon literary dialect.

Line Original Translation

[1] Fæder ure þu þe eart on heofonum, Father of ours, thou who art in heaven,

[2] Si þin nama gehalgod. Be thy name hallowed.

[3] To becume þin rice, Come thy riche (kingdom),

[4] gewurþe ðin willa, on eorðan swa swa on heofonum. Worth (manifest) thy will, on earth as also in heaven.

[5] Urne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us todæg, Our daily loaf do sell (give) to us today,

[6] and forgyf us ure gyltas, swa swa we forgyfað urum [11]
And forgive us of our guilts as also we forgive our guilty
gyltendum.

[7] And ne gelæd þu us on costnunge, ac alys us of yfele. And do not lead thou us into temptation, but alese (release/deliver) us of
(from) evil.

[8] Soþlice. Soothly.

Charter of Cnut
This is a proclamation from King Cnut the Great to his earl Thorkell the Tall and the English people written in AD
1020. Unlike the previous two examples, this text is prose rather than poetry. For ease of reading, the passage has
been divided into sentences while the pilcrows represent the original division.

Original Translation

¶ Cnut cyning gret his arcebiscopas and his ¶ Cnut, king, greets his archbishops and his lede'(people's)'-bishops and Thorkell, earl, and
leod-biscopas and Þurcyl eorl and ealle his eorlas and all his earls and all his peopleship, greater (having a 1200 shilling weregild) and 'lesser'
ealne his þeodscype, twelfhynde and twyhynde, (200 shilling weregild), hooded(ordained to priesthood) and lewd(lay), in England
gehadode and læwede, on Englalande freondlice. friendly.

And ic cyðe eow, þæt ic wylle beon hold hlaford and And I kithe(make known/couth to) you, that I will be [a] hold(civilised) lord and
unswicende to godes gerihtum and to rihtre unswiking(uncheating) to God's rights(laws) and to [the] rights(laws) worldly.
woroldlage.

¶ Ic nam me to gemynde þa gewritu and þa word, þe
se arcebiscop Lyfing me fram þam papan brohte of
Rome, þæt ic scolde æghwær godes lof upp aræran
and unriht alecgan and full frið wyrcean be ðære
mihte, þe me god syllan wolde.
¶ I nam(took) me to mind the writs and the word that the Archbishop Lyfing me from the
Pope brought of Rome, that I should ayewhere(everywhere) God's love(praise)
uprear(promote), and unright(outlaw) lies, and full frith(peace) work(bring about) by the
might that me God would(wished) [to] sell'(give).

¶ Nu ne wandode ic na minum sceattum, þa hwile þe ¶ Now, ne went(withdrew/changed) I not my shot(financial contribution, cf. Norse
eow unfrið on handa stod: nu ic mid godes fultume cognate in scot-free) the while that you stood(endured) unfrith(turmoil) on-hand: now I,
þæt totwæmde mid minum scattum. mid(with) God's support, that [unfrith] totwemed(separated/dispelled) mid(with) my
shot(financial contribution).
Old English 921

Þa cydde man me, þæt us mara hearm to fundode,
þonne us wel licode: and þa for ic me sylf mid þam
mannum þe me mid foron into Denmearcon, þe eow
mæst hearm of com: and þæt hæbbe mid godes
fultume forene forfangen, þæt eow næfre heonon forð
þanon nan unfrið to ne cymð, þa hwile þe ge me
rihtlice healdað and min lif byð.
Tho(then) [a] man kithed(made known/couth to) me that us more harm had found(come
upon) than us well liked(equalled): and tho(then) fore(travelled) I, meself, mid(with)
those men that mid(with) me fore(travelled), into Denmark that [to] you most harm came
of(from): and that[harm] have [I], mid(with) God's support, afore(previously)
forefangen(forestalled) that to you never henceforth thence none unfrith(breach of peace)
ne come the while that ye me rightly hold(behold as king) and my life beeth.

See also
• Anglo-Frisian nasal spirant law
• Anglo-Saxon literature
• Beowulf
• Dictionary of Old English
• Exeter Book
• Go (verb)
• History of the English language
• History of the Scots language
• I-mutation
• List of generic forms in British place names
• List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents
• Old English declension
• Old English pronouns

Bibliography

Sources
• Whitelock, Dorothy (ed.) (1955) English Historical Documents; vol. I: c. 500–1042. London: Eyre &
Spottiswoode

General
• Baker, Peter S. (2003). Introduction to Old English. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-23454-3.
• Baugh, Albert C.; & Cable, Thomas. (1993). A History of the English Language (4th ed.). London: Routledge.
• Earle, John (2005). A Book for the Beginner in Anglo-Saxon. Bristol, PA: Evolution Publishing.
ISBN 1-889758-69-8. (Reissue of one of 4 eds. 1877–1902)
• Hogg, Richard M. (ed.). (1992). The Cambridge History of the English Language: (Vol 1): the Beginnings to
1066. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Hogg, Richard; & Denison, David (eds.) (2006) A History of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
• Jespersen, Otto (1909–1949) A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. 7 vols. Heidelberg: C. Winter
& Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard
• Lass, Roger (1987) The Shape of English: structure and history. London: J. M. Dent & Sons
• Lass, Roger (1994). Old English: A historical linguistic companion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-43087-9.
• Millward, Celia (1996). A Biography of the English Language. Harcourt Brace. ISBN 0-15-501645-8.
• Mitchell, Bruce, and Robinson, Fred C. (2001). A Guide to Old English (6th edition ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.
ISBN 0-631-22636-2.
• Quirk, Randolph; & Wrenn, C. L. (1957). An Old English Grammar (2nd ed.) London: Methuen.
Old English 922

• Strang, Barbara M. H. (1970) A History of English. London: Methuen.

External history
• Robinson, Orrin W. (1992). Old English and Its Closest Relatives. Stanford University Press.
ISBN 0-8047-2221-8.
• Bremmer Jr, Rolf H. (2009). An Introduction to Old Frisian. History, Grammar, Reader, Glossary. Amsterdam
and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
• Stenton, F. M. (1971). Anglo-Saxon England (3rd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Orthography/Palaeography
• Bourcier, Georges. (1978). L'orthographie de l'anglais: Histoire et situation actuelle. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France.
• Campbell, A. (1959). Old English Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Elliott, Ralph W. V. (1959). Runes: An introduction. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
• Keller, Wolfgang. (1906). Angelsächsische Paleographie, I: Einleitung. Berlin: Mayer & Müller.
• Ker, N. R. (1957). A Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Ker, N. R. (1957: 1990). A Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon; with supplement prepared by Neil
Ker originally published in Anglo-Saxon England; 5, 1957. Oxford: Clarendon Press ISBN 0198112513
• Page, R. I. (1973). An Introduction to English Runes [12]. London: Methuen.
• Scragg, Donald G. (1974). A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

Phonology
• Anderson, John M; & Jones, Charles. (1977). Phonological structure and the history of English. North-Holland
linguistics series (No. 33). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
• Brunner, Karl. (1965). Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers
neubearbeitet) (3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
• Campbell, A. (1959). Old English Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Girvan, Ritchie. (1931). Angelsaksisch Handboek; E. L. Deuschle (transl.). (Oudgermaansche Handboeken; No.
4). Haarlem: Tjeenk Willink.
• Halle, Morris; & Keyser, Samuel J. (1971). English Stress: its form, its growth, and its role in verse. New York:
Harper & Row.
• Hockett, Charles F. (1959). "The stressed syllabics of Old English". Language, 35 (4), 575–597.
• Hogg, Richard M. (1992). A Grammar of Old English, I: Phonology. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
• Kuhn, Sherman M. (1961). "On the Syllabic Phonemes of Old English". Language, 37 (4), 522–538.
• Kuhn, Sherman M. (1970). "On the consonantal phonemes of Old English". In: J. L. Rosier (ed.) Philological
Essays: studies in Old and Middle English language and literature in honour of Herbert Dean Merritt
(pp. 16–49). The Hague: Mouton.
• Lass, Roger; & Anderson, John M. (1975). Old English Phonology. (Cambridge studies in linguistics; No. 14).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Luick, Karl. (1914–1940). Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache. Stuttgart: Bernhard Tauchnitz.
• Maling, J. (1971). "Sentence stress in Old English". Linguistic Inquiry, 2, 379–400.
• McCully, C. B.; & Hogg, Richard M. (1990). "An account of Old English stress". Journal of Linguistics, 26,
315–339.
• Moulton, W. G. (1972). "The Proto-Germanic non-syllabics (consonants)". In: F. van Coetsem & H. L. Kurfner
(Eds.), Toward a Grammar of Proto-Germanic (pp. 141–173). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
• Sievers, Eduard (1893). Altgermanische Metrik. Halle: Max Niemeyer.
Old English 923

• Wagner, Karl Heinz (1969). Generative Grammatical Studies in the Old English language. Heidelberg: Julius
Groos.

Morphology
• Brunner, Karl. (1965). Altenglische Grammatik (nach der angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers
neubearbeitet) (3rd ed.). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
• Campbell, A. (1959). Old English grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Wagner, Karl Heinz. (1969). Generative grammatical studies in the Old English language. Heidelberg: Julius
Groos.

Syntax
• Brunner, Karl. (1962). Die englische Sprache: ihre geschichtliche Entwicklung (Vol. II). Tübingen: Max
Niemeyer.
• Kemenade, Ans van. (1982). Syntactic Case and Morphological Case in the History of English. Dordrecht: Foris.
• MacLaughlin, John C. (1983). Old English Syntax: a handbook. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
• Mitchell, Bruce. (1985). Old English Syntax (Vols. 1–2). Oxford: Clarendon Press (no more published)
• Vol.1: Concord, the parts of speech and the sentence
• Vol.2: Subordination, independent elements, and element order
• Mitchell, Bruce. (1990) A Critical Bibliography of Old English Syntax to the end of 1984, including addenda and
corrigenda to "Old English Syntax" . Oxford: Blackwell
• Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. (1972). A History of English Syntax: a transformational approach to the history of
English sentence structure. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
• Visser, F. Th. (1963–1973). An Historical Syntax of the English Language (Vols. 1–3). Leiden: E. J. Brill.

Lexicons
Bosworth-Toller
• Bosworth, J.; & Toller, T. Northcote. (1898). An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. (Based on
Bosworth's 1838 dictionary, his papers & additions by Toller)
• Toller, T. Northcote. (1921). An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Supplement. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Campbell, A. (1972). An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Enlarged addenda and corrigenda. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Clark Hall-Merritt
• Clark Hall, J. R.; & Merritt, H. D. (1969). A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Toronto
• Cameron, Angus, et al. (ed.) (1983) Dictionary of Old English. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old
English Project, Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval
Studies, 1983/1994. (Issued on microfiche and subsequently as a CD-ROM and on the World Wide Web [13].)
Old English 924

External links
• Old English/Modern English Translator [14]
• The Electronic Introduction to Old English [15]
• First steps in Old English - a course for absolute beginners [16]
• Old English (Anglo-Saxon) alphabet [17]
• Bosworth and Toller, An Anglo-Saxon dictionary [18]
• Downloadable Bosworth and Toller, An Anglo-Saxon dictionary Application [19]
• Old English Made Easy [20]
• Old English - Modern English dictionary [21]
• Old English Glossary [22]
• Shakespeare's English vs Old English [23]
• Downloadable Old English keyboard for Windows and Mac [24]
• Another downloadable keyboard for Windows computers [25]
• Guide to using Old English computer characters [26] (Unicode, HTML entities, etc.)
• The Germanic Lexicon Project [27]
• An overview of the grammar of Old English [28]
• The Lords Prayer in Old English from the 11th century [29]

References
[1] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=ang
[2] The term Anglo-Saxon came to refer to all things of the early English period by the 16th century, including language, culture, and people.
While this is still the preferred term for the latter two aspects, the language starting from the 19th century began to be called Old English. This
is because the language itself began to be studied in detail, and scholars recognised the continued development of the English language from
the Anglo-Saxon period to Middle English and through to the present day. However many authors still use the term Anglo-Saxon to refer to
the language.
Crystal, David (2003). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521530334.
[3] See Timeline of the Anglo-Saxon invasion and takeover of Britain
[4] http:/ / www. rotary-munich. de/ 2005-2006/ theo-vennemann. pdf
[5] Campbell, Alistair (1959). Old English Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 4. ISBN 0-19-811943-7.
[6] Moore, Samuel, and Knott, Thomas A. The Elements of Old English. 1919. Ed. James R. Hulbert. 10th ed. Ann Arbor, Michigan: George
Wahr Publishing Co., 1958.
[7] It is uncertain whether the diphthongs spelt ie/īe were pronounced [i(ː)y] or [i(ː)e]. The fact that this diphthong was merged with /y(ː)/ in
many dialects suggests the former.
[8] Crystal, David (1987). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge University Press. p. 203. ISBN 0521264383.
[9] See also Pronunciation of English th.
[10] The spelling ‹qu› is much more common in later Middle English.
[11] Lit. a participle: "guilting" or "[a person who is] sinning"; cf. Latin cognate -ant/-ent.
[12] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=SgpriZdKin0C& printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage& q=& f=false
[13] http:/ / copac. ac. uk/ search?rn=11& au=angus+ cameron& ti=old+ english+ dictionary& sort-order=ti%2C%2Ddate
[14] http:/ / www. oldenglishtranslator. co. uk/
[15] http:/ / www. wmich. edu/ medieval/ resources/ IOE/ index. html
[16] http:/ / www. tha-engliscan-gesithas. org. uk/ OEsteps/ index. html
[17] http:/ / www. omniglot. com/ writing/ oldenglish. htm
[18] http:/ / www. bosworthtoller. com
[19] http:/ / lexicon. ff. cuni. cz/ app
[20] http:/ / home. comcast. net/ ~modean52/ index. htm
[21] http:/ / home. comcast. net/ ~modean52/ oeme_dictionaries. htm
[22] http:/ / victorcauchi. fortunecity. com/ EuCmp/ o/ oldeng. htm
[23] http:/ / www. nosweatshakespeare. com/ resources/ shakespeare-old-english. htm
[24] http:/ / megse. unm. edu/ research/ internal/ keyboards. html
[25] http:/ / sites. google. com/ site/ windowskeyboards/ Home
[26] http:/ / tlt. its. psu. edu/ suggestions/ international/ bylanguage/ oegermanic. html
[27] http:/ / www. ling. upenn. edu/ ~kurisuto/ germanic/ language_resources. html
Old English 925

[28] http:/ / www. ucalgary. ca/ UofC/ eduweb/ engl401/ grammar/ index. htm
[29] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=7Wl-OZ3breE& feature=PlayList& p=11D1A11A88A6FF2A& playnext=1& playnext_from=PL&
index=1

Spanish language
Spanish, Castilian
Español, Castellano

Pronunciation Spanish pronunciation: [espaˈɲol], Spanish pronunciation: [kasteˈʎano]

Spoken in (see below)

Total speakers First language 329[1] million to 400[2] [3] [4] million.
[5] [6]
As first or second language 450 million to 500
.

Ranking [7] [8]

2 (native speakers), 3 (total speakers)

Language Indo-European
family • Italic
• Romance
• Italo-Western
• Gallo-Iberian
• Ibero-Romance
• West Iberian
• Spanish, Castilian

Writing system Latin (Spanish variant)

Official status

Official 20 countries, United Nations, European Union, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American
language in States, Union of South American Nations, Central American Integration System, Caricom, World Trade
Organization, North American Free Trade Agreement, Andean Community of Nations, Mercosur, Inter-American
Development Bank, Latin Union, Antarctic Treaty.

Regulated by Association of Spanish Language Academies (Real Academia Española and 21 other national Spanish language
academies)

Language codes

ISO 639-1 es

ISO 639-2 spa

ISO 639-3 [9]

spa
Spanish language 926

 Countries where Spanish has official status.      States of the U.S. where Spanish has no official status but is spoken by 25% or
more of the population.      States of the U.S. where Spanish has no official status but is spoken by 10-20% of the population.
     States of the U.S. where Spanish has no official status but is spoken by 5-9.9% of the population.

Spanish or Castilian (español or castellano in Spanish) is a Romance language in the Ibero-Romance group that
evolved from several dialects and languages in the northern fringes of the Iberian Peninsula during the 10th century
and gradually spread through the Kingdom of Castile, becoming the foremost language for government and trade[10]
in the Spanish Empire.
Latin, the basis of all Romance languages including Spanish, was introduced to the Iberian Peninsula by the Romans
during the Second Punic War around 210 BC. During the 5th century, Hispania was invaded by Germanic Vandals,
Suevi and Visigoths, and other eastern peoples (Alans), but they left few linguistic influences other than a few dozen
loanwords. After the Moorish Conquest in the 8th century, Arabic became a significant influence in the evolution of
Iberian languages including Castilian (see Influences on the Spanish language).
Modern Spanish developed with the Readjustment of the Consonants (Reajuste de las sibilantes) that began in 15th
century. The language continues to adopt foreign words from a variety of other languages, as well as developing new
words. Spanish was taken most notably to the Americas as well as to Africa and Asia Pacific with the expansion of
the Spanish Empire between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries.
In 1999, there were 358 million people speaking Spanish as a native language and a total of 417 million people[11]
worldwide. Currently these figures up to 400[2] [3] [4] and 450[12] [13] million people respectively. It is the second
most natively spoken language in the world, after Mandarin Chinese.[7] Mexico contains the largest population of
Spanish speakers. Spanish is one of the six official languages of the United Nations.
Spanish language 927

History
Spanish evolved from Vulgar Latin introduced to the Iberian Peninsula
by Romans during the Second Punic War around 210 BC, with
influence from Arabic during the Andalusian period[14] and other
surviving influences from Basque and Celtiberian, as well as Germanic
languages via the Visigoths.

A page of Cantar de Mio Cid, in mediaeval

Castilian.

Castilian is thought to have evolved in the northern fringes of the

Iberian Peninsula during the 10th century along the remote crossroad
strips among the Alava, Cantabria, Burgos, Soria and La Rioja
provinces of Northern Spain (see Glosas Emilianenses), as a strongly
innovative and differing variant from its nearest cousin, Leonese, with
a higher degree of Basque influence in these regions (see Iberian
Romance languages).

Modern Spanish developed in Castile with the Readjustment of the

Consonants (Reajuste de las sibilantes) during the 15th century.
Typical features of Spanish diachronic phonology include lenition
(Latin vita, Spanish vida), palatalisation (Latin annum, Spanish año,
and Latin anellum, Spanish anillo) and diphthongisation
(stem-changing) of stressed short e and o from Vulgar Latin (Latin
terra, Spanish tierra; Latin novus, Spanish nuevo). Similar phenomena
can be found in other Romance languages as well.
Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra
This northern dialect from Cantabria was carried south during the
Reconquista.
The first Spanish grammar (Gramática de la lengua castellana) — and, incidentally, the first grammar of any
modern European language — was written in Salamanca, Spain, in 1492, by Elio Antonio de Nebrija. When he
presented it to Queen Isabella, according to anecdote, she asked him what was the use of such a work, and he
answered that language is the instrument of empire.[15] In his introduction to the grammar, dated August 18, 1492,
Nebrija wrote that "... language was always the companion of empire."[16]
From the 16th century onwards, the language was taken to the Americas and the Spanish East Indies via Spanish
colonisation. Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra's influence on the Spanish language from the 17th century has been so
great that Spanish is often called la lengua de Cervantes (the language of Cervantes).[17]
Spanish language 928

In the 20th century, Spanish was introduced to Equatorial Guinea and the Western Sahara, and to areas of the United
States that had not been part of the Spanish Empire, such as Spanish Harlem in New York City. For details on
borrowed words and other external influences upon Spanish, see Influences on the Spanish language.

Geographic distribution
Spanish is recognised as one of the official languages of the United Nations, the European Union, the Organisation
of American States, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the African Union, the Union of South American
Nations, the Latin Union, and the Caricom and has legal status in the North American Free Trade Agreement.

Country [18] Total number of

Population Spanish as a Bilingual and as a second Spanish speakers
native language language speakers (in as percentage of Spanish
[19] [22] speakers
speakers countries where Spanish is population
official) or as a foreign
language (where it is not
[20] [21]
official)

Mexico 108,396,211 101,908,787 6,861,481 98.5% 106,770,268

[23]

United States [24] [25] 7,140,106 [26] [27]

309,059,724 34,559,894 15.8% 50,000,000 +
7,820,000
[28]
students

Spain [29] [30] 4,581,088 98.8% 46,388,113

46,951,532 41,786,863

Colombia [31] 45,157,680 77,520 99.2% 45,235,200

45,600,000

Argentina [32] 38,866,177 1,037,285 99.4% 40,275,837

40,518,951

Venezuela [33] 27,890,438 670,666 98.8% 28,561,104

28,908,000

Peru [34] 23,501,784 2,012,250 86.6% 25,514,034

29,461,933

Chile [35] 15,225,828 1,600,024 99.3% 16,974,610

17,094,270

Ecuador [36] 13,226,349 731,319 98.1% 13,957,668

14,238,000

Guatemala 14,027,000 9,075,469 3,043,859 86.4% 12,119,328

Cuba 11,204,000 11,136,776 99.4% 11,136,776

Dominican Republic 10,090,000 9,987,082 62,558 99.6% 10,049,640

Bolivia [37] 4,350,833 4,813,756 87.9% 9,164,589

10,426,154

Honduras [38] 7,652,513 144,922 99.0% 7,797,435

7,876,197

Morocco [39] [40] 6,479,935 [41] 6,499,935

29,680,069 20,000 21.9%

El Salvador [42] 6,164,451 99.7% 6,164,451

6,183,002

France 64,057,790 [43] 5,721,380 9.6% 6,161,486

440,106

Nicaragua 5,743,000 5,019,382 551,328 97.0% 5,570,710

Costa Rica 4,549,903 4,345,130 87,126 99.2% 4,432,256

Paraguay 6,349,000 369,000 4,043,555 69.5% 4,412,555

Puerto Rico 3,982,000 [44] 147,334 98.8% 3,934,216

3,786,882

United Kingdom 60,943,912 [45] 3,814,846 6.4% 3,922,500

107,654
Spanish language 929

Uruguay 3,361,000 3,246,726 77,303 98.9 3,324,029

Panama 3,454,000 2,652,672 476,419 93.1% 3,129,091

Philippines 96,061,683 [46] 3,014,115 3.1% [47]

2,660 3,016,773
Germany 82,369,548 [48] 2,566,972 3.2% 2,706,972
140,000

Italy 58,145,321 [49] 1,968,320 3.5% 2,058,225

89,905

Equatorial Guinea [50] n.a. 1,044,293 [51] 1,044,293

1,153,915 90.5%

Canada 33,212,696 [52] 92,853 3% 1,001,853

909,000

Portugal 10,676,910 9,744 727,282 6.9% 737,026

Netherlands 16,645,313 [53] 662,116 4.1% 682,094

19,978

Belgium 10,403,951 [54] 515,939 5.8% 601,929

85,990

Romania 22,246,862 544,531 2.4% 544,531

Sweden 9,045,389 [55] 442,601 6% 544,073

101,472

Australia 21,007,310 [56] [57] 2.3% [58]

106,517 374,571 481,088

Brazil 196,342,587 [59] unknown

445,005 More than 5 million
[60]
students

Poland 38,500,696 316,104 0.8% 316,104

Austria 8,205,533 267,177 3.3% 267,177

Ivory Coast 20,179,602 [61] 1.2% 235,806

235,806

Algeria 33,769,669 [62] 0.7% 223,379

223,000

Denmark 5,484,723 219,003 4% 219,003

Israel 7,112,359 [63] 45,231 2.5% [64]

130,000 175,231

Switzerland 7,581,520 [65] 14,420 [66] 137,420

123,000 1.7%

Japan 127,288,419 [67] 60,000 0.1% 136,565

76,565

Bulgaria 7,262,675 133,910 1.8% 133,910

Belize 301,270 [68] 21,848 42.7% [68]

106,795 128,643

Netherlands Antilles 223,652 10,699 114,835 56.1% 125,534

Ireland 4,156,119 123,591 3% 123,591

Senegal 12,853,259 101,455 0.8% 101,455

Greece 10,722,816 86,742 0.8% 86,742

Finland 5,244,749 85,586 1.6% 85,586

Hungary 9,930,915 85,034 0.9% 85,034

Aruba 100,018 6,800 68,602 75.3% 75,402

Croatia 4,491,543 73,656 1.6% 73,656

Andorra 84,484 [69] 25,356 [70] 58,040

29,907 68.7%

Slovakia 5,455,407 43,164 0.8% 43,164

Norway 4,644,457 12,573 23,677 0.8% 36,250

Spanish language 930

Russia 140,702,094 3,320 [71] 0.01% 23,320

20,000

New Zealand 4,173,460 [72] 0.5% 21,645

21,645

Guam 154,805 19,092 12.3% 19,092

Virgin Islands 108,612 16,788 15.5% 16,788

China 1,345,751,000 [73] 12,835 0.001124% 15,127

2,292

Lithuania 3,565,205 13,943 0.4% 13,943

Gibraltar 27,967 13,857 49.5% 13,857

Cyprus 792,604 1.4% 11,044

Turkey 71,892,807 380 [74] 0.01% 8,380

8,000

Jamaica 2,804,322 8,000 0.3% 8,000

Luxembourg 486,006 3,000 4,344 1.5% 7,344

Malta 403,532 6,458 1.6% 6,458

Trinidad and Tobago 1,047,366 4,100 0.4% 4,100

Western Sahara [18] [75] n.a. n.a. n.a.

513,000 n.a.

Other immigrants in [76] 1,399,531

1,399,531
the E.U.

Other students of [77] 2,895,562

2,895,562
Spanish

Total native speakers [2] 32,443,699 [78]

420,775,480 453,219,179
in the world +
bilingual and as a
second language
where Spanish is
official:

Total with Spanish 90,407,106 [79]

511,182,586
speakers as a foreign
language:

Hispanosphere
It is estimated that the combined total
number of Spanish speakers is between
470 and 500 million, making it the
third most spoken language by total
number of speakers (after Chinese, and
English). Spanish is the second
most-widely spoken language in terms
of native speakers.[81] [82] Global
internet usage statistics for 2007 show
Spanish as the third most commonly [80]
Active learning of Spanish.
used language on the Internet, after
English and Chinese. [83]
Spanish language 931

Europe
In Europe, Spanish is an official language of Spain, the country after
which it is named and from which it originated. It is widely spoken in
Gibraltar, though English is the official language.[84] It is the most
spoken language in Andorra, though Catalan is the official
language.[85] [86]
Spanish is spoken in 20 different countries worldwide. It is also spoken
by small communities in other European countries, such as the United
Kingdom, France, and Germany.[87] Spanish is an official language of
the European Union. In Switzerland, Spanish is the native language of
1.7% of the population, representing the largest minority after the 4
official languages of the country.[88]

Spain Spanish spoken in the European Union

In Spain and in some parts of the Spanish speaking world, but not all,
Spanish is called castellano (Castilian) as well as español (Spanish), that is, the language of the Castile region,
contrasting it with other three languages spoken in Spain such as Galician (proto-Portuguese), Basque, and Catalan.
In this manner, the Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the official language of the whole
Spanish State, as opposed to las demás lenguas españolas (lit. the rest of the Spanish languages). Article III reads as
follows:

El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado. (…) Las demás lenguas españolas serán también
oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas…
Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State. (…) The rest of the Spanish languages shall also be
official in their respective Autonomous Communities…
However, to some in other linguistic regions, this term considered demeaning to them, or alienating, and will
therefore use the term español exclusively. The Spanish Royal Academy uses the term español (rather than
"castellano") in its publications, due to the fact that "the term derives from the Provenzal word espaignol, which in
turn derives from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, which means 'from -- or pertaining to -- Hispania'"[89] . The
Diccionario Panhispánico de Dudas (a linguistic guide published by the Spanish Royal Academy) states that,
although the Spanish Royal Academy prefers to use the term español in its publications when referring to the
Spanish language, both terms (español and castellano) are regarded as synonymous and equally valid[90] .
Currently, the name castellano, which refers directly to the sociopolitical context in which it was introduced in the
Americas, is preferred particularly in the Spanish regions where other languages are spoken (Catalonia, Basque
Country, Valencian Community, Balearic Islands and Galicia) as well as in Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Chile,
Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela, instead of español, which is more commonly used to refer to the language
as a whole in the rest of Latin America and Spain. There is a degree of controversy in some regions of Spain
revolving around the use of the terms español or castellano when referring to the Spanish language, which is linked
to a greater political controversy about Catalan, Basque and Galician nationalisms. The origins of the castellano
language is really not in the "Castilla" but in "Cantabria", with other languages running south during the
"Reconquista", as Gallego-Portuguese, Astur, Astur-Leones, Aragones and Catalán).
Spanish language 932

Americas

Latin America
Most Spanish speakers are in Latin America; of all countries with a majority of Spanish speakers, only Spain and
Equatorial Guinea are outside the Americas. Mexico has the most native speakers of any country. Nationally,
Spanish is the official language—either de facto or de jure—of Argentina, Bolivia (co-official with Quechua and
Aymara), Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras,
Mexico , Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay (co-official with Guaraní[91] ), Peru (co-official with Quechua and, in some
regions, Aymara), Uruguay, and Venezuela. Spanish is also the official language (co-official with English) in the
U.S. commonwealth of Puerto Rico.[92]
Spanish has no official recognition in the former British colony of Belize; however, per the 2000 census, it is spoken
by 43% of the population.[93] [94] Mainly, it is spoken by the descendants of Hispanics who have been in the region
since the 17th century; however, English is the official language.[95]
Spain colonized Trinidad and Tobago first in 1498, introducing the Spanish language to the Carib people. Also the
Cocoa Panyols, laborers from Venezuela, took their culture and language with them; they are accredited with the
music of "Parang" ("Parranda") on the island. Because of Trinidad's location on the South American coast, the
country is greatly influenced by its Spanish-speaking neighbors. A recent census shows that more than 1 500
inhabitants speak Spanish.[96] In 2004, the government launched the Spanish as a First Foreign Language (SAFFL)
initiative in March 2005.[97] Government regulations require Spanish to be taught, beginning in primary school,
while thirty percent of public employees are to be linguistically competent within five years.[96]
Spanish is important in Brazil because of its proximity to and increased trade with its Spanish-speaking neighbors,
and because of its membership in the Mercosur trading bloc and the Union of South American Nations.[98] In 2005,
the National Congress of Brazil approved a bill, signed into law by the President, making Spanish language teaching
mandatory in both public and private secondary schools in Brazil.[99] In many border towns and villages (especially
in the Uruguayan-Brazilian and Paraguayan-Brazilian border areas), a mixed language known as Portuñol is
spoken.[100]

United States

According to 2006 census data, 44.3

million people of the U.S. population
were Hispanic or Latino by origin;[101]
34 million people, 12.2 percent, of the
population more than five years old
speak Spanish at home.[102] Spanish
has a long history in the United States
because many south-western states
were part of Mexico, and Florida was
also part of Spain, and it recently has
been revitalized by Hispanic
immigrants. Spanish is the most widely
taught language in the country after
Spanish spoken in the United States. Blue indicates 50% of people speak Spanish, and
English. Although the United States grey indicates 0% speak Spanish.
has no formally designated "official
languages," Spanish is formally
recognized at the state level in various states besides English; in the U.S. state of New Mexico for instance, 40% of
Spanish language 933

the population speaks the language. It also has strong influence in metropolitan areas such as Los Angeles, Miami,
San Antonio, New York City, and Chicago and in the last decade, the language has rapidly expanded in Atlanta,
Baltimore, Boston, Charlotte, Cleveland, Dallas, Detroit, Houston, Phoenix, Richmond, Washington, DC, and
Missouri. Spanish is the dominant spoken language in Puerto Rico, a U.S. territory. With a total of 33,701,181
Spanish (Castilian) speakers, according to US Census Bureau,[103] the U.S. has the world's second-largest
Spanish-speaking population.[104] Spanish ranks second, behind English, as the language spoken most widely at
home.[105]

Africa
In Africa, Spanish is official in Equatorial Guinea (co-official with French and Portuguese), as well as an official
language of the African Union. In Equatorial Guinea, Spanish is the predominant language when native and
non-native speakers (around 500,000 people) are counted, while Fang is the most spoken language by number of
native speakers.[106] [107] Today, in Western Sahara, an unknown number of Sahrawis are able to read and write in
Spanish, and several thousands have received university education in foreign countries as part of aid packages
(mainly in Cuba and Spain). It is also spoken in the Spanish cities in continental North Africa (Ceuta and Melilla)
and in the autonomous community of Canary Islands (143,000 and 1,995,833 people, respectively). Within Northern
Morocco, a former Franco-Spanish protectorate that is also geographically close to Spain, approximately 20,000
people speak Spanish as a second language.[108] It is spoken by some communities of Angola, because of the Cuban
influence from the Cold War, and in Nigeria by the descendants of Afro-Cuban ex-slaves.

Asia
Spanish was used by the colonial governments, at different times, in United States territories such as, Guam and
Northern Mariana Islands and in the country of the Philippines. During Spanish control, it was an official language
of the Philippines, although it was never spoken by the majority of the people [109] . It continued as an official
language until the change of Constitution in 1973. During most of the colonial period it was the language of
government, trade and education, and spoken mainly by Spaniards and Latin American groups as a first language
and less significantly as a second language by other populations. However, by the mid 19th century a free public
school system in Spanish was established throughout the islands, which increased the numbers of Spanish speakers.
Following the U.S. occupation and administration of the islands, the strong Spanish influence amongst the Philippine
population proved to be a major foe against the imposition of English by the American government, especially after
the 1920s. The US authorities' conducted a campaign of solidifying English as the medium of instruction in schools,
universities, and public spaces and prohibited the use of Spanish in media and educational institutions which
gradually reduced the importance of the language generation after generation. After the country became independent
in 1946, Spanish remained an official language along with English and Tagalog-based Filipino. However, the
language lost its official status in 1973 during the Ferdinand Marcos administration. The Arroyo government
reintroduced Spanish into the education system in 2010. Radio Manila also broadcasts daily in Spanish. Worthy of
mention is the Chabacano language spoken by 600,000 people both in the Philippines and Sabah. Chabacano, a
Spanish pidgin, initially sounds strange to Spanish speakers but is mutually intelligible.
The local languages of the Philippines retain much Spanish influence, with many words coming from or being
derived from Castilian Spanish and Mexican Spanish, due to the control of the islands by Madrid through Mexico
City.[110]
Spanish language 934

Oceania
Among the countries and territories in Oceania, Spanish is also spoken in Easter Island, a territorial possession of
Chile. The U.S. Territories of Guam and Northern Marianas, and the independent states of Palau, Marshall Islands
and the Federated States of Micronesia all once had majority Spanish speakers, since the Marianas and the Caroline
Islands were Spanish colonial possessions until the late 19th century (see Spanish-American War), but Spanish is no
longer used by the masses but there are still native and second-language speakers. It also exists as an influence on the
local native languages and is spoken by Hispanic American resident populations.

Accent variation
There are important variations spoken among the
regions of Spain and throughout
Spanish-speaking America. One major
phonological difference between Castilian,
broadly speaking, the accents spoken in most of
Spain, and the accent of some parts of southern
Spain and all the Latin American accents of
Spanish, is the absence of a voiceless dental
fricative (/θ/ as in English thing) in the
latter.[111] In Spain, the Castilian accent is An examination of the dominance and stress of
commonly regarded as the standard variety used the voseo dialect in Central America. Data
generated as illustrated by the Association of
on radio and television,[112] [113] [114] [115]
Spanish Language Academies. The darker the
although attitudes towards southern accents have country, the stronger its dominance.
changed significantly in the last 50 years. In
addition to variations in pronunciation, minor
lexical and grammatical differences exist. For
example, loísmo is the use of slightly different
pronouns and differs from the standard.

The variety with the most speakers is Mexican

Spanish. It is spoken by more than the twenty
percent of the Spanish speakers (107 million of
the total 494 million, according to the table
above). One of its main features is the reduction
or loss of the unstressed vowels, mainly when
they are in contact with the sound /s/.[116] [117]

Voseo
Spanish has three second-person singular
pronouns: tú, usted, and vos. The use of the
pronoun vos and/or its verb forms is called
voseo.

Cervantes Institute Headquarters in Madrid, Spain

Spanish language 935

Grammar
Vos is the subject form (vos decís) [you say] and object of a preposition (a vos digo) [to you I say], while "os" is the
direct object form (os vi) [I saw you (all)] and indirect object without express preposition (os digo) [I say to you
(all)].[118]
Since vose is historically the 2nd-person plural, verbs are conjugated as such despite the fact the word now refers to a
single person:
«Han luchado, añadió dirigiéndose a Tarradellas, [...] por mantenerse fieles a las instituciones que vos
representáis» (GaCandau Madrid-Barça [Esp. 1996]).
The possessive form is vuestro: Admiro vuestra valentía, señora. Adjectives, when used in conjunction with vos, do
not agree with the pronoun but instead with the real referents in gender and number: Vos, don Pedro, sois caritativo;
Vos, bellas damas, sois ingeniosas.[118]
Two main types of voseo may be distinguished: reverential and American dialectal. In archaic solemn usage, voseo
expressed special reverence and could be used to address both the second person singular and the second person
plural. In contrast, the more commonly known American form of voseo is always used to address only one speaker
and implies closeness and familiarity.[118] Unlike the first type, the second one need not involve vos and may instead
be expressed simply in the use of the plural form of the verb (even in combination with the pronoun tú).
The pronominal voseo employs the use of vos as a pronoun to replace tú and de ti, which are second-person singular
informal.[118]
• As a subject vos employs: «Puede que vos tengás razón» (Herrera Casa [Ven. 1985]) instead of «Puede que tú
tengas razón»
• As a vocative: «¿Por qué vos la tenés contra Álvaro Arzú ?» (Prensa [Guat.] 3.4.97) instead of «¿Por qué tú la
tienes contra Álvaro Arzú?»
• As a term of preposition: «Cada vez que sale con vos, se enferma» (Penerini Aventura [Arg. 1999]) instead of
«Cada vez que sale contigo, se enferma»
• And as a term of comparison: «Es por lo menos tan actor como vos» (Cuzzani Cortés [Arg. 1988]) instead of «Es
por lo menos tan actor como tú»
[118]

However, for the pronombre átono (that which uses the pronominal verbs and its complements without preposition)
and for the possessive, they employ the forms of tuteo (te, tu, and tuyo), respectively: «Vos te acostaste con el
tuerto» (Gené Ulf [Arg. 1988]); «Lugar que odio [...] como te odio a vos» (Rossi María [C. Rica 1985]); «No cerrés
tus ojos» (Flores Siguamonta [Guat. 1993]). In other words, in the previous examples the authors conjugate the
pronoun subject vos with the pronominal verbs and its complements of tú.[118]
The verbal voseo consists of the use of the second person plural, more or less modified, for the conjugated forms of
the second person singular: vos vivís, vos comés. The verbal paradigm of voseante is characterized by its complexity.
On the one hand, it affects, to a distinct extent, each verbal tense. On the other hand, it varies in functions of
geographic and social factors and not all the forms are accepted in cultured norms.[118]
Spanish language 936

Extension in Latin America

Vos is used extensively as the primary

spoken form of the second-person singular
pronoun, although with wide differences in
social consideration. Generally, it can be
said that there are zones of exclusive use of
tuteo in the following areas: almost all of
Mexico, the West Indies, Panama, the
majority of Peru and Venezuela, Coastal
Ecuador and the Atlantic coast of Colombia.

They alternate tuteo as a cultured form and

voseo as a popular or rural form in: Bolivia,
north and south of Peru, Andean Ecuador,
The voseo pronoun is used in Central America's Nicaragua more frequently than in
small zones of the Venezuelan Andes, a
neighboring countries.
great part of Colombia, and the oriental
border of Cuba.

Tuteo exists as an intermediate formality of treatment and voseo as a familiar treatment in: Chile, the Venezuelan
Zulia State, the Pacific coast of Colombia, and the Mexican state of Chiapas.
Areas of generalized voseo include Argentina, Costa Rica, East of Bolivia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras,
Nicaragua, Paraguay, Uruguay and the Colombian region of Valle and Antioquia.[118]

Ustedes
Spanish forms also differ regarding second-person plural pronouns. "Usted" (Ud.) was initially the written
abbreviation of "vuestra merced" (your grace). The Spanish accents of Latin America have only one form of the
second-person plural for daily use, ustedes (formal or familiar, as the case may be, though vosotros non-formal usage
can sometimes appear in poetry and rhetorical or literary style). In Spain there are two forms — ustedes (formal) and
vosotros (familiar). The pronoun vosotros is the plural form of tú in most of Spain, but in the Americas (and in
certain southern Spanish cities such as Cádiz and in the Canary Islands) it is replaced with ustedes. It is notable that
the use of ustedes for the informal plural "you" in southern Spain does not follow the usual rule for pronoun–verb
agreement; e.g., while the formal form for "you go", ustedes van, uses the third-person plural form of the verb, in
Cádiz or Seville the informal form is constructed as ustedes vais, using the second-person plural of the verb. In the
Canary Islands, though, the usual pronoun–verb agreement is preserved in most cases. The 'ustedeo' is mainly used
in Costa Rica and Colombia

Vocabulary
Some words can be different, even significantly so, in different Hispanophone countries. Most Spanish speakers can
recognize other Spanish forms, even in places where they are not commonly used, but Spaniards generally do not
recognize specifically American usages. For example, Spanish mantequilla, aguacate and albaricoque (respectively,
'butter', 'avocado', 'apricot') correspond to manteca, palta, and damasco, respectively, in Argentina, Chile (except
manteca), Paraguay, Peru (except manteca and damasco), and Uruguay. The everyday Spanish words coger ('to
take'), pisar ('to step on') and concha ('seashell') are considered extremely rude in parts of Latin America, where the
meaning of coger and pisar is also "to have sex" and concha means "vulva". The Puerto Rican word for "bobby pin"
(pinche) is an obscenity in Mexico, but in Nicaragua it simply means "stingy", and in Spain refers to a chef's helper.
Other examples include taco, which means "swearword" (among other meanings) in Spain and "traffic jam" in Chile,
but is known to the rest of the world as a Mexican dish. Pija in many countries of Latin America and Spain itself is
Spanish language 937

an obscene slang word for "penis", while in Spain the word also signifies "posh girl" or "snobby". Coche, which
means "car" in Spain, central Mexico and Argentina, for the vast majority of Spanish-speakers actually means
"baby-stroller", while carro means "car" in some Latin American countries and "cart" in others, as well as in Spain.
Papaya is the slang term for "vagina" in the western part of Cuba, where the fruit is called fruta bomba instead.[119]
[120]

Royal Spanish Academy

The Real Academia Española (Royal
Spanish Academy), together with the 21
other national ones (see Association of
Spanish Language Academies), exercises a
standardizing influence through its
publication of dictionaries and widely
respected grammar and style guides.
Because of influence and for other
sociohistorical reasons, a standardized form
of the language (Standard Spanish) is widely
acknowledged for use in literature, academic
contexts and the media.

The Royal Spanish Academy Headquarters in Madrid, Spain

Classification and related

languages
Spanish is closely related to the other West Iberian Romance languages: Asturian, Galician, Ladino, Leonese and
Portuguese. Catalan, an East Iberian language which exhibits many Gallo-Romance traits, is more similar to Occitan
to the east than to Spanish or Portuguese.
Spanish and Portuguese have similar grammars and vocabularies as well as a common history of Arabic influence
while a great part of the peninsula was under Islamic rule (both languages expanded over Islamic territories). Their
lexical similarity has been estimated as 89%.[121] See Differences between Spanish and Portuguese for further
information.

Judaeo-Spanish
Judaeo-Spanish (also known as Ladino),[122] which is essentially medieval Spanish and closer to modern Spanish
than any other language, is spoken by many descendants of the Sephardi Jews who were expelled from Spain in the
15th century.[122] Therefore, its relationship to Spanish is comparable with that of the Yiddish language to German.
Ladino speakers are currently almost exclusively Sephardi Jews, with family roots in Turkey, Greece or the Balkans:
current speakers mostly live in Israel and Turkey, and the United States, with a few pockets in Latin America.[122] It
lacks the Native American vocabulary which was influential during the Spanish colonial period, and it retains many
archaic features which have since been lost in standard Spanish. It contains, however, other vocabulary which is not
found in standard Castilian, including vocabulary from Hebrew, French, Greek and Turkish, and other languages
spoken where the Sephardim settled.
Judaeo-Spanish is in serious danger of extinction because many native speakers today are elderly as well as elderly
olim (immigrants to Israel) who have not transmitted the language to their children or grandchildren. However, it is
experiencing a minor revival among Sephardi communities, especially in music. In the case of the Latin American
communities, the danger of extinction is also due to the risk of assimilation by modern Castilian.
Spanish language 938

A related dialect is Haketia, the Judaeo-Spanish of northern Morocco. This too tended to assimilate with modern
Spanish, during the Spanish occupation of the region.

Vocabulary comparison
Spanish and Italian share a similar phonological system. At present, the lexical similarity with Italian is estimated at
82%.[121] The lexical similarity with Portuguese is greater at 89%. Mutual intelligibility between Spanish and French
or Romanian is lower (lexical similarity being respectively 75% and 71%[121] ): comprehension of Spanish by
French speakers who have not studied the language is low at an estimated 45% – the same as English. The common
features of the writing systems of the Romance languages allow for a greater amount of interlingual reading
comprehension than oral communication would.

Latin Spanish Galician Portuguese Astur-Leonese Aragonese Catalan Italian French Romanian English

nos nosotros nós nós, nosotros nusatros nosaltres noi we

nós noi (altri)² nous
(archaically
(outros)¹ ³
(autres)
also nós)

frater hermano irmán irmão hermanu chirmán fratello frère frate brother
germà
germanum (archaically
(lit. "true also frare)5
brother")

dies Martis martes martes terça-feira martes martes,"martz" dimarts martedì mardi marţi Tuesday
(Classical)
feria tertia
(Ecclesiastical)

cantiō (nem, canción canción/cançom4 canção, canción canta cançó canzone chanson cântec song
acc.), cântico
canticum

magis or plus más máis mais más más,"més" més più plus mai/plus more
(archaically (archaically (archaically
also plus) also also pus)
chus/plus)

manum mano man esquerda mão mano man cucha mà mano main mâna left
sinistram izquierda esquerda esquierda esquerra sinistra gauche stângă hand
(acc.) (also mano (also
siniestra) sinistra
and
archaically
also
sẽestra)

nihil or nada nada/ren nada nada cosa res niente/nulla rien/nul nimic/nul nothing
nullam rem (neca and
natam (acc.) nula rés in
(lit. "no thing some
born") expressions;
archaically
also rem)

1. also nós outros in early modern Portuguese (e.g. The Lusiads)

2. noi altri in Southern Italian dialects and languages
3. Alternatively nous autres
4. Depending on the written norm used. See Reintegracionismo
5. Medieval Catalan, e.g. Llibre dels feits del rei en Jacme
Spanish language 939

Characterisation
A defining feature of Spanish was the diphthongization of the Latin short vowels e and o into ie and ue, respectively,
when they were stressed. Similar sound changes are found in other Romance languages, but in Spanish, they were
significant. Some examples:
• Lat. petram > Sp. piedra, It. pietra, Fr. pierre, Rom. piatrǎ, Port./Gal. pedra, Ar. piedra, Ast. piedra, Cat. pedra
"stone".
• Lat. moritur > Sp. muere, It. muore, Fr. meurt / muert, Rom. moare, Port./Gal. morre, Ar. muere, Ast. muerre,
Cat. mor "die".
Peculiar to early Spanish (as in the Gascon dialect of Occitan, and possibly due to a Basque substratum) was the
mutation of Latin initial f- into h- whenever it was followed by a vowel that did not diphthongize. Compare for
instance:
• Lat. filium > It. figlio, Port. filho, Ar. fillo, Gal. fillo, Ast. fíu, Fr. fils, Cat. fill, Occitan filh (but Gascon hilh) Sp.
hijo (but Ladino fijo);
• Lat. fabulari > Lad. favlar, Port./Gal. falar, Ar. fablar, Ast. falar, Sp. hablar;
• but Lat. focum > It. fuoco, Port./Gal. fogo, Ar. fuego, Ast. fueu Cat. foc, Sp./Lad. fuego.
Some consonant clusters of Latin also produced characteristically different results in these languages, for example:
• Lat. clamare, acc. flammam, plenum > Lad. lyamar, flama, pleno; Sp. llamar, llama, lleno. However, in Spanish
there are also the forms clamar, flama, pleno; Port. chamar, chama, cheio; Gal. chamar, chama, cheo; Ast.
llamar, llama, llenu.
• Lat. acc. octo, noctem, multum > Lad. ocho, noche, muncho; Sp. ocho, noche, mucho; Port. oito, noite, muito; Gal.
oito, noite, moito; Ast. ocho, nueche, munchu.
By the 16th century, the consonant system of Spanish underwent the following important changes that differentiated
it from neighbouring Romance languages such as Portuguese and Catalan:
• Initial /f/, when it had evolved into a vacillating /h/, was lost in most words (although this etymological h- is
preserved in spelling and in some Andalusian and Caribbean dialects it is still aspirated in some words).
• The consonant written ‹u› or ‹v› (in Latin, this was [w], at the time of the merger it may have been a bilabial
fricative /β/) merged with the consonant written ‹b› (a voiced bilabial plosive, /b/). In contemporary Spanish, there
is no difference between the pronunciation of orthographic ‹b› and ‹v›, excepting emphatic pronunciations that
cannot be considered standard or natural.
• The voiced alveolar fricative /z/ which existed as a separate phoneme in medieval Spanish merged with its
voiceless counterpart /s/. The phoneme which resulted from this merger is currently spelled s.
• The voiced postalveolar fricative /ʒ/ merged with its voiceless counterpart /ʃ/, which evolved into the modern
velar sound /x/ by the 17th century, now written with j, or g before e, i. Nevertheless, in most parts of Argentina
and in Uruguay, y and ll have both evolved to /ʒ/ or /ʃ/.
• The voiced alveolar affricate /d͡z/ merged with its voiceless counterpart /t͡s/, which then developed into the
interdental /θ/, now written z, or c before e, i. But in Andalusia, the Canary Islands and the Americas this sound
merged with /s/ as well. See Ceceo, for further information.
The consonant system of Mediaeval Spanish has been better preserved in Ladino and in Portuguese, neither of which
underwent these shifts
Spanish language 940

Writing system

Spanish language

Don Quixote, master work in Spanish literature, a circa 1868 painting by Honoré Daumier.

PronunciationHistoryOrthography
VarietiesNames for the language

Grammar

DeterminersNounsPronouns
AdjectivesPrepositionsAdverbs
Verbs (conjugationirregular verbs)

Spanish is written in the Latin alphabet, with the addition of the character ‹ñ› (eñe, representing the phoneme /ɲ/, a
letter distinct from ‹n›, although typographically composed of an ‹n› with a tilde) and the digraphs ‹ch› (che,
representing the phoneme /t͡ʃ/) and ‹ll› (elle, representing the phoneme /ʎ/). However, the digraph ‹rr› (erre fuerte,
'strong r", erre doble, 'double r', or simply erre), which also represents a distinct phoneme /r/, is not similarly
regarded as a single letter. Since 1994 ‹ch› and ‹ll› have been treated as letter pairs for collation purposes, though
they remain a part of the alphabet. Words with ‹ch› are now alphabetically sorted between those with ‹ce› and ‹ci› ,
instead of following ‹cz› as they used to. The situation is similar for ‹ll›.[123] [124]
Thus, the Spanish alphabet has the following 27 letters and 2 digraphs:
a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, ñ, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z.[125]
ch,[126] ll[127] .
The letters "k" and "w" are used only in words and names coming from foreign languages (kilo, folklore, whiskey,
William, etc.).
With the exclusion of a very small number of regional terms such as México (see Toponymy of Mexico),
pronunciation can be entirely determined from spelling. Under the orthographic conventions, a typical Spanish word
is stressed on the syllable before the last if it ends with a vowel (not including ‹y›) or with a vowel followed by ‹n› or
‹s›; it is stressed on the last syllable otherwise. Exceptions to this rule are indicated by placing an acute accent on the
stressed vowel.
The acute accent is used, in addition, to distinguish between certain homophones, especially when one of them is a
stressed word and the other one is a clitic: compare el ('the', masculine singular definite article) with él ('he' or 'it'), or
te ('you', object pronoun), de (preposition 'of'), and se (reflexive pronoun) with té ('tea'), dé ('give' [formal
imperative/third-person present subjunctive]) and sé ('I know' or imperative 'be').
The interrogative pronouns (qué, cuál, dónde, quién, etc.) also receive accents in direct or indirect questions, and
some demonstratives (ése, éste, aquél, etc.) can be accented when used as pronouns. The conjunction o ('or') is
written with an accent between numerals so as not to be confused with a zero: e.g., 10 ó 20 should be read as diez o
veinte rather than diez mil veinte ('10,020'). Accent marks are frequently omitted in capital letters (a widespread
practice in the days of typewriters and the early days of computers when only lowercase vowels were available with
Spanish language 941

accents), although the Real Academia Española advises against this.

When ‹u› is written between ‹g› and a front vowel (‹e i›), it indicates a "hard g" pronunciation. A diaeresis (‹ü›)
indicates that it is not silent as it normally would be (e.g., cigüeña, 'stork', is pronounced [θiˈɣweɲa]; if it were
written ‹cigueña›, it would be pronounced [θiˈɣeɲa].
Interrogative and exclamatory clauses are introduced with inverted question and exclamation marks (‹¿› and ‹¡›,
respectively).

Phonology
The phonemic inventory listed in the following table includes phonemes that are preserved only in some accents,
other accents having merged them (such as yeísmo); these are marked with an asterisk (*). Sounds in parentheses are
allophones. Where symbols appear in pairs, the symbol to the right represents a voiced consonant.

Table of Spanish consonants[128]

Bilabial Labio- Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar
dental

Nasal m n ɲ

Stop p b t̪   d̪ t͡ʃ   ɟ͡ʝ k ɡ

Fricative (β̞) f   (v) *θ   (ð̞) s   (z) (ʝ) x   (ɣ˕)

Trill r

Tap ɾ

Lateral l *ʎ

Lexical stress
Spanish is a syllable-timed language, so each syllable has the same duration regardless of stress.[129] [130] Stress most
often occurs on any of the last three syllables of a word, with some rare exceptions at the fourth last or earlier
syllables. The tendencies of stress assignment are as follows:[131]
• In words ending in vowels and /s/, stress most often falls on the penultimate syllable.
• In words ending in all other consonants, the stress more often falls on the last syllable.
• Preantepenultimate stress (stress on the syllable that comes three before the last in a word) occurs rarely and only
in words like guardándoselos ('saving them for him/her/them') where clitics follow certain verbal forms.
In addition to the many exceptions to these tendencies, there are numerous minimal pairs which contrast solely on
stress such as sábana ('sheet') and sabana ('savannah'), as well as límite ('boundary'), limite ('[that] he/she limits') and
limité ('I limited'), or also "líquido", "liquido" and "liquidó".
An amusing example of the significance of intonation in Spanish is the phrase ¿Cómo "¿cómo como?"? ¡Como como
como! (What do you mean, how do I eat? I eat the way I eat!).
Spanish language 942

Grammar
Spanish is a relatively inflected language, with a two-gender system and about fifty conjugated forms per verb, but
limited inflection of nouns, adjectives, and determiners. (For a detailed overview of verbs, see Spanish verbs and
Spanish irregular verbs.)
It is right-branching, uses prepositions, and usually, though not always, places adjectives after nouns, as do most
other Romance languages. Its syntax is generally Subject Verb Object, though variations are common. It is a
pro-drop language (or null subject language) (that is, it allows the deletion of pronouns which are pragmatically
unnecessary) and is verb-framed.

See also
• Names given to the Spanish language
• Spanish language poets
• Spanish profanity
• Spanish proverbs

Spanish language institutions Spanish dialects and varieties

• Real Academia Española
European Spanish
• Instituto Cervantes
• Certificate of Use of Language in Spanish • Andalusian Spanish
• Canarian Spanish
Spanish-speaking world
• Castilian Spanish
• Countries where Spanish is an official language • Castrapo (Galician Spanish)
• Hispanic culture • Murcian Spanish
• Hispanophone
Spanish in the Americas
• Panhispanism
• North American Spanish
Romance languages
• Central American Spanish
• Differences between Spanish and Portuguese • Caribbean Spanish
• Romance languages • South American Spanish
• Latin Union • Spanish in the United States
Influences on the Spanish language Spanish in Africa
• Arabic influence on the Spanish language • Equatoguinean Spanish
• List of Spanish words of Germanic origin
Spanish in Asia
• List of Spanish words of Nahuatl origin
• List of Spanish words of Indigenous American Indian origin • Spanish in the
[132]
• List of Spanish words of Philippine origin Philippines

Dialects and languages influenced by Spanish

• Chavacano language
• Frespañol
• Llanito
• Palenquero
• Papiamento
• Portuñol
• Spanglish
• Spanish-based creole languages
• List of English words of Spanish origin
Spanish language 943

Bibliography
• Abercrombie, David (1967). Elements of General Phonetics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press
• Cressey, William Whitney (1978). Spanish Phonology and Morphology: A Generative View. Georgetown
University Press. ISBN 0878400451
• Eddington, David (2000). "Spanish Stress Assignment within the Analogical Modeling of Language" [133].
Language (Language, Vol. 76, No. 1) 76 (1): 92–109. doi:10.2307/417394
• Harris, James (1967). "Sound Change in Spanish and the Theory of Markedness" [134]. Language (Language, Vol.
45, No. 3) 45 (3): 538–552. doi:10.2307/411438
• Martínez-Celdrán, Eugenio; Fernández-Planas, Ana Ma.; Carrera-Sabaté, Josefina (2003). "Castilian Spanish".
Journal of the International Phonetic Association 33 (2): 255–259. doi:10.1017/S0025100303001373

External links
[135]
• (Spanish) Dictionary of the RAE Real Academia Española's official Spanish language dictionary
[136]
• Spanish – BBC Languages
• Spanish evolution from Latin [137]
• Different Spanish Accents Demonstrated [138] Short educational videos.
• Spanish phrasebook on WikiTravel

References
[1] Spanish language total (http:/ / www. ethnologue. org/ ethno_docs/ distribution. asp?by=size). Ethnologue. Retrieved 14 August 2009.
[2] Demografía de la lengua española (http:/ / eprints. ucm. es/ 8936/ 1/ DT03-06. pdf) (page 38). 359.5 million people where Spanish is official
and 40.5 where it is not official with native knowladges of Spanish, and another 40 million with limited knowladges. The figures of the census
used are from 2000 to 2005.
[3] http:/ / congresosdelalengua. es/ cartagena/ ponencias/ seccion_3/ 36/ vivanco_hiram. htm
[4] elcastellano.org (http:/ / www. elcastellano. org/ 23abr. html).
[5] "actaslengua.org" (http:/ / www. actaslengua. org/ acta_conclusiones_lengua_espanola. asp?id=1). actaslengua.org. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[6] krysstal.com (http:/ / www. krysstal. com/ spoken. html), 5th International Congress on Spanish Language ( la-moncloa.es (http:/ / www.
la-moncloa. es/ IDIOMAS/ 9/ ActualidadHome/ 29012009_CongresoLengua. htm)), uis.edu (http:/ / www. uis. edu/ clas/ Online/
factsaboutspanish. html), Antonio Molina, director of the Instituto Cervantes in 2006 ( terranoticias.es (http:/ / terranoticias. terra. es/ cultura/
articulo/ espanol_sera_segunda_lengua_comunicacion_848372. htm), elmundo.es (http:/ / www. elmundo. es/ elmundo/ 2007/ 04/ 26/ cultura/
1177610767. html), fundeu.es (http:/ / www. fundeu. es/ Noticias. aspx?frmOpcion=NOTICIA& frmFontSize=2& frmIdNoticia=74)), Luis
María Anson of the Real Academia Española ( elcultural.es (http:/ / www. elcultural. es/ version_papel/ OPINION/ 24251/
Estados_Unidos-_mas_hispanohablantes_que_en_Espana)), International Congress about Spanish, 2008 (http:/ / www. congresovaloridioma.
es/ pag/ bienvenida. html), Mario Melgar of the México University ( lllf.uam.es (http:/ / www. lllf. uam. es/ ~fmarcos/ coloquio/ Ponencias/
MMelgar. doc)), Feu Rosa - Spanish in Mercosur ( congresosdelalengua.es (http:/ / congresosdelalengua. es/ valladolid/ ponencias/
unidad_diversidad_del_espanol/ 5_espanol_y_portugues/ rosa_f. htm)), elpais.com (http:/ / www. elpais. com/ articulo/ carreras/ capital/
humano/ 500/ millones/ razones/ saber/ espanol/ elpepueconeg/ 20100124elpnegser_4/ Tes), eumed.net (http:/ / www. eumed. net/ rev/ cccss/
05/ jrz. htm), babel-linguistics.com (http:/ / www. babel-linguistics. com/ idiomas. htm).
[7] ethnologue.org (http:/ / www. ethnologue. org/ ethno_docs/ distribution. asp?by=size), sil.org (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/
19990429232804/ www. sil. org/ ethnologue/ top100. html), cia.gov (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ fields/
2098. html) (see "World" file), eldia.es (http:/ / www. eldia. es/ 2009-11-02/ cultura/ 3-espanol-esta-crisis-Instituto-Cervantes. htm) (according
to Ethnology (journal)), Encarta ( Chinese 800 million (http:/ / uk. encarta. msn. com/ dictionary_1481582983/ Modern_Standard_Chinese.
html), Spanish 358 million (http:/ / uk. encarta. msn. com/ dictionary_1861781790/ Spanish. html), English 350 million (http:/ / uk. encarta.
msn. com/ dictionary_1861789540/ English. html)).
[8] krysstal.com (http:/ / www. krysstal. com/ spoken. html)/ Ethnologue ( Mandarin Chinese (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ show_language.
asp?code=cmn): 845 mill. + 145 mill. L2, English (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ show_language. asp?code=eng): 328 mill. + 167 mill. L2,
Spanish (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ show_language. asp?code=spa) 329 mill. + 60 mill. L2, Hindi (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/
show_language. asp?code=hin) 182 mill. + 120 mill. L2)/ George Weber (http:/ / www. andaman. org/ BOOK/ reprints/ weber/ rep-weber.
htm) (Mandarin 1.12 billion, English 480 million, Spanish 320 million, Russian 285 million)/ IV Congreso Internacional de la Lengua
Española (http:/ / www. oei. es/ marchesiiv. htm) (Álvaro Marchesi Secretario General of the OEI)/ cervantes.es (http:/ / www. cervantes. es/
sobre_instituto_cervantes/ prensa/ 2008/ noticias/ noticia_08-06-17. htm) (Carmen Caffarel president of Instituto Cervantes)/ elcastellano.org
(http:/ / www. elcastellano. org/ 23abr. html).
[9] http:/ / www. sil. org/ iso639-3/ documentation. asp?id=spa
Spanish language 944

[10] "Spanish languages "Becoming the language for trade"" (http:/ / sejours-linguistiques-en-espagne. com/ index. html).
sejours-linguistiques-en-espagne.com/index.html. . Retrieved 2010-05-11.
[11] "(SPANISH: a language of Spain)" (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ 14/ show_language. asp?code=spn). ethnologue.com. . Retrieved
2010-04-21.
[12] I (http:/ / www. fundacionblu. org/ actaslengua/ acta_conclusiones_lengua_espanola. asp?id=1) and IV (http:/ / www. fundacionblu. org/
actaslengua/ acta_lengua_espanola. asp?id=7) International minutes of the Spanish language
[13] Instituto Cervantes ( cervantes.es (http:/ / www. cervantes. es/ sobre_instituto_cervantes/ prensa/ 2009/ noticias/ caffarel_casa_america.
htm), lavanguardia.es (http:/ / www. lavanguardia. es/ cultura/ noticias/ 20100619/ 53949214032/
el-espanol-ya-es-el-segundo-idioma-mas-hablado-del-mundo-instituto-cervantes-eeuu-carmen-caffarel-am. html))
[14] "Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language" (http:/ / www. encyclopedia. com/ doc/ 1O29-SPANISH. html). Oxford University
Press. . Retrieved 24 July 2008.
[15] Crow, John A. (2005). Spain: the root and the flower (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=g2NKy8QCxw4C& pg=PA151& dq=Nebrija+ first+
spanish+ grammar+ Isabel& cd=5#v=onepage& q=). University of California Press. p. 151. ISBN 0520244962. .
[16] Thomas, Hugh (2005). Rivers of Gold: the rise of the Spanish empire, from Columbus to Magellan (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=b38f7b1WmOwC& pg=PA78& dq=Nebrija+ first+ spanish+ grammar+ Isabel& cd=5#v=onepage& q=). Random House Inc.. p. 78.
ISBN 0812970555. .
[17] (in Spanish) (PDF) La lengua de Cervantes (http:/ / www. cepc. es/ rap/ Publicaciones/ Revistas/ 2/ REP_031-032_288. pdf). Ministerio de
la Presidencia de España. . Retrieved 2008-08-24.
[18] "UN 2009 estimate" (http:/ / www. un. org/ esa/ population/ publications/ wpp2008/ wpp2008_text_tables. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved
2010-04-21.
[19] Britannica Books of the years 2003 to 2009 es:Anexo:Hablantes de español como lengua materna en el 2003 (según el Britannica Book).
Sources used by the Encyclopaedia Britannica (Ethnologue -14th edition, Joshua Project 2000 —People’s List, U.S. Census Bureau.)
[20] eurobarometer (2006) (http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ public_opinion/ archives/ ebs/ ebs_243_en. pdf), es:Anexo:Hablantes de español en la U.E.
según el Eurobarómetro (2006) for Europe countries
[21] Spanish students for countries out of Europe according to Instituto Cervantes 06-07 (http:/ / cvc. cervantes. es/ lengua/ anuario/
anuario_06-07/ pdf/ cifras. pdf) (There aren't concrete sources about Spanish speakers as a second language except to Europe and Latin
America countries).
[22] Demografía de la lengua española (http:/ / eprints. ucm. es/ 8936/ 1/ DT03-06. pdf) (page 28) to countries with official spanish status.
[23] CONAPO (http:/ / www. conapo. gob. mx/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=125& Itemid=193) (2010).
[24] Population figure for 2008 from U.S. Population in 1990, 2000, and 2008 (http:/ / factfinder. census. gov/ servlet/ SAFFPopulation), U.S.
Census Bureau
[25] 34,559,894 legal hispanics older than 5 years old ( US Census 2008 (http:/ / factfinder. census. gov/ servlet/ STTable?_bm=y&
-geo_id=01000US& -qr_name=ACS_2008_1YR_G00_S1601& -ds_name=ACS_2008_1YR_G00_& -_lang=en& -redoLog=false))+
8,300,000 illegal immigrants (Pew Hispanic Center 2008, impre.com (http:/ / www. impre. com/ laraza/ opinion/ editorial/ 2009/ 4/ 19/
palidos-de-hambre-120230-1. html), ecodiario.eleconomista.es (http:/ / ecodiario. eleconomista. es/ internacional/ noticias/ 1165556/ 04/ 09/
Numero-de-indocumentados-en-EEUU-se-estabilizo-en-los-ultimos-anos-estudio. html). They aren't new generations of immigrants living in
USA as many of the legal immigrants).
[26] Significant figure about the legal Hispanic population (48,419,324 from a total US population of 307,006,550) Census Bureau 2009 (http:/ /
www. census. gov/ popest/ states/ asrh/ tables/ SC-EST2009-04. xls)
[27] I Acta Internacional de la Lengua Española (2007): noticias en latinoamericaexterior.com (http:/ / www. latinoamericaexterior. com/ noticia.
asp?ref=775& pos=0), Academia Norteamericana de la Lengua Española: elcastellano.org (http:/ / www. elcastellano. org/ noticia.
php?id=1113), José Ma. Ansón: noticias elcastellano.org (http:/ / www. elcastellano. org/ noticia. php?id=685), Jorge Ramos Avalos:
univision.com (http:/ / www. univision. com/ content/ content. jhtml?cid=1145765), Vázquez Medel: casamerica.es (http:/ / www. casamerica.
es/ opinion-y-analisis-de-prensa/ hispanos-en-ee-uu/ el-espanol-sera-tercer-idioma-en-el-mundo).
[28] According to the U.S. census ( fundacionsiglo.com fundacionsiglo.com (http:/ / www. fundacionsiglo. com/ espanol/ cap1. pdf)): 3,600,000
in primary school, 3,220,000 in secondary school and 1,000,000 in the University
[29] INE (http:/ / www. ine. es/ ), (1/1/2010) (http:/ / www. ine. es/ jax14. 110. 000i/ menu. do?type=pcaxis& path=/ t20/ e260& file=inebase&
L=)
[30] 89.0% speak Spanish as a first language ( eurobarometer (2006) (http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ public_opinion/ archives/ ebs/ ebs_243_en. pdf))
[31] "DANE" (http:/ / www. dane. gov. co/ reloj/ reloj_animado. php). DANE. . Retrieved 2010-09-1.
[32] "INDEC (2009)" (http:/ / www. indec. mecon. ar/ nuevaweb/ cuadros/ 2/ proyecyestimaciones_1950-2015. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved
2010-04-21.
[33] "(30 Aug., 2010)" (http:/ / www. ine. gov. ve/ ). INE. . Retrieved 2010-07-01.
[34] Ezio Quispe Fernández. "(2010)" (http:/ / www. inei. gob. pe/ ). INEI. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[35] "INE (Chile - 2010)" (http:/ / www. ine. cl/ canales/ chile_estadistico/ demografia_y_vitales/ proyecciones/ Informes/ Microsoft Word -
InforP_T. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[36] "Ecuador en Cifras" (http:/ / www. ecuadorencifras. com/ cifras-inec/ main. html). INEC. . Retrieved 2010-09-01.
[37] "(2010)" (http:/ / www. ine. gov. bo/ indice/ visualizador. aspx?ah=PC20410. HTM). INE. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[38] "INE" (http:/ / www. ine-hn. org/ ). Ine-hn.org. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
Spanish language 945

[39] According to the Morocco Census of 2004 ( hcp.ma (http:/ / www. hcp. ma/ ))
[40] "ethnologue.com" (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ show_country. asp?name=MA). ethnologue.com. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[41] According to a survey made in 2005 by CIDOB ( realinstitutoelcano.org (http:/ / www. realinstitutoelcano. org/ wps/ portal/ rielcano/
contenido?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/ elcano/ elcano_es/ zonas_es/ lengua+ y+ cultura/ ari116-2008), afapredesa.org (http:/ / www.
afapredesa. org/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=195& Itemid=2)). Another source says that there are between 4 and 7
million Spanish speakers in Morocco (Ammadi, 2002) educacion.es (http:/ / www. educacion. es/ exterior/ ma/ es/ File/ MI ARTICULO PDF
OK. pdf)
[42] Census 2010 estimation (http:/ / www. digestyc. gob. sv/ Portada/ Presentacion Poblacion. pdf) (page 32)
[43] 1% of 44,010,619 (population of France older than 15 years in 2005). Source: Eurobarometer 2006. There are 179,678 immigrants from
Spain according to INE (1/1/2009)
[44] 95,10% of the population speaks Spanish ( U.S. Census Bureau (http:/ / factfinder. census. gov/ servlet/ GRTTable?_bm=y&
-geo_id=01000US& -_box_head_nbr=R1602& -ds_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_& -_lang=en& -redoLog=true& -format=US-30&
-mt_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_R0504_US30& -CONTEXT=grt))
[45] 59,017 immigrants from Spain (Spanish census 2001) + 48,637 immigrants from Colombia. Open Channels and Colombian consul (1999)
(http:/ / www. bolpress. com/ art. php?Cod=2002068592)
[46] Ethnologue (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ show_country. asp?name=PH). There are 2,532 immigrants from Spain according to INE (http:/
/ www. ine. es/ jaxi/ menu. do?type=pcaxis& path=/ t20/ p85001& file=inebase& L=) (1/1/2009)
[47] 1,816,773 Spanish + 1,200,000 Spanish creole: Antonio Quilis "La lengua española en Filipinas", 1996 pag.234 cervantesvirtual.com (http:/
/ www. cervantesvirtual. com/ servlet/ SirveObras/ 01350553135573500088680/ 209438_0013. pdf), mepsyd.es (http:/ / www. mepsyd. es/
exterior/ au/ es/ File/ Ten_Reasons_low-res(1). pdf) (page 23), mepsyd.es (http:/ / www. mepsyd. es/ redele/ Biblioteca2006/ DavidSanchez/
Memoria. pdf) (page 249), spanish-differences.com (http:/ / spanish-differences. com/ Spanish/ Philippines-Spanish. php), aresprensa.com
(http:/ / www. aresprensa. com/ cms/ cms/ front_content. php?idart=208). The figure 2,900,000 Spanish speakers, we can find in "Pluricentric
languages: differing norms in different nations" (http:/ / books. google. es/ books?ei=vCXASpS0LqXkmwO0lZnlBg& ct=result&
q=Pluricentric+ languages:+ differing+ norms+ in+ different+ nations+ spanish+ philippines+ speakers& btnG=Buscar+ libros) (page 45 by
R.W.Thompson), or in sispain.org (http:/ / www. sispain. org/ spanish/ language/ worldwid. html)./ More than 2 million Spanish speakers and
around 3 million with Chavacano speakers according to "Instituto Cervantes de Manila" ( elcastellano.org (http:/ / www. elcastellano. org/
noticia. php?id=505))
[48] Britannica Book of the Year 1998 (http:/ / cvc. cervantes. es/ lengua/ anuario/ anuario_99/ otero/ p03. htm#7). There are 103,063 immigrants
from Spain according to INE (1/1/2009)
[49] "14,905 Spanish (Census 2001) + 75,000 from Ecuador" (http:/ / www. mmrree. gov. ec/ mre/ documentos/ novedades/ boletines/ ano2003/
julio/ bol257. htm). Mmrree.gov.ec. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[50] "Equatorial Guinea census (2009)" (http:/ / www. population-statistics. com/ wg. php?x=& men=gpro& lng=es& dat=32& srt=pnan&
col=dq& geo=-91). Population-statistics.com. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[51] Pages 28 and 23 in Demografía de la lengua española (http:/ / www. ucm. es/ info/ icei/ pdf/ DT 03-06. pdf). 13,7% of the population speaks
Spanish with native knowladge and other 74% as a second language cvc.cervantes.es (http:/ / cvc. cervantes. es/ lengua/ anuario/
anuario_06-07/ pdf/ paises_08. pdf).
[52] PMB Statistics factorhispano.net (http:/ / factorhispano. net/ portal/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=14& Itemid=33).
Although Canada Census told about 345,345 people who speaks Spanish in 2006, Hispanic organizations claim about 520,260 Hispanics in
2001, and more than 700,000 in 2006 ( hispanosencanada.ca (http:/ / hispanosencanada. ca/ portal/ content/ view/ 651/ ), dialogos.ca (http:/ /
dialogos. ca/ revista/ numero3/ articulo2. htm)), and currently there are near 1 million: ( tlntv.com (http:/ / www. tlntv. com/ pressReleases/
2007/ TLN EN ESPANOL is born. pdf), broadcastdialogue.com (http:/ / www. broadcastdialogue. com/ pdfs/ newsletters/ 2007/
nl20070308_14_38. pdf)).
[53] Spanish (census 2001)
[54] 1% of 8,598,982 (population of Belgium older than 15 years in 2005). Source: Eurobarometer 2006
[55] Sweden Census SCB (2002)
[56] Page 32 of the "Demogeafía de la lengua española" (http:/ / www. ucm. es/ info/ icei/ pdf/ DT 03-06. pdf). 104,000 according to Britannica
Book of the Year 2003
[57] Page 32 of the "Demografía de la lengua española" (http:/ / www. ucm. es/ info/ icei/ pdf/ DT 03-06. pdf) + 33,913 students according to
Anuario Instituto Cervantes 06-07 (http:/ / cvc. cervantes. es/ lengua/ anuario/ anuario_06-07/ pdf/ cifras. pdf)
[58] Page 32 of "Demogeafía de la lengua española"
[59] 50% of 733,000 foreigners in Brazil are from Mercosur (Page 32 (http:/ / www. ucm. es/ info/ icei/ pdf/ DT 03-06. pdfucm. es)) + 78,505
spanish immigrants ( INE (1/1/2009) (http:/ / www. ine. es/ prensa/ np549. pdf)).
[60] elcastellano.org (http:/ / www. elcastellano. org/ noticia. php?id=775), elespectador.com (http:/ / editor. elespectador. com/ brasil/
articulo43526-presidente-brasileno-espera-los-ninos-hablen-espanol), oei.org.co (http:/ / www. oei. org. co/ noticias/ noticia12042007_1.
htm): Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, president of Brazil: Near 9 million students are learning Spanish and the forecast is 12 million in 2010./
Instituto Cervantes (http:/ / www. cervantes. es/ docs/ Espanol_en_Brasil. pdf): More than 1 million of spanish students in the private school
and almost 11 million estimated for 2010 in the public school. 2009 Annuary of the Instituto Cervantes (http:/ / www. cervantes. es/ imagenes/
File/ prensa/ anuario2009. pdf): More than 5 million students are learning Spanish.
[61] students according to Anuario Instituto Cervantes 06-07 (http:/ / cvc. cervantes. es/ lengua/ anuario/ anuario_06-07/ pdf/ cifras. pdf)
Spanish language 946

[62] Between 150,000 and 200,000 in Tinduf ( aprendemas.com (http:/ / www. aprendemas. com/ Noticias/ html/ N1960_F17012007. HTML)) +
48,000 in Wilaya of Oran (page 31 of Demografía de la lengua española (http:/ / www. ucm. es/ info/ icei/ pdf/ DT 03-06. pdf))
[63] 50,000 sefardíes (Britannica Book of the Year 1998) (http:/ / cvc. cervantes. es/ obref/ anuario/ anuario_99/ otero/ p03. htm) + 80,000 from
Iberoamerica (http:/ / cvc. cervantes. es/ obref/ congresos/ sevilla/ comunicacion/ ponenc_shadas. htm)
[64] Pages 34, 35 of the "Demografía de la lengua española" (http:/ / www. ucm. es/ info/ icei/ pdf/ DT 03-06. pdf).
[65] Centro Virtual Cervantes. "Britannica Book of the Year 1998" (http:/ / cvc. cervantes. es/ lengua/ anuario/ anuario_99/ otero/ p03. htm#7).
Cvc.cervantes.es. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[66] "all-about-switzerland.info" (http:/ / www. all-about-switzerland. info/ swiss-population-languages. html). all-about-switzerland.info. .
Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[67] Immigrants from Spanish speaking countries (http:/ / n. girasol. googlepages. com/ dato_c. html)
[68] Page 32 of Demografía de la lengua española (http:/ / www. ucm. es/ info/ icei/ pdf/ DT 03-06. pdf)
[69] 35.4% speak Spanish as a first language www.iea.ad (http:/ / www. iea. ad/ cres/ observatori/ temes/ llengua3trimestre2005. htm)
[70] "www.iea.ad" (http:/ / www. iea. ad/ cres/ observatori/ temes/ llengua3trimestre2005. htm). www.iea.ad. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[71] http:/ / www. cervantes. es/ imagenes/ File/ prensa/ anuario2009. pdf
[72] New Zealand census (2006)
[73] Spanish residents in China ( INE, 2009 (http:/ / www. ine. es/ jaxi/ menu. do?type=pcaxis& path=/ t20/ p85001& file=inebase& L=))
[74] Page 37 of the Demografía de la lengua española (http:/ / www. ucm. es/ info/ icei/ pdf/ DT 03-06. pdf)
[75] The Spanish 1970 census claims 16.648 Spanish speakers in Western Sahara ( (http:/ / cvc. cervantes. es/ lengua/ anuario/ anuario_99/ otero/
p03. htm#7)) but probably most of them were people born in Spain who left after the Moroccan annexation
[76] There are 2,397,380 immigrants from Spain and Latin America according to the page 37 of the "Demografía de la lengua española" (http:/ /
www. ucm. es/ info/ icei/ pdf/ DT 03-06. pdf) (997,849 already counted)
[77] According to the Instituto Cervantes, there are 14 million of Spanish students. But there are already counted students from U.S. (6,000,000)
because it is considered the current 7,820,000 students, E.U (3,385,000) because they are considered in the eurobarometer figures ( demografía
del español (page 37) (http:/ / www. ucm. es/ info/ icei/ pdf/ DT 03-06. pdf), Brazil (1 mill.) with 11 million new students in the public
schools, Morocco (58.382) and Philippines (20,492), Canada (92,853), Australia (33,913), Ivory Coast (235,806), Switzerland (14,420), Japan
(60,000), Senegal (101.455), Occ. Sáhara (25,800), Norway (23,677), Russia (13,122) and China (12,835).
[78] I (http:/ / www. fundacionblu. org/ actaslengua/ acta_conclusiones_lengua_espanola. asp?id=1) and IV (http:/ / www. fundacionblu. org/
actaslengua/ acta_lengua_espanola. asp?id=7) International minutes of the Spanish language, and Instituto Cervantes: cervantes.es (http:/ /
www. cervantes. es/ sobre_instituto_cervantes/ prensa/ 2009/ noticias/ caffarel_casa_america. htm), lavanguardia.es (http:/ / www.
lavanguardia. es/ cultura/ noticias/ 20100619/ 53949214032/
el-espanol-ya-es-el-segundo-idioma-mas-hablado-del-mundo-instituto-cervantes-eeuu-carmen-caffarel-am. html) (450 million people speak
Spanish).
[79] In adition to more than 450 million Spanish speakers, there are people who speak Spanish with limited knowladges. Main figures:
15,615,000 in the E.U. according to the Eurobarometer, 2006 ( (page 37) (http:/ / eprints. ucm. es/ 8936/ 1/ DT03-06. pdf)). 7,820,000 of
students in USA and 6,405,000 among the Hispanic people in USA (, and according to Synovate, 2006 (http:/ / www. hispanicmarketadvisors.
com/ english-to-spanish-translation. html), 18% of the Hispanic people in USA speak better English than Spanish and the other 82% speak
better Spanish than English or they are bilinguals). It is estimated 12 million of Spanish students in Brazil in 2010 ( (http:/ / www.
elcastellano. org/ noticia. php?id=775)). Between 4 and 7 million people with Spanish knowladges in Morocco ( Ammadi, 2002 (http:/ / www.
educacion. es/ exterior/ ma/ es/ File/ MI ARTICULO PDF OK. pdf)).
[80] "Instituto Cervantes 06-07" (http:/ / cvc. cervantes. es/ lengua/ anuario/ anuario_06-07/ pdf/ cifras. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[81] "Most widely spoken Languages in the World" (http:/ / www. nationsonline. org/ oneworld/ most_spoken_languages. htm). Nations Online.
. Retrieved 2009-08-27.
[82] CIA The World Factbook United States (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ us. html)
[83] "Internet World Users by Language" (http:/ / www. internetworldstats. com/ stats7. htm). Miniwatts Marketing Group. 2008. .
[84] CIA World Factbook — Gibraltar (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ gi. html)
[85] "Andorra — People" (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ encyclopedia_761554662/ Andorra. html#s3). Andorra — People. MSN Encarta. .
Retrieved 2007-08-20.
[86] "Background Note: Andorra" (http:/ / www. state. gov/ r/ pa/ ei/ bgn/ 3164. htm). U.S. Department of State: Bureau of European and
Eurasian Affairs. January 2007. . Retrieved 2007-08-20.
[87] BBC Education — Languages (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ languages/ european_languages/ languages/ spanish. shtml), Languages Across
Europe — Spanish.
[88] "Switzerland's Four National Languages" (http:/ / www. all-about-switzerland. info/ swiss-population-languages. html).
all-about-switzerland.info. . Retrieved 2007-09-19.
[89] http:/ / buscon. rae. es/ draeI/ Diccionario de la lengua española
[90] Diccionario Panhispánico de Dudas, 2005, pg. 271-272.
[91] Ethnologue – Paraguay(2000) (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ show_country. asp?name=PY). Guaraní is also the most-spoken language in
Paraguay by its native speakers.
[92] "Puerto Rico Elevates English" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9F0CE1D8163AF93AA15752C0A965958260&
n=Top/ Reference/ Times Topics/ Subjects/ E/ English Language). the New York Times. 29 January 1993. . Retrieved 2007-10-06.
Spanish language 947

[93] "Population Census 2000, Major Findings" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070621080522/ http:/ / www. cso. gov. bz/ publications/
MF2000. pdf) (PDF). Central Statistical Office, Ministry of Budget Management, Belize. 2000. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. cso.
gov. bz/ publications/ MF2000. pdf) on 2007-06-21. . Retrieved 2007-12-20.
[94] "Belize Population and Housing Census 2000" (http:/ / censos. ccp. ucr. ac. cr/ ). Censos.ccp.ucr.ac.cr. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[95] CIA World Factbook — Belize (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ bh. html)
[96] Williams, Carol J. (2005-08-30). "Trinidad Says It Needs Spanish to Talk Business" (http:/ / articles. latimes. com/ 2005/ aug/ 30/ world/
fg-spanish30). Los Angeles Times. p. A3. . Retrieved 2009-09-10.
[97] "The Secretariat for The Implementation of Spanish, Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago" (http:/ / www. tradeind. gov. tt/
SIS/ FAQ. htm). Tradeind.gov.tt. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[98] Mercosul, Portal Oficial (http:/ / www. mercosur. int/ msweb/ portal intermediario/ pt/ index. htm) (Portuguese)
[99] Spanish becomes second language in Brazil, Mercopress (http:/ / en. mercopress. com/ 2005/ 07/ 08/
spanish-becomes-second-language-in-brazil)
[100] Lipski, John M. (2006) (PDF). Too close for comfort? the genesis of “portuñol/portunhol” (http:/ / www. lingref. com/ cpp/ hls/ 8/
paper1251. pdf). Selected Proceedings of the 8th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium. ed. Timothy L. Face and Carol A. Klee, 1–22. Somerville,
MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project. . Retrieved 2008-12-29.
[101] U.S. Census Bureau (http:/ / factfinder. census. gov/ servlet/ ACSSAFFPeople?_event=& geo_id=01000US& _geoContext=01000US&
_street=& _county=& _cityTown=& _state=& _zip=& _lang=en& _sse=on& ActiveGeoDiv=& _useEV=& pctxt=fph& pgsl=010&
_submenuId=people_10& ds_name=null& _ci_nbr=null& qr_name=null& reg=null:null& _keyword=& _industry=) Hispanic or Latino by
specific origin.
[102] U.S. Census Bureau 1. (http:/ / factfinder. census. gov/ servlet/ GRTTable?_bm=y& -_box_head_nbr=R1602&
-ds_name=ACS_2006_EST_G00_& -format=US-30) Percent of People 5 Years and Over Who Speak Spanish at Home: 2006, U.S. Census
Bureau 2. (http:/ / factfinder. census. gov/ servlet/ STTable?_bm=y& -geo_id=01000US& -qr_name=ACS_2006_EST_G00_S1601&
-ds_name=ACS_2006_EST_G00_& -_lang=en& -redoLog=false) 34,044,945 People 5 Years and Over Who Speak Spanish at Home: 2006
[103] U.S. Census Bureau (2007). "United States. S1601. Language Spoken at Home" (http:/ / factfinder. census. gov/ servlet/ STTable?_bm=y&
-geo_id=01000US& -qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S1601& -ds_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_). 2005-2007 American Community Survey
3-Year Estimates. . Retrieved September 3, 2009.
[104] El País (http:/ / www. elpais. com/ articulo/ cultura/ speak/ spanish/ Espana/ elpepucul/ 20081006elpepicul_1/ Tes) (Spanish)
[105] United States Census Bureau (http:/ / www. census. gov/ prod/ 2005pubs/ 06statab/ pop. pdf)PDF (1.86 MB), Statistical Abstract of the
United States: page 47: Table 47: Languages Spoken at Home by Language: 2003
[106] "Ethnologue – Equatorial Guinea (2000)" (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ show_country. asp?name=Equatorial+ Guinea).
Ethnologue.com. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[107] CIA World Factbook – Equatorial Guinea (Last updated 20 September 2007) (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/
the-world-factbook/ geos/ ek. html)
[108] Morocco.com (http:/ / www. morocco. com/ culture/ language/ ), The Languages of Morocco.
[109] http:/ / buscoenlaces. es/ kaibigankastila/ rivera4. html
[110] "1973 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines" (http:/ / www. thecorpusjuris. com/ laws/ constitutions/ 8-philippineconstitutions/
68-1973-constitution. html). thecorpusjuris.com. . Retrieved 2008-04-06 (See Article XV, Section 3(3))
[111] Harris (1969:538)
[112] Random House Unabridged Dictionary. Random House Inc.. 2006.
[113] The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2006.
[114] Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary. MICRA, Inc.. 1998.
[115] "Encarta World English Dictionary" (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ dictionary_1861595345/ Castilian. html). Encarta World English
Dictionary. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.. 2007. . Retrieved 2008-08-05.
[116] Eleanor Greet Cotton, John M. Sharp (1988) Spanish in the Americas, Volumen 2, pp.154-155, URL (http:/ / books. google. com. mx/
books?id=89KX2RC6Gx0C& pg=PA154& dq=Mexican+ vowels& client=firefox-a#v=onepage& q=Mexican vowels& f=false)
[117] Lope Blanch, Juan M. (1972) En torno a las vocales caedizas del español mexicano, pp.53 a 73, Estudios sobre el español de México,
editorial Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México URL (http:/ / www. filos. unam. mx/ LICENCIATURA/ Pagina_FyF_2004/
introduccion/ Lope_Vocales_caedizas. pdf).
[118] "Real Academia Española" (http:/ / buscon. rae. es/ dpdI/ ) (in (Spanish)). Buscon.rae.es. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[119] "3 Guys From Miami: Fruta Bomba" (http:/ / cuban-food-usa. com/ terms/ fruta-bomba. html). Cuban-food-usa.com. . Retrieved
2010-04-21.
[120] "papaya" (http:/ / www. urbandictionary. com/ define. php?term=papaya& defid=151242). Urban Dictionary. . Retrieved 2010-04-21.
[121] "Spanish" (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ show_language. asp?code=spa). ethnologue. .
[122] Alfassa, Shelomo (December 1999). "Ladinokomunita" (http:/ / www. sephardicstudies. org/ quickladino. html). Foundation for the
Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture. . Retrieved 4 February 2010.
[123] Diccionario Panhispánico de Dudas (http:/ / buscon. rae. es/ dpdI/ SrvltConsulta?lema=ch), 1st ed.
[124] Real Academia Española (http:/ / www. rae. es/ ), Explanation (http:/ / www. spanishpronto. com/ spanishpronto/ spanishalphabet. html) at
Spanish Pronto (http:/ / www. spanishpronto. com/ ) (Spanish), (English)
Spanish language 948

[125] "Abecedario" (http:/ / buscon. rae. es/ dpdI/ SrvltConsulta?lema=abecedario) (in (Spanish)). Diccionario panhispánico de dudas. Real
Academia Española. 2005. . Retrieved 2008-06-23.
[126] Ch (http:/ / buscon. rae. es/ draeI/ SrvltConsulta?TIPO_BUS=3& LEMA=ch), en Diccionario de la lengua española de la Real Academia
Española
[127] Ll (http:/ / buscon. rae. es/ draeI/ SrvltConsulta?TIPO_BUS=3& LEMA=ll), en Diccionario de la lengua española de la Real Academia
Española
[128] Martínez-Celdrán et al. (2003:255)
[129] Cressey (1978:152)
[130] Abercrombie (1967:98)
[131] Eddington (2000:96)
[132] A First Spanish Reader, by Erwin W. Roessler and Alfred Remy
[133] http:/ / linguistics. byu. edu/ faculty/ eddingtond/ STRESS. pdf
[134] http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 411438
[135] http:/ / buscon. rae. es/ draeI/
[136] http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ languages/ spanish/
[137] http:/ / mertsahinoglu. com/ research/ spanish-for-speakers-of-latin/
[138] http:/ / www. languagebyvideo. com

The Seafarer (poem)

The Seafarer is an Old English poem recorded in the Exeter Book, one of the four surviving manuscripts of Old
English poetry. It is 124 lines and has been commonly referred to as an elegy, a poem that mourns a loss or more
generally a sorrowful piece of writing. Some scholars, however, have argued that the content of the poem also places
it into the category of Sapiential, or Wisdom, Literature. This kind of literature mainly consists of proverbs and
maxims and is named in references to Old Testament books. The Seafarer has “significant sapiential material
concerning the definition of wise men, the ages of the world, and the necessity for patience in adversity” (Hill 806).
It is told from the point of view of an old seafarer, who is reminiscing and evaluating his life as he has lived it. In
lines 1-33a, the seafarer describes the desolate hardships of life on the wintry sea. He describes the anxious feelings,
cold wetness, and solitude of the sea voyage in contrast to life on land where men are surrounded by kinsmen, free
from dangers, and full on food and wine. The climate on land then begins to resemble that of the wintry sea, and in
lines 33b-66a, the speaker shifts his tone from the dreariness of the winter voyage and begins to describe his
yearning for the sea. Time passes through the seasons from winter—“it snowed from the north” (31b)—to
spring—“groves assume blossoms” (48a)—and to summer—“the cuckoo urges” (53a). It is here that the speaker’s
soul flies out over the sea in search of heaven and comes back eager and ready to depart.
Though this poem begins as a narrative of a man’s life at sea, it becomes a praise of God. At line 66b, the speaker
again shifts, this time not in tone, but in subject matter. The sea is no longer mentioned; instead the speaker preaches
about the path to heaven. He asserts that “earthly happiness will not endure (line 67), that men must oppose “the devil
with brave deeds” (line 76), and that earthly wealth cannot travel to the afterlife nor will it determine the wealth of
the soul (lines 97-102). Next the speaker provides the reader with maxims and proverbs and then calls to men to
consider where they want to spend the afterlife and “then reflect upon how we could come there” (line 118). Heaven
is a goal for man to reach by living a good, honourable life. This is a reward to man for believing and having faith, as
well as a reward for God who “has honoured us for all time” (124). The poem is ended with thanks to the Lord.

Translations
The Seafarer has been translated numerous times by many scholars such as Dr. Sean Miller, who offers a clear copy
[1]
of the original text as well as his own translation. American expatriate poet, Ezra Pound also offered his own
interpretation of The Seafarer. Pound’s translation varies much from the original in theme and content. It all but
eliminates the religious element of the poem, and ends at line 99. However, it mimics the style of the original
through the extensive use of alliteration, which is a common device in Anglo-Saxon poetry. This was first published
The Seafarer (poem) 949

in New Age on November 30th, 1911, and subsequently in Pound's "Ripostes" in 1912, and it translates only the first
99 lines [2] (Conway).
It has been asserted that this poem demonstrates the fundamental Anglo-Saxon belief that life is shaped by fate.
Another understanding was proposed by the Cambridge Old English Reader in 2004, namely that the poem is
essentially concerned to state: "Let us (good Christians, that is) remind ourselves where our true home lies and
concentrate on getting there"

Scholarship & Criticism

The Seafarer is a poem that has attracted the attention of scholars and critics resulting in a fair amount of critical
assessments. A majority of these assessments have debated the continuity and unity of the poem. Early critics like
Rieger in 1896 argued that the first half of the poem has two speakers, an old man reflecting on the hardships and
sorrows of the sea and a young man eager to set forth on a voyage. Additionally, some scholars have argued that the
second half of the poem—the homiletic portion—is not an original part of the poem but a later addition. Based on
this argument, in 1902 W.W. Lawrence concluded that the poem was a “wholly secular poem revealing the mixed
emotions of an adventurous seaman who could not but yield to the irresistible fascination for the sea in spite of his
knowledge of its perils and hardships” (Pope, 222).
In later assessments, however, scholars have shifted their viewpoints and have formulated arguments that point to a
well-unified monologue. In the arguments for the unity of The Seafarer, scholars have debated the interpretation and
translations of words, whether the poem is allegorical, and the meaning of the supposed allegory. John C. Pope and
Stanley Greenfield have specifically debated the meaning of the word sylf in the poem and whether the seafarer’s
earlier voyages were voluntary or involuntary. In contrast to Dorothy Whitelock’s claim that the poem is literal
description of the voyages with no figurative meaning, both scholars believe the poem is an allegory. Many scholars
including Whitelock and Pope have concluded that the poem is about a penitential exile, though Pope believes the
poem shows this through allegorical layers and Whitelock through literal description. Greenfield, however, believes
that the Seafarer’s first voyages are not the voluntary actions of a penitent but rather imposed by confessor on the
sinful seaman.
Though many scholars have commented on the literal and allegorical levels of the poem, some scholars view The
Seafarer as more allegorical than literal. In 1971, Daniel G. Calder presented an argument in which The Seafarer is
an allegorical poem for the representation of the mind and the elements of the voyages are objective symbols of one
in an “exile” state of mind. Contrasted to the setting of the sea is the setting of the land, a state of mind that contains
former joys. When the sea and land are joined through the wintry symbols, Calder argues the speaker’s psychological
mind set changes. He explains that is when “something informs him that all life on earth is like death. The land the
seafarer seeks on this new and outward ocean voyage is one that will not be subject to the mutability of the land and
sea as he has known” (268).
In 1982, John F. Vickrey continued Calder’s analysis of The Seafarer as a psychological allegory. Vickrey argued
that the poem is an allegory for the life of a sinner through the metaphor of “the boat of the mind,” a metaphor used
“to described, through the imagery of a ship at sea, a person’s state of mind” (251). His arguments disagree with
those of Pope and Whitelock that identify the seafarer as a penitential exile. He argues that if he were a religious
exile, then the speaker would have related the “joys of the spirit” (254) and not his miseries to the reader.
The Seafarer (poem) 950

See also
• The Wanderer
• Deor
• The Ruin

References
[1] (http:/ / www. anglo-saxons. net/ hwaet/ ?do=get& type=text& id=Sfr& textOnly=true)
[2] (http:/ / rpo. library. utoronto. ca/ poem/ 1664. html)

• Brown, Phyllis R. "The Seafarer.” Medieval England: An Encyclopedia. 1998.

• The Exeter Book Part Two. Original Series. London: Oxford University Press, 1933.
• Conway, David. "Ezra Pound." Wikipedia. 2006. 20 Nov 2007 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezra_Pound>.
• Lancashire, Ian. "Ezra Loomis Pound: The Seafarer." Representative Poetry Online. 2005. University of Toronto
Libraries. 20 Nov 2007 <http://rpo.library.utoronto.ca/poem/1664.html>.
• Miller, Sean. "The Seafarer." Anglo Saxons. 1997. 20 Nov 2007
<http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=get&type=text&id=Sfr>.
• Sobecki, Sebastian. "The Interpretation of The Seafarer: A Re-examination of the Pilgrimage Theory."
<http://www.springerlink.com/content/rl966727157x42q0/?p=2b5e4c89ccfd4cc98d8db832be23d7c5&pi=8>
• The Seafarer: an Italian translation http://ilmiolibro.it/libro.asp?id=18484
• Calder, Daniel G. “Setting and Mode in The Seafarer and The Wanderer.” Neuphilologishe Mitteilugen 72 (1971):
264- 275.
• Cameron, Angus. “Anglo-Saxon Literature.” Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Ed. Joseph R. Strayer. Vol. 1 New
York: Scribner, 1982. 274-288.
• Greenfield, Stanley B. “Attitudes and Values in The Seafarer.” Studies in Philology 51 (1954): 15-20.
• Greenfield, Stanley B. “Sylf, Seasons, Structure and Genre in The Seafarer.” Old English Shorter Poems: Basic
Readings. Ed. Katherine O’Brien O’Keeffe. New York: Garland, 1994. 251-279.
• Hill, Thomas D. “Wisdom (Sapiential) Literature.” Medieval England: An Encyclopedia. Ed. Paul E. Szarmach,
M. Teresea Tavormina, Joel T. Roesnthal. New York: Garland, 1998. 805-807.
• Kennedy, Charles W., trans. Early English Poetry. New York: Oxford UP, 1961.
• Klinck, Anne L. “Seafarer.” The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England. Ed. Michael Lapidge. Oxford:
Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 1991. 413.
• Orton, P. “The Form and Structure of The Seafarer.” Sudia Neophiologica 63 (1991): 37-55.
• Pope, John C. “Second Thoughts on the Interpretation of The Seafarer.” Old English Shorter Poems: Basic
Readings. Ed. Katherine O’Brien O’Keeffe. New York: Garland, 1994. 213-229.
• Rumble, Alexander R. “Exeter Book.” Medieval England: An Encyclopedia. Ed. Paul E. Szarmach, M. Teresea
Tavormina, Joel T. Roesnthal. New York: Garland, 1998. 285-286.
• “The Seafarer.” Anglo-Saxon Poetry. Trans. & Ed. S.A.J. Bradley. London: Everyman, 1982. 329-335
• “The Seafarer.” Old and Middle English c. 890-c. 1400: An Anthology. Ed. Elaine Treharne. Malden: Blackwell,
2004. 48-53.
• Vickery, John F. “Some Hypothese Concerning The Seafarer.” Old English Shorter Poems: Basic Readings. Ed.
Katherine O’Brien O’Keeffe. New York: Garland, 1994. 251-279.
• Whitelock Dorothy. “The Interpretation of The Seafarer.” Essential Articles: Old English Poetry. Ed. Jess. B.
Bessinger, Jr. and Stanley J. Kahrl. Hamden: Shoe String Press, Inc., 1968.442-457.
• Marsden, Richard. "The Cambridge Old English Reader", Cambridge University Press, UK, 2004
The Seafarer (poem) 951

External links
• The Seafarer (http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=get&type=text&id=Sfr) Online text of poem
(bilingual)
• (http://faculty.uca.edu/~jona/texts/seafarer.htm) Online translation of poem by Jonathan Glenn, University of
Central Arkansas
• (http://famouspoetsandpoems.com/poets/ezra_pound/poems/18800) Online translation of poem by Ezra
Pound
• (http://www8.georgetown.edu/departments/medieval/labyrinth/library/oe/texts/a3.9.html) Poem in Old
English

The Battle of Maldon

The Battle of Maldon is the name given to an Old English poem of uncertain date celebrating the real Battle of
Maldon of 991, at which the English failed to prevent a Viking invasion. Only 325 lines of the poem are extant; both
the beginning and the ending are lost.

The poem
The poem is told entirely from the perspective of the English, with many individual and, Mitchell and Robinson[1]
believe, real Englishmen named.
Mitchell and Robinson conjecture that the lost opening of the poem must have related how Byrhtnoth, the English
leader, hearing of the Viking invasion, raises his troops and leads them to the shore.[1]
The poem as we have it begins with the English preparing for battle. A Viking messenger offers the English
ealdorman Byrhtnoth peace if he will consent to pay tribute. Byrhtnoth angrily refuses, telling the messenger that he
will fight the heathen Vikings in defence of what he regards as his land, and the land of his king, Æthelred. However,
due to his "ofermōde"*, Byrhtnoth allows the Vikings entry to the mainland, giving them room in which to do battle,
rather than keeping them penned in on the more easily-defended causeway that links the mainland to the small island
where the Vikings have landed.
Individual episodes from the ensuing carnage are described, and the fates of several English warriors depicted –
notably that of Byrthtnoth himself, who dies urging his soldiers forward and commending his soul to God. Not all
the English are portrayed as heroic however: one, Godric the son of Odda (there are two Godrics in the poem), flees
the battle with his brothers and, most improperly, does so on Byrthtnoth's horse. Several lines later the English lord
Offa claims that the sight of Byrthtnoth's horse (easily recognisable from its trappings) fleeing, and so Byrthtnoth, as
it would appear from a distance, has bred panic in the ranks and left the English army in danger of defeat. There
follow several passages in which English lords urge on their soldiers and voice their defiance of their enemy, and
descriptions of how they are then killed by the un-personified "sea-wanderers". The poem as it has come down to us
ends with another Godric disappearing from view. This time it is Godric the son of Æthelgar, advancing into a body
of Vikings and being killed.
• "ofermōde," occurring in line 89, has caused much discussion. Literally "high spirits" or "overconfidence",
"ofermōde" is usually translated as "pride", and occurs in Anglo-Saxon Genesis poems when referring to Lucifer.
Both Glenn and Alexander translate it as "arrogance"[2] and Bradley as "extravagant spirit".[3]
The Battle of Maldon 952

History of the text

In 1731, the only known manuscript of the poem (which, as with the modern version, was missing its beginning and
ending[3] ) was destroyed in the fire at Ashburnham House that also damaged and destroyed several other works in
the Cotton library. The poem has come down to us thanks to the transcription of it made c.1724, which was
published by Thomas Hearne in 1726. After being lost, the original transcription was found in the Bodleian Library
in the 1930s.[4] [5] Who made this original transcription is still unclear, some favouring John Elphinstone,[2] [3] [4] [5]
others David Casley.[1] [6]

Scholarship
George K. Anderson dated The Battle of Maldon to the 10th century and felt that it was unlikely that much was
missing.[7] R.K. Gordon is not so specific, writing that this "last great poem before the Norman Conquest ... was
apparently written very soon after the battle",[8] while Michael J. Alexander speculates that the poet may even have
fought at Maldon.[2]
S.A.J. Bradley reads the poem as a celebration of pure heroism – nothing was gained by the battle, rather the reverse:
not only did Byrthtnoth, "so distinguished a servant of the Crown and protector and benefactor of the Church," die
alongside many of his men in the defeat, but the Danegeld was paid shortly after – and sees in it an assertion of
national spirit and unity, and in the contrasting acts of the two Godrics the heart of the Anglo-Saxon heroic ethos.[3]
Mitchell and Robinson are more succinct: "The poem is about how men bear up when things go wrong".[1] Several
critics have commented on the poem's preservation of a centuries-old Germanic ideal of heroism:
Maldon is remarkable (apart from the fact that it is a masterpiece) in that it shows that the strongest motive in a
Germanic society, still, nine hundred years after Tacitus, was an absolute and overriding loyalty to one's lord.
—Michael J. Alexander, The Earliest English Poems

In popular culture
The Anglo-Saxon scholar and writer J. R. R. Tolkien was inspired by the poem to write The Homecoming of
Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm's Son, an alliterative dialogue between two characters at the end of the battle. In publishing
the work, Tolkien included alongside it an essay on the original poem and another on the word "ofermōde".

See also
• Anglo-Saxon Chronicle – records the battle and the paying of the Danegeld.
• Liber Eliensis – or the Book of Ely; features another retelling of the battle.
• Sermo Lupi ad Anglos – or The Sermon of the Wolf to the English; in which this and other Viking raids are seen
as punishment for England's lax morals.
• Byrhtferth – whose Life of Oswald also features the battle and the death of Byrthtnoth.
The Battle of Maldon 953

Further reading
• The Return of the Vikings: The Battle of Maldon 991 by Donald Scragg, Tempus Publishing, 2006, ISBN
9780752428338

External links
• Hypertext version of the poem with translations and commentary [9]
• The poem in original Anglo-Saxon [10]
• The poem in original Anglo-Saxon [11]
• Read aloud in Anglo-Saxon [12]
• The poem translated into modern English by Jonathan A. Glenn [13]
• Translated by James M. Garnett [14] at Project Gutenberg
• The poem translated into modern English by Wilfrid Berridge [15]
• Bartleby [16] Essay from The Cambridge History of English and American Literature
• Review of an edition and translation of the text [17]
• Article on Tolkien and The Battle of Maldon [18]

References
[1] A Guide to Old English, 5th ed. by Bruce Mitchell and Fred C. Robinson, Blackwell, 1999 reprint ISBN 9780631166573
[2] The Earliest English Poems translated by Michael J. Alexander, Penguin Books, 1966
[3] Anglo-Saxon Poetry translated and edited by S. A. J. Bradley, Everyman's Library, 2000 reprint ISBN 9780460875073
[4] The poem translated into modern English by Jonathan A. Glenn (http:/ / faculty. uca. edu/ jona/ texts/ maldon. htm) Retrieved on 27 October
2009
[5] Commentary (http:/ / dot-domesday. me. uk/ maldon. htm) Retrieved on 27 October 2009
[6] The Battle of Maldon: Fiction and Fact, edited by Janet Cooper, Hambledon , 1993 ISBN 9781852850654
[7] Old and Middle English Literature From the Beginnings to 1485 by George K. Anderson, OUP, 1950, pp.29-30
[8] Anglo-Saxon Poetry selected and translated by R.K. Gordon, J.M. Dent & Sons, London, pp. vii, 361
[9] http:/ / www. english. ox. ac. uk/ oecoursepack/ maldon/ index. html
[10] http:/ / faculty. virginia. edu/ OldEnglish/ anthology/ maldon. html
[11] http:/ / www8. georgetown. edu/ departments/ medieval/ labyrinth/ library/ oe/ texts/ a9. html
[12] http:/ / fred. wheatonma. edu/ wordpressmu/ mdrout/ category/ battle-of-maldon/
[13] http:/ / faculty. uca. edu/ jona/ texts/ maldon. htm
[14] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 15879
[15] http:/ / www. battleofmaldon. org. uk/ poem_0. htm
[16] http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 211/ 0713. html
[17] http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_hb6408/ is_n2_v62/ ai_n28632113/
[18] http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m0OON/ is_4_23/ ai_99848430/
Order of the Garter 954

Order of the Garter

Order of the Garter

Badge of the Order of the Garter (Lesser George) from about

1640
[1]
(Victoria and Albert Museum, London)
Awarded by the Queen of the United Kingdom

Type
Motto HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y
PENSE

Awarded for At the monarch's pleasure

Status Currently constituted

Sovereign HM The Queen

Chancellor Lord Carrington

Grades (w/ post-nominals) Knight/Lady

Royal Knight/Lady
Stranger Knight/Lady
Established 1348 (see History)

Precedence

Next (higher) [2]
Eldest sons of Barons

Next (lower) Order of the Thistle

Ribbon of the Order of the Garter

Order of the Garter 955

The Most Noble Order of the Garter is an order of

chivalry, or knighthood, originating in medieval
England. The Order is dedicated to the image and arms
of St. George as England's patron saint, and is presently
bestowed on recipients from British and other realms; it
is the pinnacle of the honours system in the United
Kingdom. Membership in the order is limited to the
sovereign, the Prince of Wales, and no more than
twenty-four members, or Companions; the order also
comprises Supernumerary knights and ladies (e.g.,
members of the British Royal Family and foreign
monarchs). Bestowing the honour has been described
as one of the Monarch's few remaining truly personal,
executive prerogatives.[3]

The order's emblem, depicted on insignia, is a garter

with the motto Honi soit qui mal y pense (Old French:
Coat of Arms of Henry III of France as King of France and lifelong
"shame upon him who thinks evil upon it", or "evil to
King of Poland with chain of Order of the Garter
him who evil thinks") in gold lettering. Members of the
order wear such a garter on ceremonial occasions.
Most British honours encompass the whole United
Kingdom, but the topmost three each pertain to one
constituent nation. The Order of the Garter, pertaining
to England and Wales, is senior in age and precedence;
The Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle
pertains to Scotland; and the now-dormant The Most
Illustrious Order of St Patrick pertains to Ireland. New
appointments to the Order of the Garter are always
announced on St George's Day, 23 April, Saint George
being the patron saint of England.[4]

History
Representation of the garter on a Knight's mantle
King Edward III founded the Order of the Garter as "a
society, fellowship and college of knights."[5] The foundation year is usually presumed to be 1348, however, the
Complete Peerage, under "The Founders of the Order of the Garter", states the order was first instituted on 23 April
1344, listing each founding member as knighted in 1344, including Sir Sanchet d’Abrichcourt who died on 20
October 1345.[6] Other dates from 1344 to 1351 have also been proposed. The King's wardrobe account shows
Garter habits first issued in the autumn of 1348; its original statutes required that each member already be a knight
(what would now be referred to as a knight bachelor) and some of the initial members were only knighted that
year.[7]

Various legends account for the origin of the Order. The most popular legend involves the "Countess of Salisbury"
(probably either his future daughter-in-law Joan of Kent or her former mother-in-law, Catherine Montacute,
Countess of Salisbury). While she was dancing with or near King Edward at Eltham Palace, her garter is said to have
slipped from her leg. When the surrounding courtiers sniggered, the king picked it up and tied it to his leg,
exclaiming, "Honi soit qui mal y pense," ("Shamed be the person who thinks evil of it."), the phrase that has become
the motto of the Order.[8] According to another legend, King Richard I was inspired in the 12th century by St George
Order of the Garter 956

the Martyr while fighting in the Crusades to tie garters around the legs of his knights, who subsequently won the
battle. King Edward supposedly recalled the event in the 14th century when he founded the Order.[7] Another
explanation is that the motto refers to Edward's claim to the French throne, and the Order of the Garter was created
to help pursue this claim. The use of the garter as an emblem may have derived from straps used to fasten armour.[5]
Medieval scholars have pointed to a connection between the Order of the Garter and the Middle English poem, "Sir
Gawain and the Green Knight". In "Gawain", a girdle, very similar in its sexual undertones to the garter, plays a
prominent role. A rough version of the Order's motto also appears in the text. It translates from Old French as
"Accursed be a cowardly and covetous heart."[9]
While the author of the poem remains disputed, there seems to be a connection between two of the top candidates
and the Order of the Garter. Scholar J.P. Oakden has suggested that it is someone related to John of Gaunt, 1st Duke
of Lancaster, and, more importantly, a member of the Order. Another competing theory is that the work was written
for Enguerrand de Coucy, seventh Sire de Coucy. Sire de Coucy was married to King Edward III's daughter,
Isabella, and was given admittance to the Order of the Garter on their wedding day."[10]
Soon after the founding of the Order, women were appointed "Ladies of the Garter," but were not made companions.
King Henry VII discontinued the practice in 1488; his mother, Margaret Beaufort, was the last Lady of the Garter
before Queen Alexandra. Except for female sovereigns, the next Lady of the Garter named was Queen Alexandra, by
her husband King Edward VII. King George V also made his consort, Queen Mary, a Lady of the Garter and King
George VI subsequently did the same for his wife, Queen Elizabeth. Throughout the 20th century, women continued
to be associated with the Order, but except for foreign female monarchs, they were not made companions.[11] In
1987, however, it became possible to install "Ladies Companion of the Garter" under a statute of Queen Elizabeth
II.[12]

The Order

Members
Membership in the Order is strictly limited and includes the monarch,
the Prince of Wales, not more than 24 companion members, and
various supernumerary members. The monarch alone can grant
membership.[13] He or she is known as the Sovereign of the Garter,
and the Prince of Wales is known as a Knight Companion of the
Garter.[14]

Male members of the Order are titled "Knights Companion," and

female members are called "Ladies Companion." Formerly, the
Sovereign filled vacancies upon the nomination of the members. Each
member would nominate nine candidates, of whom three had to have
the rank of Earl or higher, three the rank of Baron or higher, and three
the rank of Knight or higher. The Sovereign would choose as many
nominees as were necessary to fill any vacancies in the Order. He or
she was not obliged to choose those who received the most
nominations. Candidates were last nominated in 1860, and
Knights Companion in the procession to St
appointments have since been made by the Sovereign acting alone,
George's Chapel for the Garter Service
with no prior nominations. The statutes prescribing the former
procedure were not amended, however, until 1953.[15]

From the 18th century, the Sovereign made his or her choices on the advice of Government. However, King George
VI believed that the Order of the Garter and the Order of the Thistle had become too linked with political patronage.
Order of the Garter 957

In 1946, with the agreement of the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition, membership in these two orders
became a personal gift of the Sovereign. Thus, the Sovereign personally selects Knights and Ladies Companion of
the Garter, and need not act on the advice of Government.[16]
In addition, the Order includes supernumerary members, who do not count towards the limit of 24 companions.
Several supernumerary members, known as "Royal Knights and Ladies of the Garter", belong to the royal family.
These titles were introduced in 1786 by King George III so that his many sons would not count towards the limit on
the number of companions. He created the statute of supernumerary members in 1805 so that any descendant of King
George II could be installed as such a member. In 1831, this statute was extended again to include all descendants of
King George I.[7]
With the installation of Emperor Alexander I of Russia in 1813,
supernumerary membership was extended to foreign monarchs, who
are known as "Stranger Knights and Ladies of the Garter".[8] Each such
installation originally required the enactment of a statute; however, a
1954 statute authorises the regular admission of Stranger Knights or
Ladies without further special enactments.[8]

The Sovereign may "degrade" members who have committed serious

crimes, such as treason. During the First World War, several Stranger
The Meiji Emperor receiving the Order of the Knights who were monarchs of enemy nations had their memberships
Garter from Prince Arthur of Connaught in 1906,
revoked. The appointments of Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany and
as a consequence of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.
The Emperor of Japan is the only monarch Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria were annulled in 1915.[8] The
outside of Europe (along with Pedro II of banner of Emperor Hirohito of Japan was removed from St. George's
[17]
Brazil ) who is a member. chapel when Japan entered World War II, but that banner and the
Japanese monarch's knighthood were restored by Elizabeth II. To this
date, Hirohito and his son and successor Akihito are the only members outside of Europe who are Stranger Knights
of the Garter in the 20th and 21st centuries.[18] The Emperor was particularly pleased by the restoration of his banner
as a Knight of the Garter.[19]

From the late 15th century, there was a formal ceremony of degradation, in which Garter King of Arms,
accompanied by the rest of the heralds, proceeded to St George's Chapel. While Garter read the Instrument of
Degradation, a herald climbed up a ladder and removed the former knight's banner, crest, helm and sword, throwing
them down into the quire. The heralds then kicked them down the length of the chapel, out of the doors, and into the
castle ditch. The last such formal degradation was that of the Duke of Ormonde in 1716.[20]
Descendants of Knights of the Garter may join The Society of the Friends of St George's and Descendants of the
Knights of the Garter.
Order of the Garter 958

Officers
The Order has six officers: the Prelate, the Chancellor, the Register, the
Garter Principal King of Arms, the Usher, and the Secretary.[21] The
offices of Prelate, Register and Usher were created on the order's
establishment; those of Garter Principal King of Arms and Chancellor,
in the 15th century; and that of Secretary, in the 20th century.[22]
The office of Prelate is held by the Bishop of Winchester, traditionally
one of the senior bishops of the Church of England.[15] The office of
Chancellor is now held by one of the companions of the order. For
most of its existence, the Bishop of Salisbury has held the office,
although laymen held it from 1553 to 1671. In 1837, after boundary
changes made Windsor Castle fall in the diocese of Oxford, the
Chancellorship was transferred to the Bishop of Oxford. A century
later, the Bishop of Salisbury challenged this transfer, on the grounds
that the Chancellorship had been attached to his office regardless of the
diocese in which the chapel of the order lay; and that, in any event, St
Officers of the Order of the Garter (left to right):
George's Chapel, as a Royal Peculiar, was not under diocesan
Secretary (barely visible), Gentleman Usher of
jurisdiction. The office of Chancellor was removed from the Bishop of the Black Rod, Garter Principal King of Arms,
Oxford (the outgoing bishop had been outspoken in the abdication Register, Prelate, Chancellor.
crisis of Edward VIII), and has since been held by one of the Knights
Companion.[15] Since 1937, the following members have held the post of Chancellor:

• The Duke of Portland (1937–1943)

• The Earl of Halifax (1943–1959)
• The Marquess of Salisbury (1960–1972)
• The Viscount Cobham (1972–1977)
• The Marquess of Abergavenny (1977–1994)
• The Lord Carrington (since 1994)
The office of Register has been held by the Dean of Windsor since 1558.[15] The Garter Principal King of Arms is ex
officio the senior officer of the College of Arms (the heraldic authority of England), and is usually appointed from
among the other officers of arms at the College.[15] As the title suggests, Garter Principal King of Arms has specific
duties as the Order's officer of arms, attending to the companions' crests and banners of arms, which are exhibited in
the chapel. The Secretary, who acts as deputy to Garter in the ceremonial aspects of the Order, has since 1952 also
been selected from the other officers of the College of Arms.[15] The office of Usher is held by the Gentleman Usher
of the Black Rod, who is also the Serjeant-at-Arms of the United Kingdom House of Lords[15] (although his
functions are more often performed there by his deputy, the Yeoman Usher).
Order of the Garter 959

Military Knights of Windsor

At the founding of the Order of the Garter, 26 "poor knights" were
appointed and attached to the Order and its chapel. This number was
not always maintained, and by the 17th century, there were only
thirteen such knights. King Charles II increased the number to eighteen
after his coronation in 1660. After the knights objected to being termed
"poor", King William IV redesignated them in the 19th century as the
Military Knights of Windsor.[23]

The poor knights were impoverished military veterans, required to pray

daily for the Knights Companion. In return, they received a salary and
lodging in Windsor Castle. The knights are no longer necessarily poor,
but are still military pensioners. They participate in the Order's
processions, escorting the members, and in the chapel services.
However, they are not considered knights or members of the Order.[23]

The poor knights originally wore red mantles, each of which bore St
George's Cross, but did not depict the Garter. Queen Elizabeth I Military Knights of Windsor in the procession to
replaced the mantles in the 16th and 17th centuries with blue and the Garter Service.
purple gowns, but the red mantles returned in the 17th century under
King Charles I. When the knights were renamed, the mantles were abandoned. The military knights now wear the
old military uniform of an "army officer on the unattached list": black trousers with red stripe, a red double-breasted
swallow-tailed coat, gold epaulets and brushes, a cocked hat with a plume, and a sword on a white sash.[24]

Vestments and accoutrements

Members
For the Order's ceremonial occasions, such as the annual Garter Day,
the members wear elaborate vestments and accoutrements
(accessories):
• The mantle is a vestment or robe worn by members since the 15th
century. Once made of wool, by the 16th century it was made of
velvet. The mantle was originally purple, but varied during the 17th
and 18th centuries between celestial blue, pale blue, royal blue, dark
blue, violet, and ultramarine. Mantles are now dark blue and lined
with white taffeta. The mantles of the Sovereign, the Prince of
Wales, and Royal Knights and Ladies end in trains. The heraldic
shield of St. George's Cross encircled by the Garter is sewn onto the
left shoulder of the mantle, but the Sovereign's mantle instead has
the star of the Order. Attached to the mantle over the right shoulder
are a dark red velvet hood and surcoat, which have lost all function
over time and appear to the modern observer simply as a splash of
Queen Elizabeth II in the robes of the Sovereign
colour.[24]
of the Order, and the Duke of Edinburgh in the
robes of a Royal Knight.
Order of the Garter 960

• The hat is a Tudor bonnet of black velvet with a

plume of white ostrich and black heron feathers.[24]
• The collar is an accessory worn around the neck,
over the mantle and secured with white ribbons tied
in bows on the shoulders. Like the mantle, it was
introduced in the 15th and 16th centuries. Made of
pure gold, it weighs 30 troy ounces (0.933 kg). The
collar is composed of gold knots alternating with
enameled medallions showing a rose encircled by
the Garter. During King Henry VII's reign, each
garter surrounded two roses—one red and one
white—but he changed the design such that each
garter encircled only one red rose.[24]
• The George (Great George), which is worn
The insignia of a knight of the Order of the Garter
suspended from the collar, is a colourfully enameled
(sometimes jeweled) three-dimensional figure of St.
George the Martyr on horseback slaying a
dragon.[24]
• The Garter is worn on ceremonial occasions around
the left calf by knights and around the left arm by
ladies, and is depicted on several insignia. The
Garter is a buckled dark-blue (originally light-blue)
velvet strap, and bears the motto in gold letters. The
garters of Stranger Knights and Ladies were once set
with several jewels.[24]

On other occasions when decorations are worn, the

members wear simpler insignia:
• The collar is worn on designated collar days over
military uniform or evening wear by members
attending formal events. The collar is fastened to the
shoulders with silk ribbons. Since the collar signifies
the Order of the Garter, members can then wear the
riband of any other order to which they belong.[24]
• The star, which is worn pinned to the left breast,
was introduced in the 17th century by King Charles
I and is a colourfully enameled depiction of the
heraldic shield of St. George's Cross, encircled by
the Garter, which is itself encircled by an eight-point Mantle and hat of the Order
silver badge. Each point is depicted as a cluster of
rays, with the four points of the cardinal directions
longer than the intermediate ones. The stars of
Stranger Knights and Ladies were once set with
several jewels. Since the Order of the Garter is the
senior order of the United Kingdom, a member will The garter of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria

wear its star above the others (up to three) that he or

she holds.[24]
Order of the Garter 961

• The riband is a four inch (10.16 cm)-wide sash worn over the left shoulder, or pinned beneath it, to the right hip,
and was introduced in the 17th century by King Charles I. The riband's colour has varied over the years: it was
originally light blue, but was a dark shade under the Hanoverian monarchs. In 1950, the colour was fixed as
"kingfisher blue". A member will wear only one riband, even if he or she belongs to several orders.[24]
• The badge is worn suspended from a small gold link from the riband at the right hip, and is sometimes known as
"the Lesser George". Like the Great George, the badge shows St. George the Martyr on horseback slaying a
dragon, but it is flatter and gold. In the 15th century, the badge was worn attached to a ribbon around the neck.
This was not convenient when riding a horse, so the custom of wearing it with a riband under the right arm
developed.[24]
On the death of a member, the badge and star are returned personally to the Sovereign by the former member's
nearest male relative, and the other insignia to the Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood.[24]

Officers
For ceremonial occasions of the Order, the officers wear the following garments and accessories:
• The mantles for the prelate and chancellor are dark blue like those of the members (as a member, the chancellor
wears a member's mantle), but the mantles for the other officers are dark red. All mantles are embroidered with a
heraldic shield of St George's Cross. For Garter ceremonies, Garter Principal King of Arms wears this red mantle
rather than the tabard of the royal arms worn for other State ceremonial occasions.[24]
• Officers wear badges of office suspended from a chain worn around the neck. The badge for the prelate shows the
Lesser George encircled by the Garter, which is surmounted by a bishop's mitre. The badge for the chancellor is a
rose encircled by the Garter. The badge for the register is two crossed quills over a book encircled by the Garter
surmounted by a crown. The badge for Garter Principal King of Arms is the royal arms impaled with St George's
Cross encircled by the Garter and surmounted by a crown. The badge for the usher is a knot (like those on the
collars of the companions of the order) encircled by the Garter and surmounted by a crown. The badge for the
secretary shows two crossed quills in front of a rose and encircled by the Garter surmounted by a crown.[24]
The chancellor carries a purse, which is embroidered with the royal arms impaled by the Cross of St. George. The
purse contains the seal of the Order. Garter Principal King of Arms carries his baton of office. The usher carries his
staff of office, the Black Rod.[24]

Precedence and privileges

Members are assigned positions in the order of precedence, coming
before all others of knightly rank, and above baronets. The wives, sons,
daughters and daughters-in-law of Knights Companion are also
assigned precedence. Relatives of Ladies Companion are not, however,
assigned any special positions. (Generally, individuals can derive
precedence from their fathers or husbands, but not from their mothers
or wives.) The Chancellor is also assigned precedence, but except for
the period between 1553 and 1671 when the office was held by a
layman who was not necessarily a member of the Order, this
precedence has been purely theoretical. As a member of the Order, the
Chancellor has a higher precedence than that attached to the office, and
when the office was filled by a diocesan bishop of the Church of The arms of John Churchill, 1st Duke of
England, the holder again had a higher precedence by virtue of that Marlborough, are encircled by both the Garter
office than any that the chancellorship could bestow.[25] and the collar.
Order of the Garter 962

Knights Companion prefix "Sir"[26] and Ladies Companion prefix "Lady" to their forenames.[27] Wives of Knights
Companion may prefix "Lady" to their surnames, but no corresponding privilege exists for husbands of Ladies
Companion.[28] Such forms are not used by princes and peers, except when peers' names are written out in their
fullest forms.[29]
Knights and Ladies Companion use the post-nominal letters "KG" and "LG" respectively.[16] When an individual is
entitled to use multiple post-nominal letters, those of the Order of the Garter appear before all others except "Bt"
(Baronet), "VC" (Victoria Cross) and "GC" (George Cross).[30]
The members may encircle their arms with the Garter, and, if they wish, with a depiction of the collar as well.[31]
However, the Garter is normally used alone; the more elaborate version is seldom seen. Stranger Knights and Ladies
do not embellish the arms they use in their countries with English decorations.
Knights and Ladies Companion are also entitled to receive heraldic supporters, a privilege granted to few other
private individuals. While some families claim supporters by ancient use, and others have been granted them as a
special reward, only peers, Knights and Ladies Companion of the Garter, Knights and Ladies of the Thistle, and
certain other knights and ladies are automatically entitled to them.[31]

Garter service at St George's Chapel

The Order of the Garter once held services at St. George's Chapel,
Windsor Castle, but they became rare in the 18th century. The Garter
services, discontinued in 1805, were revived by King George VI in
1948 and have become an annual event. Each June, on the Monday of
Royal Ascot week, the members of the Order, wearing their ceremonial
vestments and insignia, meet in the state apartments in the Upper Ward
of Windsor Castle. They process on foot, led by the Military Knights
of Windsor, through the castle to St George's Chapel for the service. If
there are any new knights, they are installed on this occasion. After the
service, the members return to the Upper Ward by carriage.[32]

See also
• List of Knights and Ladies of the Garter
• List of current members of the Order of the Garter Arms of the Order of the Garter
• List of Ladies of the Garter

• The Society of the Friends of St George's and Descendants of the Knights of the Garter

References
• Elias Ashmole: Institution, Laws and Ceremonies of the Most Noble Order of the Garter. 1672.
• Begent, P.J. and Chesshyre, H. The Most Noble Order of the Garter: 650 Years. Spink and Son Ltd. 1999.
• Brennan, I.G. "The Most Noble Order of the Garter." HeraldicSculptor.com. 2004. [33]
• "Knighthood and Chivalry." Encyclopædia Britannica. 11th ed. Cambridge University Press. 1911.
• Velde, F.R. "Order of Precedence in England and Wales." 2003. [34]
• The Knights of the Garter, 1348-1939: With a Complete List of the Stall Plates in St. Georges Chapel. Historical
monographs relating to St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle Volume 1. Edmund Fellowes (SPCK - 1939)
Order of the Garter 963

External links
• Order of the Garter [35] - The official website of the British Monarchy
• St George's Chapel at Windsor Castle: Order of the Garter [36]
• A 1995 example of an appointment warrant; [37] in this case it is for Edmund Hillary.
• BBC gallery: Order Of The Garter [38]

References
[1] "Badge of The Order of the Garter" (http:/ / www. vam. ac. uk/ images/ image/ 15703-popup. html). Victoria and Albert Museum. . Retrieved
2007-12-09.
[2] Unless the member of the Order derives greater precedence from another title or honour
[3] "Review of executive royal prerogative powers - Ministry of Justice" (http:/ / www. justice. gov. uk/ publications/ royal-prerogative. htm).
Justice.gov.uk. . Retrieved 2010-05-05.
[4] "Prince William to join Britain's most exclusive club as Knight of the Garter" (http:/ / www. dailymail. co. uk/ news/ article-1025841/
Prince-William-join-Britains-exclusive-club-Knight-Garter. html). Daily Mail. 11-06-2008. . Retrieved 31-12-2009.
[5] "College of St George - Windsor Castle - The Order of the Garter" (http:/ / www. stgeorges-windsor. org/ about-st-georges/ history/
the-order-of-the-garter. html). College of St George - Windsor Castle. . Retrieved 4 June 2010.
[6] Complete Peerage (1st Edition) A-Bo (1887) pg 276.
[7] "Knighthood". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th Ed. ed.). London: Cambridge University Press. 1911.
[8] "Royal Insight: June 2004: Focus: The Order of the Garter" (http:/ / www. royal. gov. uk/ OutPut/ Page3210. asp). The Royal Household.
2004–06. . Retrieved 8 November 2006.
[9] Albert B. Friedman & Richard H. Osberg (1997). "Gawain's Girdle as Traditional Symbol" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 539521). The Journal of
American Folklore (American Folklore Society) 90 (157): 301–315. doi:10.2307/539521. .
[10] Henry L. Savage (1938). "Sir Gawain and the Order of the Garter" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 2871614). ELH (The Johns Hopkins University
Press) 5 (2): 146–149. doi:10.2307/2871614. .
[11] "The Monarchy Today - Queen and Public - Honours - The Order of the Garter" (http:/ / www. royal. gov. uk/ MonarchUK/ Honours/
OrderoftheGarter/ OrderoftheGarter. aspx). The Royal Household. . Retrieved 4 June 2010.
[12] Raymond B. Waddington (1993). "Elizabeth I and the Order of the Garter" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 2541800). Sixteenth Century Journal
(The Sixteenth Century Journal) 24 (1): 97–113. doi:10.2307/2541800. .
[13] Oonagh Gay (2006-03-20). "Honours Standard Note: SN/PC/2832" (http:/ / www. parliament. uk/ commons/ lib/ research/ notes/
snpc-02832. pdf) (PDF). United Kingdom Parliament. . Retrieved 7 November 2006.
[14] "College of St George - Windsor Castle - Orders of Chivalry" (http:/ / www. stgeorges-windsor. org/ about-st-georges/ royal-connection/
orders-of-chivalry. html). College of St George - Windsor Castle. . Retrieved 4 June 2010.
[15] Begent, P.J.; Chesshyre, H. (1999). The Most Noble Order of the Garter: 650 Years. London: Spink and Son. p. 198. ISBN 1-902040-20-1.
[16] "Select Committee on Public Administration Fifth Report" (http:/ / www. publications. parliament. uk/ pa/ cm200304/ cmselect/ cmpubadm/
212/ 21204. htm). UK Parliament. 2004-07-13. . Retrieved 8 November 2006.
[17] Calmon, Pedro. História de D. Pedro II. 5 v. Rio de Janeiro: J. Olympio, 1975, p.911
[18] "Britain wanted limited restoration of royal family's honors" (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m0XPQ/ is_2002_Jan_7/
ai_83579303). Japan Policy and Politics. 2002-01-07. . Retrieved 8 November 2006.
[19] Kingston, Jeff. "The Tokyo envoys: Englishmen in Japan," (http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ cgi-bin/ fb20050313a1. html) The Japan
Times (Tokyo); 13 March 2005
[20] Peter J Begent, The Most Noble Order of the Garter, its History and Ceremonial
[21] Charles Knight (1811). "9". Guide to Windsor.
[22] "The origin and history of the various heraldic offices" (http:/ / www. college-of-arms. gov. uk/ About/ 06. htm). The College of Arms. .
Retrieved 16 November 2006.
[23] "College of St George - Windsor Castle - Military Knights" (http:/ / www. stgeorges-windsor. org/ about-st-georges/ whos-who/
military-knights. html). College of St George - Windsor Castle. . Retrieved 4 June 2010.
[24] Noel Cox (1999). "The ceremonial dress and accoutrements of the Most Noble Order of the Garter" (http:/ / www. geocities. com/ noelcox/
Garter_Dress. htm). Heraldry News, the Journal of Heraldry (Journal of Heraldry Australia Inc.) (22): 6–12. .
[25] Charles Mosley (2005). "Precedence" (http:/ / www. burkes-peerage. net/ articles/ peerage/ page62-4. aspx). Burke's Peerage and Gentry. .
Retrieved 18 September 2008.
[26] "Knight" (http:/ / www. debretts. com/ forms-of-address/ titles/ knight. aspx). Forms of Address. Debretts. . Retrieved 11 August 2009.
[27] "Ladies of the Garter and Ladies of the Thistle" (http:/ / www. debretts. com/ forms-of-address/ titles/ knight/ ladies-of-the-garter. aspx).
Forms of Address. Debretts. . Retrieved 11 August 2009.
[28] "Dame" (http:/ / www. debretts. com/ forms-of-address/ titles/ dame. aspx). Forms of Address. Debretts. . Retrieved 11 August 2009.
[29] "Peers" (http:/ / www. justice. gov. uk/ guidance/ foa-peers. htm#peers-knights). Forms of Address. Ministry of Justice. 14 March 2009. .
Retrieved 11 August 2009.
Order of the Garter 964

[30] "Bravery Awards, Orders of Chivalry, Order of Wear" (http:/ / www. direct. gov. uk/ en/ Governmentcitizensandrights/ UKgovernment/
Honoursawardsandmedals/ DG_176568). DirectGov UK government website; Types of Award. The Cabinet Office. . Retrieved 19 April 2009.
Follow "Download Order of Wear" link
[31] Paul Courtenay. "The Armorial Bearings of Sir Winston Churchill" (http:/ / www. winstonchurchill. org/ i4a/ pages/ index.
cfm?pageid=762). The Churchill Centre. . Retrieved 8 November 2006.
[32] "The Monarchy Today - Royal events and ceremonies - Garter Service" (http:/ / www. royal. gov. uk/ RoyalEventsandCeremonies/ Garter
and Thistle Services/ GarterDay. aspx). The Royal Household. . Retrieved 4 June 2010.
[33] http:/ / www. heraldicsculptor. com/ Garters. html
[34] http:/ / www. heraldica. org/ topics/ britain/ order_precedence. htm
[35] http:/ / www. royal. gov. uk/ MonarchUK/ Honours/ OrderoftheGarter/ OrderoftheGarter. aspx
[36] http:/ / www. stgeorges-windsor. org/ about-st-georges/ history/ the-order-of-the-garter. html
[37] http:/ / www. intranet. cathedralgrammar. school. nz/ inhouse%20web%20sites/ Hillary/ resource/ tributes/ tributes/ garter. htm
[38] http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ berkshire/ content/ image_galleries/ order_of_the_garter_2009_gallery. shtml

French Union
The French Union (French: Union française) was a political entity created by the French Fourth Republic to replace
the old French colonial system, the "French Empire" (Empire Français) and to abolish its "indigenous" (indigène)
status.

History
Established by the French constitution of October 27, 1946 (Fourth Republic), it lasted until 1958, when it was
replaced by the French Community by Charles de Gaulle's Fifth Republic.

French Commonwealth
The French Union was modelled on the British Commonwealth.
The French Union included France, French overseas départements, territories, settlements, United Nations
trusteeships (Cameroun, etc.), French colonies (which became overseas départements of France) and associate states
(protectorates) which became autonomous.

Dissolution
The associated states of French Indochina withdrew from the union in 1954, as did Algeria in 1962; French Morocco
and Tunisia gained their independence in 1956.

See also
• Decolonization
• First Indochina War
• CEFEO
• French Community
• French colonial empire
Battle of Dien Bien Phu 965

Battle of Dien Bien Phu

The Battle of Dien Bien Phu (French: Bataille de Diên Biên Phu; Vietnamese: Chiến dịch Điện Biên Phủ) was the
climactic confrontation of the First Indochina War between the French Union's French Far East Expeditionary Corps
and Viet Minh communist revolutionaries. The battle occurred between March and May 1954 and culminated in a
comprehensive French defeat that influenced negotiations over the future of Indochina at Geneva. Military historian
Martin Windrow wrote that Điện Biên Phủ was "the first time that a non-European colonial independence movement
had evolved through all the stages from guerrilla bands to a conventionally organized and equipped army able to
defeat a modern Western occupier in pitched battle."[1]
As a result of blunders in the French decision-making process, the French began an operation to support the soldiers
at Điện Biên Phủ, deep in the hills of northwestern Vietnam. Its purpose was to cut off Viet Minh supply lines into
the neighboring Kingdom of Laos, a French ally, and tactically draw the Viet Minh into a major confrontation that
would cripple them. Instead, the Viet Minh, under Senior General Võ Nguyên Giáp, surrounded and besieged the
French, who were unaware of the Viet Minh's possession of heavy artillery (including anti-aircraft guns) and, more
importantly, their ability to move such weapons through extremely difficult terrain to the mountain crests
overlooking the French encampment. The Viet Minh occupied the highlands around Điện Biên Phủ and were able to
accurately bombard French positions at will. Tenacious fighting on the ground ensued, reminiscent of the trench
warfare of World War I. The French repeatedly repulsed Viet Minh assaults on their positions. Supplies and
reinforcements were delivered by air, though as the French positions were overrun and the anti-aircraft fire took its
toll, fewer and fewer of those supplies reached them. After a two-month siege, the garrison was overrun and most
French forces surrendered, only a few successfully escaping to Laos.
Shortly after the battle, the war ended with the 1954 Geneva Accords, under which France agreed to withdraw from
its former Indochinese colonies. The accords partitioned Vietnam in two; fighting later broke out between opposing
Vietnamese factions in 1959, resulting in the Vietnam (Second Indochina) War.

Background and preparations

By 1953, the First Indochina War was not going well for France. A succession of commanders—Philippe Leclerc de
Hauteclocque, Jean-Étienne Valluy, Roger Blaizot, Marcel Carpentier, Jean de Lattre de Tassigny, and Raoul
Salan—had proven incapable of suppressing the Viet Minh insurrection. During their 1952–53 campaign, the Viet
Minh had overrun vast swathes of Laos, a French ally and Vietnam's western neighbor, advancing as far as Luang
Prabang and the Plain of Jars. The French were unable to slow the Viet Minh advance, and the Viet Minh fell back
only after outrunning their always-tenuous supply lines. In 1953, the French had begun to strengthen their defenses
in the Hanoi delta region to prepare for a series of offensives against Viet Minh staging areas in northwest Vietnam.
They had set up fortified towns and outposts in the area, including Lai Chau near the Chinese border to the north,[2]
Na San to the west of Hanoi,[3] and the Plain of Jars in northern Laos.[4]
In May 1953, French Premier René Mayer appointed Henri Navarre, a trusted colleague, to take command of French
Union Forces in Indochina. Mayer had given Navarre a single order—to create military conditions that would lead to
an "honorable political solution."[5] On arrival, Navarre was shocked by what he found. There had been no
long-range plan since de Lattre's departure. Everything was conducted on a day-to-day, reactive basis. Combat
operations were undertaken only in response to enemy moves or threats. There was no comprehensive plan to
develop the organization and build up the equipment of the Expeditionary force. Finally, Navarre, the intellectual,
the cold and professional soldier, was shocked by the 'school's out' attitude of Salan and his senior commanders and
staff officers. They were going home, not as victors or heroes, but then, not as clear losers either. To them the
important thing was that they were getting out of Indochina with their reputations frayed, but intact. They gave little
thought to, or concern for, the problems of their successors."[5]
Battle of Dien Bien Phu 966

Na San and the hedgehog concept

Simultaneously, Navarre had been searching for a way to stop the Viet Minh threat to Laos. Colonel Louis Berteil,
commander of Mobile Group 7 and Navarre's main planner,[6] formulated the "hérisson" (hedgehog) concept. The
French army would establish a fortified airhead by air-lifting soldiers adjacent to a key Viet Minh supply line to
Laos.[7] This would effectively cut off Viet Minh soldiers fighting in Laos and force them to withdraw. "It was an
attempt to interdict the enemy's rear area, to stop the flow of supplies and reinforcements, to establish a redoubt in
the enemy's rear and disrupt his lines"[8]
The hedgehog concept was based on French experiences at the Battle of Na San. In late November and early
December 1952, Giap attacked the French outpost at Na San, which was essentially an "air-land base", a fortified
camp supplied only by air.[9] Giap's forces were beaten back repeatedly with very heavy losses. The French hoped
that by repeating the strategy on a much larger scale, they would be able to lure Giap into committing the bulk of his
forces in a massed assault. This would enable superior French artillery, armor, and air support to decimate the
exposed Viet Minh forces. The experience at Na San convinced Navarre of the viability of the fortified airhead
concept.
French staff officers disastrously failed to treat seriously several crucial differences between Điện Biên Phủ and Na
San. First, at Na San, the French commanded most of the high ground with overwhelming artillery support.[10] At
Điện Biên Phủ, however, the Viet Minh controlled much of the high ground around the valley, their artillery far
exceeded French expectations and they outnumbered the French four-to-one.[11] Giap compared Điện Biên Phủ to a
"rice bowl", where his troops occupied the edge and the French the bottom. Second, Giap made a mistake in Na San
by committing his forces into reckless frontal attacks before being fully prepared. At Điện Biên Phủ, Giap would
spend months meticulously stockpiling ammunition and emplacing heavy artillery and anti-aircraft guns before
making his move. Teams of Viet Minh volunteers were sent into the French camp to scout the disposition of the
French artillery. Wooden artillery pieces were built as decoys and the real guns were rotated every few salvos to
confuse French counterbattery fire. As a result, when the battle finally began, the Viet Minh knew exactly where the
French artillery were, while the French were not even aware of how many guns Giap possessed. Third, the aerial
resupply lines at Na San were never severed despite Viet Minh anti-aircraft fire. At Điện Biên Phủ, Giap amassed
anti-aircraft batteries that quickly shut down the runway and made it extremely difficult and costly for the French to
bring in reinforcements.

Lead up to Castor
In June, Major General René Cogny, commander of the Tonkin Delta, proposed Điện Biên Phủ, which had an old
airstrip built by the Japanese during World War II, as a "mooring point".[12] In another misunderstanding, Cogny had
envisioned a lightly-defended point from which to launch raids; however, to Navarre, this meant a heavily-fortified
base capable of withstanding a siege. Navarre selected Điện Biên Phủ for the location of Berteil's "hedgehog"
operation. When presented with the plan, every major subordinate officer protested; Colonel Jean-Louis Nicot,
(commander of the French Air transport fleet), Cogny, and generals Jean Gilles and Jean Dechaux (the ground and
air commanders for Operation Castor, the initial airborne assault on Dien Bien Phu). Cogny pointed out, presciently,
that "we are running the risk of a new Na San under worse conditions"[13] Navarre rejected the criticisms of his
proposal and concluded a November 17 conference by declaring that the operation would commence three days later,
on November 20, 1953.[14] [15]
Navarre decided to go ahead with the operation, despite operational difficulties which would later become painfully
obvious (but at the time may have been less apparent)[16] because he had been repeatedly assured by his intelligence
officers that the operation had very little risk of involvement by a strong enemy force.[17] Navarre had previously
considered three other ways to defend Laos: mobile warfare, which was impossible given the terrain in Vietnam; a
static defense line stretching to Laos, which was not executable given the number of troops at Navarre's disposal; or
placing troops in the Laotian provincial capitals and supplying them by air, which was unworkable due to the
Battle of Dien Bien Phu 967

distance from Hanoi to Luang Prabang and Vientiane.[18] Thus, the only option left to Navarre was the hedgehog,
which he characterized as "a mediocre solution."[19]
In a twist of fate, the French National Defense Committee ultimately agreed that Navarre's responsibility did not
include defending Laos. However, their decision (which was drawn up on November 13) was not delivered to him
until December 4, two weeks after the Điện Biên Phủ operation began.[20]

Establishment of the airhead

Operations at Điện Biên Phủ began at 10:35 on the morning of November 20, 1953. In Operation Castor, the French
dropped or flew 9,000 troops into the area over three days. They were landed at three drop zones: Natasha, northwest
of Điện Biên Phủ; Octavie, southwest of Điện Biên Phủ; and Simone, southeast of Điện Biên Phủ.[21]
The Viet Minh elite 148th Independent Infantry Regiment, headquartered at Điện Biên Phủ, reacted "instantly and
effectively"; three of their four battalions, however, were absent that day.[22] Initial operations proceeded well for the
French. By the end of November, six parachute battalions had been landed and the French were consolidating their
positions.
It was at this time that Giap began his counter-moves. Giap had expected an attack, but could not foresee when or
where it would occur. Giap realized that, if pressed, the French would abandon Lai Chau Province and fight a
pitched battle at Điện Biên Phủ.[23] On November 24, Giap ordered the 148th Infantry Regiment and the 316th
division to attack Lai Chau, while the 308th, 312th, and 351st divisions assault Điện Biên Phủ from Việt Bắc .[23]
Starting in December, the French, under the command of Colonel Christian de Castries, began transforming their
anchoring point into a fortress by setting up seven positions, each allegedly named after a former mistress of de
Castries, although the allegation is probably unfounded, as the names simply begin with the first eight letters of the
alphabet. The fortified headquarters was centrally located, with positions "Huguette" to the west, "Claudine" to the
south, and "Dominique" to the northeast. Other positions were "Anne-Marie" to the northwest, "Beatrice" to the
northeast, "Gabrielle" to the north and "Isabelle" four miles (6 km) to the south, covering the reserve airstrip. The
choice of de Castries as the on-scene commander at Dien Bien Phu was, in retrospect, a bad one. Navarre had picked
de Castries, a cavalryman in the 18th century tradition,[24] because Navarre envisioned Điện Biên Phủ as a mobile
battle. In reality, Điện Biên Phủ required someone adept at World War I-style trench warfare, something for which
de Castries was not suited.[25]
The arrival of the 316th Viet Minh division prompted Cogny to order the evacuation of the Lai Chau garrison to
Điện Biên Phủ, exactly as Giap had anticipated. En route, they were virtually annihilated by the Viet Minh. "Of the
2,100 men who left Lai Chau on December 9, only 185 made it to Điện Biên Phủ on December 22. The rest had been
killed, captured or deserted."[26] The Viet Minh troops now converged on Điện Biên Phủ.
The French had committed 10,800 troops, with more reinforcements
totaling nearly 16,000 men, to the defense of a monsoon-affected
valley surrounded by heavily wooded hills that had not been secured.
Artillery as well as ten M24 Chaffee light tanks and numerous aircraft
were committed to the garrison. The garrison comprised French regular
troops (notably elite paratroop units plus artillery), Foreign
Legionnaires, Algerian and Moroccan tirailleurs, and locally-recruited
Indochinese infantry.

All told, the Viet Minh had moved 50,000 regular troops into the hills
The French operated several WW2-vintage M24
surrounding the valley, totaling five divisions including the 351st Chaffee light tanks.
Heavy Division, which was made up entirely of heavy artillery.[27]

Artillery and AA (anti-aircraft) guns, which outnumbered the French artillery by about four to one,[27] were moved
into camouflaged positions overlooking the valley. The French came under sporadic Viet Minh artillery fire for the
Battle of Dien Bien Phu 968

first time on January 31, 1954, and French patrols encountered the Viet Minh in all directions. The battle had been
joined, and the French were now surrounded.

Combat operations

Beatrice
The fighting began at 5:00 PM on March 13 when the
Viet Minh launched a massive surprise artillery
barrage. The time and date were carefully chosen—the
hour allowed the artillery to fire in daylight, and the
date was chosen because it was a new moon, allowing a
nighttime infantry attack.[28] The attack concentrated
on position Beatrice, defended by the 3rd battalion of
the 13th Foreign Legion Demi-Brigade.

Unknown to the French, the Viet Minh had made a

minutely detailed study of Beatrice, and had rehearsed
assaulting it using scaled models. According to one
Viet Minh major: "Every evening, we came up and
took the opportunity to cut barbed wire and remove
mines. Our jumping-off point was moved up to only
two hundred yards from the peaks of Beatrice, and to
our surprise [French] artillery didn't know where we
were".[29]

The French command on Beatrice was decimated at

6:15 PM when a shell hit the French command post,
killing Legionnaire commander Major Paul Pegot and
his entire staff. A few minutes later, Colonel Jules The French disposition at Dien Bien Phu, as of March 1954. The
Gaucher, commander of the entire northern sector, was French took up positions on a series of fortified hills. The
southernmost, Isabelle, was dangerously isolated. The Viet Minh
also killed by Viet Minh artillery.
positioned their 5 divisions (the 304th, 308th, 312th, 316th, and
French resistance on Beatrice collapsed shortly after 351st) in the surrounding areas to the north and east. From these
areas, the Viet Minh had a clear line of sight on the French
midnight following a fierce battle. Roughly 500
fortifications and were able to accurately rain down artillery on the
legionnaires were killed, along with 600 Viet Minh French positions.
killed and 1,200 wounded from the 312th division.[30]
The French launched a counter-attack against Beatrice
the following morning, but it was quickly beaten back by Viet Minh artillery. Despite their losses, the victory at
Beatrice "galvanized the morale" of the Viet Minh troops.[30]

Much to French disbelief, the Viet Minh had employed direct artillery fire, in which each gun crew does its own
artillery spotting (as opposed to indirect fire, in which guns are massed farther away from the target, out of direct
line of sight, and rely on a forward artillery spotter). Indirect artillery, generally held as being far superior to direct
fire, requires experienced, well-trained crews and good communications which the Viet Minh lacked.[31] Navarre
wrote that "Under the influence of Chinese advisers, the Viet Minh commanders had used processes quite different
from the classic methods. The artillery had been dug in by single pieces... They were installed in shell-proof dugouts,
and fire point-blank from portholes... This way of using artillery and AA guns was possible only with the expansive
Battle of Dien Bien Phu 969

ant holes at the disposal of the Vietminh and was to make shambles of all the estimates of our own artillerymen."[32]
The French artillery commander, Colonel Charles Piroth, distraught at his inability to bring counterfire on the
well-camouflaged Viet Minh batteries, went into his dugout and killed himself with a hand grenade.[33] He was
buried there in great secrecy to prevent loss of morale among the French troops.

Gabrielle
Following a four hour cease fire on the morning of March 14, Viet Minh artillery resumed pounding French
positions. The air strip, already closed since 4:00 pm the day before due to a light bombardment, was now put
permanently out of commission[34] . Any further French supplies would have to be delivered by parachute.[35] That
night, the Viet Minh launched an attack on Gabrielle, held by an elite Algerian battalion. The attack began with a
concentrated artillery barrage at 5:00 PM. Two regiments from the crack 308th division attacked starting at 8:00 PM.
At 4:00 AM the following morning, a Viet Minh artillery shell hit the battalion headquarters, severely wounding the
battalion commander and most of his staff.[35]
De Castries ordered a counterattack to relieve Gabrielle. However, Colonel Pierre Langlais, in forming the
counterattack, chose to rely on the 5th Vietnamese Parachute battalion, which had jumped in the day before and was
exhausted.[36] Although some elements of the counterattack reached Gabrielle, most were paralyzed by the Viet
Minh artillery and took heavy losses. At 8:00 AM the next day, the Algerian battalion fell back, abandoning
Gabrielle to the Viet Minh. The French lost around 1,000 men defending Gabrielle, and the Viet Minh between
1,000 and 2,000.[36]

Anne-Marie
Anne-Marie was defended by T'ai troops, members of a Vietnamese ethnic minority loyal to the French. For weeks,
Giap had distributed subversive propaganda leaflets, telling the T'ais that this was not their fight. The fall of Beatrice
and Gabrielle had severely demoralized them. On the morning of March 17, under the cover of fog, the bulk of the
T'ais left or defected. The French and the few remaining T'ais on Anne-Marie were then forced to withdraw.[37]

Lull
March 17 through March 30 saw a lull in fighting. The Viet Minh further tightened the noose around the French
central area (formed by the strongpoints Huguette, Dominique, Claudine, and Eliane), effectively cutting off Isabelle
and its 1,809 personnel.[38] During this lull, the French suffered from a serious crisis of command. "It had become
painfully evident to the senior officers within the encircled garrison—and even to Cogny at Hanoi—that de Castries
was incompetent to conduct the defense of Dien Bien Phu. Even more critical, after the fall of the northern outposts,
he isolated himself in his bunker so that he had, in effect, relinquished his command authority."[39] On March 17,
Cogny attempted to fly into Dien Bien Phu and take command, but his plane was driven off by anti-aircraft fire.
Cogny considered parachuting into the encircled garrison, but his staff talked him out of it.[39]
De Castries' seclusion in his bunker, combined with his superiors' inability to replace him, created a leadership
vacuum within the French command. On March 24, an event took place which would later become a matter of
historical debate. The historian Bernard Fall records, based on Langlais' memoirs, that Colonel Langlais and his
fellow paratroop commanders, all fully armed, confronted de Castries in his bunker on March 24. They told him that
he would retain the appearance of command, but that Langlais would exercise it.[40] De Castries is said by Fall to
have accepted the arrangement without protest, although he did exercise some command functions thereafter.
Davidson states that "The truth would seem to be that Langlais did take over effective command of Dien Bien Phu,
and that Castries became "commander emeritus" who transmitted messages to Hanoi and offered advise about
matters in Dien Bien Phu."[41] Jules Roy, however, makes no mention of this event, and Martin Windrow argues that
the 'paratrooper putsch' is unlikely to have happened. Both historians record that Langlais and Marcel Bigeard were
known to be on good relations with their commanding officer.[42]
Battle of Dien Bien Phu 970

The French aerial resupply was taking heavy losses from Viet Minh machine guns near the landing strip. On March
27, Hanoi air transport commander Nicot ordered that all supply deliveries be made from 6500 feet (2000 m) or
higher; losses were expected to remain heavy.[43] De Castries ordered an attack against the Viet Minh machine guns
two miles (3 km) west of Dien Bien Phu. Remarkably, the attack was a complete success, with 350 Viet Minh
soldiers killed and seventeen AA machine guns destroyed. French losses were only twenty soldiers.[44]

March 30 – April 5 assaults

The next phase of the battle saw more
massed Viet Minh assaults against
French positions in the central Dien
Bien Phu area – at Eliane and
Dominique in particular. Those two
areas were held by five understrength
battalions, composed of a mixture of
Frenchmen, Legionnaires, Vietnamese,
Africans, and T'ais.[45] Giap planned to
use the tactics from the Beatrice and
Gabrielle skirmishes.

At 7:00 PM on March 30, the Viet

Minh 312th division captured
Dominique 1 and 2, making
Dominique 3 the final outpost between The central French positions at Dien Bien Phu in late March 1954. The positions in Eliane
saw some of the most intense combat of the entire battle.
the Viet Minh and the French general
headquarters, as well as outflanking all
positions east of the river.[46] At this point, the French 4th colonial artillery regiment entered the fight, setting its
105 mm howitzers to zero elevation and firing directly on the Viet Minh attackers, blasting huge holes in their ranks.
Another group of French, near the airfield, opened fire on the Viet Minh with anti-aircraft machine guns, forcing the
Viet Minh to retreat.[46]

The Viet Minh were more successful in their simultaneous attacks elsewhere. The 316th division captured Eliane 1
from its Moroccan defenders, and half of Eliane 2 by midnight.[47] On the other side of Dien Bien Phu, the 308th
attacked Huguette 7, and nearly succeeded in breaking through, but a French sergeant took charge of the defenders
and sealed the breach.[47]
Just after midnight on the 31st, the French launched a fierce counterattack against Eliane 2, and recaptured half of it.
Langlais ordered another counterattack the following afternoon against Dominique 2 and Eliane 1, using virtually
"everybody left in the garrison who could be trusted to fight."[47] The counterattacks allowed the French to retake
Dominique 2 and Eliane 1, but the Viet Minh launched their own renewed assault. The French, who were exhausted
and without reserves, fell back from both positions late in the afternoon.[48] Reinforcements were sent north from
Isabelle, but were attacked en route and fell back to Isabelle.
Battle of Dien Bien Phu 971

Shortly after dark on the 31st, Langlais told Major Marcel Bigeard,
who was leading the defense at Eliane, to fall back across the river.
Bigeard refused, saying "As long as I have one man alive I won't let go
of Eliane 4. Otherwise, Dien Bien Phu is done for."[49] The night of the
31st, the 316th division attacked Eliane 2. Just as it appeared the
French were about to be overrun, a few French tanks arrived, and
helped push the Viet Minh back. Smaller attacks on Eliane 4 were also
pushed back. The Viet Minh briefly captured Huguette 7, only to be
pushed back by a French counterattack at dawn on the 1st.[50] The French deployed a small number of M24
Chaffee light tanks during the battle that proved
Fighting continued in this manner over the next several nights. The critical in repelling the enemy attacks.
Viet Minh repeatedly attacked Eliane 2, only to be beaten back.
Repeated attempts to reinforce the French garrison by parachute drops were made, but had to be carried out by lone
planes at irregular times to avoid excessive casualties from Viet Minh anti-aircraft fire.[50] Some reinforcements did
arrive, but not nearly enough to replace French casualties.

Trench warfare
On April 5, after a long night of battle, French fighter-bombers and artillery inflicted particularly devastating losses
on one Viet Minh regiment which was caught on open ground. At that point, Giap decided to change tactics.
Although Giap still had the same objective – to overrun French defenses east of the river – he decided to employ
entrenchment and sapping to try to achieve it.[51]
April 10 saw the French attempt to retake Eliane 1. The loss of Eliane 1 eleven days earlier had posed a significant
threat to Eliane 4, and the French wanted to eliminate that threat. The dawn attack, which Bigeard devised, was
preceded by a short, massive artillery barrage, followed by small unit infiltration attacks, followed by mopping-up
operations. Without realizing it, Bigeard had re-invented the infiltration tactics used with great success by Oskar von
Hutier in World War I. Eliane 1 changed hands several times that day, but by the next morning the French had
control of the strongpoint. The Viet Minh attempted to retake it on the evening of April 12, but were pushed back.[52]
At this point, the morale of the Viet Minh soldiers broke. During the stalemate, the French intercepted enemy radio
messages which told of whole units refusing orders to attack, and Communist prisoners said that they were told to
advance or be shot by the officers and noncommissioned officers behind them.[53] The extreme casualties they had
suffered (6,000 killed, 8,000 to 10,000 wounded, and 2,500 captured since the start of the battle) had taken a toll that
had resulted in widespread mutiny among many Viet Minh units. Worse still, the Viet Minh lacked adequate medical
service. "Nothing strikes at combat morale like the knowledge that if wounded, the soldier will go uncared for."[54]
To avert the crisis, Giap called in fresh reinforcements from Laos.
During the fighting at Eliane 1, on the other side of camp, the Viet Minh entrenchments had almost entirely
surrounded Huguette 1 and 6. On April 11, the garrison of Huguette 1 attacked, and was joined by artillery from the
garrison of Claudine. The goal was to resupply Huguette 6 with water and ammunition. The attacks were repeated on
the night of the 14–15th and 16–17th. While they did succeed in getting some supplies through, the heavy casualties
convinced Langlais to abandon Huguette 6. Following a failed attempt to link up, on April 18, the defenders at
Huguette 6 made a daring break out, but only a few made it back to French lines.[55] [56] The Viet Minh repeated the
isolation and probing attacks against Huguette 1, and overran it on the morning of April 22. With the fall of Huguette
1, the Viet Minh took control of more than 90% of the airfield, making accurate parachute drops impossible.[57] This
caused the landing zone to become perilously small, and effectively choked off much needed supplies.[58] A French
attack against Huguette 1 later that day was repulsed.
Battle of Dien Bien Phu 972

Isabelle
Isabelle saw only desultory action until March 30, when the Viet Minh succeeded in isolating it and beating back the
attempt to send reinforcements north. Following a massive artillery barrage against Isabelle on March 30, the Viet
Minh began employing the same trench warfare tactics against Isabelle that they were using against the central camp.
By the end of April, Isabelle had exhausted its water supply and was nearly out of ammunition.[59]

Final attacks
The Viet Minh launched a massed assault against the exhausted defenders on the night of May 1, overrunning Eliane
1, Dominique 3, and Huguette 5, although the French managed to beat back attacks on Eliane 2. On May 6, the Viet
Minh launched another massed attack against Eliane 2. The attack included, for the first time, Katyusha rockets.[30]
The French also used an innovation. The French artillery fired with a "TOT" (Time On Target) attack, so that
artillery rounds fired from different positions would strike on target at the same time.[60] The barrage wiped out the
first assault wave. A few hours later that night, the Viet Minh detonated a mine shaft, blowing Eliane 2 up. The Viet
Minh attacked again, and within a few hours had overrun the defenders.[61]
On May 7, Giap ordered an all out attack against the remaining French units with over 25,000 Viet Minh against
fewer than 3,000 garrison troops. At 5:00 PM, de Castries radioed French headquarters in Hanoi and talked with
Cogny.
De Castries: "The Viets are everywhere. The situation is very grave. The combat is confused and goes on all
about. I feel the end is approaching, but we will fight to the finish."
Cogny: "Well understood. You will fight to the end. It is out of the question to run up the white flag after your
heroic resistance."[24]
By nightfall, all French central positions had been captured. The last radio transmission from the French
headquarters reported that enemy troops were directly outside the headquarters bunker and that all the positions have
been overrun. The radio operator in his last words stated: "The enemy has overrun us. We are blowing up everything.
Vive la France!" That night, the garrison at Isabelle made a breakout attempt. While the main body did not even
escape the valley, about 70 troops out of 1,700 men in the garrison did escape to Laos.[62]

Aftermath

Prisoners
On May 8, the Viet Minh counted 11,721 prisoners, of whom 4,436 were wounded.[63] This was the greatest number
the Viet Minh had ever captured: one-third of the total captured during the entire war. The prisoners were divided
into groups. Able bodied soldiers were force-marched over 250 miles (400 km) to prison camps to the north and
east,[64] where they were intermingled with Viet Minh soldiers to discourage French bombing runs.[65] Hundreds
died of disease on the way. The wounded were given basic first aid until the Red Cross arrived, removed 858, and
provided better aid to the remainder. Those wounded who were not evacuated by the Red Cross were sent into
detention.[66]
The prisoners, French survivors of the battle at Dien Bien Phu, were starved, beaten, and heaped with abuse, and
many died.[67] Of 10,863 survivors held as prisoners, only 3,290 were officially repatriated four months later.[63]
However, the losses figure may include the 3,013 prisoners of Vietnamese origin whose eventual fate is
unknown.[68]
Battle of Dien Bien Phu 973

Political ramifications
The garrison constituted roughly a tenth of the total French Union manpower in Indochina,[69] . The defeat seriously
weakened the position and prestige of the French as previously planned negotiations over the future of Indochina
began.
The Geneva Conference (1954) opened on May 8, the day after the surrender of the garrison. Ho Chi Minh entered
the conference on the opening day with the news of his troops' victory in the headlines. The resulting agreement
temporarily partitioned Vietnam into two zones: the North was administered by the communist Democratic Republic
of Vietnam while the South was administered by the French-supported State of Vietnam. The last units of the French
Union forces withdrew from Indo-China in 1956. This partition was supposed to be temporary, and the two zones
were meant to be reunited through national elections in 1956. After the French withdrawal, the United States
supported the southern government, under Emperor Bảo Đại and Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem, which opposed the
Geneva agreement, and which claimed that Ho Chi Minh's forces from the North had been killing Northern patriots
and terrorizing people both in the North and the South. The North was supported by both communist China and the
Soviet Union. This dispute would eventually escalate into the Vietnam War (Second Indochina War).
France's defeat in Indochina seriously damaged its prestige elsewhere in their colonial empire, notably the North
African territories from which many of the troops who fought at Dien Bien Phu had been recruited. In 1954, six
months after the battle at Dien Bien Phu ended, the Algerian War started, and by 1956 both Moroccan and Tunisian
protectorates had gained independence. A French board of inquiry, the Catroux Commission, would later investigate
the defeat.
The battle was depicted in Dien Bien Phu, a 1992 docudrama film – with several autobiographical parts – in
conjunction with the Vietnamese army by Dien Bien Phu veteran French director Pierre Schoendoerffer.

American participation
According to the Mutual Defense Assistance Act the United States provided the French with material aid during the
battle – aircraft (supplied by the USS Saipan), weapons, mechanics, 24 CIA/CAT pilots, and U.S. Air Force
maintenance crews.[70] The United States, however, intentionally avoided overt direct intervention. In February
1954, following French occupation of Dien Bien Phu but prior to the battle, Democratic senator Mike Mansfield
asked United States Defense Secretary Charles Erwin Wilson whether the United States would send naval or air units
if the French were subjected to greater pressure there, but Wilson replied that "for the moment there is no
justification for raising United States aid above its present level". President Dwight D. Eisenhower also stated,
"Nobody is more opposed to intervention than I am".[70] On March 31, following the fall of Beatrice, Gabrielle, and
Anne-Marie, a panel of U.S. Senators and House Representatives questioned the American Chairman of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff, Admiral Arthur W. Radford, about the possibility of American involvement. Radford concluded that
it was too late for the U.S. Air Force to save the French garrison. A proposal for direct intervention was unanimously
voted down by the panel, which "concluded that intervention was a positive act of war".[71]
The United States did covertly participate in the battle. Following a request for help from Henri Navarre, Radford
provided two squadrons of B-26 Invader bomber aircraft to support the French. Subsequently, 37 American transport
pilots flew 682 sorties over the course of the battle[72] . Earlier, in order to succeed the pre-Dien Bien Phu Operation
Castor of November 1953, General Chester McCarty made available 12 additional C-119 Flying Boxcars flown by
French crews.[72] Two of the American pilots, Wallace Buford and James McGovern, Jr., were killed in action
during the siege of Dien Bien Phu.[73] On February 25, 2005, the seven still living American pilots were awarded the
French Legion of Honor by Jean-David Levitte, the French ambassador to the United States.[72] The role that the
American pilots played in this battle had remained little known until 2004. The "American historian Erik Kirsinger
researched the case for more than a year to establish the facts."[74] [75] The French author Jules Roy also suggests
that Admiral Radford discussed with the French the possibility of using nuclear weapons in support of the French
garrison.[76] Moreover, John Foster Dulles was reported to have mentioned the possibility of lending atomic bombs
Battle of Dien Bien Phu 974

to the French for use at Dien Bien Phu,[77] and a similar source claims that British Foreign Secretary Sir Anthony
Eden was aware of the possibility of the use of nuclear weapons in that region.[78]

Khe Sanh
In January 1968, during the Vietnam War, the North Vietnamese Army (still under Giap's command) made an
apparent attempt to repeat their success at Dien Bien Phu, by a siege and artillery bombardment on the U.S. Marine
Corps infantry and artillery base at Khe Sanh, South Vietnam. Historians are divided on whether this was a genuine
attempt to force the surrender of that Marine base, or else a diversion from the rest of the Tet Offensive, or an
example of the North Vietnamese Army keeping its options open.
At Khe Sanh, a number of factors were significantly different from the siege of Dien Bien Phu. Khe Sanh was much
closer to its supply base (45 km/28 mi versus 200 km/120 mi at Dien Bien Phu);[79]
At Khe Sanh, the U.S. Marines held the high ground, and their artillery forced the North Vietnamese to use their own
artillery from a much greater distance. On the other hand, at Dien Bien Phu, the French artillery (six 105 mm
batteries and one battery of four 155 mm howitzers and mortars[80] ) were only sporadically effective;[81] Khe Sanh
received 18,000 tons in aerial resupplies during the 30-day battle, whereas during 167 days that the French forces at
Dien Bien Phu held out, they received only 4,000 tons.[81] By the end of the battle of Khe Sanh, U.S. Air Force
planes had flown 9,691 tactical sorties and dropped 14,223 tons of munitions on targets within the Khe Sanh area.
U.S. Marine Corps planes had flown 7,098 missions and dropped 17,015 tons of munitions. U.S. Navy planes, many
of which had been redirected from the Operation Rolling Thunder bombing campaign against North Vietnam, flew
5,337 sorties and dropped 7,941 tons of ordnance on the enemy.

French women at Dien Bien Phu

Many of the flights operated by the French Air force to evacuate casualties had female flight nurses on board. A total
of 15 women served on flights to Dien Bien Phu. One of them, Geneviève de Galard, was stranded at Dien Bien Phu
when her plane was destroyed by shellfire while being repaired on the airfield. She remained on the ground
providing medical services in the field hospital until the surrender. She was later referred to as the "Angel of Dien
Bien Phu". However historians disagree regarding this moniker, with Martin Windrow maintaining that Galard was
referred to by this name by the garrison itself, but Michael Kenney maintaining that it was added by outside press
agencies.[82]
The French forces came to Dien Bien Phu accompanied by two "Bordels Mobiles de Campagne", (mobile field
brothels), served by Algerian and Vietnamese women.[83] All apparently subsequently volunteered and served as
nurse's aides during the siege. When the siege ended, the Vietminh sent the surviving Vietnamese women for
"re-education."[84]

See also
• Siege of Bangkok, 1688 – battle marking end of French military in Siam (present-day Thailand)

References
• Davidson, Phillip (1988). Vietnam at War. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195067924.
• "Dien Bien Phu" [85]. Spartacus Educational. Retrieved 2006-12-08.
• "Ðiên Biên Phú – The "official and historical site" of the battle" [86]. Retrieved 2006-12-08.
• Fall, Bernard B. (1967). Hell in a Very Small Place. The Siege of Dien Bien Phu. New York: J.B. Lippincott
Company. ISBN 0306802317.
• "The Fall of Dienbienphu" [87]. Time. 1954-05-17.
• Navarre, Henri (1958) (in French). Agonie de l'Indochine. Paris: Plon. OCLC 23431451.
Battle of Dien Bien Phu 975

• Rottman, Gordon L. (2005). Khe Sanh (1967–1968) – Marines battle for Vietnam's vital hilltop base. Oxford:
Osprey Publishing (UK). ISBN 1841768634.
• Roy, Jules; Baldick, Robert. The Battle of Dienbienphu. New York: Harper & Row. OCLC 263986.
• Roy, Jules (2002). The Battle of Dienbienphu. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN 0786709588.
• Stone, David (2004). Dien Bien Phu. London: Brassey's UK. ISBN 1857533720.
• Windrow, Martin (2004). The Last Valley. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0306813866.

External links
• Dien Bien Phu [88] Site dedicated to the battle.
• Memorial-Indochine.org in English [89]
• An Analysis of the French Defeat at Dien Bien Phu [90]
• Airlift's Role at Dien Bien Phu and Khe Sanh [91]
• An interview with Vo Nguyen Giap [92]
• Battle of Dien Bien Phu, an article by Bernard B. Fall [93]
• Dien Bien Phu: A Battle Assessment [94] by David Pennington
• "Peace" in a Very Small Place: Dien Bien Phu 50 Years Later [95] by Bob Seals
• ANAPI's official website [96] (National Association of Former POWs in Indochina)
• Bibliography: Dien Bien Phu and the Geneva Conference [97]

Media links
Newsreels (video)
• (English) The News Magazine of the Screen (May 1954) [98]
• (English) U.S. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles on the fall of Dien Bien Phu (May 7th, 1954) [99]
• (English) Dien Bien Phu Episode From Ten Thousand Day War Documentary [100]
Retrospectives (video)
• (English) English subtitled (Closed Captions) scene from the "Dien Bien Phu" docudrama by Schoendoerffer
(1992) [101]
• (English) Archive footages of Colonel Sassi and his 2,000 strong Hmong partisans en route to Dien Bien Phu for
a rescue mission in April 1954 (2000) [102]
• (French) Archive radio calls between General Cogny & Colonel de Castries (1954) + 2 commented scenes from
Schoendoerffer's docudrama (1992) [103]
• (French) Testimonial of General Giap, 50 years after the battle (May 7th, 2004) [104]
• (French) Testimonial of General Bigeard, 50 years after the battle (May 3rd, 2004) [105]
• (French) Testimonial of Corporal Schoendoerffer, 50 years after the battle (May 5th, 2004) [106]
War reports (Picture galleries and captions)
• (French) Airborne Operation Castor and building of the Dien Bien Phu outpost (November 1953–February 1954)
[107]

• (French) Airforce in Dien Bien Phu (January–May 1954) [108]

• (French) The battle of Dien Bien Phu (March–May 1954) [109]
Battle of Dien Bien Phu 976

References
[1] Quotation from Martin Windrow. Kenney, Michael. "British Historian Takes a Brilliant Look at French Fall in Vietnam". Boston Globe,
January 4, 2005.
[2] Fall, 23
[3] Fall, 9
[4] Fall, 48
[5] Davidson, 165
[6] Fall, 44
[7] Davidson, 173
[8] Bruce Kennedy. CNN Cold War Special: 1954 battle changed Vietnam's history (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ SPECIALS/ cold. war/ episodes/
11/ spotlight/ )
[9] Fall, 24
[10] Davidson, 147
[11] Davidson, 224
[12] Davidson, 182
[13] Roy, 21
[14] Roy, 33
[15] Davidson, 184
[16] Windrow, p211, 212, 228, 275
[17] Davidson, 189
[18] Davidson, 186
[19] Davidson, 187
[20] Davidson, 176
[21] Davidson, 194
[22] Davidson, 193
[23] Davidson, 196
[24] "The Fall of Dienbienphu" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,860710,00. html). Time. 1954-05-17. .
[25] Davidson, 199
[26] Davidson, 203
[27] Davidson, 223
[28] Davidson, 234
[29] Roy, 167
[30] Davidson, 236
[31] Davidson, 227
[32] Navarre, 225
[33] "Dien Bien Phu" (http:/ / www. spartacus. schoolnet. co. uk/ VNdienbein. htm). Spartacus Educational. . Retrieved August 24, 2006.
[34] Dien Bien Phu: the epic battle America forgot By Howard R. Simpson
[35] Davidson, 237
[36] Davidson, 238
[37] Davidson, 239
[38] Fall, 279
[39] Davidson, 240–241
[40] Fall, 177
[41] Davidson, 243
[42] Windrow, p. 441-444.
[43] Davidson, 244
[44] Davidson, 244–245
[45] Davidson, 245
[46] Davidson, 246
[47] Davidson, 247
[48] Davidson, 248
[49] Roy, 210
[50] Davidson, 253
[51] Davidson, 254–255
[52] Davidson, 265
[53] Davidson, 256
[54] Davidson, 257
[55] Davidson, 258
Battle of Dien Bien Phu 977

[56] Fall, 260

[57] Fall, 270
[58] Davidson, 259
[59] Davidson, 260
[60] Davidson, 261
[61] Davidson, 262
[62] Davidson, 269
[63] "Breakdown of losses suffered at Dien Bien Phu" (http:/ / www. dienbienphu. org/ english/ html/ bataille/ losses. htm). dienbienphu.org. .
Retrieved August 24, 2006.
[64] "The Long March" (http:/ / www. dienbienphu. org/ english/ html/ captivite/ long_walk. htm). dienbienphu.org. . Retrieved August 24, 2006.
[65] Fall, 429
[66] The Long March (http:/ / www. dienbienphu. org/ english/ html/ captivite/ captivity. htm). Dienbienphu.org, Retrieved on January 12, 2009
[67] "At camp #1" (http:/ / www. dienbienphu. org/ english/ html/ captivite/ camp_n1. htm). dienbienphu.org. . Retrieved August 24, 2006.
[68] Jean-Jacques Arzalier, Les Pertes Humaines, 1954–2004: La Bataille de Dien Bien Phu, entre Histoire et Mémoire, Société française
d'histoire d'outre-mer, 2004
[69] "The French Far East Expeditionary Corps numbered 175,000 soldiers" – Davidson, 163
[70] Roy, 140
[71] Roy, 211
[72] Embassy of France in the USA, Feb. 25, 2005 (http:/ / ambafrance-us. org/ IMG/ pdf/ nff/ NFF0502. pdf), U.S. Pilots Honored For
Indochina Service
[73] Check-Six.com - The Shootdown of "Earthquake McGoon" (http:/ / www. check-six. com/ Crash_Sites/ CAT-149_McGoon. htm)
[74] "France honors U.S. pilots for Dien Bien Phu role". Agence France Presse. February 25, 2005.
[75] Burns, Robert. "Covert U.S. aviators will get French award for heroism in epic Asian battle". Associated Press Worldstream. February 16,
2005
[76] Roy, 198
[77] Fall, 306
[78] Fall, 307
[79] Rottman, 8
[80] Fall, 480
[81] Rottman, 9
[82] Fall, 190
[83] Windrow P673, Note 53
[84] Pringle, James (1 April 2004). "Au revoir, Dien Bien Phu" (http:/ / www. iht. com/ articles/ 2004/ 04/ 01/ edpringle_ed3_. php).
International Herald Tribune. . Retrieved 23 February 2008..
[85] http:/ / www. spartacus. schoolnet. co. uk/ VNdienbein. htm
[86] http:/ / www. dienbienphu. org
[87] http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,860710,00. html
[88] http:/ / www. dienbienphu. org/
[89] http:/ / www. memorial-indochine. org/ 1_en_pourquoi. php
[90] http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ library/ report/ 1991/ BHD. htm
[91] http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ library/ report/ 1991/ FRF. htm
[92] http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ peoplescentury/ episodes/ guerrillawars/ giaptranscript. html
[93] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071216092215rn_1/ www. historynet. com/ magazines/ vietnam/ 3030251. html
[94] http:/ / www. militaryhistoryonline. com/ vietnam/ articles/ dienbienphu. aspx
[95] http:/ / www. militaryhistoryonline. com/ 20thcentury/ articles/ dienbienphu. aspx
[96] http:/ / www. anapi. asso. fr/ en
[97] http:/ / www. clemson. edu/ caah/ history/ FacultyPages/ EdMoise/ 1954. html
[98] http:/ / www. dailymotion. com/ video/ x1ziw4_dien-bien-phu-051954
[99] http:/ / www. dailymotion. com/ video/ x2082a_john-foster-dulles-on-the-fall-of-d
[100] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=th7tImvzutc
[101] http:/ / www. dailymotion. com/ video/ x1zjot_dien-bien-phu-schoendoerffer_news
[102] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=9n0Tc_9NN3A
[103] http:/ / www. dailymotion. com/ video/ xcovoq_dien-bien-phu-commentaire-audio-sch_news
[104] http:/ / www. dailymotion. com/ video/ x203x5_50e-anniversaire-de-dien-bien-phu
[105] http:/ / www. dailymotion. com/ video/ x2059h_bigeard-et-dien-bien-phu
[106] http:/ / www. dailymotion. com/ video/ xcpdkx_portrait-de-jean-peraud-par-schoend_news
[107] http:/ / www. ecpad. fr/ ecpa/ PagesDyn/ result. asp?dossierID=16& photo=1& collectionid=4
[108] http:/ / www. ecpad. fr/ ecpa/ PagesDyn/ result. asp?dossierID=14& photo=1& collectionid=4
[109] http:/ / www. ecpad. fr/ ecpa/ PagesDyn/ result. asp?dossierID=13& photo=1& collectionid=4
Viet Minh 978

Viet Minh
The Việt Minh pronunciation (abbreviated from Việt Nam Ðộc Lập
Ðồng Minh Hội, English "League for the Independence of Vietnam")
was a national independence movement founded in South China on
May 19, 1941 .[1] The Việt Minh initially formed to seek independence
for Vietnam from the French Empire. When the Japanese occupation
began, the Việt Minh opposed Japan with support from the United
States and the Republic of China. After the Second World War the Việt
Minh opposed the re-occupation of Vietnam by France and later
opposed the United States in the Vietnam War. The Viet Minh flag.

World War II
During World War II, Japan occupied French Indochina. As well as fighting the French, the Việt Minh started a
campaign against the Japanese. Due to their opposition to the Japanese, the Việt Minh received funding from the
United States and the Republic of China, although the Chinese Nationalists imprisoned Hồ Chí Minh for more than a
year during the fight against the Japanese for being a Communist. When Japan surrendered in August 1945, the
Japanese handed over control of some public buildings and weapons requisitioned from the French army to the Việt
Minh, now led by Hồ Chí Minh, after turning in the Vietnamese nationalist leaders of the Việt Minh to the French
colonialists. Việt Minh also recruited more than 600 of the Japanese soldiers, who fought in the war against France
until 1954. After the nationalist organizations proclaimed the independence of Việt Nam, Hồ proclaimed the
Democratic Republic of Vietnam on September 2, 1945.

First Indochina War

However, within days the Chinese Kuomintang (Nationalist) Army arrived in Vietnam to supervise the repatriation
of the Japanese Imperial Army. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam therefore existed only in theory and effectively
controlled no territory. A few months later, the Chinese, Vietnamese and French came to a three-way understanding.
The French gave up certain rights in China, the Việt Minh agreed to the return of the French in exchange for
promises of independence within the French Union, and the Chinese agreed to leave. Negotiations between the
French and Việt Minh broke down quickly. What followed was nearly ten years of war against France. This was
known as the First Indochina War or, to the Vietnamese, the French War.
The Việt Minh, who were short on modern military knowledge, created a military school in Tỉnh Quảng Ngãi on
June 1946. More than 400 Vietnamese were trained by Japanese soldiers in this school. These soldiers were
considered to be students of the Japanese and were feared by the French army in the First Indochina War. Later,
some of them fought as generals against the United States in the Vietnam War.
French General Jean-Etienne Valluy quickly pushed the Việt Minh out of Hanoi. His French infantry with armored
units went through Hanoi, fighting small battles against isolated Việt Minh groups. The French encircled the Việt
Minh base, Việt Bắc in 1947, but failed to defeat the Việt Minh forces, and had to retreat soon after. The campaign is
now widely considered a Việt Minh victory over the well-equipped French force.
The Việt Minh continued fighting against the French until 1949, when the border of China and Viet Nam was linked
together as the result of the campaign called Chiến dịch Biên giới (Borderland Campaign). The newly Communist
People's Republic of China gave the Việt Minh both sheltered bases and heavy weapons with which to fight the
French. With the additional weapons, the Việt Minh were able to take control over many rural areas of the country.
Soon after that, they began to advance towards the French occupied areas.
Viet Minh 979

North Vietnam
Following their defeat at the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ, the French began negotiations to leave Vietnam. As a result of
peace accords worked out at the Geneva Conference in Geneva, Switzerland, Vietnam was divided into North
Vietnam and South Vietnam at the 17th Parallel as a temporary measure until unifying elections would take place in
1956. Transfer of civil administration of North Vietnam to the Việt Minh was given on October 11, 1954. Hồ Chí
Minh was appointed Prime Minister of North Vietnam, which would be run as a socialist state. Ngô Đình Diệm, who
was previously appointed Prime Minister of South Vietnam by Emperor Bảo Đại, eventually assumed control of
South Vietnam. In the words of U.S. President Eisenhower:
It was generally conceded that had an election been held, Hồ Chí Minh would have been elected
Premier. Unhappily, the situation was exacerbated by the almost total lack of leadership displayed by the
Vietnamese Chief of State, Bảo Đại, who, while nominally the head of that nation, chose to spend the
bulk of his time in the spas of Europe rather than in his own land leading his armies against those of
Communism.[2]
South Vietnam and its chief supporter, the United States, were not signatories to the 1954 agreement but did agree to
respect its conditions. However, South Vietnam, with the backing of the United States, refused to hold unifying
elections, claiming that Hồ Chí Minh could not be trusted due to his affiliation with Communism.

The 'Khmer Viet Minh'

'Khmer Viet Minh' were the 3,000 to 5,000 Cambodian communist cadres who lived in exile in North Vietnam after
the 1954 Geneva Conference. It was a derogatory term used by Norodom Sihanouk, dismissing the Cambodian
leftists who had been organizing pro-independence agitations in alliance with the Vietnamese.[3] Sihanouk's public
criticism and mockery of the 'Khmer Viet Minh' had the damaging effect of increasing the power of the hardline,
anti-Vietnamese, but also anti-monarchist, members of the CPK, led by Pol Pot.[4]
The 'Khmer Viet Minh' were instrumental in the foundation of the Cambodian Salvation Front (FUNSK) in 1978.
The FUNSK invaded Cambodia along with the Vietnamese Army and overthrew the Democratic Kampuchea Pol Pot
state. Many of the 'Khmer Viet Minh' had married Vietnamese women during their long exile in Vietnam.[5]

Note
The Việt Nam Ðộc Lập Ðồng Minh Hội is not to be confused with the Việt Nam Cách Mạng Ðồng Minh Hội (League
for the Vietnamese Revolution, abbreviated as Việt Cách) which was founded by Nguyễn Hai Than and Hồ Ngoc
Lam, and which later joined the Vietnamese National Coalition in 1946.

See also
• History of Vietnam
• August Revolution
• Communist Party of Vietnam
Viet Minh 980

References
• Collection of Official Documents on Vietnam History [6]
• Vietnamese Declaration of Independence [7]

References
[1] The Việt Nam Ðộc Lập Ðồng Minh Hội had previously formed in Nanjing, China, at some point between August 1935 and early 1936 when
the non-communist Vietnamese Nationalist of other Vietnamese nationalist parties formed an anti-imperialist united front. This organisation
soon lapsed into inactivity, only to be revived by the ICP and Ho Chi Minh in 1941. NGUYEN, Sai D. "The National Flag of Viet Nam."
http:/ / www. vpac-usa. org/ flag/ The%20National%20Flag%20of%20VN. pdf Quinn-Judge, Ho Chi Minh: The Missing Years, pp.212-3.
[2] Eisenhower, Dwight (1963). Mandate for Change, 1953-1956. Garden City, New York: Doubleday. pp. 337–38.
[3] LOC - Appendix B (http:/ / lcweb2. loc. gov/ frd/ cs/ cambodia/ kh_appnb. html)
[4] Ben Kiernan. How Pol Pot came to power, Yale University Press, 2004, p.227
[5] Margaret Slocomb, The People's Republic of Kampuchea, 1979-1989: The revolution after Pol Pot ISBN 9789749575345
[6] http:/ / www. mtholyoke. edu/ acad/ intrel/ vietnam. htm
[7] http:/ / www. mtholyoke. edu/ acad/ intrel/ vietdec. htm

French Indochina

Indochina in 1891 (from Le Monde

Illustré).
1. Panorama of Lac-Kaï, French
outpost in China.
2. Yun-nan, in the quay of Hanoi.
3. Flooded street of Hanoi.
4. Landing stage of Hanoi

French Indochina (French: Indochine française; Vietnamese: Đông Dương thuộc Pháp, pronounced [ɗoŋm zɰəŋ tʰuə̀k fǎp], frequently
abbreviated to Đông Pháp) was part of the French colonial empire in southeast Asia. A federation of the three Vietnamese regions, Tonkin (North),
Annam (Central), and Cochinchina (South), as well as Cambodia, was formed in 1887. Laos was added in 1893 and Kouang-Tchéou-Wan in 1900.
The capital was moved from Saigon (in Cochinchina) to Hanoi (Tonkin) in 1902. During World War II, the colony was administered by Vichy
France and was under Japanese occupation. Beginning in May 1941, the Viet Minh, a communist army led by Ho Chi Minh, began a revolt against
French rule known as the First Indochina War. In Saigon, the anti-Communist State of Vietnam, led by former Emperor Bảo Đại, was granted
independence in 1949. Following the Geneva Accord of 1954, the Viet Minh became the government of North Vietnam, although the Bảo Đại
government continued to rule in the South. The colonial administration of Annam was dissolved in 1955 and the region was split between North and
South, as provided for in the Geneva Accord.
French Indochina 981

World War II
In September 1940, during World War II, the newly created regime of Vichy France granted Japan's demands for military access to Tonkin with the
invasion of French Indochina (or Vietnam Expedition). This allowed Japan better access to China in the Second Sino-Japanese War against the
forces of Chiang Kai-shek, but it was also part of Japan's strategy for dominion over the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.
Thailand took this opportunity of weakness to reclaim previously lost territories, resulting in the French-Thai War between October 1940 and 9 May
1941.
On 9 March 1945, with France liberated, Germany in retreat, and the United States ascendant in the Pacific, Japan decided to take complete control
of Indochina. The Japanese launched the Second French Indochina Campaign. The Japanese kept power in Indochina until the news of their
government's surrender came through in August.

First Indochina War

After the war, France petitioned for the nullification of the 1938 Franco-Siamese Treaty and attempted to reassert itself in the region, but came into
conflict with the Viet Minh, a coalition of Communist and Vietnamese nationalists under French-educated dissident Ho Chi Minh. During World
War II, the United States had supported the Viet Minh in resistance against the Japanese; the group had been in control of the countryside since the
French gave way in March 1945.
After persuading Emperor Bảo Đại to abdicate in his favour, on September 2, 1945 President Ho declared independence for the Democratic
Republic of Vietnam. But before September's end, a force of British, French, and Indian soldiers, along with captured Japanese troops, restored
French control. Bitter fighting ensued in the First Indochina War. In 1950 Ho again declared an independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam,
which was recognized by the fellow Communist governments of China and the Soviet Union. Fighting lasted until March 1954, when the Viet Minh
won the decisive victory against French forces at the gruelling Battle of Dien Bien Phu.

Indochina in 1954.

Geneva Agreements
On April 27, 1954, the Geneva Conference produced the Geneva Agreements; supporting the territorial integrity and sovereignty of Indochina,
granting it independence from France, declaring the cessation of hostilities and foreign involvement in internal Indochina affairs, delineating
northern and southern zones into which opposing troops were to withdraw, they mandated unification on the basis of internationally supervised free
[1]
elections to be held in July 1956. It also settled a number of outstanding disputes relating to the Korean War. It was at this conference that France
relinquished any claim to territory in the Indochinese peninsula. Neither the U.S. nor South Vietnam signed the Geneva Accords. South Vietnamese
leader Diem rejected the idea of nationwide election as proposed in the agreement, saying that a free election was impossible in the communist
North and that his government was not bound by the Geneva Accords.
The events of 1954 marked the beginnings of serious involvement in Vietnam by the United States which led to the Vietnam War. Laos and
Cambodia also became independent in 1954, but were both drawn into the Vietnam War.
French Indochina 982

See also
• List of colonial heads of French Indochina

Notes

References
• Brocheux, Pierre, and Daniel Hemery. Indochina: An Ambiguous Colonization, 1858–1954 (University of
California Press; 2010) 490 pages; a history of French Indochina.
• Chandler, David (2007). A History of Cambodia. Boulder, Colorado:: Westview Press. ISBN 0813343631.
• Duiker, William (1976). The Rise of Nationalism in Vietnam, 1900-1941. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University
Press. ISBN 0801409519.
• Edwards, Penny (2007). Cambodge: The Cultivation of a Nation, 1860–1945. Honolulu: University of Hawaii
Press. ISBN 0824829239.
• Evans, Grant (2002). A Short History of Laos. Crow's Nest, Australia: Allen and Unwin. ASIN: B000MBU21O.
• Marr, David (1971). Vietnamese Anticolonialism, 1885–1925. Berkeley: University of California Press.
ISBN 0520018133.
• Marr, David (1982). Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920–1945. Berkeley: University of California Press.
ISBN 0520041801.
• Marr, David (1995). Vietnam 1945: The Quest for Power. Berkeley: University of California Press.
ISBN 0520078330.
• McLeod, Mark (1991). The Vietnamese Response to French Intervention, 1862–1874. New York: Praeger.
ISBN 0275935620.
• Murray, Martin J. (1980). The Development of Capitalism in Colonial Indochina (1870–1940). Berkeley:
University of California Press. ISBN 0520040007.
• Osborne, Milton (1969). The French Presence in Cochinchina and Cambodia: Rule and Response (1859–1905).
Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. ASIN: B000K13QGO.
• Perkins, Mandaley (2006). Hanoi, Adieu: A bittersweet memoir of French Indochina, Sydney, Harper Perennial,
ISBN 9780 7322 8197 7, ISBN 0 7322 8197 0
• Stuart-Fox, Martin (1997). A History of Laos. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521592356.
• Tarling, Nicholas (2001). Imperialism in Southeast Asia: "A Fleeting, Passing Phase". London and New York:
Routledge. ISBN 0415232899.
• Tully, John (2003). France on the Mekong: A History of the Protectorate in Cambodia, 1863–1953. Lanham,
Maryland: University Press of America. ISBN 0761824316.
• Woodside, Alexander (1976). Community and Revolution in Modern Vietnam. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
ISBN 0395203678.
• Zinoman, Peter (2001). The Colonial Bastille: A History of Imprisonment in Vietnam, 1862–1940. Berkeley:
University of California Press. ISBN 0520224124.
French Indochina 983

Establishment of French Indochina

France obtained control over northern Vietnam following its victory
over China in the Sino-French war (1884–1885). French Indochina
was formed in October 1887 from Annam, Tonkin, Cochinchina
(which together form modern Vietnam) and the Kingdom of
Cambodia; Laos was added after the Franco-Siamese War.
The federation lasted until 1954. In the four protectorates, the French
formally left the local rulers in power, who were the Emperors of
Vietnam, Kings of Cambodia, and Kings of Luang Prabang, but in fact
gathered all powers in their hands, the local rulers acting only as
figureheads.

Vietnamese rebellions
French troops landed in Vietnam in 1858 and by the mid 1880s they
French marine infantrymen in Tonkin, 1884
had established a firm grip over the northern region. From 1885 to
1895, Phan Đình Phùng led a rebellion against the colonizing power.
Nationalist sentiments intensified in Vietnam, especially during and
after World War I, but all the uprisings and tentative efforts failed to
obtain any concessions from the French overseers.

Expansion of French Indochina (in blue).

French Indochina 984

Franco-Siamese war (1893)

Siamese army in the disputed territory of Laos in
1893.
north-eastern Burma to the British, and cede Laos to France.
Territorial conflict in the Indochinese peninsula for the expansion of
French Indochina led to the Franco-Siamese War of 1893. In 1893 the
French authorities in Indochina used border disputes, followed by the
Paknam naval incident, to provoke a crisis. French gunboats appeared
at Bangkok, and demanded the cession of Lao territories east of the
Mekong. King Chulalongkorn appealed to the British, but the British
minister told the King to settle on whatever terms he could get, and he
had no choice but to comply. Britain's only gesture was an agreement
with France guaranteeing the integrity of the rest of Siam. In exchange,
Siam had to give up its claim to the Tai-speaking Shan region of

Further encroachments on Siam (1904–1907)

The French, however, continued to pressure Siam, and in 1906–1907
they manufactured another crisis. This time Siam had to concede
French control of territory on the west bank of the Mekong opposite
Luang Prabang and around Champasak in southern Laos, as well as
western Cambodia. France also occupied the western part of
Chantaburi. In 1904, in order to get back Chantaburi Siam had to give
Trat to French Indochina. Trat became part of Thailand again on
March 23, 1906 in exchange for many areas east of the Mekong river
like Battambang, Siam Nakhon and Sisophon.

Occupation of Trat by French troops in 1904.

French Indochina 985

In the 1930s, Siam engaged France in a series of talks concerning the

repatriation of Siamese provinces held by the French. In 1938, under
the Front Populaire administration in Paris, France had agreed to
repatriate Angkor Wat, Angkor Thom, Siam Reap, Siam Pang and the
associated provinces (approximately 13) to Siam. Meanwhile, Siam
took over control of those areas, in anticipation of the upcoming treaty.
Signatories from each country were dispatched to Tokyo to sign the
treaty repatriating the lost provinces.

Viet Nam Quoc Dan Dang

On February 10, 1930, there was an uprising by Vietnamese soldiers in
the French colonial army's Yen Bai garrison. The Yên Bái mutiny was
sponsored by the Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng (VNQDD). The VNQDD
was the Vietnamese Nationalist Party. The attack was the largest
disturbance brewed up by the Can Vuong monarchist restoration
movement of the late 19th century. The aim of the revolt was to inspire
a wider uprising among the general populace in an attempt to
overthrow the colonial authority. The VNQDD had previously
French Indochina in 1913.
attempted to engage in clandestine activities to undermine French rule,
but increasing French scrutiny on their activities led to their leadership
group taking the risk of staging a large scale military attack in the Red River Delta in northern Vietnam.

French-Thai War (1940–1941)

During World War II, Thailand took the opportunity of French weaknesses to reclaim previously lost territories,
resulting in the French-Thai War between October 1940 and 9 May 1941. The Thai forces generally did well on the
ground, but Thai objectives in the war were limited. In January, Vichy French naval forces decisively defeated Thai
naval forces in the Battle of Koh Chang. The war ended in May at the instigation of the Japanese, with the French
forced to concede territorial gains for Thailand.

First French interventions

France-Vietnam relations started as early as the 17th century with the mission of the Jesuit, Father Alexandre de
Rhodes. At this time, Vietnam was only just beginning to occupy the Mekong Delta, former territory of the
Indianized kingdom of Champa they had defeated in 1471.[1] European involvement in Vietnam was confined to
trade during the 18th century. In 1787, Pigneau de Béhaine petitioned the French government and organized French
military volunteers to aid Nguyễn Ánh in retaking lands lost to the Tây Sơn. Pigneau died in Viet Nam, his troops
fought on until 1802. France was heavily involved in Vietnam in the 19th century; protecting the work of the Paris
Foreign Missions Society in the country was often presented as a justification. For its part, the Nguyễn Dynasty
increasingly saw Catholic missionaries as a political threat; courtesans, for example, an influential faction in the
dynastic system, feared for their status in a society influenced by an insistence on monogamy.
In 1858, the brief period of unification under the Nguyễn Dynasty ended with a successful attack on Da Nang by
Charles Rigault de Genouilly. Diplomat Charles de Montigny's mission having failed, Genouilly's mission was to
stop attempts to expel Catholic missionaries. His orders, from Napoleon III, were to stop the persecution of
missionaries and assure the unimpeded propagation of the faith.[1] In September, 14 French gunships, 3,000 men and
300 Filipino troops provided by the Spanish,[2] attacked the port of Tourane (present day Da Nang), causing
significant damages, and occupying the city. After a few months, Rigault had to leave the city due to supply issues
French Indochina 986

and illnesses.[1]
Sailing south, De Genouilly then captured the poorly defended city of Sai Gon (present day Ho Chi Minh City), on
18 February 1859. On 13 April 1862, the Vietnamese government was forced to cede the territories of Biên Hòa, Gia
Định and Dinh Tuong to France. De Genouilly was criticized for his actions and was replaced by Admiral Page in
November 1859, with instructions to obtain a treaty protecting the Catholic faith in Vietnam, but not to try to obtain
territorial gains.[1] However, French policy four years later saw a reversal; French territory in Viet Nam continued to
accumulate. In 1862, France obtained concessions from Emperor Tự Đức, ceding three treaty ports in Annam and
Tonkin, and all of Cochinchina, the latter being formally declared a French territory in 1864. In 1867 the provinces
of Chau Doc, Ha Tien and Vĩnh Long were added to French controlled territory.
In 1863, the Cambodian king Norodom had requested the establishment of a French protectorate over his country. In
1867, Siam (modern Thailand) renounced suzerainty over Cambodia and officially recognized the 1863 French
protectorate on Cambodia, in exchange for the control of Battambang and Siem Reap provinces which officially
became part of Thailand (These provinces would be ceded back to Cambodia by a border treaty between France and
Siam in 1906).

References
[1] Tucker, Spencer C. (1999) (Google Book Search). Vietnam (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=WZry2NaH2_sC& pg=PA29). University
Press of Kentucky. pp. 29. ISBN 0813109663. .
[2] Chapuis, Oscar (1995) (Google Book Search). A History of Vietnam: From Hong Bang to Tu Duc (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=Jskyi00bspcC). Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 195. ISBN 0313296227. .
French Foreign Legion 987

French Foreign Legion

French Foreign Legion

The Legion emblem.

Active 10 March 1831—present

Country France

Branch French Army

Role Military force

Size c. 7,700 men in nine regiments and one sub-unit

Garrison/HQ Aubagne (Headquarters)

Metropolitan France (5 regiments)
French Guiana (3rd Infantry Regiment)
Djibouti (13th Demi-Brigade)
Mayotte (Detachment)

Motto "Legio Irus Actica" (The Legion is our Strength)

"Legio Patria Nostra" (The Legion is our
Fatherland)
"Honneur et Fidélité" (Honour and Fidelity)
"Marche ou crève" (March or die, unofficial)

March Le Boudin

Anniversaries Camerone Day (30 April) and Christmas

Commanders

Current Brigade General Alain Bouquin

commander
French Foreign Legion 988

The French Foreign Legion (French: Légion étrangère) is a unique

military unit in the French Army established in 1831. The legion was
specifically created for foreign nationals wishing to serve in the French
Armed Forces, but commanded by French officers. However, it is also
open to French citizens, who amounted to 24% of the recruits as of
2007.[1]

The Legion is today known as an elite military unit whose training

focuses not only on traditional military skills but also on its strong
esprit de corps. As its men come from different countries with
different cultures, this is a widely accepted solution to strengthen them
enough to work as a team. Consequently, training is often described as
not only physically challenging, but also extremely stressful
psychologically.
Legionnaires honour guard of the 2nd Foreign
Parachute Regiment stands at attention as they
await the arrival of Lt. Gen. Khalid Bin Sultan
Bin Abdul Aziz, commander of Joint Forces in
Saudi Arabia, during Operation Desert Shield.
The soldier in front is holding a 5.56mm FAMAS
rifle, equipped with a bayonet.

History
The French Foreign Legion was created by Louis Philippe, the King of the French, on 10 March 1831. The direct
reason was that foreigners were forbidden to serve in the French Army after the 1830 July Revolution, so the Legion
was created to allow the government a way around this restriction.[2] The purpose of the Legion was to remove
disruptive elements from society and put them to use fighting the enemies of France. Recruits included failed
revolutionaries from the rest of Europe, soldiers from the disbanded foreign regiments, and troublemakers in general,
both foreign and French. Algeria was designated as the Legion's home.

In late 1831, the first Legionnaires landed in Algeria, the country that would be the Legion's homeland for 130 years
and shape its character. The early years in Algeria were hard for Legionnaires because they were often sent to the
worst postings, received the worst assignments and were generally uninterested in the new colony of the French.[3]
The Legion's first service in Algeria came to an end after only four years, as it was needed elsewhere.
The Legion was primarily used to protect and expand the French colonial empire during the 19th century, but it also
fought in almost all French wars including the Franco-Prussian War and both World Wars. The Foreign Legion has
remained an important part of the French Army, surviving three Republics, The Second French Empire, two World
Wars, the rise and fall of mass conscript armies, the dismantling of the French colonial empire and the French loss of
the legion's base, Algeria.
French Foreign Legion 989

Spain
To support Isabella's claim to the Spanish throne against her uncle, the
French government decided to send the Legion to Spain. On 28 June
1835, the unit was handed over to the Spanish government. The Legion
landed at Tarragona on 17 August with around 4,000 men who were
quickly dubbed Los Argelinos (the Algerians) by locals because of
their previous posting.

The Legion's commander immediately dissolved the national battalions

to improve the esprit de corps. Later, he also created three squadrons
of lancers and an artillery battery from the existing force to increase
independence and flexibility. The Legion was dissolved on 8
December 1838, when it had dropped to only 500 men. The survivors
returned to France, many reenlisting in the new Legion along with
many of their former Carlist enemies.

The Légion Étrangère in 1852

Mexico
It was in Mexico on 30 April 1863 that the Legion earned its legendary
status. A company led by Capitaine Danjou, numbering 62 soldiers and
3 officers, was escorting a convoy to the besieged city of Puebla when
it was attacked and besieged by two thousand revolutionaries,[4]
organised in three battalions of infantry and cavalry, numbering 1,200
and 800 respectively. The patrol was forced to make a defence in
Hacienda Camarón, and despite the hopelessness of the situation,
fought nearly to the last man. When only six survivors remained, out of
ammunition, a bayonet charge was conducted in which three of the six
Captain Danjou's prosthesic wooden hand
were killed. The remaining three were brought before the Mexican
general, who allowed them to return to France as an honour guard for
the body of Capitaine Danjou. The captain had a wooden hand which was stolen during the battle; it was later
returned to the Legion and is now kept in a case in the Foreign Legion museum at Aubagne, and paraded annually on
Camerone Day. It is the Legion's most precious relic.

Franco-Prussian War
According to French law, the Legion was not to be used within Metropolitan France except in the case of a national
invasion, and was consequently not a part of Napoleon III’s Imperial Army that capitulated at Sedan. With the defeat
of the Imperial Army, the Second French Empire fell and the Third Republic was created.
The new Third Republic was desperately short of trained soldiers in the Franco-Prussian War, so the Legion was
ordered to provide a contingent. On 11 October 1870 two provisional battalions disembarked at Toulon, the first time
the Legion had been deployed in France itself. They attempted to lift the Siege of Paris by breaking through the
German lines. They succeeded in re-taking Orléans, but failed to break the siege.
French Foreign Legion 990

19th century colonial warfare

During the Third Republic, the Legion played a major role in French colonial expansion. They fought in North
Africa (where they established their headquarters at Sidi Bel Abbès in Algeria), Benin, Madagascar, Indochina and
Taiwan.

Tonkin campaign and Sino-French War

The Legion's 1st Battalion (Lieutenant-Colonel Donnier) was sent to
Tonkin in the autumn of 1883, during the period of undeclared hostilities
that preceded the Sino-French War (August 1884 to April 1885), and
formed part of the attack column that stormed the western gate of Son Tay
on 16 December. The 2nd and 3rd infantry battalions (chef de bataillon
Diguet and Lieutenant-Colonel Schoeffer) were also deployed to Tonkin
shortly afterwards, and were present in all the major campaigns of the
Sino-French War. Two Legion companies led the defence at the celebrated
Siege of Tuyen Quang (24 November 1884 to 3 March 1885). In January
1885 the Legion's 4th Battalion (chef de bataillon Vitalis) was deployed to
the French bridgehead at Keelung (Jilong) in Formosa (Taiwan), where it
took part in the later battles of the Keelung Campaign. The battalion played
Soldier of the Foreign Legion at
an important role in Colonel Jacques Duchesne's offensive in March 1885
Keelung, January 1885
that captured the key Chinese positions of La Table and Fort Bamboo and
disengaged Keelung.

In December 1883, during a review of the 2nd Legion Battalion on the eve
of its departure for Tonkin to take part in the Bac Ninh campaign, General
François de Négrier pronounced a famous mot: Vous, légionnaires, vous
êtes soldats pour mourir, et je vous envoie où l’on meurt! ('You,
Legionnaires, you are soldiers in order to die, and I'm sending you to where
one dies!')

World War I
In World War I, the Legion fought in many critical battles of the war, on
the Western Front including Artois, Champagne, Somme, Aisne, Verdun
(in 1917) and also suffered heavy casualties during 1918. The Legion was
also in the Dardanelles and Macedonian front, and the Legion was highly
decorated for its efforts. Many young foreigners, including Americans like
A Legionnaire sniper at Tuyen Quang
Fred Zinn, volunteered for the Legion when the war broke out in 1914.
There were marked differences between such idealistic volunteers as the
poet Alan Seeger and the hardened mercenaries of the old Legion, making assimilation difficult. Nevertheless, the
old and the new men of the Legion fought and died in vicious battles on the Western front, including
Belloy-en-Santerre during the Battle of the Somme, where Seeger, after being mortally wounded by machine gun
fire, cheered on the rest of his advancing battalion.[5]
French Foreign Legion 991

As most European countries and the US were drawn into the War, many of the
newer "duration only" volunteers who managed to survive the first years of the
war were generally released from the Legion to join their respective national
armies. Citizens of the Central Powers serving with the Legion on the outbreak
of war were normally posted to garrisons in North Africa to avoid problems of
divided loyalties.

Monument commemorating the

soldiers of the Foreign Legion killed
on duty during the South-oranais
campaign (1897-1902).

Between the World Wars

In 1932, the Legion comprised 30,000 men in 6 multi-battalion
regiments:
• 1st - Algeria and Syria
• 2d, 3d, and 4th - Morocco
• 5th - Indochina
• 1st Cavalry - Tunisia and Morocco.

The Legion in Morocco in 1920

World War II
The Foreign Legion played a smaller role in World War II, though
having a part in the Norwegian, Syrian and North African campaigns. The 13th Demi-Brigade was deployed in the
Battle of Bir Hakeim. Reflecting the divided loyalties of the time, part of the Legion joined the Free French
movement while another part served the Vichy government. A battle in the Syria-Lebanon campaign of June 1941
saw legionnaire fighting legionnaire as the 13th Demi-Brigade (D.B.L.E.) clashed with the 6th Régiment Etranger
d'Infanterie at Damas in Syria. Later, 1,000 of the rank and file of the Vichy Legion unit joined the 13th D.B.L.E. of
the Free French forces as a third battalion. Following the war, many former German soldiers joined the Legion to
pursue a military career with an elite unit, an option that was no longer possible in Germany. Germans still constitute
a strong presence in the Legion.
French Foreign Legion 992

First Indochina War

Units of the Legion were involved in the defence of Dien Bien Phu during the
First Indochina War and lost a large number of men in the battle. Towards the
end of the battle, Legionnaires formed the bulk of the volunteer relief force
delivered by parachute to the base.

Algerian War
The Legion was heavily engaged in fighting against the National Liberation
Front and other, smaller groups in the Algerian War of Independence from 1954
to 1962. Notable operations included the Battle of Algiers and various offensives
launched by General Maurice Challe including Operations Oranie and Jumelles.
A legionnaire marches ahead of an
M-24 Chaffee light tank in Indochina
in 1954.

Post-colonial Africa
In spite of the view on the part of some that the Legion had by 1962
become an anachronism, the Legion found a new role as a rapid
intervention force to preserve French interests not only in its former
African colonies but in other nations as well. Some notable operations
include: the Suez Crisis in 1956; the Chadian-Libyan conflict in
1969-72, 1978–79, and 1983–87; Kolwezi in what is now the
Democratic Republic of the Congo in May 1978; Rwanda in 1990-94;
and the Côte d'Ivoire (the Ivory Coast) in 2002 to the present.

1962–1991
• 1969–1971: interventions in Chad
• 1978 : Battle of Kolwezi (Zaïre)
Battle of Kolwezi, 1978.

Gulf War
In September 1990, the 1e REC, the 2e REI, and the 6e REG were sent
to the Persian Gulf as a part of Opération Daguet. They were a part of
the French 6th Light Armoured Division, whose mission was to protect
the coalition's left flank. After a four-week air campaign, coalition
forces launched the ground campaign. It quickly penetrated deep into
Iraq, with the Legion taking the Al Salman airport, meeting little
resistance. The war ended after a hundred hours of fighting on the
ground, which resulted in very light casualties for the Legion. A Foreign Legion soldier with a captured rebel,
Ivory Coast, 10 August 2004.
French Foreign Legion 993

1991-Present
• 1991 : Evacuation of French citizens and foreigners in Rwanda,
Gabon and Zaïre.
• 1992 : Cambodge and Somalia
• 1993 : Sarajevo (Ex-Yugoslavia)
• 1995 : Rwanda
• 1996 : Centrafrique
• 1997 : Congo-Brazzaville
• Since 2001 : Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan
• 2002-2003 : opération Licorne in Côte d’Ivoire
French legionnaire using an FR F2 in
• 2008 : EUFOR Tchad/RCA in Tchad. Afghanistan (2007).

Membership
Open to people of any nationality, most Legionnaires still come from European countries but a growing percentage
comes from Latin-America, 24%. Most of the Legion's commissioned officers are French with approximately 10%
being former Legionnaires who have risen through the ranks.
Membership of the Legion is often a reflection of political shifts: specific national representations generally surge
whenever a country has a political crisis and tend to subside once the crisis is over and the flow of recruits dries up.
After the First World War, many (Tsarist) Russians joined. Immediately before the Second World War, Czechs,
Poles and Jews from Eastern Europe fled to France and ended up enlisting in the Legion. Following the break-up of
Yugoslavia, there were many Serbian nationals. Also in the 1990s, the collapse of the Soviet Union, and the changes
in the former Warsaw Pact countries, led to an increase in recruitment from Poland and from the former republics of
the USSR.
However, in addition to the fluctuating numbers of political refugees, asylum seekers and economic migrants from a
wide variety of nations, there has been, since the end of World War Two, a strong core from Germany and Britain.
The Legion appears to have become as much a part of these two nations' culture as a French institution, and a certain
stability in recruitment levels has developed.
After the fall of the Third Reich, Germans, long a major presence in the legion, are believed to have accounted for
roughly sixty percent of its manpower.. After the war, the French administered two zones of Western Germany
adjacent to France. In these zones, recruitment offices enabled many former German POWs to join the legion almost
immediately after their release from prison camps. However, Bernard B. Fall, a leading expert on French Indochina
and the author of the famous accounts Street without Joy and Hell in a Very Small Place, disputes this figure and
claims that Germans made up thirty-five percent of the Legion at most in the post-WWII period. Nevertheless, the
image of a German-dominated postwar Foreign Legion is the setting for the well-known novel Devil's Guard, which
narrates a former Waffen-SS member's brutal experience of joining the Legion and fighting alongside other former
SS against the Viet Minh in Indochina.
During the late 1980s, the Legion saw a large intake of trained soldiers from the UK. These men had left the British
Army following its restructuring and the Legion's parachute unit was a popular destination. At one point, the famous
2eme REP had such a large number of British citizens amongst the ranks that it was a standing joke that the unit was
really called '2eme PARA', a reference to the 2nd Battalion, the Parachute Regiment of the British Army.
While no serious studies have been made of the motives for enlistment over the years, the majority in the Legion's
ranks were either those transient souls in need of escape and a regular wage, or refugees from countries undergoing
crises. In recent years, however, the improved conditions and professionalism of the Legion have in turn attracted a
new kind of 'vocational' recruit, from middle-class backgrounds in stable and prosperous countries, such as the US,
Britain and France itself.
French Foreign Legion 994

In the past, the Legion had a reputation for attracting criminals on the run and would-be mercenaries, but the
admissions process is now severely restricted and background checks are performed on all applicants. Generally
speaking, convicted felons are prohibited from joining the service. Legionnaires must enlist under a pseudonym
("declared identity"). This disposition exists in order to allow people who want to start their lives over to enlist.
French citizens can enlist under a declared, fictitious, foreign citizenship (generally, a francophone one, often that of
Canada or Monaco). After one year's service, Legionnaires can regularise their situation under their true identity.
After serving in the Legion for three years, a legionnaire may apply for French citizenship.[6] He must be serving
under his real name, must no longer have problems with the authorities, and must have served with “honour and
fidelity”. Furthermore, a soldier who becomes injured during a battle for France can apply for French citizenship
under a provision known as “Français par le sang versé” ("French by spilled blood").
Officially, there has been only one woman member, Briton Susan Travers who joined Free French Forces during the
Second World War and became a member of the Legion after the war, serving in Vietnam during the First Indochina
War.[7]

Ranks

Soldats du rang (Basic Legionnaire)

All French Foreign Legion NCOs (Non Commissioned Officers) begin
their careers as legionnaires with one in four becoming an NCO.

A Caporal-chef of the sappers.

French Foreign Legion 995

Legion rank Equivalent rank Period of service Insignia

Engagé Volontaire Recruit 15 weeks basic training. None

Legionnaire 2e Classe 2nd Class Legionnaire On completion of training. None

Legionnaire 1e Classe 1st Class Legionnaire Within 2 years of service.

Caporal Corporal After 2 years of service.

Caporal Chef Senior Corporal After 6 years of service.

(No further promotions are given on attaining this rank.)

Table note: Insignia in the Legion do use gold indicating Foot Arms in the French Army. But the Légion étrangère
service color is green not red (Infantry), as shown.

Sous-Officiers (Non-commissioned Officers)

Sous-officiers account for 25% of the current legion's total manpower.

Legion rank Equivalent rank Period of service Insignia

Sergent Sergeant After 3 years of service.

Sergent Chef Senior Sergeant After 3 years as Sergent and between 7 to 14 years of service.

Adjudant Warrant Officer After 3 years as Sergent Chef.

Adjudant Senior Warrant Officer After 4 years as Adjutant and at least 14 years service.
Chef

Major † Regimental Sergeant Appointment by either: (i) passing an examination

Major (ii). promotion after a minimum of 14 years service without an examination.

^ †: Since 1st January 2009, the French military rank of Major has been attached to the Sous-officiers. Prior to this,
Major was an independent rank between NCOs and commissioned officers. It is an executive position within a
regiment or brigade responsible for senior administration, standards and discipline.

Officiers (Officers)
Most officers are seconded from the French Army, though roughly 10% of officers are former NCOs promoted from
the ranks of la Légion.

Legion rank Equivalent rank Command responsibility Insigna

Aspirant Cadet -

Sous-Lieutenant Second Lieutenant Junior section leader

Lieutenant First Lieutenant A section.

Capitaine Captain A company.

Commandant Major A battalion.

Lieutenant-Colonel Lieutenant-Colonel Junior régiment or demi-brigade leader.

Colonel Colonel A régiment or demi-brigade.

Général de Brigadier General Entire French Foreign Legion

Brigade
French Foreign Legion 996

Traditions
As the Legion is composed of soldiers of different nationalities and backgrounds, it needed to develop an intense
Esprit de Corps which is carried out by the development of camaraderie, specific traditions, the high sense of loyalty
of its légionnaires, the quality of their training and the pride of being soldier of an élite unit.

Code of Honour
Every Legionnaire must know by heart the "Legionnaire's Code of Honour". The Legionnaires spend many hours
learning it, reciting it, and then getting the vocal synchronisation together:

Regimental flags of the 1st and 2nd Regiments of

the French Foreign Legion.

French English

• Art. 1 - Légionnaire, tu es un volontaire, servant la France avec
honneur et fidélité.
• Art. 2 - Chaque Légionnaire est ton frère d'armes, quelle que soit sa •
nationalité, sa race ou sa religion. Tu lui manifestes toujours la
solidarité étroite qui doit unir les membres d'une même famille.
• Art. 3 - Respectueux des traditions, attaché à tes chefs, la discipline
et la camaraderie sont ta force, le courage et la loyauté tes vertus.
• Art. 4 - Fier de ton état de Légionnaire, tu le montres dans ta tenue
toujours élégante, ton comportement toujours digne mais modeste,
ton casernement toujours net.
• Art. 5 - Soldat d'élite, tu t'entraînes avec rigueur, tu entretiens ton
arme comme ton bien le plus précieux, tu as le souci constant de ta
forme physique.
• Art. 6 - La mission est sacrée, tu l'exécutes jusqu'au bout et si
besoin, en opérations, au péril de ta vie.
• Art. 7 - Au combat, tu agis sans passion et sans haine, tu respectes
les ennemis vaincus, tu n'abandonnes jamais ni tes morts, ni tes
blessés, ni tes armes.
• Art. 1 - Légionnaire, you are a volunteer serving France with
"Honour and Fidelity".
Art. 2 - Every legionnaire is your brother-in-arms, regardless of his
nationality, race, or religion. You will demonstrate this by strict
solidarity which must always unite members of the same family.
• Art. 3 - Respect of traditions, devotion to your leaders, discipline and
comradeship are your strengths, courage and loyalty your virtues.
• Art. 4 - Proud of your status as Legionnaire, you display this in your
uniform, which is always impeccable, your behaviour always
dignified but modest, your living quarters always clean.
• Art. 5 - An elite soldier, you will train rigorously, you will maintain
your weapon as your most precious possession, you are constantly
concerned with your physical form.
• Art. 6 - A mission is sacred, you will carry it out until the end
respecting laws, customs of war, international conventions and, if
necessary, at a risk of your life.
• Art. 7 - In combat, you will act without passion and without hate, you
will respect the vanquished enemy, you will never abandon your dead
or wounded, nor surrender your arms.
French Foreign Legion 997

Mottoes

Honneur et Fidélité
Unlike any other French unit, the motto of the Legion's regimental flags is not Honneur et Patrie (Honour and
Fatherland) but Honneur et Fidélité (Honour and Fidelity).

Legio Patria Nostra

« Legio Patria Nostra »

The Legion is our Fatherland
Legio Patria Nostra (The Legion is our Fatherland) is the motto of the Legion. However, the adoption of the Legion
as a new fatherland does not imply the repudiation by the légionnaire of his first nationality. The French Foreign
Legion respects the original fatherland of the légionnaires who are totally free to preserve their nationalities. The
Legion even asks the agreement of any légionnaires who could be sent in a military operation where its country of
origin would be committed

Regimental mottoes
• 2nd REP : More Majorum (According to the traditions of our ancestors)
• 3rd REI : Legio Patria Nostra
• 13th DBLE : More Majorum
• 2nd REI : Être prêt (Be ready)
• DLEM : Pericula ludus (Danger is my pleasure)
• 1st REC : Nec pluribus impar (No other equal)
• 1st REG : Ad unum (To the end)
• 2nd REG : Rien n'empêche (Nothing prevents)

Pionniers of the Legion

The Pionniers (pioneers) are the combat engineers and a traditional
unit of the Legion. The sapeurs traditionally sport large beards, wear
leather aprons and gloves and hold axes. The sappers were very
common in the French army and in other European armies during the
Napoleonic era but progressively disappeared in the 19th century,
except in the Legion.

In the French Army, since the 18th century, every grenadier battalion
had a small unit of sappers. They had the mission to advance, under the
Pioneers of the Legion
enemy's fire, in order to destroy with their axes the obstacles drawn by
the enemy and to clear the way for the rest of the infantry. The danger
of such missions and their short life expectancies, allowed them certain privileges, such as the authorization to wear
beards.

The current pioneer unit of the Legion reintroduced the symbols of the Napoleonic sappers: the beard, the axe, the
leather apron, the crossed-axes insignia and the leather gloves. If the parades of the Legion are opened by this unit, it
is to commemorate the traditional role of the sappers "opening the way" for the troops.
French Foreign Legion 998

Marching step
Also notable is the marching pace of the Legion. In comparison to the
120-step-per-minute pace of other French units, the Legion has an
88-step-per-minute marching speed. It is also referred to by
Legionnaires as the "crawl." This can be seen at ceremonial parades
and public displays attended by the Legion, particularly while parading
in Paris on 14 July (Bastille Day Military Parade). Because of the
impressively slow pace, the Legion is always the last unit marching in
any parade. The Legion is normally accompanied by its own band
which traditionally plays the march of any one of the regiments
Parade in Rome, June 2007
comprising the Legion, except that of the unit actually on parade. The
regimental song of each unit and "Le Boudin" is sung by Legionnaires
standing at attention. Also, because the Legion must always stay together, it does not break formation into two when
approaching the presidential grandstand, as other French military units do, in order to preserve the unity of the
Legion.

Contrary to popular belief, the adoption of the Legion's slow marching speed was not due to a need to preserve
energy and fluids during long marches under the hot Algerian sun. Its exact origins are somewhat unclear, but the
official explanation is that although the pace regulation does not seem to have been instituted before 1945, it hails
back to the slow, majestic marching pace of the Ancien Régime, and its reintroduction was a "return to traditional
roots".[8]

"Le boudin"
"Le Boudin" is the French Foreign Legion's marching song.
Tiens, voilà du boudin, voilà du boudin, voilà du boudin
Pour les Alsaciens, les Suisses et les Lorrains,
Pour les Belges y'en a plus (bis)
Ce sont des tireurs au cul
Pour les Belges y'en a plus (bis)
Ce sont des tireurs au cul.

I Nous sommes des dégourdis, nous sommes des lascars, The French Foreign Legion has its own military
Des types pas ordinaires, band
Nous avons souvent notre cafard,
Nous sommes des Légionnaires.
II
Au Tonkin, la Légion immortelle
A Tuyen-Quang illustra notre Drapeau.
Héros de Camerone et frères modèles
Dormez en paix dans vos tombeaux.
III
Nos anciens ont su mourir
Pour la Gloire de la Légion,
Nous saurons bien tous périr
Suivant la tradition.
French Foreign Legion 999

IV
Au cours de nos campagnes lointaines,
Affrontant la fièvre et le feu,
Nous oublions avec nos peines
La mort qui nous oublie si peu
Nous, la Légion.

The chapeau chinois (literally "Chinese hat" in

French) is the French name of an old Ottoman
music instrument that was popular in the XVIIIth
century, but was progressively abandoned by
most European military bands in the XIXth
century, except by the Foreign Legion and the
Spahis

Other marches

FFL bugler during the Bastille Day Military

Parade
French Foreign Legion 1000

• Anne Marie du 3e REI • La Légion marche (Chant du 2e REP)

• Adieu, adieu • La lune est claire
• Aux légionnaires • Le Caïd
• Anne Marie du 2e REI • Il y a des cailloux sur toutes les routes
• Adieu vieille Europe • Le fanion de la Légion
• Chant du quatrième escadron • Le Soleil brille
• Chez nous au 3éme • Le front haut et l'âme fière (Chant du 5e RE)
• C'est le 4 • Légionnaire de l'Afrique
• Connaissez-vous ces hommes • Massari Marie
• Contre les Viêts (Chant de la 13e DBLE après avoir été celui du 1er REP) • Monica
• Cravate verte et Képi blanc • Nous sommes tous des volontaires
• Dans la brume, la rocaille • Nous sommes de la Légion
• Défilé du 3e REI • La petite piste
• C'était un Edelweiss • Pour faire un vrai légionnaire
• Écho • Premier chant du 1er REC
• En Afrique • Quand on a une fille dans l'cuir
• En Algérie • Rien n'empêche 2e REG
• Es steht eine Muhle • Sapeur, mineurs et bâtisseurs (ex 6e REG)
• Eugénie • Soldats de la Légion étrangère
• Les Képis Blancs • Sous le Soleil brulant d'Afrique
• Honneur, Fidélité • Souvenirs qui passe
• Il est un moulin • Suzanna
• J'avais un camarade • The windmill
• Kameraden • Venu volontaire
• La colonne (chant du 1e REC) • Véronica

Composition
Previously, the Légion was not
stationed in mainland France except in
wartime. Until 1962, the Legion
headquarters were located in Sidi Bel
Abbès, Algeria. Nowadays, some units
of the Légion are in Corsica or
overseas possessions, while the rest are
in the south of mainland France.
Current headquarters are in Aubagne,
France, just outside Marseille.
French Foreign Legion 1001

Legionnaires of the 2REI during training. France,

2006

• Mainland France
• 1st Foreign Cavalry Regiment (1e REC), based in Orange,
Vaucluse (armoured troops)
• 1st Foreign Engineer Regiment (1e REG), based in Laudun
• 1st Foreign Regiment (1e RE), based in Aubagne
• 2nd Foreign Engineer Regiment (2e REG), based in St Christol
• 2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment (2e REI), based in Nîmes
• 4th Foreign Regiment (4e RE), based in Castelnaudary (training)
Legionnaires parachute from a plane while
• Corsica training in Corsica.

• 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment (2e REP), based in Calvi, Corsica

• French Overseas Territories and Overseas Collectives
• 3rd Foreign Infantry Regiment (3e REI), based in French Guiana
• Foreign Legion Detachment in Mayotte (DLEM)
• Africa
• 13th Foreign Legion Demi-Brigade (13 DBLE), based in Djibouti.

Disbanded unit and attempted coup

The 1st Foreign Parachute Regiment (1e Régiment Étranger Parachutiste, 1e REP) was established in 1955 during the
Algerian War and disbanded in April 1961 as the entire regiment rose against the French government of Charles de
Gaulle (Algiers Putsch), in protest against moves to negotiate an end to the Algerian War and providing Algeria's
independence from France.
Following the independence of Algeria in 1962, the Legion was reduced in numbers but not disbanded, unlike most
other units comprising the Armée d’Afrique: Zouaves, Tirailleurs, Meharistes, Harkis, Goums, Chasseurs d'Afrique
and all but one of the Spahi regiments. The effect was to retain the Foreign Legion as a professional force which
could be used for military interventions outside France and not involve the politically unpopular use of French
conscripts. The subsequent abolition of conscription in France in 2001 and the creation of an entirely professional
army might be expected to put the Legion's long-term future at risk but as of 2009 this has not been the case.
French Foreign Legion 1002

Current deployments
These deployments are current as of December 2008:[9]

Paratroopers of the 2REP in Djibouti.

Note: English names for countries or territories are in parentheses.

• Opérations extérieures (other than at home bases or on standard
duties)
• Guyane (French Guiana) Mission de presence sur l’Oyapok -
Protection - 3e REI Protection CSG ; 2e REP / CEA; 2e REI / 4°
compagnie
• Afghanistan Intervention 1e REC / 3° escadron (1 peloton); 2e
REI / 4° compagnie OMLT; 2e REG / 1ère compagnie
• Mayotte (Departmental Collectivity of Mayotte) Prevention Snipers of the 2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment
(2REI) using a PGM Hécate and a FR-F2 in
DLEM Mission de souveraineté
Afghanistan in 2005
• Djibouti Prevention 13 DBLE; 1e REC / 1° escadron; 1e REG /
3° compagnie
• Gabon Prevention 2e REP / 3° compagnie - 4° compagnie

Units
Acronym French Name English Meaning

CEA Compagnie d'éclairage et d'appuis Reconnaissance and Support Company

CAC Compagnie anti-char Anti-Tank Company

UCL Unité de commandement et de logistique Unit of Command and Logistics

EMT État-major tactique Tactical Command Post

NEDEX Neutralisation des explosifs Neutralisation and Destruction of Explosives

OMLT Operational Monitoring and Liaison Team (The official name for this branch is in English)

Recruitment process
French Foreign Legion 1003

First Day In a Legion Information Center. Reception, Information, and Terms of contract

Pre-selection 1 to 3 days in a Legion Recruitment Center (Paris - Aubagne). Confirmation of motivation, initial medical check-up , finalising
enlistment papers and signing of 5-year service contract.

Selection 1 to 10 days in the Recruitment and Selection Center in Aubagne. Psychological and personality tests, logic tests (no education
requirements), medical exam, physical condition tests,
motivation and security interviews. Confirmation or denial of selection.

Final 7 days: Signing and handing-over of the five-year service contract. Incorporation into the Legion as a trainee.
Selection

Legion basic training

Basic training is conducted in the 4th Foreign Regiment with a
duration of 15 weeks:
• Initial training of 4 weeks - initiation to military lifestyle; outdoor
and field activities; learning legion traditions.
• March "Képi Blanc" and graduation ceremony - 1 week.
• Technical and practical training (alternating with barracks and field
training) - 3 weeks.
• Mountain training (Chalet at Formiguière in the French Pyrenees) -
1 week.
• Technical and practical training (alternating barracks and field
training) - 2 weeks.
• Examinations and obtaining of the elementary technical certificate
(CTE) - 1 week.
• March ending basic training - 1 week.
• Light vehicle / trucks school - 1 week.
• Return to Aubagne before reporting to the assigned regiment - 1 Légionnaires training in French Guyana
week.
French Foreign Legion 1004

Recruitment chart
The following is a chart showing the national origin of the more than 600,000
Legionaries of the force from 1831 to 1961, which was compiled in 1963. It
should be noted that, at a given moment, principal original nationalities of the
foreign legion reflect the events in history at the time they join. The legion
allows men to escape from the worries of war, especially if their native country
has lost. The large numbers of Germans joining in the wake of WWII led to the
misconception that the Legion was full of former Waffen SS and Wehrmacht
personnel. It is not surprising to see that a large number of German enlistments in
the period following WWII, but the figures do not show whether or not the
post-WWI period had a similar boost. Bernard B. Fall, who was a supporter of
the French government, writing in the context of the First Indochina War, has
called the notion that the Foreign Legion was mainly German at that time:

"a canard . . . with the sub variant that all those Germans were at
least SS generals and other much wanted war criminals. As a rule, and
in order to prevent any particular nation from making the Legion into a
Praetorian guard, any particular national component is kept at about
25 percent of the total. Even supposing (and this was the case, of
American poet Alan Seeger in his
course) that the French recruiters, in the eagerness for candidates
Legion uniform
would sign up Germans enlisting as Swiss, Austrian, Scandinavian and
other nationalities of related ethnic background, it is unlikely that
the number of Germans in the Foreign Legion ever exceeded 35 percent.
Thus, without making an allowance for losses, rotation, discharges,
etc., the maximum number of Germans fighting in Indochina at any one
time reached perhaps 7 000 out of 278 000. As to the ex-Nazis, the
early arrivals contained a number of them, none of whom were known to
be war criminals. French Intelligence saw to that.

Since, in view of the rugged Indochinese climate, older men without previous tropical experience constituted
more a liability than an asset, the average age of the Legion enlistees was about 23. At the time of the battle of
Dien Bien Phu, any Legionnaire of that age group was at the worst, in his "Hitler Youth" shorts when the
[Third] Reich collapsed.[10]
.
When looking at the overall recruitment chart, one must keep in mind that the Legion accepts people enlisting under
a nationality that is not their own. The large number of Swiss and Belgians are actually more likely than not
Frenchmen who wish to avoid detection.[11]
French Foreign Legion 1005

Rank Country of origin Total

numbers

1  Germany 210,000

2  Italy 60,000

3  Belgium 50,000

4  France 50,000

5  Spain 40,000

6  Switzerland 30,000

7  Poland 10,000

8  Russia 6,000

9  Austria 5,000

10  Hungary 4,000

11  Greece 4,000

12  Czechoslovakia 4,000

13  Netherlands 3,000

14  Yugoslavia 3,000

15  Luxembourg 2,300

16  United 1,500
Kingdom

17  Romania 1,500

18  Portugal 1,300

19  Denmark 1,000

20  Turkey 1,000

21  United States 700

22  Bulgaria 500

23  Finland 500

24  Sweden 500

25  Algeria 500

26  Vietnam 200

27  Morocco 200

28  Tunisia 200

29  Argentina 100

30  Brazil 100

31  Japan 100

32  Canada 100

33  Lithuania 100

34  Latvia 100

35  Norway 100

36  Egypt 100
French Foreign Legion 1006

Regarding recruitment conditions within the Foreign Legion, please see the official page (in English) dedicated to
the subject:[12] . However, with regard to age limits, recruits can be accepted from ages ranging from 17 ½ (with
parental consent) to 40 years old.

Uniforms
From its foundation until World War I the Legion wore the uniform of
the French line infantry for parade with a few special distinctions. The
field uniform was often modified under the influence of the extremes
of climate and terrain in which the Legion served. Shakos were soon
replaced by the light cloth kepi which was far more suitable for North
African conditions. One short lived aberration was the wearing of
green uniforms in 1856 by Legion units recruited in Switzerland for
service in the Crimean War.

In the early 20th century the Legionnaire wore a red kepi with blue
band and piping, dark blue tunic with red collar, red cuff patches, and
red trousers. The most distinctive features were the green epaulettes
(replacing the red of the line) worn with red woollen fringes; plus the
embroidered Legion badge of a red flaming grenade, worn on the kepi
front instead of a regimental number. In the field a light khaki cover
was worn over the kepi, sometimes with a protective neck curtain
attached. The standard medium-blue double breasted greatcoat Légionnaires in modern dress
(capote) of the French infantry was worn, usually buttoned back to free uniform. Note the green and red
epaulettes and the distinctive white
the legs for marching. Around the waist was a broad blue sash, copied
kepi. They carry France's standard
from that of the Zouaves. The blue sash provided warmth and support assault rifle, the FA-MAS.
as well as (supposedly) preventing intestinal diseases. White linen
trousers tucked into short leather leggings were substituted for red
serge in hot weather. This was the origin of the "Beau Geste" image of
the Legion.

In barracks a white bleached kepi cover was often worn together with a
short dark blue jacket ("veste") or white blouse plus white trousers.
The original kepi cover was khaki and due to constant washing turned
white quickly. The white or khaki kepi cover was not unique to the
Legion at this stage but was commonly seen amongst other French
units in North Africa. It later became particularly identified with the White kepi of the French Foreign Legion.

Foreign Legion as the unit most likely to serve at remote frontier posts
(other than locally recruited tirailleurs who wore fezzes or turbans).
The variances of climate in North Africa led the French Army to the
sensible expedient of letting local commanders decide on the
appropriate "tenue de jour" (uniform of the day) according to
circumstances. Thus a Legionnaire might parade or walk out in blue
tunic and white trousers in hot weather, blue tunic and red trousers in
normal temperatures or wear the blue greatcoat with red trousers under
colder conditions. The sash could be worn with greatcoat, blouse or Green beret (Béret vert) of the French Foreign
veste but not with the tunic. Epaulettes were a detachable dress item Legion
worn only with tunic or greatcoat for parade or off duty wear.
French Foreign Legion 1007

Officers wore the same dark blue (almost black) tunics as those of their colleagues in the French line regiments,
except that black replaced red as a facing colour on collar and cuffs. Gold fringed epaulettes were worn for full dress
and rank was shown by the number of gold rings on both kepi and cuffs. Trousers were red with black stripes or
white according to occasion or conditions. All-white or light khaki uniforms (from as early as the 1890s) were often
worn in the field or for ordinary duties in barracks. Non-commissioned officers were distinguished by red or gold
diagonal stripes on the lower sleeves of tunics, vestes and greatcoats. Small detachable stripes were buttoned on to
the front of the white shirt-like blouse.
Prior to 1914 units in Indo-China wore white or khaki Colonial Infantry uniforms with Legion insignia, to overcome
supply difficulties. This dress included a white sun helmet of a model that was also worn by Legion units serving in
the outposts of Southern Algeria, though never popular with the wearers. During the initial months of World War I
Legion units serving in France wore the standard blue greatcoat and red trousers of the French line infantry,
distinguished only by collar patches of the same blue as the capote, instead of red. After a short period in sky-blue
the Legion adopted khaki with steel helmets, from early 1916. A mustard shade of khaki drill had been worn on
active service in Morocco from 1909, replacing the classic blue and white. The latter continued to be worn in the
relatively peaceful conditions of Algeria throughout World War I, although increasingly replaced by khaki drill. The
pre-1914 blue and red uniforms could still be occasionally seen as garrison dress in Algeria until stocks were used up
about 1919.
During the early 1920s plain khaki drill uniforms of a standard pattern became universal issue for the Legion with
only the red and blue kepi (with or without a cover) and green collar braiding to distinguish the Legionnaire from
other French soldiers serving in North African and Indo-China. The neck curtain ceased to be worn from about 1915,
although it survived in the newly raised Foreign Legion Cavalry Regiment into the 1920s. The white blouse
(bourgeron) and trousers dating from 1882 were retained for fatigue wear until the 1930s.
At the time of the Legion's centennial in 1931, a number of traditional features were reintroduced at the initiative of
the then commander Colonel Rollet. These included the blue sash and green/red epaulettes. In 1939 the white
covered kepi won recognition as the official headdress of the Legion to be worn on most occasions, rather than
simply as a means of reflecting heat and protecting the blue and red material underneath. The 3rd REI adopted white
tunics and trousers for walking out dress during the 1930s and all Legion officers were required to obtain full dress
uniforms in the pre-war colours of black and red from 1932 to 1939.
During World War II the Legion wore a wide range of uniform styles depending on supply sources. These ranged
from the heavy capotes and Adrian helmets of 1940 through to British battledress and US field uniforms from 1943
to 1945. The white kepi was stubbornly retained whenever possible.
The white kepis, together with the sash and epaulettes survive in the Legion's modern parade dress. Since the 1990s
the modern kepi has been made wholly of white material rather than simply worn with a white cover. Officers and
senior NCOs still wear their kepis in the pre-1939 colours of dark blue and red. A green tie and (for officers) a green
waistcoat recall the traditional branch colour of the Legion. From 1959 a green beret became the ordinary duty
headdress of the Legion, with the kepi reserved for parade and off duty wear. Other items of dress are the standard
issue of the French Army. Officers seconded to the Foreign Legion reportedly retain one Legion button on the vests
of their dress uniforms upon returning to their original regiments.
French Foreign Legion 1008

Equipment
The Foreign Legion is basically equipped with the same equipment as
similar units elsewhere in the French Army. These include:
• The FAMAS assault rifle, a French-made automatic bullpup-style
rifle, most of which were designed for the 5.56x45mm NATO
round. In bullpup-style firearms, the action and magazine are
located behind the trigger which increases the barrel length relative
to the overall weapon length. This permits shorter weapons for the
same barrel length, saves weight and improves ease of handling.
FAMAS F1

References in popular culture

Beyond its reputation as an elite unit often engaged in serious fighting, the recruitment practices of the French
Foreign Legion have also led to a romantic view of it being a place for a wronged man to leave behind his old life to
start a new one, yet also full of scoundrels and men escaping justice.

Emulation by other countries

Spanish Legion
The Spanish Legion was created in 1920, in emulation of the French one, and had a significant role in Spain's
colonial wars in Morocco and in the Spanish Civil War on the Nationalist side. Unlike its French model, the number
of non-Spanish recruits never exceeded 25%, most of these from Latin America. It now only recruits Spanish
nationals.

Israeli Mahal
In Israel, Mahal (Hebrew: ‫ל"חמ‬‎, an acronym for Mitnadvei Hutz LaAretz which means Volunteers from outside the
Land[of Israel]) is a term designating non-Israelis serving in the Israeli military. The term originates with the
(approximately) 4,000 both Jewish and non-Jewish volunteers who went to Israel to fight in the 1948 Arab-Israeli
War including Aliyah Bet.[13] The original Mahalniks were mostly World War II veterans from American and
British armed forces.
Today, there is a department within the Israeli Ministry of Defense which administers the enlistment of non-Israeli
citizens in the country's armed forces.

Netherlands KNIL Army

Though not named "Foreign Legion", the Dutch Koninklijk Nederlandsch-Indische Leger (KNIL), or Royal
Netherlands-Indian Army (in reference to the Dutch East Indies, now Indonesia), was created in 1830, a year before
the French legion, and is therefore not an emulation but an entirely original idea and had a similar recruitment policy.
It stopped being a foreign legion around 1900 when recruitment was restricted to Dutch citizens and to the
indigenous peoples of the Dutch East Indies. The KNIL was finally disbanded on 26 July 1950, seven months after
the Netherlands formally recognised Indonesia as a sovereign state, and almost five years after Indonesia declared its
independence.
French Foreign Legion 1009

See also
• Régiments de marche de volontaires étrangers
• List of Foreign Legionnaires
• Foreign legion
• Spanish Legion
• International Legion
• Devil's Guard
• Memorial to the American Volunteers, Paris
• Lafayette Escadrille
French Foreign Legion Memorial in Aubagne. In
gold, on the globe, the regions of the world where
Notes the Legion fought since its creation.

Bibliography
• Geraghty, Tony. March or Die: A New History of the French Foreign Legion, 1987, ISBN 0816017948
• McGorman, Evan. Life in the French Foreign Legion: How to Join and What to Expect When You Get There.
Hellgate Press, 2000. ISBN 1-55571-633-4
• Porch, Douglas. The French Foreign Legion. New York: Harper Collins, 1991. ISBN 0-06-092308-3
• The French Foreign Legion in Kolwezi Roger Rousseau, 2006. ISBN 2-9526927-1-8
• Szecsko, Tibor. Le Grand Livre des Insignes de la Légion Etrangère. Aubagne, I.I.L.E / S.I.H.L.E, 1991. ISBN
2-9505938-0-1

External links
• Official Website [14]
• Official Recruitment Office of the Foreign Legion [15]
• Le Musée de la Légion étrangère (legion museum) [16]
• French Foreign Legion forum [17]
Books
• In the Foreign Legion (1910) [18] - by Erwin Rosen (b. 1876)
• Books about the Foreign Legion 1905-1992 [19]
• [20]

References
[1] Jean-Dominique Merchet, La Légion s'accroche à ses effectifs (http:/ / secretdefense. blogs. liberation. fr/ defense/ 2008/ 11/ la-lgion-saccro.
html)
[2] Porch p. 2-4
[3] Porch p. 17-18
[4] "About the Legion" (http:/ / www. channel4. com/ life/ microsites/ E/ escape_to_the_legion/ legion. html). . Retrieved 2007-03-09.
[5] Shortly before his death, Seeger wrote, "I have a rendez-vous with Death, at some disputed barricade...And I to my pledged word am true, I
shall not fail that rendevous."
[6] "Frequently Asked Questions About the Legion (French)" (http:/ / www. legion-recrute. com/ fr/ faq. php#f4). . Retrieved 2008-09-10.
[7] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Tomorrow-Be-Brave-Memoir-Foreign/ dp/ 0743200020/ ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8& s=books& qid=1259276560&
sr=1-1
[8] Szecsko, P.17
[9] http:/ / www. legion-etrangere. info/ index. php?post/ 2008/ 12/ D%C3%A9cembre-2008
[10] Bernard B. Fall, Street Without Joy, pp. 279-280
[11] Evan McGorman, Life in the French Foreign Legion, p. 21
French Foreign Legion 1010

[12] (http:/ / www. legion-recrute. com/ en/ condition. php)

[13] Benny Morris, 1948, 2008, p.85.
[14] http:/ / www. legion-etrangere. com
[15] http:/ / www. legion-recrute. com/ en
[16] http:/ / www. legion-etrangere. fr/ fr/ samle/ index. php
[17] http:/ / cervens. net/ smf/ index. php
[18] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ inforeignlegion00roserich
[19] http:/ / www. booksandwriters. co. uk/ writer/ F/ books-about-the-french-foreign-legion. asp
[20] http:/ / www. legionofthelost. com/
Lost Command 1011

Lost Command
Lost Command

film poster by Howard Terpning

Directed by Mark Robson

Produced by Mark Robson

Written by Nelson Gidding

Starring Anthony Quinn

Alain Delon
George Segal
Michèle Morgan
Claudia Cardinale

Music by Franz Waxman

Cinematography Robert Surtees

(Panavision)

Editing by Dorothy Spencer

Distributed by Columbia Pictures

Release date(s) May 1966

Running time 129 min

Country USA

Language English

Lost Command is a 1966 war drama directed by Mark Robson and filmed in Spain. The screenplay was written by
Nelson Gidding, based on the 1960 novel The Centurions by Jean Lartéguy. The film stars Anthony Quinn, Alain
Delon, George Segal, Michèle Morgan, Maurice Ronet and Claudia Cardinale with Commandant René Lepage
(formerly with the 6e B.P.C.) as the French military technical advisor. Lost Command was banned in France for ten
years.[1]
Lost Command 1012

Plot
The film begins with the final moments of the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954, when the final assault of Viet Minh
is imminent. The weakened French garrison awaits reinforcements that arrive with a single plane under the command
of Major De Clairefons. The outpost commander, Basque Lt. Col. Pierre-Noel Raspeguy (Quinn) fights to protect the
group, but the paras are slaughtered as they land. Major De Clairefons is killed when his parachute drags him into a
minefield. Raspeguy is enraged that only one plane has come and that the officers are from the staff of General
Melies (Jean Servais) who Raspeguy believes has sent the officers to gather proof that Raspeguy is responsible for
the debacle at Dien Bien Phu.
However, a party of Vietnamese porters led by Indochina born Captain Boisfeures (Maurice Ronet) has entered the
outpost with ammunition. The Viet Minh overrun the French, with the survivors captured and imprisoned.
Among Raspeguy's friends are military historian Captain Phillipe Esclavier (Alain Delon), Captain Boisfeures,
Captain Dia (Gordon Heath), a surgeon and Lt Ben Mahidi (Columbia contract star George Segal), an Algerian-born
paratrooper who turns down a Viet Minh leader's (Burt Kwouk) offer for preferential treatment because he is an
Arab. Raspeguy's leadership keeps the men together in their captivity. When released after the treaty between the
Viet Minh and France, Raspeguy leads his men in demolishing a delousing station that they see as a humiliation.
Upon his return home to Algeria, Ben Mahidi is disgusted at the treatment of his people, especially when his
teenaged brother is machine gunned by the police for spraying Independence graffiti. He deserts from the army to
join the rebels and becomes a guerilla leader.
Through his literal contacts with the widow of the Major, Countess Nathalie De Clairefons (Michèle Morgan), Lt.
Colonel Raspeguy is given command of the new 10th Regiment of Parachutistes Coloniaux in the Algerian war
serving under General Melies. The General briefs him that the command is his last chance in the military; if his
Regiment fails, Raspeguy's career is finished. Raspeguy recruits his comrades in arms from Indochina and trains his
battalion with unorthodox methods such as using live ammunition on an assault course to encourage speed and
initiative.
Soon after beginning counter insurgency operations in both urban and rural environments, Esclavier falls in love
with Mahidi's sister Aicha (Claudia Cardinale) who is loyal to the FLN and uses her friendship with Esclavier to
smuggle explosive detonators. The naive Esclavier begins to have a new view of his nation's conduct as the FLN
rebels and parachutists compete in breaking the rules of war.

Production
Film rights were negotiated for The Centurions as far back as 1961 with Nelson Gidding's draft screenplay appearing
in 1963.[2] Filmed under the title The Centurions, the film was retitled Not For Honor and Glory in December
1965[3] with the title changed again to Lost Command in 1966.

Quotes
"There's only one rule-don't die!" -Lt. Col Raspeguy
RASPEGUY: (on being encouraged to used Countess De Clairefons' influence to obtain a command) "Since when
do women run the army?"
ESCLAVIER: "Since longer than peasants were allowed to become officers"
Lost Command 1013

External links
• Lost Command [4] at the Internet Movie Database
• Lost Command [5] at Allmovie
• original film trailer http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uoFoyHHpw_c

References
[1] p.25 Loufti, Martine Astier Imperial Frame: Film Industry and Colonial Representation Sherzer, Dina (Editor) Cinema, Colonialism,
Postcolonialism: Perspectives from the French and Francophone World 1996 University of Texas Press
[2] http:/ / content. cdlib. org/ view?docId=tf1t1nb12v& chunk. id=c02-1. 8. 7. 2. 22& brand=oac
[3] http:/ / issuu. com/ boxoffice/ docs/ boxoffice_121365/ 13
[4] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0060637/
[5] http:/ / www. allmovie. com/ work/ 30141
 1014

Media

Album
An album or record album is a collection of related
audio or music tracks distributed to the public. The
most common way is through commercial distribution,
although smaller artists will often distribute directly to
the public by selling their albums at live concerts or on
their websites.

History
The term "record album" originated from the fact that
78-RPM phonograph disc records were kept in a bound
container resembling a photograph album. The first
collection of records to be called an "album" was Early record "albums" were packages of 78 RPM records in book
Tchaikovsky's Nutcracker Suite, released in April 1909 form
[1] [2]
as a four-disc set by Odeon Records. It retailed for
16 shillings (approximately £56 or US$101 in 2005 currency).

In 1948, Columbia produced the first 12-inch, 33⅓-RPM microgroove record made of vinyl.[1] With a running time
of 23 minutes per side, these new records contained as much music as the old-style album of records and, thus, took
on the name "album". For many years, the standard industry format for popular music was an album of twelve songs,
originally the number related to payment of composer royalties.
Originally, albums ranged in duration from half an hour to an hour, depending on the genre and record label.
American pop albums tended to be around a half hour; British pop albums were somewhat longer, often containing
14 songs instead of 11 or 12; jazz albums were longer still; and classical albums were the longest of all. From the
dawn of the "album era" (in jazz, about 1954; in rock, about 1962) until about the mid-1960s, albums were often
recorded as quickly as possible, sometimes in single sessions. (Prestige Records and Blue Note Records were famous
for this; as well, The Beatles' first album and The Byrds' first four albums were all largely recorded in single
sessions.) In the 1960s, many performers issued two or more albums of new material every year.
By the late 1960s, the growing importance of albums and advances in studio recording led many rock groups to
spend more time on each release, and through the 1970s, an interval of one or two years between albums became the
norm. With the advent of compact discs, even longer periods between new recordings have become common;
however, in some genres such as indie rock, groups often continue to produce albums at the rate of one a year.
Vinyl LP records have two sides, each comprising one half of the album. If a pop or rock album contained tracks
released separately as commercial singles, these were often traditionally placed in particular positions on the album.
A common configuration was to have the album led off by the second and third singles, followed by a ballad. The
first single would lead off side 2. In the past, many singles (such as the Beatles' "Hey Jude") did not appear on
albums, but others (such as the Beatles' "Come Together" and "Something") were also part of an album released
concurrently. Today many commercial albums of music tracks feature one or more singles, which are released
separately to radio, TV or the Internet as a way of promoting the album. Albums have also been issued that are
compilations of older tracks not originally released together, such as singles not originally found on albums, b-sides
Album 1015

of singles, or unfinished "demo" recordings.

Album sets of the past were arranged "in sequence" for phonographs equipped with record changers. In the case of a
two-record set, for example, sides one and four would be printed on one record, and sides two and three on the other.
The two records would then be stacked up on a spindle especially equipped to handle such albums, with side one on
the bottom and side two on the top. The record containing side one would then automatically drop down on the
turntable, and the tone arm containing the stylus needle would then automatically play the record. When that side
was finished, the tone arm would swing back to allow the record containing side two to drop down on top of the
record containing side one, and automatically begin to play.
Record changers persisted throughout the LP era, but were discontinued after it was discovered that the stacking up
of records had the potential to warp them.
Today, with the vinyl record no longer being used as the primary form of distribution, the term "album" can still be
applied to any sound recording collection, such as those on compact disc, MiniDisc, Compact audio cassette, and
digital or MP3 albums. Cover art is also considered an integral part of the album. Many albums also come with liner
notes and inserts giving background information or analysis of the recording, reprinted lyrics, images of the
performers, or additional artwork and text. These are now often found in the form of CD booklets.

Length
According to the rules of the UK Charts, a recording counts as an "album" if either it has more than four tracks or
lasts more than 25 minutes.[3] Sometimes shorter albums are referred to as "mini-albums" or EPs. This rule, though,
has been denoted with albums such as Tubular Bells, Amarok, Hergest Ridge other albums by Mike Oldfield, and
Yes' Close to the Edge, which include tracks under the amount of four. Other artists such as Pinhead Gunpowder
refer to their own releases under 25 minutes as "albums" despite the normal distinction.
If an album becomes too long to fit this format, a recording artist may make the decision to release a double album
where two vinyl LPs or compact discs are packaged together in a single case, or a triple album containing three LP's
or compact discs.
Recording artists who have an extensive back catalogue will often re-release several CDs in one single box with a
unified design, often containing one or more albums, or a compilation of previously unreleased recordings. These are
known as box sets. Some musical artists have also released more than three compact discs or LP records of new
recordings at once, in the form of boxed sets, although in that case the work is still usually considered to be an
album.

See also
• Album cover
• Compact Disc
• Extended play
• Liner notes
• List of albums
• Long play
• Release (music)
• Single (music)
• Sticker album
Album 1016

References
[1] "Recording Technology History" (http:/ / history. sandiego. edu/ gen/ recording/ notes. html). .
[2] "Chronomedia" (http:/ / www. terramedia. co. uk/ Chronomedia/ years/ 1909. htm). .
[3] "Rules For Chart Eligibility - Albums" (http:/ / www. theofficialcharts. com/ docs/ NEW_Album_Chart_Rules_2007_2. pdf) (pdf). The
Official UK Charts Company. January 2007. . Retrieved 2007-04-20.
Hello (Poe album) 1017

Hello (Poe album)

Hello

Studio album by Poe

Released October 10, 1995

Recorded 1994 & 1995

Genre Modern Rock/Alternative

Hip-Hop

Length 41:24

Label Atlantic

Producer RJ Rice,
Jeffrey Connor,
Lanny Cordola,
Dave Jerden,
Jay Dee,
Poe

Professional reviews
[1]
• Allmusic link

Poe chronology

Hello Haunted
(1995) (2000)

Hello is the debut album by American singer/songwriter Poe, released in 1995. The album was called "innovative"
by critics due to its incorporation of R&B samples into an electronic soundscape, something that was fairly unheard
of at the time.

Background
The first music video for the album was for the single "Angry Johnny"; it featured Poe on the skeletal frame of a bed
looking forlorn whilst destroying a variety of effects one might associate with romance (like roses or a box of
chocolates.) The song's rage-filled lyrics quickly found her being lumped into the "angry female rocker" category,
and the video was heavily played on MTV's Alternative Nation. The second single "Hello" did not fare as well until a
remix version was released two years after the album's initial release.
The album is also known for featuring one of the first major-album productions by the late Hip Hop producer Jay
Dee on the song "Fingertips". He was responsible for the drum programming on the track.
Hello (Poe album) 1018

"Full Band" versions of "Hello" and "Angry Johnny" were released to modern rock radio stations, leading some
listeners to believe that this was the sound of the album; upon purchasing it, the full band versions of the songs are
nowhere to be found, the album consisting of only electronic/R&B-styled versions of those tracks (alongside some
other full band songs).
The "Hello" album by Poe was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on November 20,
1996.[2]
After being dismissed by her record label, Poe fought to reclaim rights over the audio-masters to this album, and
successfully reissued it on an independent label in 2005.

Track listing
All songs are written by Poe.
1. "Hello" – 4:31
2. "Trigger Happy Jack (Drive by a Go-Go)" – 3:36
3. "Choking the Cherry" – 3:34
4. "That Day" – 2:41
5. "Angry Johnny" – 4:18
6. "Dolphin" – 3:47
7. "Another World" – 3:20
8. "Fingertips" – 4:21
9. "Beautiful Girl" – 3:42
10. "Junkie" – 3:00
11. "Fly Away" – 4:34
12. (ghost track)

Personnel
• Poe – vocals
• Richard Barrow – flute
• Alex Blanc – guitar
• Jon Brooks – drums
• Jeffrey Connor – bass, guitar
• Amp Fiddler – keyboard
• Eric Garcia – guitar, keyboard
• Dean Pleasants – guitar
• Rice – keyboard
• Matt Sorum – drums
• Cameron Stone – cello
• Tony Wilson – guitar
• Jay Dee - drum programming
Hello (Poe album) 1019

Production
• Producers: RJ Rice, Jeffrey Connor, Lanny Cordola, Dave Jerden, Poe
• Executive producer: Dave Jerden
• Engineers: Richard Barrow. Alex Blanc, Bryan Carlstrom, Eric Garcia, Dave Jerden, Steve Klein
• Assistant engineers: Amanda Cruz, Eddie Miller
• Mixing: Eric Garcia, Dave Jerden, Steve Klein, Poe
• Mastering: Eddy Schreyer
• Editing: Alex Blanc, Eric Garcia, Poe
• Production coordination: Amanda Cruz
• Programming: Lionel Cole, Poe, Rice, Jay Dee
• Bass programming: Jeffrey Connor
• Art direction: Stuart Beau Barton & Thomas Bricker
• Design: Stuart Beau Barton & Thomas Bricker
• Album Cover Photography: Stuart Beau Barton
• Photography: Thomas Bricker, Amanda Cruz

Chart positions
Album – Billboard (North America)

Year Chart Position

1996 Heatseekers 4

1996 The Billboard 71

200

Singles – Billboard (North America)

Year Single Chart Position

1995 Trigger Happy Jack (Drive by a Go-Go) Modern Rock Tracks 27

1996 Angry Johnny Modern Rock Tracks 7

1996 Hello Modern Rock Tracks 13

1997 Hello (Remixes) Hot Dance Music/Club 1

Play

References
[1] http:/ / www. allmusic. com/ cg/ amg. dll?p=amg& sql=10:weanqj7uojaa~T1
[2] RIAA - Gold & Platinum (http:/ / www. riaa. com/ goldandplatinumdata. php?resultpage=1& table=SEARCH_RESULTS& action=& title=&
artist=poe& format=& debutLP=& category=& sex=& releaseDate=& requestNo=& type=& level=& label=& company=&
certificationDate=& awardDescription=& catalogNo=& aSex=& rec_id=& charField=& gold=& platinum=& multiPlat=& level2=&
certDate=& album=& id=& after=& before=& startMonth=1& endMonth=1& startYear=1958& endYear=2009& sort=Artist& perPage=25)
Haunted (Poe album) 1020

Haunted (Poe album)

Haunted

Studio album by Poe

Released October 31, 2000

Recorded 1999 & 2000

Genre Alternative rock

Length 68:52

Label Atlantic

Producer Poe,
Olle Romo,
Matt Wilder,
Matt Wallace,
Mike Urban

Professional reviews
[1]
• Allmusic link
[2]
• Rolling Stone link

Poe chronology

Hello Haunted
(1995) (2000)

Haunted is the second album by American singer/songwriter Poe, released in 2000 (see 2000 in music) after a five
year hiatus from her debut album Hello in 1995. The self-produced album was created as a tribute to her father, and
counterpart to her brother Mark Z. Danielewski's novel House of Leaves.

History
Haunted found Poe combining traditional pop music notions with electronic, Dance and hard rock music. A critical
success[3] and largely adored by her existing fanbase, it nonetheless flopped commercially, largely due to the manner
in which it was marketed. The song "Hey Pretty" was released as a promo single, but Poe's vocals had been replaced
with a chapter reading from her brother, as alternative radio of 2001 was not very willing to play female artists.[4] It
reached #13 on Billboard's Modern Rock chart. The music video for the song was deemed too racy for MTV (it
showed Poe writhing around in mud in nothing but a bra.) A follow up promo single, "Walk the Walk," was released
because it had been chosen as the theme song to a new TV drama called Girls Club. However, the show was
canceled after two episodes. "Wild" was released as a third single, garnering some radio play in the Chicago area.
The single was never released commercially, but featured a shorter radio mix in addition to an acoustic/rock version
of the song. The title track was used as the theme song to the film "Book of Shadows: Blair Witch 2," a box-office
Haunted (Poe album) 1021

failure. The commercial failure of Poe's second album contributed to the loss of her distribution contract with
Atlantic Records.
The song "Haunted" was also featured at the end of the second episode of the video game Alan Wake for Xbox 360.
The album also featured samples of audio recordings made by Poe's late father, film director Tad Danielewski. The
cassettes were found by Poe and Mark after their father had died and were literally audio-letters to the two of them
that spanned back as far as their birth. Thus, the album is usually interpreted as a real woman (Poe) singing tributes
to her deceased father (who sings back) even while telling the story of a group of fictional characters (from House of
Leaves).

Track listing
1. "Exploration B" (Poe) – 1:10
2. "Haunted" (Mike Elizondo, John O'Brien, Poe) – 5:20
3. "Control" (Daris Adkins, Poe, Toby Skard) – 6:03
4. "Terrible Thought" (Elizondo, O'Brien, Poe) – 4:41
5. "Walk the Walk" (O'Brien, Poe) – 4:50
6. "Terrified Heart" (Poe) – :52
7. "Wild" (Elizondo, O'Brien, Poe) – 9:00
8. "5&½ Minute Hallway" (Josh Clayton-Felt, Poe) – 3:33
9. "Not a Virgin" (Elizondo, Poe, Matt Wilder) – 3:42
10. "Hey Pretty" (Kenneth Burgomaster, Poe) – 3:45
11. "Dear Johnny" (Poe) – :50
12. "Could've Gone Mad" (Adkins, Poe) – 5:21
13. "Lemon Meringue" (O'Brien, Poe, Wilder) – 3:22
14. "Spanish Doll" (Adkins, Poe) – 4:52
15. "House of Leaves" (Poe) – 1:48
16. "Amazed" (O'Brien, Poe) – 6:23
17. "If You Were Here" (Heitor Periera) – 5:20
18. "Hey Pretty" (Drive By 2001 Mix)– 3:46 *
* bonus track

Personnel
• Poe – vocals
• Daris Adkins – guitar
• Charlie Bisherat – violin
• Kenneth Burgomaster – keyboards
• David Campbell – viola
• Larry Corbett – cello
• Mark Z. Danielewski – vocals
• Mike "La Bomba" Elizondo – bass
• Brandon Fields – saxophone
• Josh Freese – drums
• Gary Grant – trumpet
• Jerry Hey – trumpet
• Trevor Lawrence, Jr. – drums
• Priscilla Loeb – vocals
• Jamie Muhoberac – keyboards
Haunted (Poe album) 1022

• John O'Brien – fiddle

• Melissa Rogers – vocals
• Samantha Rogers – vocals
• Madison Rubel – vocals
• Bill Reichenbach – trombone
• Michael Urbano – drums
• Joey Waronker – drums

Production
• Producers: Poe, Olle Romo, Matt Wilder, Matt Wallace, Mike Urban
• Engineers: Kirk Fyvie, Phil Kaffel, Chad Bamford
• Mixing: Paul Leary, Olle Romo, David Thoener
• Programming: Poe, John O'Brien, Olle Romo
• Arranger: David Campbell

Charts
Album – Billboard (North America)

Year Chart Position

2000 The Billboard 115

200

Singles – Billboard (North America)

Year Single Chart Position

2001 "Hey Pretty" Adult Top 40 30

2001 "Hey Pretty" Modern Rock 13

Tracks

References
[1] http:/ / www. allmusic. com/ cg/ amg. dll?p=amg& sql=10:57f4zfj1eh8k~T1
[2] http:/ / www. rollingstone. com/ artists/ poe/ albums/ album/ 88887/ review/ 5944156/ haunted
[3] (http:/ / www. metacritic. com/ music/ artists/ poe/ haunted)
[4] POE'S END RUN 'ROUND RADIO (http:/ / www. nydailynews. com/ archives/ entertainment/ 2001/ 07/ 31/
2001-07-31_poe_s_end_run__round_radio. html)
Hey Pretty 1023

Hey Pretty
"Hey Pretty"

Single by Poe

from the album Haunted

Released 2000

Format CD

Genre Pop/Alternative Rock

Length 3:45 Label = Atlantic

Records

Producer Poe

Poe singles chronology

"Control" "Hey
(1998) Pretty"
(2000)

"Hey Pretty" was the name of a critically noted song by singer-songwriter Poe. The song in its original version, on
her 2000 album Haunted, was a sultry pop rant of a woman seeking sexual satisfaction on any grounds possible. It
was remade by having her vocals eliminated and replaced with a reading by her brother, author Mark Z.
Danielewski, from his hit book House of Leaves. This new version became a moderate radio hit.
Getting "Hey Pretty" on the radio was not easy at a time when alternative radio was no longer playing female singers
in the post-Lilith Fair backlash. In an interview with MTV, Poe stated: "Radio was not interested. I called a few
program directors, and they [said], 'We really love the record, but we're just not playing women.' This one [program
director] in Portland, Oregon, said, 'My station is basically in the same boat. Do some crazy mix that you think will
fit this format, and I'll play it once.' I go home, and I'm like, 'They're not playing women? Fine, I've got a brother.' So
I called my brother, and I'm like, 'You gotta come over and read a piece of your book in this song.' I wrote on [the
tape], 'Rough mix from Poe's house, unmastered — do not play.' ... He played it and got inundated with phone calls.
By the end of the week he had played it 25 times, which wouldn't have meant all that much because it's a small
station in Portland. But the next week, KROQ in Los Angeles had it. ..."
There are at least two different versions. One ending with the line "Dark Languages Rarely Survive" followed by a
woman saying "Das nicht zu Hause sein" twice. This is German for "Not being at home", a recurring phrase in the
book House of Leaves.
The second ending has that line followed by Poe coming back in with the chorus. The video, directed by Matthew
Rolston, features erotic imagery of a scantily-dressed Poe washing, driving, and lounging on a vintage car along with
a look-alike model with a similar build, hair, and identical outfit. The car scenes are interlaced with shots of Mark
Danielewski performing the spoken-word portions of the song, as well as footage of Poe and her look-alike mud
Hey Pretty 1024

wrestling. The song was featured on the soundtrack to the MTV original series Spyder Games.
In January 2009 Ford began using the original version of the song in television commercials.

Tracks
1. Hey Pretty 3:53
2. Hey Pretty (Drive-By 2001 Mix) 3:46

Charts
Billboard (United States)

Chart (2001) Peak

Position

Adult Top 40 30

Modern Rock 13
Tracks
Derrida (film) 1025

Derrida (film)
Derrida

Directed by Kirby Dick

Amy Ziering Kofman

Produced by Amy Ziering Kofman

Music by Ryuichi Sakamoto

Cinematography Kirsten Johnson

Editing by Kirby Dick

Matthew Clarke

Studio Jane Doe Films

Distributed by Zeitgeist Films

Release date(s) January 2002 (Sundance Film

Festival)
October 23, 2002 (USA)

Running time 85 minutes

Country  United States

Language English
French

Derrida is a 2002 American documentary film directed by Kirby Dick and Amy Ziering Kofman about the French
philosopher Jacques Derrida. It premiered at the 2002 Sundance Film Festival before being released theatrically on
October 23, 2002.
Derrida (film) 1026

Synopsis
The film utilizes several techniques to create a biographical portrait of Jacques Derrida. These include interviews
shot by the filmmakers, footage of Derrida's lectures and speaking engagements, and personal footage of Derrida at
home with his friends and family. In several scenes, Ziering Kofman also reads excerpts from Derrida's work or
otherwise describes aspects of his life.
Derrida also focuses on Derrida's thesis that scholars tend to ignore important biographical information when
discussing philosophers' lives[1] . In one scene, Derrida comments that he would be most interested in hearing about
famous philosophers' sex lives because this topic is seldom addressed in their writings. The filmmakers respond to
many of these criticisms by probing Derrida on various aspects of his own personal life, though he usually refuses to
directly answer questions about himself.
The film also follows Derrida during a trip to South Africa where he visits Nelson Mandela's former prison cell and
discusses forgiveness with university students. Derrida states that his own childhood experiences with anti-Semitism
have heightened his sensitivity to racial issues.

Analysis
At several points, Derrida shows the philosopher applying his theory of deconstruction to the film itself[2] . Derrida
often challenges the filmmaking process and argues against the capability of any film to portray him accurately. The
film also includes metacinematic scenes in which Derrida analyzes previously recorded footage of himself. In one
such scene, Derrida telescopically watches a video of himself analyzing footage of himself.
Nicholas Royle argues that the film's labyrinthine, Ouroboros-like structure reinforces several key Derridean tenets:
"If Dick and Ziering Kofman follow Derrida, Derrida is also following them. Derrida is a film about
following, about the compulsiveness and ghostliness of following, of following the camera, of following the
story, of following a film. But Derrida is also a film about the impossibility of following, about the
consequences and effects of Derrida's work vis-à-vis the 'story of a life', about the idea that Derrida cannot tell
a story."[3]

Reception
Film critics generally gave Derrida positive reviews; the film has an 82% "fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes.[4]
Kenneth Turan of The Los Angeles Times praised the film for its sophisticated style and said it was "the cinematic
equivalent of a mind-expanding drug"[5] while Film Threat's Tim Merrill described it as "a priceless historical
record."[6] Other critics, like The Guardian's Peter Bradshaw, found the film whimsical and entertaining but
lamented Derrida's evasive and mysterious demeanor[7] .
Derrida received the Golden Gate Award at the 2002 San Francisco Film Festival and screened in competition for
the Grand Jury Prize at the 2002 Sundance Film Festival.

Aftermath
Derrida enjoyed the film and appeared at several promotional events to discuss the film and answer questions about
the project[8] .
Derrida died in 2004.
In 2005, Routledge published a companion book, Derrida, which includes the film's screenplay, several essays on the
film, and interviews with Derrida, Dick, and Ziering Kofman. The book describes many of the events that followed
the film's release, including Derrida's unexpected celebrity status on the streets of New York City. This phenomenon
prompted Derrida's wife to remark to the filmmakers, "I hear you've made him into Clint Eastwood."[8]
Derrida (film) 1027

External links
• Official website [9]
• Derrida [10] at the Internet Movie Database
• New York Times review [11]
• Guardian reviews [12]
• Village Voice review [13]
• San Francisco Chronicle review [14]

References
[1] Thomassen, Lasse. "Derridaphilia" (http:/ / culturemachine. tees. ac. uk/ Reviews/ rev55. htm). culturemachine.net. . Retrieved 2009-08-30.
[2] Jeffries, Stuart (2003-01-18). "Lights! Camera! Think!" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ film/ 2003/ jan/ 18/ artsfeatures. highereducation).
guardian.co.uk. . Retrieved 2009-08-30.
[3] Royle, Nicholas (2005). "Blind Cinema". in Dick, Kirby; Ziering Kofman, Amy. Derrida. Routledge. p. 16. ISBN 0415974070.
[4] http:/ / www. rottentomatoes. com/ m/ derrida/
[5] Turan, Kenneth (2002-11-08). "Movie Review: Derrida" (http:/ / www. calendarlive. com/ cl-et-derrida8nov08,0,5435572. story).
latimes.com. . Retrieved 2009-08-30.
[6] Merrill, Tim (2002-10-27). "Derrida" (http:/ / www. filmthreat. com/ index. php?section=reviews& Id=2660). filmthreat.com. . Retrieved
2009-08-30.
[7] Bradshaw, Peter (2003-01-31). "Derrida" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ culture/ 2003/ jan/ 31/ artsfeatures6). guardian.co.uk. . Retrieved
2009-08-30.
[8] Dick, Kirby (2005). "Resting on the Edge of An Impossible Confidence". in Dick, Kirby; Ziering Kofman, Amy. Derrida. Routledge.
p. 47–9. ISBN 0415974070.
[9] http:/ / www. derridathemovie. com
[10] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0303326/
[11] http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2002/ 10/ 23/ movies/ 23DERR. html
[12] http:/ / film. guardian. co. uk/ Film_Page/ 0,4061,879426,00. html
[13] http:/ / www. villagevoice. com/ issues/ 0243/ hoberman. php
[14] http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2003/ 01/ 10/ DD212440. DTL
La strada (film) 1028

La strada (film)
La strada

Theatrical release poster

Directed by Federico Fellini

Produced by Dino De Laurentiis

Carlo Ponti

Written by Screenplay:
Federico Fellini
Ennio Flaiano
Tullio Pinelli
Story:
Federico Fellini
Tullio Pinelli

Starring Anthony Quinn

Giulietta Masina
Richard Basehart

Music by Nino Rota

Cinematography Otello Martelli

Carlo Carlini

Editing by Leo Cattozzo

Distributed by Trans Lux Inc.

Release date(s) September 6, 1954

(Premiere at VFF)
September 22, 1954
(Italy)

Running time 104 minutes

Country Italy

Language Italian

La strada (English: The Road) is a 1954 Italian neorealist drama directed by Federico Fellini in which a naive young
woman (Giulietta Masina) is sold to a brutish man (Anthony Quinn) and goes on the road as a part of his itinerant
La strada (film) 1029

show.
La strada won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 1956.[1]

Plot
Gelsomina (Fellini's wife Giulietta Masina), a fey young woman, is
sold for 10,000 lire by her impoverished mother to the Gypsy Zampanò
(Anthony Quinn), to take the place of her now dead sister Rosa.
Zampanò makes a living as an itinerant strongman, entertaining crowds
by breaking an iron chain just by expanding his chest, and then passing
around a hat for tips.

In short order Gelsomina's naive and clownish instinct emerges,

although Zampanò's methods present her with a callous foil. He trains
her to play the snare drum and trumpet, dance a bit, and clown for the
Giulietta Masina as Gelsomina.
audience. Despite her willingness to please, he relies on intimidation
and even cruelty at times to maintain his dominion.
Finally, she rebels and leaves, making her way into town. There she watches the act of another street entertainer, Il
Matto ("The Fool"), a talented high wire artist and clown (Richard Basehart). When Zampanò finds her there, he
forcibly takes her back. They join a ragtag traveling circus, and find Il Matto already working there. For reasons he
himself cannot understand, Il Matto maliciously teases the strongman at every opportunity. After getting drenched by
a pail of water, Zampanò chases after his tormentor with his knife drawn; both men are put in jail.
Il Matto is released first. He shows Gelsomina that there are alternatives to her servitude. Despite this, he talks her
out of leaving Zampanò, imparting to her his philosophy that everything and everyone has a purpose, even a pebble,
even her. She decides that hers is to take care of her unappreciative master. After Zampanò is freed, she asks if he
wants to marry her, but he brushes her off.
Both men are fired from the circus. During the course of his travels, Zampanò comes upon Il Matto, fixing a flat tire
on an empty stretch of road. The strongman satisfies his revenge on the clown with a series of blows to the head. Il
Matto complains that his watch has been broken before he collapses and dies. Zampanò hides the body and pushes
his car off the road.
Zampanò is relieved to get away unseen, but the killing breaks Gelsomina's spirit. After ten days, she is still unable
to deal with her grief. When he cannot bear it any longer, he abandons her while she is taking a nap.
Four or five years later, he is drawn to a woman singing a tune Gelsomina often played. He learns that the woman's
father had found Gelsomina on the beach and kindly taken her in. However, she wasted away and died. Zampanò
gets drunk and wanders to the beach, where he breaks down and cries uncontrollably.

Cast
• Anthony Quinn as Zampanò
• Giulietta Masina as Gelsomina
• Richard Basehart as Il Matto - the Fool
• Aldo Silvani as Il Signor Giraffa - Mr. Giraffe, the circus owner
• Marcella Rovere as La Vedova - the Widow
• Livia Venturini as La Suorina - the Nun
La strada (film) 1030

Production

Background
The idea for the character Zampanò came from Fellini's youth in the coastal town of Rimini. A pig castrator lived
there who was known as a womanizer: according to Fellini, "This man took all the girls in town to bed with him;
once he left a poor idiot girl pregnant and everyone said the baby was the devil's child."[2] In 1992, Fellini told
Canadian director Damian Pettigrew that he had conceived the film at the same time as co-scenarist Tullio Pinelli in
a kind of "orgiastic synchronicity":
"I was directing I vitelloni, and Tullio had gone to see his family in Turin. At that time, there was no
autostrada between Rome and the north and so you had to drive through the mountains. Along one of
the tortuous winding roads, he saw a man pulling a carretta, a sort of cart covered in tarpaulin... A tiny
woman was pushing the cart from behind. When he returned to Rome, he told me what he'd seen and his
desire to narrate their hard lives on the road. 'It would make the ideal scenario for your next film,' he
said. It was the same story I'd imagined but with a crucial difference: mine focused on a little traveling
circus with a slow-witted young woman named Gelsomina. So we merged my flea-bitten circus
characters with his smoky campfire mountain vagabonds. We named Zampanò after the owners of two
small circuses in Rome: Zamperla and Saltano."[3]

Filming locations
The picture was shot in Bagnoregio, Viterbo, Lazio, Ovindoli, L'Aquila, and Abruzzo.[4]

Music
The theme music, composed by Nino Rota, contains a wistful tune which appears in the story line as a melody
played by the Fool on a miniature violin, and later by Gelsomina after she teaches herself to play the trumpet.

Distribution
The film premiered at the Venice Film Festival on September 6, 1954 and won the Silver Lion. It opened wide in
Italy on September 22, 1954, and in the United States on July 16, 1956.

Reception
Italy and France
Tullio Cicciarelli of Il Lavoro nuovo saw the film as:
...an unfinished poem, but one deliberately unfinished for fear that its essence be lost in the callousness
of critical definition, or in the ambiguity of classification. La strada cannot be classified nor does it
sustain the weight of rational discussion and comparison (when the film was shown at the Venice Film
Festival, many critics saw in it suggestions of Chaplin). The film should be accepted for its strange
fragility and its often too colorful, almost artificial moments, or else totally rejected. If we try to analyze
Fellini's film, its fragmentary quality becomes immediately evident and we are obliged to treat each
fragment, each personal comment, each secret confession separately.[5]
In Il Secolo XIX, Ermanno Contini praised Fellini as:
...a master story-teller. The narrative is light and harmonious, drawing its essence, resilience, uniformity
and purpose from small details, subtle annotations and soft tones that slip naturally into the humble plot
of a story apparently void of action. But how much meaning, how much ferment enrich this apparent
simplicity. It is all there although not always clearly evident, not always interpreted with full poetical
La strada (film) 1031

and human eloquence: it is suggested with considerable delicacy and sustained by a subtle emotive
force.[6]
Released in France in 1955, Dominique Aubier of Les Cahiers du cinéma thought La strada:
...belongs to the mythological class, a class intended to captivate the critics more perhaps than the
general public. Fellini attains a summit rarely reached by other film directors: style at the service of the
artist’s mythological universe. This example once more proves that the cinema has less need of
technicians - there are too many already - than of creative intelligence. To create such a film, the author
must have had not only a considerable gift for expression but also a deep understanding of certain
spiritual problems.[7]

Influence
A musical based on the film opened on Broadway on December 14, 1969, but closed after one performance.
Serbian rock band La Strada took their name from the film.

Awards
Wins
• Venice Film Festival: Silver Lion, Federico Fellini; 1954.
• Italian National Syndicate of Film Journalists: Silver Ribbon; Best Director, Federico Fellini; Best Producer, Dino
De Laurentiis and Carlo Ponti; 1955.
• New York Film Critics Circle Awards: NYFCC Award Best Foreign Language Film; 1956.
• Bodil Awards: Bodil; Best European Film, Federico Fellini (director); 1956.
• Academy Awards: Oscar; Best Foreign Language Film; 1956.
• Blue Ribbon Awards, Japan: Blue Ribbon Award, Best Foreign Language Film, Federico Fellini; 1958.
• Cinema Writers Circle Awards, Spain: CEC Award, Best Foreign Film, 1958.
• Kinema Junpo Awards, Japan: Kinema Junpo Award, Best Foreign Language Film; 1958.
Nominations
• Venice Film Festival: Golden Lion, Federico Fellini; 1954.
• British Academy of Film and Television Arts: BAFTA Film Award; Best Film from any Source, Italy; Best
Foreign Actress, Giulietta Masina; 1956.
• Academy Awards: Oscar; Best Writing, Best Original Screenplay; Federico Fellini, Tullio Pinelli, Ennio Flaiano;
1957.
Note
• La strada won more than fifty international awards, including an Oscar in 1956 for Best Foreign Language Film,
the first prize ever given in that category.[8]
La strada (film) 1032

References

Bibliography
• Fava, Claudio G. and Aldo Vigano. The Films of Federico Fellini. New York: Citadel Press, 1990. ISBN
0-8065-0928-7
• Fellini, Federico. Fellini on Fellini. Delacorte Press, 1974.
• Fellini, Federico and Damian Pettigrew (ed). I'm a Born Liar: A Fellini Lexicon. New York: Harry N. Abrams,
2003.
• Kezich, Tullio. Fellini: His Life and Work. New York: Faber and Faber, 2006. ISBN 0571211682

External links
• La strada [9] at the Internet Movie Database
• La strada [10] titles and selected scenes at You Tube

References
[1] Kezich, 406.
[2] Fellini, Fellini on Fellini, 11.
[3] Fellini and Pettigrew, 89-90.
[4] IMDb, La strada filming locations.
[5] First published 2 October 1954 in Il Lavoro nuovo (Genoa). Fava and Vigano, 83
[6] First published 8 September 1954 in Il Secolo XIX(Genoa). Fava and Vigano, 83
[7] First published in Les Cahiers du cinéma , No. 49, July 1955. Fava and Vigano, 83
[8] Kezich, 156
[9] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0047528/
[10] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=cWyZk8s2oyg
The Whalestoe Letters 1033

The Whalestoe Letters

The Whalestoe Letters

Cover to the first edition

Author Mark Z. Danielewski

Country United States

Language English

Genre(s) Epistolary Novella

Publisher Pantheon Books

Publication date 10 October 2000

Media type Print (Paperback)

Pages 86 p. (paperback edition)

ISBN ISBN 0-375-71441-3 (paperback edition)

OCLC Number [1]

44811700

Dewey Decimal 813/.54 21

LC PS3554.A5596 W48 2000

Classification

Preceded by House of Leaves

Followed by The Fifty Year Sword

The Whalestoe Letters (2000) by cult author Mark Z. Danielewski is an epistolary novella which more fully
develops the literary correspondence between Pelafina H. Lièvre and her son Johnny from 1982-1989, characters
first introduced in Danielewski's prior work, House of Leaves.

Plot introduction
The Whalestoe Letters 1034

Pelafina writes these letters to Johnny from The Three Attic Whalestoe Institute, a
mental institution where she has been residing for a number of years. While a
number of these letters appear in House of Leaves, The Whalestoe Letters
introduces a number of new letters which serve to more fully develop Pelafina's
character as well as her relationship with Johnny.

External links
Mark Danielewski
• Pantheon Books catalog page [2]

• Powells Books review [3]

References
[1] http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 44811700
[2] http:/ / www. randomhouse. com/ pantheon/ catalog/ display. pperl?isbn=9780375714412
[3] http:/ / www. powells. com/ biblio/ 17-0375714413-0
The Fifty Year Sword 1035

The Fifty Year Sword

The Fifty Year Sword
Author Mark Z. Danielewski

Original title Het Vijftig Jaars Zwaard

Cover artist Peter van Sambeek

Country Netherlands

Language Dutch, English

Genre(s) Short stories

Publisher De Bezige Bij

Publication date 31 October 2005

Media type Print (Hardback)

Pages 100

ISBN ISBN 90-234-1856-5 (orig. Dutch)

& ISBN 90-234-1877-8 (Eng.
trans.)

OCLC Number 71707811 [1]

Preceded by The Whalestoe Letters

Followed by Only Revolutions

The Fifty Year Sword is a novella written by Mark Z. Danielewski. Only 1,000 first edition English books were
released. 51 of those copies are signed in marker with a "Z" (varying in colour and number to coincide with the 5
coloured quotation marks that signify different speakers in the text), while the first copy is signed "Mark
Danielewski" in ink. A second English edition of 1,000 was released in October 2006. In a recent interview,
Danielewski announced that there are currently plans for a future US printing.
The Fifty Year Sword uses strange formatting and colors throughout the book,
much like Danielewski's previous work, House of Leaves. However, unlike House
of Leaves which only contained three colors (blue, red, and purple), The Fifty Year
Sword contains 5 colors which are used on quotation marks. The colors indicate
which of 5 characters is speaking at the moment, according to the introduction of
the book.

Mark Danielewski
Plot summary
The 50YS is essentially a mature-audience ghost story, in the disguised form of a children's book. The events of the
book take place at a woman's 50th birthday party in an orphan's foster home, told from the point of view of Chintana,
a kind yet sullen seamstress who is struggling with the recent divorce from her husband over an affair, the mistress
of which is ironically the birthday girl whose party Chintana is attending. A storyteller is invited by a social worker
to entertain the orphans. He brings with him a long, black box. The storyteller entertains the orphans by explaining
his adventures of obtaining the contents of the box: His 50 Year Sword, a weapon that never fails to cut but shows no
wound until the victim's 50th year of life. He recants a suspenseful, epic journey through mystical rocky trails and
soundless forests, bent on finding an otherworldly swordsmith to satisfy a dark, never explained personal grudge. He
The Fifty Year Sword 1036

then opens the box, revealing a seemingly bladeless sword, and he waves it in the air at the candles. Just then the
mistress and Birthday Girl, who has barged in toward the end of the story, gets annoyed at the storyteller and tells the
children the whole thing is a bunch of hogwash, and sets out to prove it. She takes the hilt of the sword, and slashes it
around at herself to disprove the man's story, much to the horror of the children and the bemusement of the shadowy
storyteller. The suspense grabs the reader even more as the storyteller finishes and Chintana and the other guests go
outside so the Birthday Girl can toast herself as her 50th year of life begins at the stroke of midnight.

External links
• Exploration Z [2] - links to interviews, reviews, and some book scans

References
[1] http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 71707811
[2] http:/ / markzdanielewski. info/ t50ys. html
Only Revolutions 1037

Only Revolutions
Only Revolutions

Author Mark Z. Danielewski

Country United States

Language English

Genre(s) Literary fiction

Publisher Pantheon Books

Publication date 12 September 2006

Media type Print (Hardcover)

Pages 360 pp

ISBN 0-375-42176-9

OCLC Number [1]

64427527

Dewey Decimal 813/.54 22

LC PS3554.A5596 O55 2006

Classification

Preceded by The Fifty Year Sword

Only Revolutions is an American road novel by writer Mark Z. Danielewski. It was released in the United States on
September 12, 2006 by Pantheon Books. It was nominated for the 2006 National Book Award for Fiction.

Plot summary
The story alternates between two different narratives: Sam and Hailey, and Hailey and Sam, wild and wayward
teenagers who never grow old. With an evolving stable of cars, the teenagers move through various places and
moments in time as they try to outrace history.
As the story proceeds, one can note that many events are perceptual and not certain. By reading both stories some
sense can be made from this poetic styled puzzle. The words written are a vague mix of poetry and stream of
consciousness prose. Both Hailey and Sam depict their feelings as well as ideas and thoughts towards one another. It
is truly difficult to summarize the plot as most readers will understand the parts of story in different ways.
It can also be noted that the end very much leads into the beginning. It is possible, after finishing the book, to
continue the story from the beginning.
Only Revolutions 1038

Volumes, direction, and layout

Only Revolutions is printed in such a way that both covers appear to be
the front of the book. The side with the green cover is the story as told
by Sam, and the side with the gold cover is the story as told by Hailey.
Every page contains upside-down text in the bottom margin, which is
actually later pages of the opposite volume. For example, the first page
of Hailey's story contains the last several lines of Sam's story,
apparently upside down. When you reach that page while reading
Sam's story, those lines will appear to be the only right-side-up text on
the page.

The first letter of each 8 page "section" is larger and bold when Mark Danielewski
compared to the other letters. When the reader puts the single letters
together from Hailey's side they spell out "Sam and Hailey and Sam and Hailey..." etc. When read from Sam's side,
they spell out "Hailey and Sam and Hailey and Sam..." etc.
Each half-page contains exactly 90 words. When both stories are combined, the words add together for a total of 180
words per page, perhaps to symbolize the 180 degrees the reader must turn the book to read the opposite volume.
Also, with both pages open, the full word count is 360, essentially making a revolution (360 degrees) with every
open page.
The publisher recommends the reading of eight pages from one story, then the other, and so on.
In addition, every page contains a sidebar with a date and a list of world events that happened between that date and
the one which appears on the next page. Dates in Sam's story run from Nov 22, 1863 to Nov 22, 1963, while dates in
Hailey's story run from Nov 22, 1963 to Jan 19, 2063. This chronological sidebar, which offers a mosaic of 19th -
21st Century historical quotations, becomes blank after Only Revolutions' own publication date. The diverging point
between Sam's line and Hailey's line is set at the date of the John F. Kennedy assassination, November 22, 1963.

Color
In Hailey's story, all occurrences of the letter O or the numeral 0 (save a handful between pages 180-184) are printed
in gold-colored ink (Pantone 146 U). In Sam's story, those characters are printed with green ink (Pantone 356 U).
The dates at the top of the sidebars are printed in purple (Pantone 2602 U), as well as the words "creep" and "The
Creep." The book includes a concordance of sorts, titled "Now Here Found" in red ink, which lists the word "house"
in blue ink, bringing the total number of colors in the book to five.

Publicity
For at least two years before the official title was released, its working title was THAT. Danielewski has referred to
THAT in interviews, many of which can be found online.
There was also talk of a secret group of recipients of the ARC (Advanced Reader's Copy) prior to the release of the
book. Soon before the official release date of Only Revolutions, it was revealed that there had, in fact, been a secret
forum on the MZD discussion boards, where the book had been discussed since Spring 2006. After September 12
(the public release date of OR), the ARC forum has been merged with the regular one.
Special downloadable content is available at the book's official website.
Only Revolutions 1039

Reader participation
Danielewski, most likely fueled by the cult following of his fans gained after the release of House of Leaves, has on
numerous occasions called for participation from his readers on certain aspects of the novel. While writing THAT,
readers were asked on Danielewski's discussion board to send in their reply to a list of questions pertaining to famous
or personal events, their favorite car, animals they respected, and plants that "made them stop", presumably to gather
specifics for the book. Several of the forumites' responses were ultimately used in the book.
Also, once the novel was in its final stages, Danielewski called an Open Audition for readers for the audio version of
the novel, again on his online forum.

Cover
The cover of a spine, two front covers, and two inside flaps. The two front covers appear to be identical in all
respects save two. On the dust jacket of the hardback edition, on one cover, the background image is a green eye
flecked in the center with gold, and on the opposite cover, the background image is a gold eye flecked in the center
with green. Second, the "O's" on the covers are printed in the color appropriate to the narrator, as described above.
One of the soft-cover edition covers features a photograph taken on the road with mountains in the background, the
partially cloudy sky, the distant mountains, and road are blue, and the areas aside the road are green with vegetation,
and the "O"s in the title are a bluish purple. The other cover's photograph is much warmer in composition: it features
a red desert at milestone 30 of a road in the southwestern United States, and the sky (as well as the road reflecting its
tinge) are grey with a muted red. Accordingly, the "O"s in the title are brownish purple.
On both sides of the paperback edition, the "o"s in "a novel" and "Author of House of Leaves" are the same neutral
grey, except in the word "House", which is blue. Similarly, there are three exceptions on the dust jacket to the rule
that "O's" are printed in the color of the eye of the associated narrator. Two occur on the dust jacket covers, and they
occur on both the gold cover and the green cover. The word "HOUSE" is printed entirely in blue, as it was
throughout "House of Leaves," and the word "novel" is printed entirely in purple within the pupil of the eye on each
cover. The third exception is the ISBN bar code on the spine; it is printed entirely in black, including zeros and the
letter "O" in "fiction."
The covers are identical in the following respects. The pupil of the eye is entirely black save for the author's name,
printed in an arc of white block letters around the top of the pupil, the name of the novel, printed in an arc of white
block letters (save for the three "O's") around the bottom of the pupil, and the phrase "a novel," printed in purple
lower-case lettering in the center of the pupil. Along the bottom of each cover is the phrase "author of "HOUSE OF
LEAVES," printed in white lettering save for the word "house" as described above.
The spine of the dust jacket contains five elements. At the top and bottom of the spine there are two identical ISBN
bar codes. Between the ISBN bar codes and the center of the spine are two identical (save for the "O's" as described
above) circles with "Only Revolutions" in black block letters forming the top of the circle and the author's name
forming the bottom of the circle, with the Pantheon logo in the center. In the center of the spine there is a single
multicolored circle with two parallel black vertical lines in the center. The multicolored circle itself is green at the
top and yellow at the bottom when viewed from the perspective of the green cover being the front. The area of the
circle where green turns to yellow is shaded purple. The paperback's spine is similar: there are two identical but
inverse Pantheon logos at each end, in between which are the pair of ISBN bar codes, and in between those is the
title. With the blue cover up, the title is right side up, and the same goes for the red cover and the author's name -
between the two is a blue line. In the title on the spine, the first "O" is the brownish purple of the red cover, the last is
the bluish purple of the other cover, and the middle is green with two vertical lines in the center.
The inside flaps are identical in the following respects. Both list the price of the book in the US, Canada, and the
UK. Both contain identical photographs of the author, below which appear identical author biographies. Both include
a note from the publisher instructing the reader to alternate between Sam and Hailey (or "Hailey and Sam,"
Only Revolutions 1040

depending on which flap you examine), reading eight pages at a time. Both contain identical credits for the author
photograph, jacket design, and jacket photograph, and both contain the Pantheon logo and web addresses for
Pantheon's website and the book's website. On the paperback, identical photographs and author descriptions are
obtained, but on the blue cover's flap is a quote from the National Book Award Finalist Judge's Citation, and on the
red cover's flap is a quote from the New York Times Book Review (which mentions that the book should be read 8
pages at a time, flipping it).
The blurbs that appear on the inside flaps differ slightly in character, though the structure of the sentences and
paragraphs is nearly identical. In accordance with the general flavor of the two narratives, Sam's blurb (inside the
green cover) is slightly darker in its imagery and word choice than Hailey's.

Binding
The actual bound cover of the book is printed with a full-color still-life photograph of artwork created by Jessica
Grindstaff, of various items lying on a flat surface that appears to be particle board. The photograph is shot from
directly above the surface, so no clue to an absolute "up" or "down" can betray the true "front" and "back" covers of
the book. The composition of the photograph does seem slightly to favor viewing from Hailey's perspective, that is,
with the "front" cover of the book opening to reveal Hailey's narrative.
When viewed from this perspective, the photograph has five main color zones. The top right of the photograph is
yellow, dominated by several dozen yellow roses. Other items in the yellow zone include gold-painted leaves and
twigs, a vial of yellow liquid with its lid wrapped loosely in a gold ribbon, a chunk of pale yellow mineral of some
kind, possibly sulfur, a lock of blonde hair, a sunflower, several yellowish pieces of amber with fossil insect
inclusions (visible as black specks), and one item of unknown identity, a translucent cylinder wrapped in gold thread.
The bottom left of the photograph is green, dominated by moss and twenty-four butterflies with wings of pale green
tipped with forest green. Other items in the green zone include drying leaves, two green-tinted brown nautilus shells,
five brilliantly colored green insects, and a white mouse.
The top left of the photograph is white, dominated by a plant with white buds and a paper-thin substance that
resembles birch bark. Other items in the upper white zone include two tiles painted with images of trees and a swatch
of a silvery tinsel-like substance.
The bottom right of the photograph is also white, dominated by what looks like snow but is probably white cotton
batting. Other items in the lower white zone include the skull of a small cat, two white moths, a pile of small bones
(all are the wishbones, or furculae, of birds), a tuft of white fur, and what is either an egg or a spider's egg sac. A
large number of straight pins are also visible in this zone.
Between the two zones on the left and the two zones on the right is a red zone, dominated by red seed pods. Other
items in the red zone include a bird's nest, two magnolia cones, two brown birds, a pile of red leaves, a pile of several
dozen honeybees, a desiccated or mummified grey-green anole (visibly pinned down by straight pins), and two small
brown mollusk or snail shells.
In the lower central portion of the red zone is a brilliant bluebird lying on its back with a green insect on its chest.
The bird is clutching a green ribbon flecked with yellow in its claws.
Attached to the spine are two ribbon bookmarks, one at each end corresponding to the green and gold colors
associated with the characters.
The endpapers contain text arranged in circular patterns and printed backwards on a background corresponding to the
colors associated with each character.
Only Revolutions 1041

External links
• Only Revolutions product page at Amazon.com [2]
• Pantheon Books catalog page [3]
• Official Only Revolutions website [4]
• Exploration Z [10]

References
[1] http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 64427527
[2] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ gp/ product/ 0375421769
[3] http:/ / www. randomhouse. com/ pantheon/ catalog/ display. pperl?isbn=9780375421761
[4] http:/ / www. onlyrevolutions. com
Pantheon Books 1042

Pantheon Books

Type Subsidiary of Random House

Industry Books, Publishing

Founded 1942

Founder(s) [1]
Kurt Wolff & Helen Wolff,
[2]
Kyrill S. Schabert,
[3]
Jacques Schiffrin

Headquarters New York City, United States

Key people Dan Frank, Editorial Director

Products Books

Website http:/ / www. PantheonBooks.

com

Pantheon Books is an American imprint with editorial independence that is part of the Knopf Publishing Group,
which was acquired by Random House in 1960.[4]
The current editor-in-chief at Pantheon Books is Dan Frank.

Overview
Bertelsmann AG, the German company that also owns Bantam Books, Doubleday Publishing, Dell Publishing,
Times Books, the Modern Library, Everyman's Library, Vintage Books, Crown Publishing Group, Schocken Books,
Ballantine Books, Random House, Del Rey Books, Fawcett Publications also[5] acquired Random House in 1998,
making Bertelsmann the largest publisher of American books.
In addition to classics, international fiction, and trade paperbacks, recently Pantheon has moved aggressively into the
comics market. It has published many critically acclaimed graphic novels and comics collections, including Ice
Haven, La Perdida, Read Yourself RAW, Maus, In the Shadow of No Towers, and Black Hole. Many of its comics
publications are high-quality collected editions of works originally serialized by other publishers such as
Fantagraphics Books.
Pantheon Books 1043

History
Pantheon Books was founded in 1942 in New York City by European intellectuals who had come to the United
States to escape fascism and the Holocaust.[6] Important early works published by Pantheon were Zen and the Art of
Archery by German scholar Eugen Herrigel, the Bollingen series (composed of C.G. Jung's collected works in
English and books of noted Jungian scholars), the first complete translation of the I Ching, and Boris Pasternak's
Doctor Zhivago.[6]
When Random House bought Alfred A. Knopf in 1960, the front page of the New York Times reported that the
merger "united two of the nation's most celebrated publishers of quality writing"[7] The following year, Random
House would buy Pantheon, which would be moved into the Knopf Publishing Group. Also in 1961, Pantheon hired
Andre Schiffrin as executive editor of Pantheon Books.
Under the direction of Schiffrin, Pantheon continued to publish important works by European writers such as The
Tin Drum by Günter Grass, who would later receive a Nobel Prize for his work; Madness and Civilization by Michel
Foucault, The Lover by Marguerite Duras, and Adieux by Simone de Beauvoir. By the late 1960s, Pantheon started to
bring American writers such as Noam Chomsky, James Loewen and Studs Terkel to European readers.[6] In 1965,
RCA bought Random House.[8] Throughout the 1970s, Pantheon continued to publish intellectual and often leftist
works of fiction and nonfiction "without a profit-and-loss sheet in sight".[9] In other words, Pantheon editors prided
themselves on subsidizing the cost of publishing less commercially successful (but socially or intellectually
important) works with the profits from more commercially successful books.[6]
In 1980, RCA sold Random House to Samuel Irving Newhouse, Jr., and Pantheon Books came under pressure to
increase profits.[6]
In early 2009, long-time Pantheon publisher Janice Goldklang was laid off as part of a general restructuring of
Random House and its publishing divisions.[10]

Controversies
Pantheon and Random House which, at the time, was owned by SI Newhouse, were plagued with controversy
throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s. In December 1989, Alberto Vitale, a former banker, replaced Robert L.
Berstein as chairman and president of Random House.[11] In February 1990, Schiffrin was "asked to resign after he
refused to reduce the number of titles published [by Pantheon] or to trim Pantheon's 30-member staff".[12] In protest
of Schiffrin's forced resignation and other changes in staffing, such as the hiring of Erroll McDonald, editors and
staff Tom Englehardt, David Sternbach, Helena Franklin, Diane Wachtel, Gay Salisbury, and several others resigned
in the following months.[11] [12] [13] Authors of books published by Pantheon, Random House, and other related
imprints, including Studs Terkel, Kurt Vonnegut Jr., and Oliver Sacks, held a protest outside of Random House in
March of 1990 during which they argued that the termination of Schiffrin amounted to corporate censorship of the
books that would not be printed without him.[12] Novelist E.L. Doctorow used his acceptance speech for a fiction
prize at the March 1990 National Book Critics Circle award ceremony to criticize Random House for ousting
Schiffrin.[14]
In the week following the protests, forty Random House editors and publishers signed a statement that defended the
personnel changes at Pantheon, stating: "like Pantheon, we abhor corporate censorship. We have never experienced
it, nor do we believe that Pantheon has ever experienced it. We would not tolerate censorship of any form, and we
are offended by any suggestion to the contrary. But, unlike Pantheon, we have preserved our independence and the
independence of our authors by supporting the integrity of our publishing programs with fiscal responsibility".[15]
Another supporter of Schiffrin's termination wrote that the protests and resignations were "a hilarious specimen of
people intoxicated by self-importance. It also is a case study of the descent of intellectuals' leftism into
burlesque".[16]
Pantheon Books 1044

In 1998, Random House made news again when it was bought by Bertelsmann. The Authors Guild approached the
Fair Trade Commission, arguing that "the $1.4 billion acquisition of Random House by Bantam's parent,
Bertelsmann A.G., the German media conglomerate, would create a 'new economic behemoth' with the potential to
restrict readers' choices and authors' ability to market their works".[17] Bertelsmann was allowed to make the
purchase, however, making it the largest publisher of English-language trade books. Again, Schiffrin protested,
noting that in the eight years since Random House had come under the direction of Vitale, "Random House's 'high
end'—the literary translations and books of criticism, cultural history and political analysis that had built the
reputation of the Knopf and Pantheon imprints—were being sacrificed" and that concerns for the "bottom line"
would outweigh intellectual and social concerns.[18]
Schiffrin published a memoir in 2000, in which he explains his side of the controversies surrounding Pantheon and
Random House called The Business of Books: How International Conglomerates Took Over Publishing and
Changed the Way We Read, in which he accused Vitale and those with money-making interests of homogenizing the
publishing industry by focusing too much on profits and warns, "the resulting control on the spread of ideas is
stricter than anyone would have though possible in a free society".[6] In a 2003 interview, former Pantheon editor
Tom Englehardt reflects on the Pantheon controversy in light of the acquisition by Bertelsmann: "Pantheon was a
very specific place, publishing a very specific kind of book, and we felt that was being wiped out. As it turned out,
what happened at Pantheon was the beginning of the gargantuan feasting on the independent publishing house and
not-so-independent houses as well"[19]

Pantheon Today
Pantheon continues to publish well respected fiction and non-fiction, and has more recently expanded further into
graphic novels. Pantheon published a graphic-based "for beginners" series in the 1970s and 1980s, and decided to
bring the series back in 2003.[20] One of the first graphic novels Pantheon published was the highly acclaimed Maus:
A Survivor's Tale by Art Spiegelman in 1986. Spiegelman has become somewhat of a comics consultant, advising
editor-in-chief Dan Frank.[21] In 2005, Pantheon published The Acme Novelty Library by Chris Ware.[21] That same
year, Pantheon published The Rabbi's Cat, a graphic novel by Joann Sfar which "tells the wholly unique story of a
rabbi, his daughter, and their talking cat".[22]
Books published by Pantheon in 2007 that are doing well (ranked by number of holdings in libraries according to
OCLC Worldcat) are: The Good Husband of Zebra Drive by Alexander McCall Smith, The Little Book of Plagiarism
by Richard Posner, Bambi vs. Godzilla: On the Nature, Purpose, and Practice of the Movie Business by David
Mamet, and Toussaint Louverture: A Biography by Madison Smartt Bell.

Selected Pantheon Publications

(Titles retrieved from OCLC World Cat Database [23] by searching for "Pantheon Books" in the publisher field and
ranking results by number of library holdings and publication year; this is a sampling; not all results are included.)

Literature and criticism

• Force and Freedom: Reflections on History by Jacob Burckhardt (1943)
• The World is Not Enough, A Novel by Zoé Oldenbourg (1948)
• The I Ching; Or, Book of Changes translated by Richard Wilhelm and Cary F. Baynes (1950))
• Doctor Zhivago by Boris Pasternak (1959)
• The Tin Drum by Günter Grass (1963)
• Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason by Michel Foucault (1965)
• Division Street: America by Studs Terkel (1967)
• American Power and the New Mandarins by Noam Chomsky (1969)
• At War with Asia by Noam Chomsky (1970)
Pantheon Books 1045

• Hard Times: An Oral History of the Great Depression by Studs Terkel (1970)
• The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences by Michel Foucault (1970)
• Problems of Knowledge and Freedom by Noam Chomsky (1971)
• The Archaeology of Knowledge by Michel Foucault (1972)
• For Reasons of State by Noam Chomsky (1973)
• Peace in the Middle East: Reflections on Justice and Nationhood by Noam Chomsky (1974)
• Working: People Talk About What They Do All Day and How They Feel About What They Do by Studs Terkel
(1974)
• Mississippi: Conflict & Change by James Loewen and Charles Sallis (1974)
• Reflections on Language by Noam Chomsky (1975)
• Sound Effects: Youth, Leisure, and the Politics of Rock'n'Roll by Simon Frith (1981)
• When Things of the Spirit Come First: Five Early Tales by Simone de Beauvoir (1982)
• The Empire's Old Clothes: What the Lone Ranger, Babar, and Other Innocent Heroes Do to Our Minds by Ariel
Dorfman (1983)
• Adieux: A Farewell to Sartre by Simone de Beauvoir (1984)
• After The Second Sex: Conversations with Simone De Beauvoir by Alice Schwarzer and Simone de Beauvoir
(1984)
• The Lover by Marguerite Duras (1985)
• Women Writing About Men by Jane Miller (1986)
• The Woman Destroyed by Simone de Beauvoir (1987)
• The Sadeian Woman and the Ideology of Pornography by Angela Carter (1988)
• Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky
• The Death of Rhythm & Blues by Nelson George (1988)
• On Record: Rock, Pop, and the Written Word by Simon Frith and Andrew Goodwin (1990)
• Stop the Violence: Overcoming Self Destruction by Nelson George (1990)
• The Book of Disquiet by Fernando Pessoa (1991)
• Felix: The Twisted Tale of the World's Most Famous Cat by John Canemaker (1991)
• Rhythm Oil: A Journey Through the Music of the American South by Stanely Booth (1991)
• Stories of Scottsboro by James Goodman (1994)
• The Birth of the Beat Generation: Visionaries, Rebels, and Hipsters, 1944-1960 by Steven Watson (1995)
• Deep Sightings and Rescue Missions: Fiction, Essays, and Conversations by Toni Cade Bambara and Toni
Morrison (1996)
• In the Country of Country: People and Places in American Music by Nicholas Dawidoff (1997)
• Holy Clues: Investigating Life's Mysteries with Sherlock Holmes by Stephen Kendrick (1999)
• Parallels and Paradoxes: Explorations in Music and Society by Daniel Barenboim, Edward W. Said, and Ara
Guzelimian (2002)
• Boogaloo: The Quintessence of American Popular Music by Arthur Kempton (2003)
• The End of Blackness: Returning the Souls of Black Folk to Their Rightful Owners by Debra Dickerson (2004)
• Give our Regards to the Atomsmashers! Writers on Comics by Sean Howe (2004)
• Shakespeare After All by Marjorie B Garber (2004)
• Tango: The Art History of Love by Robert Farris Thompson (2005)
• On Michael Jackson by Margo Jefferson (2006)
• The Good Husband of Zebra Drive by Alexander McCall Smith (2007)
• The Little Book of Plagiarism by Alexander Posner (2007)
• Bambi vs. Godzilla: On the Nature, Purpose, and Practice of the Movie Business by David Mamet (2007)
• Toussant Louverture: A Biography by Madison Smartt Bell (2007)
• The Father of all Things: A Marine, His Son, and the Legacy of Vietnam by Tom Bissell (2007)
Pantheon Books 1046

• "Soon I Will Be Invincible: a novel" by Austin Grossman (2007)

Selections from the Bollingen Series

• Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization, eds. Heinrich Robert Zimmer and Joseph Campbell (1946)
• The I Ching or Book of Changes, Wilhelm, R. and Baynes, C., 1967. With foreword by Carl Jung. 3rd. ed.,
Bollingen Series XIX. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press (1st ed. 1950).
• The Collected Works of C.G. Jung by Carl Jung (1953)
• Psychological Reflections: An Anthology of the Writings of C.G. Jung by Carl Jung(1953)
• Creative Intuition in Art and Poetry by Jacques Maritain (1953)
• The Origins and History of Consciousness by Erich Neumann (1954)
• Painting and Reality by Étienne Gilson (1957)
• Yoga: Immortality and Freedom by Mircea Eliade (1958)
• Zen and Japanese Culture by Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki (1959)
• Art and Illusion: A Study in the Psychology of Pictorial Representation by E.H. Gombrich (1960)
• Of Divers Arts by Naum Gabo (1962)
• The "I" and the "Not-I": A Study in the Development of Consciousness by Mary Esther Harding (1965)
• Birds by Saint-John Perse and Georges Braque (1966)
• Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter by Karl Kerényi (1967)

Comics, "...for Beginners" books, and graphic novels

• ...for Beginners
• Lenin for Beginners by Richard Appignanesi and Oscar Zarate (1978)
• Freud for Beginners by Richard Appignanesi and Oscar Zarate (1979)
• Trotsky for Beginners by Tariq Ali (1980)
• Ecology for Beginners by Stephen Croall and William Rankin (1981)
• Marx's Kapital for Beginners by David N. Smith, and Phil Evans, and Karl Marx (1982)
• Nuclear Power for Beginners by Stephen Croall and Kaianders Sempler (1983)
• Economists for Beginners by Bernard Canavan (1983)
• Love is Hell by Matt Groening (1985)
• Maus I: A Survivor's Tale: My Father Bleeds History by Art Spiegelman (1986)
• Read Yourself RAW by Art Spiegelman and Françoise Mouly (1987)
• School is Hell: A Cartoon Book by Matt Groening (1987)
• Childhood is Hell: A Cartoon Book" by Matt Groening (1988)
• The Big Book of Hell: A Cartoon Book by Matt Groening (1990)
• Maus II: A Survivor's Tale: And Here My Troubles Began by Art Spiegelman (1991)
• Love is Still Hell: A Cartoon Book by Matt Groening (1994)
• The Jew of New York by Ben Katchor (1998)
• Ethel & Ernest by Raymond Briggs (1998)
• David Boring by Daniel Clowes (2000)
• Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth by Chris Ware (2000)
• Julius Knipl, Real Estate Photographer: The Beauty Supply District by Ben Katchor (2000)
• In the Floyd Archives: A Psycho-Bestiary by Sarah Boxer (2001)
• Persepolis by Marjane Satrapi (2003)
• In the Shadow of No Towers by Art Spiegelman (2004)
• Persepolis II by Marjane Satrapi (2004)
• Amy and Jordan by Mark Beyer (2004)
• Black Hole by Charles Burns (2005)
Pantheon Books 1047

• Embroideries by Marjane Satrapi (2005)

• Epileptic by David Beauchard (2005)
• Ice Haven by Daniel Clowes (2005)
• The Rabbi's Cat by Joann Sfar (2005)
• Chicken with Plums by Marjane Satrapi (2006)
• La Perdida by Jessica Abel (2006)
• A Scanner Darkly by Philip K. Dick, adapted by Richard Linklater (2006)
• Alias the Cat! by Kim Deitch (2007)
• Breakdowns: Portrait of the Artist as a Young %@*! by Art Spiegelman (2008)
• My Brain Is Hanging Upside Down by David Heatley (2008)
• Asterios Polyp by David Mazzucchelli (2009)
• A.D.: New Orleans After the Deluge by Josh Neufeld (forthcoming, 2009)

External links
• Official website [24]

References
[1] McGuire, William. Bollingen: An Adventure in Collecting the Past, Princeton University Press (1989), p 273.
[2] "Obituaries: Kyrill S. Schabert, 74, Dead; Ex-Head of Pantheon Books," New York Times (April 10, 1983).
[3] Pantheon history on World Without End. (http:/ / www. worldswithoutend. com/ publisher. asp?ID=112)
[4] Random house, inc. Datamonitor Company Profiles Authority: Retrieved 6/20/2007, from EBSCO Host Business Source Premier database.
[5] Miller, M. C. (1998, March 26). And then there were seven. New York Times, pp. A.27.
[6] Schiffrin, A. (2000). The Business of Books: How International Conglomerates Took Over Publishing and Changed the Way we Read.
London: New York: Verso.
[7] Talese, B. G. (1960, April 17). Random House will buy Knopf in merger. New York Times (1857-Current file), pp. 1.
[8] Funding Universe Company Profile on Random House (http:/ / www. fundinguniverse. com/ company-histories/
Random-House-Inc-Company-History. html)
[9] Engelhardt, T. (1990). Pantheon purge. The Progressive, 54(5), 46.
[10] Neyfakh, Leon. "Pantheon Publisher Janice Goldklang Latest Victim of Layoffs at Random House Inc.," New York Observer (Jan. 8, 2009).
Accessed Jan. 27, 2009.
[11] McDowell, E. (1990, February 28). New pantheon head named amid resignation protest. New York Times, pp. D.2.
[12] McDowell, E. (1990, March 6). 250 protest resignation at pantheon. New York Times, pp. D.21.
[13] More pantheon editors resign in protest. (1990, May 3). New York Times, pp. C.21.
[14] Cohen, R. (1990, March 9). THE MEDIA BUSINESS; top random house author assails ouster at pantheon. New York Times, pp. D.18.
[15] McDOWELL, E. (1990, March 13). THE MEDIA BUSINESS; 40 at random house critical of pantheon. New York Times, pp. D.23.
[16] Will, G. F. (1990, March 25). The `Right' to lose other people's money. The Washington Post, pp. c.07.
[17] Barringer, F. (1998, May 30). F.T.C. clears merger path for publishers. New York Times, pp. D.1.
[18] Schiffrin, A. (1998, April 30). Eyes on the bottom line. The Washington Post, pp. A.21.
[19] Lara, A. (2003, July 6). Q & A /Tom Engelhardt / Getting the business end of publishing. San Francisco Chronicle, pp. M.2.
[20] MacDonald, H. (2003). Pantheon re-offers 'for beginners' series. Publishers Weekly, 250(51), 26.
[21] Wolk, D. (2005) The GN imprint that isn't. Publishers Weekly, 252(10), 46.
[22] Pantheon Web Site. (http:/ / www. randomhouse. com/ pantheon/ graphicnovels/ rabbiscat. html)
[23] http:/ / www. oclc. org/ worldcat
[24] http:/ / www. randomhouse. com/ pantheon
Random House 1048

Random House

Type Division of Bertelsmann

Industry Books, Publishing

Founded 1925

Founder(s) Bennett Cerf and Donald Klopfer

Headquarters New York City, NY, USA

Area served Worldwide

Key people Markus Dohle (Chairman & CEO, Random House Worldwide/Random House, Inc.)
Núria Cabutí (CEO, Random House Mondadori)
Anne Davis (Executive Vice President & CFO, Random House Worldwide)
Brad Martin (President & CEO, Random House of Canada)
Dr. Joerg Pfuhl (Chairman & CEO, Verlagsgruppe Random House)
Gail Rebuck (Chairman & CEO, The Random House Group)
Frank Steinert (Senior Vice President Human Resources, Random House Worldwide)

Products Books

Revenue ▲€1.723 billion Euros (2009)

Owner(s) Bertelsmann

Employees 5,432 (as of December 31, 2009)

Website [1]
www.randomhouse.com
Random House 1049

Random House, Inc. is the world's largest English language

general trade book publisher. It has been owned since 1998 by
the large German private media corporation Bertelsmann and
has become the umbrella brand for Bertelsmann book
publishing. Random House also has a movie production arm,
Random House Films, and is currently developing a division
responsible for creating story content for media including
video games, social networks on the web, mobile platforms, in
print and on film.[2]

Random House, U.S.A.

Random House was founded in 1927 by Americans Bennett
Cerf and Donald Klopfer, two years after they acquired the
Modern Library imprint. Cerf is quoted as saying, "We just
said we were going to publish a few books on the side at
random," which suggested the name Random House.[3]
Its American divisions currently include the Crown Publishing
Group, the Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, the Random
House Audio Publishing Group, the Random House Publishing
Group, and Random House Children's Books. Del Rey Manga
publishes English manga in North America.
Random House entered reference publishing in 1947 with the Random House Tower headquarters, New York City

American College Dictionary, which was followed in 1966 by

its first unabridged dictionary. Today it publishes the Random House Dictionary of the English Language and
Random House Webster's College dictionaries, probably the main competitors for Merriam-Webster reference titles.
The distinguished American publishers Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. and Pantheon Books were acquired by Random House
in 1960 and 1961, respectively; works continue to be published under these imprints with editorial independence,
such as Everyman's Library, a series of classical literature reprints. Random House has been the distributor for
Shambhala Publications since 1974. They also currently distribute Rizzoli Books, National Geographic Books,
Steerforth Press, Wizards of the Coast, Vertical Books, Welcome Books, New York Review of Books, Titan Books,
Other Press, Hatherleigh Press, North Atlantic Books, Monacelli Press Books, and DC Comics. In 1998,
Bertelsmann AG bought Random House and it soon went global.[4]
The publisher's main U.S. office is located at 1745 Broadway in Manhattan, in the 684-foot Random House Tower,
completed in 2003 and spanning the entire west side of the block between West 55th Street and west 56th. Its lobby
showcases floor-to-ceiling glassed-in bookcases filled with books published by the company's many imprints.

International Branches
Random House, Inc. maintains several independently managed subsidiaries around the world.
The Random House Group is one of the largest general book publishing companies in the UK and is based in
London. The Group comprises five publishing companies: Cornerstone Publishing, CCV, Ebury Publishing, Random
House Children's Books and Transworld Publishers, boasting more than 40 diverse and highly respected imprints. Its
distribution business services its own imprints as well as 60 other UK publishers.
The Random House Group also operates branches in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa (as a joint venture under
the name Random House Struik), and India as part of its overseas structure. In Australia offices are in Sydney and
Random House 1050

Melbourne.[5] In New Zealand it is based in Glenfield, Auckland, while Random House's Indian headquarters are
located in New Delhi.
Verlagsgruppe Random House was established after Bertelsmann's 1998 acquisition of Random House, grouping
its German imprints (until then operating as Verlagsgruppe Bertelsmann) under the new name. It is the second
largest book publisher in Germany with more than 40 imprints, including historic publishing houses Goldmann and
Heyne, as well as C. Bertelsmann, the publishing house from which today's Bertelsmann AG would eventually
evolve. Verlagsgruppe Random House is headquartered in Munich (with additional locations in Gütersloh, Cologne,
and Aßlar), employs about 850 people, and publishes roughly 2.500 titles per year.
Random House of Canada[6] was established in 1944 as the Canadian distributor of Random House Books. In 1986
the company established its own indigenous Canadian publishing program that has become one of the most
successful in Canadian history. It holds a 25% stake in McClelland & Stewart, with the remaining 75% being
controlled by the University of Toronto.
Random House Mondadori is Random House's Spanish-language joint venture with Italian publisher Mondadori,
targeting markets in South and Middle America and Spain. It is headquartered in Barcelona with locations in
Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Uruguay, and Venezuela.
In late 2009 and early 2010, respectively, Random House discontinued their Japanese joint venture Random House
Kodansha, which had been established in 2003, and also divested their four-year ownership of Random House
Korea. The company has since named Random House Australia managing director Margie Seale responsible for
exploring and evaluating potential future business opportunities in Asia.[7]

Divisions and imprints

Random House, U.S.A.[8]

Crown Publishing Group
• Amphoto Books
• Back Stage Books
• Billboard Books
• Broadway
• Broadway Business
• Clarkson Potter
• Crown
• Crown Business
• Crown Forum
• Doubleday Religion
• Harmony Books
• The Monacelli Press
• Potter Craft
• Potter Style
• Ten Speed Press
• Three Rivers Press
• Tricycle Press
• Shaye Areheart Books
• WaterBrook Multnomah
• Watson-Guptill
Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group
Random House 1051

• Alfred A. Knopf
• Anchor Books[9]
• Doubleday
• Everyman's Library
• Nan A. Talese[10]
• Pantheon Books
• Schocken Books
• Vintage
Random House Publishing Group
• Ballantine Books
• Bantam
• Delacorte
• Del Rey
• Del Rey / Lucas Books
• Dell
• The Dial Press
• The Modern Library
• One World
• Presido Press
• Random House Trade Group
• Random House Trade Paperbacks
• Spectra
• Spiegel & Grau
• Villard Books
Random House Audio Publishing Group
• Listening Library
• Random House Audio
• Random House Audio Assets
• Random House Audio Dimensions
• Random House Audio Roads
• Random House Audio Price-less
• Random House Audio Voices
Random House Children's Books
• Random House Children's Books (Kids@Random)
• Golden Books[11]
Random House Information Group
• Fodor's Travel
• Living Language
• Prima Games
• Princeton Review
• Random House Puzzles & Games
• Random House Reference Publishing
• Sylvan Learning
Random House Large Print
Random House 1052

The Random House Group

Cornerstone Publishing
• Arrow
• Century
• William Heinemann
• Hutchinson
• Preface
• Random House Books
• Random House Business Books
• Random House Audio
• Tanoshimi Manga
• Windmill
CCV
• Chatto & Windus
• Harvill Secker
• Jonathan Cape
• Pimlico
• Square Peg
• The Bodley Head
• Vintage
• Yellow Jersey
Ebury Publishing
• BBC Books
• Ebury Press
• Vermilion
• Rider
• Time Out Books
• Virgin Books
Transworld Publishers
• Corgi
• Bantam
• Black Swan
• Channel 4
• Doubleday
• Eden Project
• Expert
• Transworld Ireland
• Transworld Sport
Random House Children's Books
• Bantam
• Jonathan Cape
• Corgi
• David Fickling Books
• Doubleday
• Eden Project
Random House 1053

• Red Fox
• Hutchinson
• Tamarind
• The Bodley Head
Mainstream Publishing
Random House Australia
Random House India
Random House New Zealand
Random House Struik

Verlagsgruppe Random House

• adeo
• Ansata
• Ariston
• Arkana
• Bassermann
• Blanvalet
• Blessing
• btb
• C. Bertelsmann
• cbj audio
• cbj avanti
• cbj Kinder- und Jugendbücher
• cbt Jugendbücher
• Diana
• Diederichs
• DVA
• Edition Elke Heidenreich
• Gerth Medien
• Goldmann
• Gütersloher Verlagshaus
• Heyne
• Integral
• Irisiana
• Kailash
• Knaus
• Kösel
• Limes
• Lotos
• Luchterhand Literaturverlag
• Ludwig
• Manesse
• Manhatten
• Mosaik bei Goldmann
• Paige & Turner
• Pantheon
Random House 1054

• Penhaligon
• Prestel
• Random House Audio
• Random House Entertainment
• Riemann
• Siedler
• Sphinx
• Südwest
• Tag & Nacht

Random House Mondadori

• Areté
• Caballo de Troya
• Collins
• Debate
• DeBolsillo
• Electa
• Grijalbo
• Grijalbo Ilustrados
• Lumen
• Lumen Infantil
• Mondadori
• Montena
• Plaza & Janés
• Rosa dels Vents
• Sudamericana

Random House of Canada

• Anchor Canada
• Bond Street
• Doubleday Canada
• Knopf Canada
• Random House Canada
• Seal Books
• Vintage Canada
McClelland & Stewart Ltd.
• Douglas Gibson Books
• Emblem
• Tundra Books
• Journey Prize Stories
• New Canadian Library
Random House 1055

See also
• List of English language book publishers
• List of largest UK book publishers
• Media of New York City
• Publishing

External links
• Random House official website [12]
• The Random House Group official website [13]
• Verlagsgruppe Random House official website [14]
• Random House of Canada official website [15]
• Random House Australia official website [16]
• Random House New Zealand official website [17]
• Random House India official website [18]
• Random House Mondadori official website in Spain [19]
• Random House Mondadori official website in Mexico [20]
• Random House Struik official website [21]

References
[1] http:/ / www. randomhouse. com/
[2] Online.wsj.com (http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/ SB10001424052748704089904575093562727862740. html), Wall Street Journal Online
[3] C250.columbia.edu (http:/ / c250. columbia. edu/ c250_celebrates/ remarkable_columbians/ bennett_alfred_cerf. html), Bennet Alfred Cerf
Biography
[4] Random House Company History, from fundinguniverse.com (http:/ / www. fundinguniverse. com/ company-histories/
Random-House-Inc-Company-History. html). Accessed April 13, 2008.
[5] randomhouse.com.au (http:/ / www. randomhouse. com. au/ Contact/ )
[6] randomhouse.ca (http:/ / www. randomhouse. ca/ about/ index. html)
[7] benet.bertelsman.com (http:/ / benet. bertelsmann. com/ benet/ run/ tcm:12-229317-64)
[8] Randomhouse.biz (http:/ / www. randomhouse. biz/ ourpublishers/ )
[9] Vintage-anchor.knopfoubleday.com (http:/ / vintage-anchor. knopfdoubleday. com/ )
[10] Nan-a-talese.knopfdoubleday.com (http:/ / nan-a-talese. knopfdoubleday. com/ )
[11] Randomhouse.com (http:/ / www. randomhouse. com/ golden/ lgb/ )
[12] http:/ / www. randomhouse. com
[13] http:/ / www. randomhouse. co. uk
[14] http:/ / www. randomhouse. de
[15] http:/ / www. randomhouse. ca
[16] http:/ / www. randomhouse. com. au
[17] http:/ / www. randomhouse. co. nz
[18] http:/ / www. randomhouse. co. in
[19] http:/ / www. randomhousemondadori. es/
[20] http:/ / www. rhmx. com. mx/
[21] http:/ / www. randomstruik. co. za
Bestseller 1056

Bestseller
A bestseller is a book that is identified as extremely popular by its inclusion on lists of currently top selling titles
that are based on publishing industry and book trade figures and published by newspapers, magazines, or bookstore
chains. Some lists are broken down into classifications and specialties (number one best selling new cookbook, novel,
nonfiction, etc.). The New York Times Best Seller list is one of the best-known bestseller lists for the US. The New
York Times Best Seller list only tracks National and Independent book stores; it does not include sales from Internet
retailers.
In everyday use, the term bestseller is not usually associated with a specified level of sales, and may be used very
loosely indeed in publisher's publicity. Bestsellers tend not to be books considered of superior academic value or
literary quality, though there are exceptions. Lists simply give the highest-selling titles in the category over the stated
period. Some books have sold many more copies than contemporary "bestsellers", but over a long period of time.
Blockbusters for films and chart-toppers in recorded music are similar terms, although, in film and music, these
measures generally are related to industry sales figures for attendance, requests, broadcast plays, or units sold.
Particularly in the case of novels, a large budget, and a chain of literary agents, editors, publishers, reviewers,
retailers, and marketing efforts are involved in "making" bestsellers.

Early bestsellers
'Bestseller' is a relatively recent term, first recorded in print in 1889 in the Kansas City newspaper The Kansas Times
& Star,[1] but the phenomenon of immediate popularity goes back to the early days of mass production of printed
books. For earlier books, when the maximum number of copies that would be printed was relatively small, a count of
editions is the best way to assess sales. Since effective copyright was slow to take hold, many editions were pirated
well into the period of the Enlightenment, and without effective royalty systems in place, authors often saw little, if
any, of the revenues for their popular works.
The earliest highly popular books were nearly all religious, but the Bible, as a large book, remained expensive until
the nineteenth century. This tended to keep the numbers printed and sold, low. Unlike today, it was important for a
book to be short to be a bestseller, or it would be too expensive to reach a large audience. Very short works such as
Ars moriendi, the Biblia pauperum, and versions of the Apocalypse were published as cheap block-books in large
numbers of different editions in several languages in the fifteenth century. These were probably affordable items for
most of the minority of literate members of the population. In 16th and 17th century England Pilgrim's Progress
(1678) and abridged versions of Foxe's Book of Martyrs were the most broadly read books. Robinson Crusoe (1719)
and The Adventures of Roderick Random (1748) were early eighteenth century short novels with very large
publication numbers, as well as gaining international success.[2]
Tristram Shandy, a rather long novel by Laurence Sterne, became a "cult" object in England and throughout Europe,
with important cultural consequences among those who could afford to purchase books during the era of its
publication. The same could be said of the works of Voltaire, particularly his comedic and philosophically satirical
novel, Candide, which, according to recent research, sold more than 20,000 copies in its first month alone in 1759.
Likewise, fellow French Enlightenment author Rousseau, especially his Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse (1761) and of
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's novel, Die Leiden des jungen Werther (The Sorrows of Young Werther) (1774). As
with some modern bestsellers, Werther spawned what today would be called a spin-off industry with items such as
Werther eau de cologne and porcelain puppets depicting the main characters, being sold in large numbers.[3]
By the time of Byron and Sir Walter Scott, effective copyright laws existed, at least in England, and many authors
depended heavily on their income from their large royalties. America remained a zone of piracy until the
mid-nineteenth century, a fact of which Charles Dickens and Mark Twain bitterly complained. By the middle of the
19th century, a situation akin to modern publication had emerged, where most bestsellers were written for a popular
Bestseller 1057

taste and are now almost entirely forgotten, with odd exceptions such as East Lynne (remembered only for the line
"Gone, gone, and never called me mother!"), the wildly popular Uncle Tom's Cabin, and Sherlock Holmes.

Description and types of bestseller

Bestsellers are usually separated into fiction and non-fiction categories. Different list compilers have created a
number of other subcategories. The New York Times was reported to have started its "Children's Books" section in
2001 just to move the Harry Potter books out of the No. 1, 2, and 3 positions on their fiction chart, which the then
three-book series had monopolized for over a year.[4]
Bestsellers also may be ranked separately for hardcover and paperback editions. Typically, a hardcover edition
appears first, followed in months or years by the much less expensive paperback version. Hardcover bestseller status
may hasten the paperback release of the same, or slow the release, if hardcover sales are brisk enough. Some lists
even have a third category, trade paperback bestsellers.
In the United Kingdom, a hardcover book could be considered a "bestseller" with sales ranging from 4,000 to 25,000
copies per week, and in Canada, the rule of thumb is 5,000 copies sold.[5] There are many "bestseller lists" that
display anywhere from 10 to 150 titles.

Differences among lists

Bestseller lists may vary widely, depending on the method used for calculating sales. The Book Sense bestseller lists,
for example, use only sales numbers, provided by independently-owned (non-chain) bookstores, while the New York
Times list includes both wholesale and retail sales from a variety of sources. A book that sells well in gift shops and
grocery stores may hit a New York Times list without ever appearing on a Book Sense list. USA Today has only one
list, not separated into fiction/non-fiction and hardcover/paperback, so that relative sales among these categories can
be ascertained.
Lists from Amazon.com, the dominant on-line book retailer, are based only on sales from their own Web site, and
are updated on an hourly basis. Wholesale sales figures are not factored into Amazon's calculations. Numerous Web
sites offer advice for authors about a temporary method to boost their book higher on Amazon's list using
carefully-timed buying campaigns that take advantage of the frequent adjustments to rankings. For example, faith
healing author Zhi Gang Sha has used this method to create a number of #1 bestsellers.[6] The brief sales spike
allows authors to tout that their book was an "Amazon.com top 100 seller" in marketing materials for books that
actually have relatively low sales. Eventually book buyers may begin to recognize the relative differences among
lists and settle upon which lists they will consult to determine their purchases.
The weight and price of a book may affect its positioning on lists. The Amazon.com list tends to favor hardcover,
more expensive books, where the shipping charge is a smaller percentage of the overall purchase price or is
sometimes free, and which tend to be more deeply discounted than paperbacks. Inexpensive mass market paperbacks
tend to do better on the New York Times list than on Amazon's. Book Sense and Publishers Weekly separate mass
market paperbacks onto their own list.
Category structure affects the positioning of a book in other ways. A book that might be buried on the Book Sense
hardcover fiction list could be positioned very well on the New York Times hardcover advice list or the Publishers
Weekly religion hardcover list.
Bestseller 1058

Verifiability
Bestseller reports from companies such as Amazon.com, which appear to be based strictly on auditable sales to the
public, may be at odds with bestseller lists compiled from more casual data, such as the New York Times lists' survey
of retailers and publishers. The exact method for ranking the New York Times bestseller lists is a closely-guarded
secret.
This situation suggests a similar one in the area of popular music. In 1991, Billboard magazine switched its chart
data from manual reports filed by stores, to automated cash register data collected by a service called SoundScan.
The conversion saw a dramatic shake-up in chart content from one week to the next.
Today, many lists come from automated sources. Booksellers may use their POS (point-of-sale) systems to report
automatically to Book Sense. Wholesalers such as the giant Ingram Book Group have bestseller calculations similar
to Amazon's, but they are available only to subscribing retailers. Barnes & Noble and other large retail chains collect
sales data from retail outlets and their Web sites to build their own bestseller lists.
Nielsen BookScan U.S. is perhaps the most aggressive attempt to produce a completely automatic and trusted set of
bestseller lists. They claim to be gathering data directly from cash registers at more than 4,500 retail locations,
including independent bookstores, large chains such as Barnes & Noble, Powell's Books, and Borders, and the
general retailer Costco. Unlike the consumer-oriented lists, BookScan's data is extremely detailed and quite
expensive. Subscriptions to BookScan cost up to $75,000 per year, but it can provide publishers and wholesalers
with an accurate picture of book sales with regional and other statistical analyses.

The making of a bestseller

Ultimately, having a great number of buyers creates a bestseller; however, there is a distinct "making of" process that
determines which books have the potential to achieve that status. Not all publishers rely on, nor strive for,
bestsellers, as the survival of small presses indicates. Large publishing houses, on the other hand, are like major
record labels and film studios, and require consistent high returns to maintain their large overhead. Thus, the stakes
are high. It is estimated that 200,000 new books are published each year in the U.S., and less than 1% achieve
bestseller status.[7] Along the way, major players act as gatekeepers and enablers, including literary agents, editors,
publishing houses, booksellers, and the media (particularly, publishers of book reviews and bestseller lists). In the
U.S., the five major publishers—Random House, HarperCollins, Time Warner Publishing, Penguin USA, and Simon
& Schuster—are responsible for about 80% of bestsellers; the five majors together with the next five largest
publishers—Macmillan, Hyperion, Rodale Press, Houghton Mifflin, and Harlequin Enterprises—control around 98%
of all United States bestsellers.[7] At least equally influential are the marketing efforts, including advertising,
promotion, and publicity. The high visibility of an established and best-selling author is paramount in the equation
also. In addition to writing the book, an author has to acquire representation and negotiate this publishing chain.[8]
At least one scientific approach to creating bestsellers has been devised. In 2004, Didier Sornette, a professor of
geophysics and a complex systems theorist at UCLA, using Amazon.com sales data, created a mathematical model
for predicting bestseller potential based on very early sales results. This information could be used to identify a
potential for bestseller status and recommend fine tuned advertising and publicity efforts accordingly.[9]
In 1995, the authors of a book called 'The Discipline of Market Leaders' colluded to manipulate their book onto the
best seller charts. The authors allegedly purchased over 10,000 copies of their own book in small and strategically
placed orders at bookstores whose sales are reported to Bookscan. Because of the ancillary benefits of making the
New York Times Bestseller list (speaking engagements, more book deals, and consulting) the authors felt that
buying their own work was an investment that would pay for itself. The book climbed to #8 on the list where it sat
for 15 weeks, also peaking at #1 on the Business Week best seller list. Since such lists hold the power of cumulative
advantage chart success often begets more chart success. And although such efforts are not illegal, they are
considered highly unethical by publishers.[10]
Bestseller 1059

Cultural role
While the basic dictionary definition of bestseller is self-evident, "a popular, top-selling book", the practical cultural
definition is somewhat more complex. As consumer bestseller lists generally do not detail specific criteria, such as
numbers sold, sales period, sales region, and so forth, a book becomes a bestseller mainly because an "authoritative"
source says it is. Calling a book a "top-selling" title is not so impressive as calling it "the New York Times bestseller".
Although the former phrase is assumed to be derived from sales figures, the latter benefits from the high profile of
the particular list. A book that is identified as a "bestseller" greatly improves its chance of selling to a much wider
audience. In this way, bestseller has taken on its own popular meaning, rather independent of empirical data, by
becoming a compromised product category and, in effect, attempting to create a marketing image. For example, a
"summer bestseller" is usually determined long before the summer is over, and signals a book's suitability for
millions of lounging pool-side readers.
The use of the marketing phrase, underground bestseller further illustrates the independent-from-sales, self-defining
aspect of the term. For example, publisher HarperCollins suggested the bestseller potential of Divine Secrets of the
Ya-Ya Sisterhood: A Novel by announcing "...four years after her award-winning, underground bestseller, Little
Altars Everywhere..." in the promotion. The book went on to achieve bestseller status in the 1990s. In reviews of the
2002 film of the same name, the novel's bestseller status was cited routinely, as in "compelling adaptation of
Rebecca Wells' bestseller".[11]
The famous Diogenes Publisher at Zürich (Swiss) started to talk about its own Worstsellers in 2006, and therewith
brought a new mode-word into the German speaking European countries.

Connection with the movie industry

Bestsellers play a significant role in the mainstream movie industry. There is a long-standing Hollywood practice of
turning fiction bestsellers into feature films. Many, if not the majority, of modern movie "classics" began as
bestsellers. On the Publishers Weekly fiction bestsellers of the year charts, we find: #1: Harry Potter and the Order
of the Phoenix (2003), #2. The Godfather (1969); #1. Love Story (1970); #2. The Exorcist (1971); #3. Jaws (1974);
among many others. Several of each year's fiction bestsellers ultimately are made into high-profile movies. Being a
bestseller novel in the U.S. during the last forty years has guaranteed consideration for a big budget, wide-release
movie.[12]

Unread bestsellers
Bestsellers have gained such great popularity that it has sometimes become fashionable to purchase them. Critics
have pointed out that just because a book is purchased doesn't mean it will be read. The rising length of bestsellers
may mean that more of them are simply becoming bookshelf decor. In 1985 members of the staff of The New
Republic placed coupons redeemable for cash inside Strobe Talbott's "Deadly Gambits: The Reagan Administration
and the Stalemate in Nuclear Arms Control" and none of them were sent in.[13]
Bestseller 1060

See also
• List of best-selling books
• List of bestselling novels in the United States

Further reading
• Alan T. Sorensen (2004). Bestseller Lists and Product Variety: The Case of Book Sales.
• Clive Bloom (2002). Bestsellers: Popular Fiction Since 1900

External links
• The Current Top 20 Bestselling Books, Updated Hourly [14]
• The Top 150 Bestsellers According to USA Today [15]
• The Barnes and Noble Top100 [16]
• The New York Times Best Seller List (current) [17]
• Bestseller Lists from 1900 to 1998 [18]
• Current Best-Sellers [19]
• Historic New York Times Lists [20]
• "The Greatest Mystery: Making a Best Seller" [21], by Shira Boss, The New York Times, May 13, 2007

References
[1] "best, a. and adv." The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. OED Onlin December 12, 2007.
[2] For details of editions, see individual articles (in most cases)
[3] Hoffmeister, Gerhart. "Die Leiden des jungen Werthers (The Sorrows of Young Werther)" (http:/ / www. litencyc. com/ php/ sworks.
php?rec=true& UID=5596). The Literary Encyclopedia. 17 June 2004. The Literary Dictionary Company. Retrieved 17 March 2006
[4] Bolonik, Kera. "A list of their own" (http:/ / www. salon. com/ mwt/ feature/ 2000/ 08/ 16/ bestseller/ ). Salon.com:August 16, 2000.
Retrieved December 7, 2005.
[5] Rebecca Wigod. "What does it take to be a bestseller?" (http:/ / www. canada. com/ vancouversun/ story.
html?id=24814403-0968-4dc5-9613-2f0fd00d7dac& k=19393). Vancouver Sun:February 17, 2007. Retrieved February 1, 2010.
[6] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Zhi_Gang_Sha#Works
[7] Maryles, Daisy. Bestsellers by the Numbers" (http:/ / www. publishersweekly. com/ article/ CA6297555. html). Publishers Weekly;
9-Jan-2006. Retrieved 22-Apr-2006.
[8] Hill, Brian and Power, Dee. The Making of a Bestseller: Success Stories from Authors and the Editors, Agents, and Booksellers Behind Them.
Kaplan Business; March 1, 2005. ISBN 0-7931-9308-7.
[9] "Researchers use physics to analyze dynamics of bestsellers" (http:/ / physorg. com/ news2207. html). PhysOrg.com: December 5, 2004.
Retrieved December 7, 2005.
"UCLA Physicist Applies Physics to Best-Selling Books" (http:/ / www. newsroom. ucla. edu/ page. asp?RelNum=5686). UCLA News:
December 1, 2004. Retrieved December 7, 2005.
[10] "DID DIRTY TRICKS CREATE A BEST-SELLER?" (http:/ / www. businessweek. com/ @@1AfdGIUQFSpBwAUA/ archives/ 1995/
b343648. arc. htm). Stern, Willy. August 1995. . Retrieved 2008-02-28.
[11] About Divine Secrets of the Ya-Ya Sisterhood (http:/ / www. harpercollins. com/ global_scripts/ product_catalog/ book_xml.
asp?isbn=0060173289), HarperCollins. The review quote is from Movies Unlimited (http:/ / www. moviesunlimited. com/ musite/ product.
asp?sku=D32695+ + ). Numerous such mentions may be located by a Web search for "film version Rebecca Wells bestseller" or similar. All
retrieved 17 March 2006.
[12] Publishers Weekly Bestseller Lists 1990-1995 (http:/ / www. caderbooks. com/ bestintro. html). Correlation with movies may be achieved
by searching at Internet Movie Database (IMDb) (http:/ / imdb. com). Both retrieved 17 March 2006.
[13] "All Those Words" ROBERT L. POLLOCK Wall St. Journal (http:/ / www. opinionjournal. com/ taste/ ?id=95000946)
[14] http:/ / www. givethebestgifts. com/ bestseller/ Books
[15] http:/ / content. usatoday. com/ life/ books/ booksdatabase/ default. aspx
[16] http:/ / www. barnesandnoble. com/ bestsellers/ top100. asp?r=1
[17] http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ pages/ books/ bestseller/
[18] http:/ / www. caderbooks. com/ bestintro. html
[19] http:/ / www. publishersweekly. com/ index. asp?layout=channel& channel=bestSellers
[20] http:/ / www. hawes. com/ pastlist. htm
Bestseller 1061

[21] http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 05/ 13/ business/ yourmoney/ 13book. html

Library of Congress
Library of Congress

Established 1800

Location Washington, D.C.

Branches N/A

Collection

Size 21,814,555 cataloged books in the Library of Congress classification system 11,701,147 books in large type and raised
characters, incunabula (books printed before 1501), monographs and serials, music, bound newspapers, pamphlets,
technical reports, and other printed material, and 109,029,796 items in the nonclassified (special) collections
[1]
142,544,498 total Items

Access and use

Circulation Library does not publicly circulate

Population 535 members of the United States Congress, their staff, and members of the public
served

Other information

Budget [1]
$613,496,414

Director James H. Billington (Librarian of Congress)

Staff [1]
3,624

Website http:/ / www. loc. gov

The Library of Congress is the research library of the United States Congress, de facto national library of the
United States, and the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States. Located in three buildings in
Washington, D.C., it is the largest library in the world by shelf space and holds the largest number of books. The
head of the Library is the Librarian of Congress, currently James H. Billington.
The Library of Congress was established by Congress in 1800, and was housed in the United States Capitol for most
of the 19th century. After much of the original collection had been destroyed during the War of 1812, Thomas
Jefferson sold 6487 books, his entire personal collection, to the library in 1815.[2] [3] After a period of decline during
the mid-19th century the Library of Congress began to grow rapidly in both size and importance after the American
Library of Congress 1062

Civil War, culminating in the construction of a separate library building and the transference of all copyright deposit
holdings to the Library. During the rapid expansion of the 20th century the Library of Congress assumed a
preeminent public role, becoming a "library of last resort" and expanding its mission for the benefit of scholars and
the American people.
The Library's primary mission is researching inquiries made by members of Congress through the Congressional
Research Service. Although it is open to the public, only Members of Congress, Supreme Court justices and other
high-ranking government officials may check out books. As the de facto national library, the Library of Congress
promotes literacy and American literature through projects such as the American Folklife Center, American
Memory, Center for the Book and Poet Laureate.

History

Origins and Jefferson's contribution (1800–1851)

The Library of Congress was established on April 24, 1800, when President
John Adams signed an Act of Congress providing for the transfer of the seat of
government from Philadelphia to the new capital city of Washington. Part of
the legislation appropriated $5,000 "for the purchase of such books as may be
necessary for the use of Congress ..., and for fitting up a suitable apartment for
containing them...." Books were ordered from London and the collection,
consisting of 740 books and 30 maps, was housed in the new Capitol.[4]
Although the collection covered a variety of topics, the bulk of the materials
were legal in nature, reflecting Congress' role as a maker of laws.

Thomas Jefferson played an important role in the Library's early formation,

signing into law on January 26, 1802 the first law establishing the structure of
the Library of Congress. The law established the presidentially appointed post
of Librarian of Congress and a Joint Committee on the Library to regulate and
oversee the Library, as well as giving the president and vice president the
ability to borrow books.[4] The Library of Congress was destroyed in August
1814, when invading British troops set fire to the Capitol building and the small
library of 3,000 volumes within.[4]

Within a month, former President Jefferson offered his personal library[5] [6] as
a replacement. Jefferson had spent 50 years accumulating a wide variety of
books, including ones in foreign languages and volumes of philosophy, science,
Construction of the Thomas Jefferson literature, and other topics not normally viewed as part of a legislative library,
Building, from July 8, 1888 to May 15, such as cookbooks, writing that, "I do not know that it contains any branch of
1894.
science which Congress would wish to exclude from their collection; there is,
in fact, no subject to which a Member of Congress may not have occasion to
refer." In January 1815, Congress accepted Jefferson's offer, appropriating $23,950 for his 6,487 books.[4]

Weakening (1851–1865)
The antebellum period was difficult for the Library. Henry's dismissal of Jewett in July 1854 ended the
Smithsonian's attempts to become the national library, and in 1866 Henry transferred the Smithsonian's forty
thousand-volume library to the Library of Congress. During the 1850s the Smithsonian Institution's librarian Charles
Coffin Jewett aggressively tried to move that organization towards becoming the United States' national library. His
efforts were blocked by the Smithsonian's Secretary Joseph Henry, who advocated a focus on scientific research and
Library of Congress 1063

publication and favored the Library of Congress' development into the national library.[4]
On December 24, 1851 the largest fire in the Library's history destroyed 35,000 books, about two-thirds of the
Library's 55,000 book collection, including two-thirds of Jefferson's original donation.[4] Congress in 1852 quickly
appropriated $168,700 to replace the lost books but not for the acquisition of new materials. This marked the start of
a conservative period in the Library's administration under Librarian John Silva Meehan and Joint Committee
Chairman James A. Pearce, who worked to restrict the Library's activities.[4] In 1857, Congress transferred the
Library's public document distribution activities to the Department of the Interior and its international book exchange
program to the Department of State. Abraham Lincoln's political appointment of John G. Stephenson as Librarian of
Congress in 1861 further weakened the Library; Stephenson's focus was on non-library affairs, including service as a
volunteer aide-de-camp at the battles of Chancellorsville and Gettysburg during the American Civil War. By the
conclusion of the war, the Library of Congress had a staff of seven for a collection of 80,000 volumes.[4] The
centralization of copyright offices into the United States Patent Office in 1859 ended the Library's thirteen year role
as a depository of all copyrighted books and pamphlets.

Spofford's expansion (1865–1897)

The Library of Congress reasserted itself during the latter half of the
19th century under Librarian Ainsworth Rand Spofford, who directed
the Library from 1865 to 1897. Aided by an overall expansion of the
federal government and a favorable political climate, Spofford built
broad bipartisan support for the Library as a national library and a
legislative resource, began comprehensively collecting Americana and
American literature, and led the construction of a new building to
house the Library, and transformed the Librarian of Congress position
into one of strength and independence.[4] Between 1865 and 1870,
Congress appropriated funds for the construction of the Thomas
Jefferson Building, placed all copyright registration and deposit
activities under the Library's control, and restored the Library's
international book exchange. The Library also acquired the vast
libraries of both the Smithsonian and historian Peter Force,
strengthening its scientific and Americana collections significantly. By
The Library of Congress inside the U.S. Capitol
1876, the Library of Congress had 300,000 volumes and was tied with
Building c. 1890
Boston Public Library as the nation's largest library. When the Library
moved from the Capitol building to its new headquarters in 1897, it
had over 840,000 volumes, 40% of which had been acquired through copyright deposit.[4]

A year before the Library's move to its new location, the Joint Library
Committee held a session of hearings to assess the condition of the
Library and plan for its future growth and possible reorganization.
Spofford and six experts sent by the American Library Association,
including future Librarian of Congress Herbert Putnam and Melvil
Dewey of the New York State Library, testified before the committee
that the Library should continue its expansion towards becoming a true
national library.[4] Based on the hearings and with the assistance of
Senators Justin Morrill of Vermont and Daniel Voorhees of Indiana, Some of the Library of Congress' holdings
Congress more than doubled the Library's staff from 42 to 108 and awaiting shelving inside the newly opened
Thomas Jefferson Building
Library of Congress 1064

established new administrative units for all aspects of the Library's collection. Congress also strengthened the office
of Librarian of Congress to govern the Library and make staff appointments, as well as requiring Senate approval for
presidential appointees to the position.[4]

Post-reorganization (1897–1939)
The Library of Congress, spurred by the 1897 reorganization,
began to grow and develop more rapidly. Spofford's successor
John Russell Young, though only in office for two years,
overhauled the Library's bureaucracy, used his connections as a
former diplomat to acquire more materials from around the world,
and established the Library's first assistance programs for the
blind and physically disabled.[4] Young's successor Herbert
Main Library of Congress building at the start of the Putnam held the office for forty years from 1899 to 1939, entering
20th century into the position two years before the Library became the first in
the United States to hold one million volumes.[4] Putnam focused
his efforts on making the Library more accessible and useful for the public and for other libraries. He instituted the
interlibrary loan service, transforming the Library of Congress into what he referred to as a "library of last resort".[7]
Putnam also expanded Library access to "scientific investigators and duly qualified individuals" and began
publishing primary sources for the benefit of scholars.[4]

Putnam's tenure also saw increasing diversity in the Library's acquisitions. In 1903 he persuaded President Theodore
Roosevelt to transfer by executive order the papers of the Founding Fathers from the State Department to the Library
of Congress. Putnam expanded foreign acquisitions as well, including the 1904 purchase of a four-thousand volume
library of Indica, the 1906 purchase of G. V. Yudin's eighty-thousand volume Russian library, the 1908 Schatz
collection of early opera librettos, and the early 1930s purchase of the Russian Imperial Collection, consisting of
2,600 volumes from the library of the Romanov family on a variety of topics. Collections of Hebraica and Chinese
and Japanese works were also acquired.[4] Congress even took the initiative to acquire materials for the Library in
one occasion, when in 1929 Congressman Ross Collins of Mississippi successfully proposed the $1.5 million
purchase of Otto Vollbehr's collection of incunabula, including one of four remaining perfect vellum copies of the
Gutenberg Bible.[4]
In 1914 Putnam established the Legislative Reference Service as a
separative administrative unit of the Library. Based in the
Progressive era's philosophy of science as a problem-solver, and
modeled after successful research branches of state legislatures,
the LRS would provide informed answers to Congressional
research inquiries on almost any topic.[4] In 1965 Congress passed
an act allowing the Library of Congress to establish a trust fund
board to accept donations and endowments, giving the Library a
role as a patron of the arts. The Library received the donations and
A copy of the Gutenberg Bible on display at the
endowments of prominent individuals such as John D.
Library of Congress
Rockefeller, James B. Wilbur and Archer M. Huntington. Gertrude
Clarke Whittall donated five Stradivarius violins to the Library
and Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge's donations paid for a concert hall within the Library of Congress building and the
establishment of an honorarium for the Music Division. A number of chairs and consultantships were established
from the donations, the most well-known of which is the Poet Laureate Consultant.[4]
Library of Congress 1065

The Library's expansion eventually filled the Library's Main Building despite shelving expansions in 1910 and 1927,
forcing the Library to expand into a new structure. Congress acquired nearby land in 1928 and approved construction
of the Annex Building (later the John Adams Building) in 1930. Although delayed during the Depression years, it
was completed in 1938 and opened to the public in 1939.[4]

Modern history (1939–)

When Putnam retired in 1939, President Franklin D. Roosevelt
appointed Archibald MacLeish as his successor. Occupying the
post from 1939 to 1944 during the height of World War II,
MacLeish became the most visible Librarian of Congress in the
Library's history. MacLeish encouraged librarians to oppose
totalitarianism on behalf of democracy; dedicated the South
Reading Room of the Adams Building to Thomas Jefferson,
commissioning artist Ezra Winter to paint four themed murals for
the room; and established a "democracy alcove" in the Main
Reading Room of the Jefferson Building for important documents
Erotica, mural painting by George Randolph Barse
such as the Declaration, Constitution and Federalist Papers.[4] (1861–1938) in the Library of Congress
Even the Library of Congress assisted during the war effort,
ranging from the storage of the Declaration of Independence and
the United States Constitution in Fort Knox for safekeeping to
researching weather data on the Himalayas for Air Force pilots.[4]
MacLeish resigned in 1944 to become Assistant Secretary of State,
and President Harry Truman appointed Luther H. Evans as
Librarian of Congress. Evans, who served until 1953, expanded
the Library's acquisitions, cataloging and bibliographic services as
much as the fiscal-minded Congress would allow, but his primary
achievement was the creation of Library of Congress Missions
around the world. Missions played a variety of roles in the postwar
world: the mission in San Francisco assisted participants in the
meeting that established the United Nations, the mission in Europe
acquired European publications for the Library of Congress and
other American libraries, and the mission in Japan aided in the
creation of the National Diet Library.[4]

Evans' successor L. Quincy Mumford took over in 1953.

Mumford's tenure, lasting until 1974, saw the initiation of the
construction of the James Madison Memorial Building, the third
Library of Congress building. Mumford directed the Library
Elihu Vedder's Minerva of Peace mosaic
during a period of increased educational spending, the windfall of
which allowed the Library to devote energies towards establishing
new acquisition centers abroad, including in Cairo and New Delhi. In 1967 the Library began experimenting with
book preservation techniques through a Preservation Office, which grew to become the largest library research and
conservation effort in the United States.[4] Mumford's administration also saw the last major public debate about the
Library of Congress' role as both a legislative library and a national library. A 1962 memorandum by Douglas Bryant
of the Harvard University Library, compiled at the request of Joint Library Committee chairman Claiborne Pell,
Library of Congress 1066

proposed a number of institutional reforms, including expansion of national activities and services and various
organizational changes, all of which would shift the Library more towards its national role over its legislative role.
Bryant even suggested possibly changing the name of the Library of Congress, which was rebuked by Mumford as
"unspeakable violence to tradition".[4] Debate continued within the library community until the Legislative
Reorganization Act of 1970 shifted the Library back towards its legislative roles, placing greater focus on research
for Congress and congressional committees and renaming the Legislative Reference Service to the Congressional
Research Service.[4]
After Mumford retired in 1974, Gerald Ford appointed Daniel J. Boorstin as Librarian. Boorstin's first challenge was
the move to the new Madison Building, which took place between 1980 and 1982. The move released pressures on
staff and shelf space, allowing Boorstin to focus on other areas of Library administration such as acquisitions and
collections. Taking advantage of steady budgetary growth, from $116 million in 1975 to over $250 million by 1987,
Boorstin actively participated in enhancing ties with scholars, authors, publishers, cultural leaders, and the business
community. His active and prolific role changed the post of Librarian of Congress so that by the time he retired in
1987, the New York Times called it "perhaps the leading intellectual public position in the nation."[4] Ronald Reagan
appointed James H. Billington as the thirteenth Librarian of Congress in 1987, a post he holds as of 2010. Billington
took advantage of new technological advancements and the Internet to link the Library to educational institutions
around the country in 1991. The end of the Cold War also enabled the Library to develop relationships with newly
open Eastern European nations, helping them to establish parliamentary libraries of their own.[4]
In the mid-1990s, under Billington's leadership, the Library of Congress began to pursue the development of what it
called a "National Digital Library," part of an overall strategic direction that has been somewhat controversial within
the library profession.[8] In late November 2005, the Library announced intentions to launch the World Digital
Library, digitally preserving books and other objects from all world cultures. In April 2010, it announced plans to
archive all public communication on Twitter, including all communication since Twitter's launch in March 2006.[9]

Holdings
The collections of the Library of Congress include more than 32
million cataloged books and other print materials in 470 languages;
more than 61 million manuscripts; the largest rare book collection in
North America, including the rough draft of the Declaration of
Independence, a Gutenberg Bible (one of only four perfect vellum
copies known to exist)[10] ; over 1 million US government
publications; 1 million issues of world newspapers spanning the past
three centuries; 33,000 bound newspaper volumes; 500,000 microfilm
reels; over 6,000 comic book[11] titles; films; 4.8 million maps; sheet
Library of Congress, Thomas Jefferson Building
music; 2.7 million sound recordings; more than 13.7 million prints and
photographic images including fine and popular art pieces and
architectural drawings; the Betts Stradivarius; and the Cassavetti Stradivarius.

The Library developed a system of book classification called Library of Congress Classification (LCC), which is
used by most US research and university libraries, although most public libraries continue to use the Dewey decimal
system.
Library of Congress 1067

The Library serves as a legal repository for copyright protection and

copyright registration, and as the base for the United States Copyright
Office. Regardless of whether they register their copyright, all
publishers are required to submit two complete copies of their
published works to the Library if requested—this requirement is
known as mandatory deposit.[12] Parties wishing not to publish, need
only submit one copy of their work. Nearly 22,000 new items
published in the U.S. arrive every business day at the Library. Contrary
to popular belief, however, the Library does not retain all of these
works in its permanent collection, although it does add an average of
The Great Hall interior
10,000 items per day. Rejected items are used in trades with other
libraries around the world, distributed to federal agencies, or donated
to schools, communities, and other organizations within the United States.[13] As is true of many similar libraries, the
Library of Congress retains copies of every publication in the English language that is deemed significant.

The Library of Congress states that its collection fills about 745 miles (1,199 km),[14] while the British Library
reports about 388 miles (625 km) of shelves.[15] The Library of Congress holds about 130 million items with 29
million books against approximately 150 million items with 25 million books for the British Library.[14] [15]
The Library of Congress is usually quoted as occupying, if digitized and stored as plain text, 20 terabytes of
information (10 in other quotations), based on the amount of cataloged books in the Library of Congress
classification system (20 million in 2007[16] ) and estimating one megabyte of text per book[17] . This leads many
people to conclude that 20 terabytes is equivalent to the entire holdings of the Library, but this is misleading because
the Library contains many items in addition to books, such as manuscripts, photographs, maps, and sound
recordings[16] , that, if digitized, would amount to much more information. The Library currently has no plans for
systematic digitization of any significant portion of its books.
The Library makes millions of digital objects, comprising tens of terabytes, available at its American Memory site.
American Memory is a source for public domain image resources, as well as audio, video, and archived Web
content. Nearly all of the lists of holdings, the catalogs of the library, can be consulted directly on its web site.
Librarians all over the world consult these catalogs, through the Web or through other media better suited to their
needs, when they need to catalog for their collection a book published in the United States. They use the Library of
Congress Control Number to make sure of the exact identity of the book.
The Library of Congress also provides an online archive of the proceedings of the U.S. Congress at THOMAS,
including bill text, Congressional Record text, bill summary and status, the Congressional Record Index, and the
United States Constitution.
The Library also administers the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, a talking and
braille library program provided to more than 766,000 Americans.

Buildings of the Library

The Library of Congress is physically housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill and
a conservation center in rural Virginia. The Library's Capitol Hill buildings are all
connected by underground passageways, so that a library user need pass through
security only once in a single visit. The library also has off-site storage facilities for
less commonly-requested materials.

Jefferson Building
Library of Congress 1068

Thomas Jefferson Building

The Thomas Jefferson Building is located between Independence Avenue and East
Capitol Street on First Street SE. It first opened in 1897 as the main building of the
Library and is the oldest of the three buildings. Known originally as the Library of
Congress Building or Main Building, it took its present name on June 13, 1980.

Madison Building
John Adams Building
The John Adams Building is located between Independence Avenue and East Capitol Street on 2nd Street SE. It
opened in 1938 as an annex to the main building. Between April 13, 1976 and June 13, 1980, the John Adams
Building was known as the Thomas Jefferson Building.

James Madison Memorial Building

The James Madison Memorial Building is located between First and Second Streets on Independence Avenue SE. It
opened on May 28, 1980 as the new headquarters of the Library. The James Madison Memorial Building also serves
as the official memorial to James Madison. It houses, among other materials, the Law Library of Congress.

Packard Campus for Audio-Visual Conservation

The Packard Campus for Audio-Visual Conservation is the Library of Congress's newest building, opened in 2007
and located in Culpeper, Virginia. It was constructed out of a former Federal Reserve storage center and Cold War
bunker. The campus is designed to act as a single site to store all of the library's movie, television, and sound
collections. It is named to honor David Woodley Packard, whose Packard Humanities Institute oversaw design and
construction of the facility.

Using the Library

The library is open to the general public for academic research and
tourists. Only those who are issued a Reader Identification Card
may enter the reading rooms and access the collection. The Reader
Identification Card is available in the Madison building to persons
who are at least 16 years of age upon presentation of a government
issued picture identification (e.g. driver's license, state ID card or
passport).[18] However, only members of Congress, Supreme
Court Justices, their staff, Library of Congress staff and certain
other government officials can actually remove items from the Library of Congress reading room
library buildings. Members of the general public with Reader
Identification Cards must use items from the library collection inside the reading rooms only; they cannot remove
library items from the reading rooms or the library buildings.

Since 1902, libraries in the United States have been able to request books and other items through interlibrary loan
from the Library of Congress if these items are not readily available elsewhere. Through this, the Library of
Congress has served as a "library of last resort", according to former Librarian of Congress Herbert Putnam.[7]
Library of Congress 1069

Librarians of Congress
The Librarian of Congress is the head of the Library of Congress, appointed by the President of the United States
with the advice and consent of the Senate. He serves as the chief librarian of all the sections of the Library of
Congress. One of the responsibilities of the Librarian of Congress is to appoint the U.S. Poet Laureate.
1. John J. Beckley (1802–1807)
2. Patrick Magruder (1807–1815)
3. George Watterston (1815–1829)
4. John Silva Meehan (1829–1861)
5. John Gould Stephenson (1861–1864)
6. Ainsworth Rand Spofford (1864–1897)
7. John Russell Young (1897–1899)
8. Herbert Putnam (1899–1939)
9. Archibald MacLeish (1939–1944)
10. Luther H. Evans (1945–1953)
11. Lawrence Quincy Mumford (1954–1974)
12. Daniel J. Boorstin (1975–1987)
13. James H. Billington (1987–present)

Annual events
• Archives Fair
• Fellows in American Letters of the Library of Congress
• Davidson Fellows Reception
• Founder's Day Celebration
• Gershwin Prize for Popular Song
• Judith P. Austin Memorial Lecture
• The National Book Festival

See also
• American Folklife Center
• British Library
• Congressional Research Service
• Federal Research Division
• Documents Expediting Project
• Law Library of Congress
• Library of Congress Classification
• Library of Congress Country Studies
• Library of Congress Living Legend
• Library of Congress Subject Headings
• List of librarians
• List of national libraries
• MARC standards
• National Archives and Records Administration
• National Film Registry
• National Recording Registry
• Poet Laureate Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress
Library of Congress 1070

• Project MINERVA
• The Feleky Collection
• United States Copyright Office
• United States Senate Library
• World Digital Library

External links
• The Library of Congress website [19]
• American Memory [20]
• History of the Library of Congress [21]
• Search the Library of Congress catalog [22]
• thomas.loc.gov [23], legislative information
• Library Of Congress Meeting Notices and Rule Changes [24] from The Federal Register RSS Feed [25]
• Library of Congress photos on Flickr [26]
• Outdoor sculpture [27] at the Library of Congress
• Standards, The Library of Congress [28]
• Works by the Library of Congress [29] at Project Gutenberg
• Library of Congress [30] at FamilySearch Research Wiki for genealogists
Geographical coordinates: 38°53′19″N 77°00′17″W

References
[1] 2009 At A Glance (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ about/ generalinfo. html#2009_at_a_glance)
[2] purplemotes.net (http:/ / purplemotes. net/ 2008/ 02/ 03/ thomas-jeffersons-library/ )- Jefferson got $23,940
[3] loc.gov (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ preserv/ history/ growing. html)
[4] "Jefferson's Legacy: A Brief History of the Library of Congress" (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ loc/ legacy/ loc. html). Library of Congress.
2006-03-06. . Retrieved 2008-01-14.
[5] Thomas Jefferson's personal library at Library Thing, based on scholarship (http:/ / www. librarything. com/ catalog.
php?view=ThomasJefferson)
[6] Library Thing Profile Page for Thomas Jefferson's library (http:/ / www. librarything. com/ profile/ ThomasJefferson), summarizing contents
and indicating sources
[7] "Interlibrary Loan (Collections Access, Management and Loan Division, Library of Congress" (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ rr/ loan/ ). Library of
Congress website. 2007-10-25. . Retrieved 2007-12-04.
[8] Collins, Samuel (2009). Library of Walls: The Library of Congress and the Contradictions of Information Society. Litwin Books.
ISBN 9780980200423.
[9] CSmonitor.com (http:/ / www. csmonitor. com/ USA/ Politics/ The-Vote/ 2010/ 0416/
Twitter-hits-Library-of-Congress-Would-Founding-Fathers-tweet)
[10] See Gutenberg's Bibles— Where to Find Them (http:/ / www. approvedarticles. com/ Article/ Gutenberg-s-Bibles--Where-to-Find-Them/
1088); Octavo Digital Rare Books (http:/ / www. octavo. com/ editions/ gtnbbl/ index. html); Library of Congress (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ rr/
rarebook/ guide/ europe. html).
[11] "About the Serial and Government Publications Division" (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ rr/ news/ brochure. html). The Library of Congress.
2006-04-07. . Retrieved 2006-08-08.
[12] "Mandatory Deposit" (http:/ / www. copyright. gov/ help/ faq/ mandatory_deposit. html). Copyright.gov. . Retrieved 2006-08-08.
[13] "Fascinating Facts" (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ about/ facts. html). Library of Congress. . Retrieved 2006-08-08.
[14] "Fascinating Facts - About the Library" (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ about/ facts. html). Library of Congress. . Retrieved 2010-05-12.
[15] "Did You Know?" (http:/ / www. bl. uk/ about/ didyou. html). British Library. . Retrieved 2006-08-08.
[16] "Library of Congress General Information" (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ about/ generalinfo. html). Library of Congress. 2007. . Retrieved
2008-09-03.
[17] "Entire Library of Congress" (http:/ / outgoing. typepad. com/ outgoing/ 2005/ 06/ entire_library_. html). 2005. . Retrieved 2008-09-03.
[18] Library of Congress (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ rr/ readerregistration. html)
[19] http:/ / www. loc. gov/
[20] http:/ / memory. loc. gov/
[21] http:/ / www. loc. gov/ loc/ legacy/
Library of Congress 1071

[22] http:/ / catalog. loc. gov/

[23] http:/ / thomas. loc. gov/
[24] http:/ / thefederalregister. com/ b. p/ department/ LIBRARY_OF_CONGRESS/
[25] http:/ / thefederalregister. com/ rss/ department/ LIBRARY_OF_CONGRESS/
[26] http:/ / www. flickr. com/ photos/ library_of_congress/
[27] http:/ / www. dcmemorials. com/ Groups_LibraryOfCongress. htm
[28] http:/ / www. loc. gov/ standards/
[29] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ author/ Library+ of+ Congress
[30] https:/ / wiki. familysearch. org/ en/ Library_of_Congress
Article Sources and Contributors 1072

Article Sources and Contributors

House of Leaves  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=383003354  Contributors: 40 Watt, AEKyser, Abu-Dun, Aeymxq, AgentCardinal, Ahkond, Aitias, Alai, Alanlastufka,
Alcuin, Allstarecho, Altenmann, Alton, Angstrom, AniMate, Anthony Appleyard, Arjayay, Arkadyan, ArrEmmDee, Artw, Asophis, Attilios, Audrey, Audrey84, BD2412, Bc.rox.all, Benji man,
Bethling, Bib, Big iron, Booch, BrainMagMo, Branddobbe, Bryan Derksen, CKnapp, Cabres, Camembert, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanisRufus, Canonblack, Carstar, Catatonic121, Cathy
Ames, Cdonohu1, Cell84, Ceyockey, ChetG, Chocolateboy, Christiangoth, Chuck Carroll, Clarince63, Classicfilms, ClockworkSoul, Cmdrjameson, Cnhardman, Coal2k, Commander Keane,
Cory Donnelly, Countzer, Cyanolinguophile, CyberSkull, D4g0thur, D6, DVD R W, Dancter, David Gerard, David Shankbone, Dbenbenn, Declan Clam, Dfeldmann, Diekleine, Discospinster,
Dlohcierekim, Dndnerd, Docu, DogNewTricks, DragonflySixtyseven, Dragonstrider, Drewquinton, Drewson99, Druid816, Drumguy8800, ERobson, Easterbradford, Easyrider804, EdK, Ellimist,
Esrever, Evanmontegarde, Evanreyes, Everyking, F1nd th3 r34l, FFMG, Fastfretta09, Felixjones, Fightindaman, Filthlydimmingshine, Fradeve11, Fran Rogers, Frecklefoot, Gene Nygaard,
Gilliam, Gobonobo, Gogo Dodo, Goldom, GrahamHardy, Grey Shadow, Gruvcat, Gwern, Hda3ku, Heatherp, Hibou8, Hierophantasmagoria, Hjami, Hkim83, Hraefen, Husond, Ian Maxwell,
Irene Ringworm, Iridescent, Iris216216, Jaxl, Jeff G., Jitsumaru, Jogloran, Joyous!, Jpiszcz, Jubella, Juhachi, Kaini, Kake Pugh, Katelync, Katharineamy, Kevinalewis, Khollenb, Killridemedly,
KnightofNEE, Koyaanis Qatsi, Kylerschmitz, Latkins1, Liface, Lifefeed, Linktoreality, Lmrush, Lola Voss, Lorcav, Madeu, MakeRocketGoNow, Marasmusine, Markjoseph125, MaxVeers,
Maxim, McSly, Mcapplbee, Meekohi, Melvillean, Mets501, Michael Hardy, Mixvio, Mk Hopwood, Mordicai, Mrbynum, Msikma, NeverLogic, Neverowl, New j1, Nihiliststar, Ninoparenti,
Nkkcraz, Nomad93, Noneforall, Obey, Off!, Ollygoodland1, Oskar Sigvardsson, Ouisalay, Owen, PDD, Pace212, PamD, Parhamr, Parjay, Phileas, Plasticup, Pomte, Porkins8888, Prodego,
Ptbuddha, Puchiko, Pwright329, R'n'B, RJMPCA, RaLouzek, Rajah, Random832, Reiver, Retired username, RevRagnarok, Rgovostes, Rich Farmbrough, RickK, Rjo, Rjwilmsi, Rray, Rynne,
Ryulong, Sadads, Sadangel, SalvadorRodriguez, Sam Hocevar, Sampleinsanity, Samplereality, Saquarry, Scix, Scorpios, ScottNestle, ScudLee, Seegoon, Seelebrenntdotcom, ShelfSkewed,
Silence, Skullketon, Slicing, SpaceDrake, Sparsefarce, Squeakyae, Stan Shebs, Stjamie, Surachit, Tahirisunrider, Tassedethe, Teh tennisman, Telescope, Template namespace initialisation script,
TenPoundHammer, Th1702, Thanatopoeia, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheAllSeeingEye, TheBlackDot, Thebonefabric, Thumperward, Thunderboltz, Timwi, Tjkiesel, Tobetheman, Toi,
Tracy Hall, Tregoweth, Ularevalo98, Unint, Useight, Virginiabeachrep, VivaLaZombie!, Vudujava, Vusys, Wayne Miller, Wik, Windmill, Wipe, Wyatt Riot, Xezbeth, Xinoph, Yeastbeast, Yono,
Yossiea, 656 anonymous edits

Mark Z. Danielewski  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=382996902  Contributors: Abu-Dun, Alanlastufka, Altenmann, Alton, Amalas, Beliveau, Bobak, Breon, Buffyg,
Camembert, Cell84, Classicfilms, D6, Danny, David Shankbone, Dismas, DogNewTricks, Ellimist, Emperorbma, Filthlydimmingshine, Gabbe, Hankypankynohow, Hemanshu, Inoculatedcities,
InstantMountain, Irishguy, Jfpierce, Kbdank71, Khautz, Kkkkaties, KnightofNEE, Lightmouse, Ljhliesl, Lotje, Lucaskharms, Mikeblas, Miracle777, Myrthe, Nanusia, Nummer29, Orphic, Owen,
P4k, Panpaniscus, Pigsonthewing, Pomte, Quadraxis, RevRagnarok, Rodii, Sal Lamborn, Seegoon, ShelfSkewed, SiameseSoul, Silence, Stan Shebs, Stilgar135, Template namespace initialisation
script, Thejadefalcon, Theragman, Topodoc, Tsemii, Vantelimus, Verdatum, Wolf530, Xinoph, Zoicon5, 51 anonymous edits

House  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=381128686  Contributors: 0, 04hollidayj, 0x6D667061, 2help, 2pacalpytic, 334a, 419tanner, 48states, 5 albert square, 5elf d3structi0n,
99DBSIMLR, A Softer Answer, A. Parrot, A8UDI, ABF, AGK, Academic Challenger, Accounting4Taste, Acearnden, Achaemenes, Acroterion, Adashiel, Addshore, Adidaht, AdjustShift,
Adventex, Ahkmedboli101, Ahoerstemeier, Aikiboy1111111, Aitias, Akanemoto, AlainV, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Aleron235, Alex S, Alex.muller, Allstarecho, Alphaios, Altenmann,
Altermike, Alxeedo, Amandamartinez06, Anders Kaseorg, Andonic, Andrea105, Andrew0921, Andrewpmk, Andrewrost3241981, Andrés Santiago Pérez-Bergquist, Andycjp, Angela,
Angryhobo13, Anna Lincoln, Anonymous editor, Antandrus, Aphest, Apostrophe, Aqwis, Arbitrarily0, Archer7, Argon233, ArielGold, Arjun01, Arsh81, ArwinJ, As;ldkjf, Asided m plane,
Audriusa, Aussiemaca93, Avb, Avnjay, Avono, Axxaer, Az236, AzaToth, Azxsdcewq, BD2412, Bagatelle, Banaticus, Barek, Barelared, Bart133, Bastin, Bawolff, Bbatsell, Beatnick, Beland,
Ben Tibbetts, BenB4, Benjamin9003, Bennylin, Berrybear212, Bevo, Bhpeixoto, BirdValiant, Biscuittin, Blahomfg, Blanchardb, Blood sliver, Bloodbath 87, Blubber1, Blue520, Bluerfn,
Boarder9999, Bobianite, Bobo192, Bodnotbod, Bongwarrior, Bonus Onus, Booboo9999, BoristaSorley, Borys bond, Bowen721, Braddouriffan, Brandobop, BrianGV, Brianga, Brichcja, Brookie,
Bsadowski1, Bt8379, Bucephalus, Bucketsarehuge, Buddha24, Bunghole22222, Butler david, Bwrs, C A Morris, CHJL, CIreland, CJ, CKA3KA, CLW, COMPFUNK2, CWii, Calmer Waters,
Calor, Calsicol, Caltas, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Cap97, Capricorn42, Carbon-16, Care bear count down halo 2, Carlton125, Cassavau, Castellanet, Caster23, Catzzz,
Cenarium, Ceyockey, Chamal N, Chaos, Cheeseman56, Cheesy20, Chensiyuan, Chill doubt, Chongkian, Christian75, Chriswiki, Citicat, Cjz208, Closenplay, Cmputer, CoJaBo, Cody 351,
Coemgenus, Coffee and TV, Conversion script, Cookie90, Cowsarehot, Crazy and loving it, Crazygoblin, Crazymonke3, Crazzy yetti3, Cst17, Cube b3, Cureden, Cxcarmany, Cyrius, DJ
Clayworth, DMacks, DRTllbrg, DSRH, DVD R W, Da monster under your bed, Dancter, Daniel C. Boyer, Daniel Harris, DanielCD, DanielEng, Darth Mike, Darth Panda, Dave6, DaveJ7,
Davewild, David0811, DavidLevinson, Davidmpye, Davislonghorn, Dawn Bard, DeadEyeArrow, Deathphoenix, Debresser, Decoratingaddict, Dedhedfred1234, Defender of torch, Deirdre,
Dekisugi, Delldot, Delta Tango, Demonpickle666, Den fjättrade ankan, Deon, DerHexer, Desiphral, Deviles9, Dharmabum420, Dhp1080, Dill1889, Dina, Dingo12, Dionyziz, Dirkbb,
Discospinster, Dogears, DonVander, DoubleBlue, Douglass81, Dougofborg, Doulos Christos, Drcbaba, Drewhamilton, Dripping Flame, Drivenapart, Duck-billed platypus, Dv82matt,
Dvandersluis, Dycedarg, Dysepsion, Dzubint, EHPainter, ERcheck, ESkog, Ebay2892, Ebraminio, EdGl, Edward321, Eeekster, Eggietheman, Ehheh, Einar Myre, Eiwot, El C, El aprendelenguas,
Elassint, Eliz81, Elkman, Ellmist, Ellywa, Elonka, Emmabxxxx, Emmens-.-, Emomicky, Eniikliikik, Epbr123, Epipelagic, Epiphanysolutions, Epiq, Equendil, Ere red, Erebus Morgaine,
Eresemeth, Eric-Wester, Erik9, Esanchez7587, Escape Orbit, Espoo, Estridaldrea, Eu.stefan, Eukesh, Eurleif, Everyking, Excirial, Explicit, Exploding Boy, Eyedubya, FASIONPOL, FT2,
Faggybuuh, Faithlessthewonderboy, Falcon9x5, Fanta1997, Faradayplank, Farse, Fastily, FayssalF, FeanorStar7, Fenevad, Fg2, Fieldday-sunday, Figma, Finereach, Finngall, Firelancer69,
Flatterworld, Flea10, Fleela, FlyingToaster, Foobar, Foobaz, Fox, Fraise, FrancoGG, Fratrep, Frazzydee, FreplySpang, Freshacconci, Frothy, FudpeX, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Fuzzygenius,
Fyyer, G O T R, GB fan, GRAHAMUK, GSMR, Gabbe, Gaff, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, Gaius Cornelius, Gangster101blackdudetoo, Garzo, Gbleem, Ged UK, GeneralEndicott,
Gettingitrightthefirsttime, Ghouston, Gianfranco, Giftlite, Gifðas, Gilliam, Gimmetrow, Gjd001, Glane23, Glen, Gobbleswoggler, Godsfire777, Gogo Dodo, GoinHome, Golbez, Golem bomb,
Golem jeremy, Golfandme, Gombo, Gotter, Gould.casey, GraemeL, Grafen, GrahamSmithe, Gralo, Granf, Greatgavini, Greenlantern13, Gromlakh, Gscshoyru, Gtstricky, Guest9999, Gunnernett,
Gunslayer123, Gurch, Gus Buster, Gwernol, Gz33, Gzkn, Gökhan, Hadal, Hadokat, HalfShadow, Halosean, HamburgerRadio, Hammersoft, Harland1, Harryboyles, Harrypotterhp, Headwes,
Heimstern, Hello1311, Hemanshu, Hench, Heracles31, Hermione1980, Heron, HexaChord, Hikevin, Hillgentleman, Hizzoe, Hmains, Hoof Hearted, Hsf-toshiba, Hut 8.5, Hyacinth, Hydrogen
Iodide, I like pizza & pie, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, IanUK, Ianml, Icairns, Icarus, Ickyiayyyyy, Icurite, Iferrrr, Ilevel@weyerhaeuser.com, Im audball, Immunize, Indon, Inferno, Lord of Penguins,
Intomatrix, Invincible Ninja, Inwind, Ioscius, Ipatrol, Ipso2, Iridescent, IrisKawling, Irishguy, IronGargoyle, Ironfistofanarchy, Isotope23, Ixfd64, J.B.White, J.delanoy, J04n, JForget, JLaTondre,
JMartin44, JNW, JYi, Jaberwocky6669, JackLumber, Jackol, Jakes18, Jane Bennet, Jaredboy1234, Jasonrules123, Jaxl, Jdforrester, Jeff Dahl, Jeff G., Jeffrey Mall, Jeuswalks, Jhsounds, Jilly bob,
JimVC3, Jimjamesisfat, JinJian, Jiy, Jkelly, Jmoney07, Jnk, JoanneB, Joel22, John Cardinal, John Lynch, John11johng, John254, Johnbrownsbody, Johngolds, Jojit fb, Josh Parris, JoshG,
Joshknowles13, Jossi, Joyous!, Jrsnbarn, Jsc83, Jtneill, Juha86, Juliancolton, Juplm, Jusdafax, Jóna Þórunn, KFP, Kablammo, Kaidra3, Kaisershatner, Kalamityx, Kanakkshetri, Kanook, KatWeb,
Katalaveno, Keeper76, Keilana, Keith D, Kelly Martin, Ken Gallager, Kenny sh, Kerotan, Kevin, Kgm591, Khalid Mahmood, Khoikhoi, Kidcorona, Kimchi.sg, King Lopez, Kipala, Klr390,
Kotiwalo, Kozuch, Krich, Krmluvhms, Kubigula, Kuchiguchi, Kudret abi, Kukini, Kungfuadam, Kurdtallan, Kuru, Kutepuppy, L'Aquatique, LOL, LUCAS FOX, Lachiester, Landon1980,
Lardface, Lardyboy, Latacash999, Latebird, LeaveSleaves, LeeG, LeeNapier, Leeleeleeleelee, Leo R, Levineps, Lexington50, Lightdarkness, Lights, Lightsup55, Little Mountain 5, LittleOldMe,
Liuzzi Says, LocalH, Lockesdonkey, Londemonium, LonelyMarble, Loonymonkey, Lordmac, Lotje, Lpgeffen, Lradrama, Lrdwhyt, Luna Santin, Lupo, Lyons1996, MER-C, MNAdam, MPerel,
Maciuncio99, Mackemfixer, Macy, Magorium11, Maheeki, Malo, Man vyi, Manu rocks, Marek69, Maria Badescu, Markt3, Maroux, MarsRover, Martin451, Matt the Magnificent, Matt.smart,
Mattarata, Matthew Yeager, Matthewsill22, Matticus78, Mattman889, Max rspct, Maxis ftw, Mayn88, Mboverload, McSly, Md10md, Mdawg93, MeMirch, Mearnhardtfan, Mechadiablo,
Meckimac, Meelar, Meredyth, Merope, Metallicaman94, Michael Hardy, Middayexpress, Mikael Häggström, Mike Rosoft, Mikker, Miles, Minimac, Miranda, Mishmash8, Mishuletz,
MissAmbitious, Mmxx, Moneymen2, Monkey-face1996, Moocow57, MrKFC222, Mrschimpf, Mrsmithiysuite, Mschel, Msullivan12301, Mujinga, Mxn, Myanw, Mygerardromance,
Mythbusters, Mzabaluev, N5iln, NJA, NMChico24, Nagy, Nathan 19911991, NawlinWiki, Nayvik, Nburden, Nebs05, Neil916, NeilN, Neilbeach, Nescio, Neutrality, NewEnglandYankee,
NewGuy4, Newmanation, Nickdnk, Nickinuu, Nickk1954, Night Gyr, Nightscream, Nihiltres, Nimacus, Nissin67, Nitrogenx, Nitsujjustinjustin, Nivix, Nixeagle, No-Bullet, Noah Salzman,
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Patrickov, Patstuart, Pedant17, Pengo, Perfecto, Peripitus, Persian Poet Gal, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Philip Trueman, Philippe, Phillip J, Phoenix2, Phonemonkey, Picapica, Pikiwyn, Pilotguy,
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del norte, Rarr, Rasmus Faber, Ratiocinate, Ratpoo222, Rconsoli, Rdsmith4, Reach Out to the Truth, Redfarmer, Redsoxsuk246, Regibox, Reinyday, Relax free ih, Remigiu,
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Roll Pirate, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Wiki Octopus, The wub, TheCatalyst31, TheEgyptian, TheMocker, TheOtherJesse, Thebrid, Thegreyanomaly, Thepreyingmantis, Thescrewup,
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Andersen, Triplestop, Trusilver, Truthsort, Tspier2, Turbanator1, Turgan, Twilsonb, Twin Bird, Two Monstrous Nuclear Stockpiles, Tyty394, Tyw7, UrbanNerd, Usandr, Utcursch, VJDocherty,
Article Sources and Contributors 1073

VMS Mosaic, Vald, Vanished User 1004, Vanka5, Vary, Vegas Bleeds Neon, Vegazoom, Vegetator, Veinor, Versageek, Versus22, Vgranucci, Vicarious, Vicenarian, Vinsfan368, Violetriga,
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edits

Stairway  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=382068717  Contributors: 22molly33, Abce2, Acdc004, Acroterion, Aesopos, Ahering@cogeco.ca, AlexTheComposer, All in,
Altenmann, Altermike, Anallord10000, AndreasPraefcke, AndrzejJ, Anlace, Aquawish99, Arpingstone, Arthur Rubin, Auos11, Axcordion, Bermicourt, Billbeee, Bobblewik, Bongwarrior, Borgx,
Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanOfWorms, CesarB, CheeseDeluxe, Chongkian, Chris 73, Chris the speller, Clubmarx, Cmdrjameson, Comcast King, ConcernedVancouverite, Courcelles,
DDima, DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, DO'Neil, DabMachine, Dancter, David Shankbone, David Thrale, DerHexer, Didactohedron, Dieter Simon, DifferCake, Diomidis Spinellis, Disavian,
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Kensington, La Mesa, La vita è dolce, Leanne, Leonard G., Les733, Look2See1, Luigizanasi, Luv2read83197, MGlosenger, MNAdam, MacTire02, Madman2001, Magioladitis, Martin2Reid,
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Ryanmcdaniel, SECProto, SJP, SWEETBROANDHELLAJEFF, Sailko, Samw, Sandstein, SchuminWeb, Scoo, SeaFox, Seth Ilys, Shirik, Snowmanradio, Somebody in the WWW,
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WordLife565, Xyzzyplugh, Yidisheryid, ZooFari, Zsero, 191 anonymous edits

Maze  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=382871993  Contributors: -Ril-, ALFRED GRAHAM BURGESS, Academic Challenger, Accurizer, Agentheartlesspain, Alfa, Alon,
Alxeedo, Amniarix, Annielogue, Antandrus, AtticusX, Badinfinity, Bananadude, Baseball Bugs, Bazzargh, Bearcat, Betterusername, Bhugh, Bneild, Bob Burkhardt, BruceDLimber, Bryan
Derksen, CGP, CanadianLinuxUser, Canon, Casper Gutman, Cbm, Cederal, Ceranthor, Cferrero, Chanora, Charliedog4, CheeseburgerBrown, Childzy, Choalbaton, Chrislk02, Chriszim,
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Should Not Be, Thingg, Tide rolls, Tiny plastic Grey Knight, Tiptoety, Tmangray, Toddles9, TraxPlayer, TwoOneTwo, Ulric1313, UnitedStatesian, Vanhoabui, VasilievVV, Veronique, Vystrix
Nexoth, WOSlinker, WarthogDemon, Wavelength, Willie the Walrein, WissensDürster, Woohookitty, Work permit, ZeroOne, Zoicon5, 387 anonymous edits

Cardinal directions  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=32982539  Contributors: AJCham, AaronSeeker, AdjustShift, Ahoerstemeier, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Andrewa, Andy,
ArcGeoff, Arpingstone, Arthurian Legend, Aurick, Avt tor, B9 hummingbird hovering, Badly Bradley, Banpei, Benjwong, Bennoro, Berchin, Beyond My Ken, Bistohy, Bjankuloski06en,
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Gerbrant, Getoffended, GlassFET, Grutness, Gun Powder Ma, Hadžija, Harryboyles, Head, Hellerick, Hestemand, IMacThere4iAm, Icalanise, Iceblock, Introgressive, J. Delbert Willden,
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Spud Gun, Srleffler, TCHJ3K, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tamfang, Tanner Swett, The Epopt, The Thing That Should Not Be, The lorax, Thumperward, Tide rolls, TimBentley, Titoxd,
Tkynerd, Triwbe, Versus22, Vgranucci, Viriditas, Vmenkov, Weetoddid, Winston365, Wknight94, Wpe666, Xmts, Yamla, Yggdrasill74, ZeiP, 百家姓之四, 260 anonymous edits

Tattoo  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=382805715  Contributors: 0kdal, 17daves, 21655, 5150pacer, 620Curt, A-giau, A8UDI, Aashishsahrawat, Acroterion, Addihockey10,
Adi4094, Adolphus91788, Aenioc, Aff123a, Afghana, Agent12, Agüeybaná, Ahoerstemeier, Ahpook, Aintsemic, Aitias, Akamad, AkdenizliAslan, Akuzi, Alaney01, Alansohn, Ale jrb,
Alexius08, Alias Flood, Alijohnson, Ally1313, Altbassist1990, Altenmann, Alvis, Alxndr, AnaLisa H, Andrew c, Andrew.persin008, Andreworkney, Andyroo316, Anfang886, Angr, Anil1956,
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Oxymoron83, PL290, Pacobob, Pakaran, Palindromes238, Pankg07, Parisbag, Pathoschild, Patrick, Patrick Berry, Pattern86, Paulo duarte ferreira, Pd THOR, Peoplesyak, Peruvianllama,
Article Sources and Contributors 1074

Peteinterpol, Peter Greenwell, Phamed, Pharos, PhilKnight, Philip Trueman, Philjinsky, Piano non troppo, Pigman, Pinkunicorn, Pit, Pnoble805, Poetaris, Porterjoh, Portillo, Pouchkidium,
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^demon, Александър, 1859 anonymous edits

Minotaur  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=383017100  Contributors: 129.128.16.xxx, 129.128.164.xxx, 137.205.8.xxx, 13alexander, 144.132.75.xxx, 192.146.136.xxx,
194.196.100.xxx, 213.3.148.xxx, 2D, 3rdAlcove, 5telios, 97198, 99DBSIMLR, A More Perfect Onion, A little insignificant, ABF, AbsolutDan, Abyca, Acroterion, Adam Bishop, Adashiel,
AddiKtiV, Ahoerstemeier, Airplaneman, Aisa0, Alan D, Alansohn, Aldaron, AlexPlank, Alphachimp, Amazins490, Amcbride, American Eagle, AnakngAraw, Andre Engels, Angie Y., Anna512,
AnnaFrance, Anonymous anonymous, Anson Stark, Antandrus, Antiuser, Aonederbar, Arcadina, ArdClose, Aris Katsaris, Artemisboy, Asterphage, Astral, Attilios, AuburnPilot, AxelBoldt, BOZ,
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Derksen, Busterbaddy1, CBDunkerson, Caltas, CambridgeBayWeather, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canderson7, CanisRufus, CapitalR, CaptainJae, Carlosguitar, Casper2k3,
Catalographer, Catapult, CattleGirl, Chamal N, Chaosdarkness, Charlie MacKenzie, Che!, Che.angkham@gmail.com, ChillDeity, CitrusC, Clarince63, Cmichael, Cometstyles, Conversion script,
Courcelles, Cpl Syx, Cremepuff222, Cst17, Curps, Cwenger, Cyanolinguophile, Cyktsui, D dude212, DJ Clayworth, Daemonette, Dalejr8cjs, Damicatz, Daniel Olsen, Darkwind, DasRhino,
Davemcarlson, Dayewalker, Dcp dan, Delirium, Demon123123, Deor, DerHexer, Derek Ross, Dfrg.msc, Diego Grez, Discospinster, Dlohcierekim, Domecraft1, Dougofborg, Dr.K.,
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Luna Santin, MER-C, MPF, Mac Arnott, Magiclite, Magnus Manske, Magnus.de, Mandsford, Manfi, Marek69, MartinezMD, Mattgirling, Matthew Yeager, Matusz, Maulin'Bill, Mboverload,
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Article Sources and Contributors 1077

Nishkid64, Nismo, Nkayesmith, Nmnogueira, Not telling, Not050, Notpietru, Oacoombes, Ocolon, Ojigiri, OneWeirdDude, Onevalefan, OranL, Orbfan, Orphan Wiki, OtakuMan,
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City, SaliereTheFish, Sandgem Addict, Satanael, Savana-ona-rolla, Savant13, Schoop, SchuminWeb, Sergspergs, Sexylittlepssycat2222, ShadowMan1od, Shadowjams, Shawn in Montreal,
Shimnaa, Shinmawa, Shoaler, SiGarb, Sirjamltd, Sjakkalle, SkyWalker, Slowking Man, Sooner Dave, SparrowsWing, Sparsefarce, SpookyMulder, Srborlongan, St Fan, SteinbDJ, Stephenb,
Stephenchou0722, Stephensuleeman, Supah dyke, Tanaats, Tanthalas39, Taschenrechner, Teles, ThC, The Nut, The Rambling Man, The Thing That Should Not Be, The undertow, The-
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Wereldburger758, Wetman, Who then was a gentleman?, Wikidemon, Wikieditor06, Wikigi, Wikipe-tan, WillRogers, WilliamBarrett, Wimt, Wingfan191, Wintonian, Witan, Wj32,
Woodgreener, Xanthophiliac, Xezbeth, Xiahou, Yath, Yeagger, Yonatan, Yossarian, Yucktopuss, Zeus faller, Zvika, Zykke, 1079 anonymous edits

Labyrinth  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=381909426  Contributors: 0XQ, 216.7.146.xxx, ALFRED GRAHAM BURGESS, Acroterion, Adam78, Aebarschall, Alensha,
Alexikoua, Alphachimp, Andre Engels, Andres, Anglicanus, Ans-mo, Antiuser, Astatine, AstroNomer, Attilios, Axl, BDerrly, Bearcat, Blazeblitzblade, Blinky465, Blotwell, Boris Živ, Bryan
Derksen, Bubba hotep, CARadke, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Carlossuarez46, Cewvero, Cflm001, Chosen7Stone, Chowbok, ChrisCork, Cje, Ckatz, Claus Ableiter, Comixboy, Commdor,
CommonsDelinker, Conversion script, CrookedAsterisk, D dude212, DVD R W, Daarznieks, Daderot, Dbachmann, Deeptrivia, Den fjättrade ankan, DoubleBlue, Ds13, Eequor, El Raki, Elphion,
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Wetman, Wikiklrsc, WikipedianMarlith, Wj32, Wmahan, WolfgangFaber, Wykypydya, Xiahou, Yak, Yekrats, Zanaq, 343 anonymous edits

Morse code  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=382838551  Contributors: 0, 1549bcp, 213.253.39.xxx, 3qwerty100, A3RO, Abeg92, Acalamari, Acjelen, Actam, AdjustShift,
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Wtshymanski, Xaosflux, Xdamr, Xeroc, Xhaoz, Xideum, Xoder, Xorx, Xyb, YBeayf, Yaco, Yamla, Zapvet, Zeppelin4life, ZeroOne, Zomgpwnagedeath, 1193 anonymous edits

SOS  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=381854754  Contributors: 0612, 064678147, A.bit, Abuka50c, Ackatsis, Addshore, Admiral Valdemar, Alai, Amakuru, Americasroof,
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Emtage, Java13690, Jet Jaguar, Jfitts, JiriDonat, Jkl, Jmlk17, Joelmills, Jojo80, Jtg920, Juzeris, Kablammo, Karim1145, Kchishol1970, Keilana, Ketiltrout, Kevinteria, Kirtai, Knepflerle,
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Evil Barbie, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thomas H. White, Timc, Tommyjr, Tonsofpcs, TorreFernando, Trigonholdings, Tsuite, Tswsl1989, Tupac13th, Tverbeek, Tyomitch, Vegaswikian,
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ZeroOne, Zro, ‫ה הירא‬., 542 anonymous edits

Time-Life  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=348474026  Contributors: Aaronw, Acalamari, AlbertSM, Americasroof, Azumanga1, Bbcomics2, Brittany Ka, Bttfvgo, Buxley
Hall, CR85747, Cast3av, Chearing, Cigarette, Codyeasyas123, Cybercobra, Dannyolivares, Dappl, DavidLevinson, Dicklyon, Doc Strange, Dpmuk, Dungodung, Elonka, Ericj 94, FMAFan1990,
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Manway, Mcphail12, Mitchazenia, Mr. Rhapsody's Radio & Television, Neurolysis, New World Man, PeterHoy4, Philip Trueman, Pithecanthropus, Psychedelia2010, QuantumOne, Raine r
pierre, Rjwilmsi, Rsgdodge, Sciencebuff, Shortride, Sky Attacker, Sohipithurts, Starcheerspeaksnewslostwars, Steven J. Anderson, TVCGuy, TheCatalyst31, TimMagic, Tregoweth,
UrukHaiLoR, Utopies, Valerius Tygart, Vegaswikian, Warpozio, Werideatdusk33, WilliamSommerwerck, Wolfer68, 80 anonymous edits
Article Sources and Contributors 1078

String Quartet No. 16 (Beethoven)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=379042121  Contributors: Al Pereira, Alaskankristen, Angela, Antandrus, AppaAliApsa, Bdesham,
Bmschmidt, Bobblewik, Casadesus, CenturionZ 1, Chiamark, Conversion script, Darev, DavidRF, Delphiz99, Emre D., Francis Schonken, Frigoris, Japanese Searobin, Jpo, Labrynthia9856,
Leonard Vertighel, MikeCapone, Mnd, RobertG, Schissel, Stephen B Streater, Who, 13 anonymous edits

Bluescreen  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=156425434  Contributors: 0612, A2Kafir, ASH1977LAW, AdeMiami, Ajcfreak, Alansohn, Allmightyduck, Amnewsboy,
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Article Sources and Contributors 1083

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List of fictional books  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=382364293  Contributors: 48states, 96T, A Man In Black, Aaron Solomon Adelman, Abi79, Ad.minster, AlainV, Alan
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Satire  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=382059973  Contributors: -- April, -Dense-, 0001, 01bemounce, 0XQ, A.K.A.47, ABF, AaRH, Abanima, Acerperi, AdamSommerton,
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Article Sources and Contributors 1086

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Article Sources and Contributors 1087

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Article Sources and Contributors 1090

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Article Sources and Contributors 1091

WAS PHONE?, Teles, Templarion, TestPilot, The open door5, Themindset, Theurge14, ThomasAndrewNimmo, Thu, Tim Dole, Timrem, Timujin, TomasBat, Tony Sidaway, Townsend,
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Article Sources and Contributors 1094

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Article Sources and Contributors 1095

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Stanley Kubrick  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=382953214  Contributors: "Country" Bushrod Washington, 10stone5, 128.227.230.xxx, 23mike95, 3finger, 6afraidof7,
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Article Sources and Contributors 1098

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Article Sources and Contributors 1100

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‫טראהנייר ירעל‬, 2638 anonymous edits

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The Seafarer (poem)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=381788795  Contributors: A Softer Answer, Akhenaten0, Antandrus, Antiquary, BauerPower, Cavila, Charles
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Porlob, Qmwne235, Rje, Saforrest, Stbalbach, Stumps, The Doom Merchant, Tristanberoul, Whiskeydog, Willy Skillets, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yst, 59 anonymous edits

The Battle of Maldon  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=379302288  Contributors: Declan Clam, Eclecticology, Erianna, Girlwithgreeneyes, Graham87, Jll294, LilHelpa,
Rothorpe, Sigurd Dragon Slayer, Studerby, Woohookitty, 2 anonymous edits

Order of the Garter  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=381531335  Contributors: 84user, Adam Bishop, Alan Flynn, Ale flashero, Alexvonf, Alphaboi867, Altzinn,
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French Union  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=378257041  Contributors: 6rv4za, Bigweeboy, Carl Logan, Chealer, ChrisDHDR, Domino theory, FredrikLähnn, Gecko G,
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OwenBlacker, Paris By Night, Piccadilly, Rich Farmbrough, Robofish, Slawojarek, Swedish fusilier, T L Miles, Thomas Guibal, V i P, Waacstats, Willking1979, 35 anonymous edits

Battle of Dien Bien Phu  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=379718329  Contributors: 1297, A. Carty, AHM, Addshore, Adrian, AdrianCo, Afernand74, Aim Here, Alansohn,
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Article Sources and Contributors 1104

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Utcursch, Vacancy, Vardion, Vtguy4242, Wangi, Wayward, Wbakker2, Wesley, Wik, Writtenright, Xanderer, Ybbor, YellowMonkey, Zscout370, ^demon, अभय नातू, 470 anonymous edits

Viet Minh  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=377580452  Contributors: 1297, Alansohn, Aldis90, Alouden, Annhoang, BanyanTree, Bartledan, Blankett stories, Boom boom
guy, Borgx, BubbleDine, CALR, CSWarren, CalJW, Christopher Mahan, Cliché Online, Cnyborg, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, Creol, Cripipper, DHN, Dudeman5685, El C, Esperant,
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Ziggurat, 189 anonymous edits

French Indochina  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=379036819  Contributors: Aaker, Abberley2, AbsolutDan, Academic Challenger, Adimovk5, Akaloc, Akriasas,
AlasdairGreen27, Anarchangel, Andrew Dalby, Andrew Levine, Angelo De La Paz, Arjun01, Astrowob, Austinfidel, AxelBoldt, AzaToth, Badagnani, Berox, Betacommand, Bigemail90,
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Zzyzx11, Иван Богданов, 229 anonymous edits

French Foreign Legion  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=382738069  Contributors: -Marcus-, 23skidoo, ANRH, Achangeisasgoodasa, Adam keller, Aelfthrytha, Alai,
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ZBrisk, Zabieru, Zaphikiel, Zdenek bs, Zeno Gantner, Zerbey, Александър, 847 anonymous edits

Lost Command  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=362545871  Contributors: ApostropheSheriff, Carl Logan, Foofbun, Grenadine, Kuralyov, Kwiki, MWShort, Memoire,
Nightkey, Qr, Sus scrofa, Tassedethe, Thefourdotelipsis, Themightyquill, 11 anonymous edits

Album  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=381589975  Contributors: 100110100, 1995hoo, 3LD3R4N3, 48v, A4, Abdullais4u, Active Banana, Airplaneman, AjaxSmack,
AlbertSM, Alex1254, AmiDaniel, Anetode, Anthony Appleyard, Anthony5429, Antiuser, Askewchan, Audiodude, Avin, BD2412, Barticus88, Benzedrine Clown, Biopresto, BjKa, Bovineone,
Brenont, Brian0918, Bubuka, BuckMarley, C. A. Russell, C777, CatherineMunro, Catherinek94, Ccacsmss, Christina solange, Cookie90, Cosprings, DaTruthhh, Danski14, DantheCowMan,
Dead3y3, Decltype, Dmarquard, EdGl, El C, Elvismonkey, Epbr123, Epim, Eugene van der Pijll, Everyking, FCYTravis, FaWzY, Falcon8765, FredClem, Frymaster, Funeral, GVOLTT,
Galoubet, Genghiskhanviet, Gilliam, Grimhim, Grutness, Guitarherochristopher, Gökhan, HaigEK, HandsOfBlue, HoodedMan, INkubusse, Iokseng, IvanLanin, J 1982, J04n, JForget, Jgianni,
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Zimbabweed, Zubes007, 156 anonymous edits

Hello (Poe album)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=374448329  Contributors: AlanaMyna, Civic Cat, Conditionalsnok, Cryptic, DCEdwards1966, Graymornings, Jhsounds,
Luminifer, Mattbrundage, Mike Garcia, Mild Bill Hiccup, Nightmare X, Oliversmiff, Pacian, Remurmur, Rich Farmbrough, Sam Hocevar, ShelfSkewed, Slicing, Slysplace, Swanrizla, The
Moving Finger Writes, Tjkiesel, ZooFari, 20 anonymous edits

Haunted (Poe album)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=382643753  Contributors: Acegikmo1, Bobblewik, Camembert, Canonblack, Cheesechimp, ChicXulub, Cjaysson,
Cryptic, Cyberry, DCEdwards1966, Dbenbenn, Easterbradford, Fredrik, GreatWhiteNortherner, Heliocentric, Histrion, Hraefen, Ian Maxwell, JeremyA, Jhsounds, Kaibabsquirrel, Kelly Martin,
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Rich Farmbrough, Sam Hocevar, Sannse, Satori, ShelfSkewed, Slicing, Slysplace, Swanrizla, TravelingCat, Wolf530, 23 anonymous edits

Hey Pretty  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=376152997  Contributors: Caladonia, Camembert, Chill doubt, CouplandForever, Dbenbenn, Fiducia, Fram, Grm wnr, Jogers,
Koyaanis Qatsi, Muchness, Nintendude, Owen, Pacian, ShelfSkewed, Smmurphy, Wolfer68, 17 anonymous edits

Derrida (film)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=363489839  Contributors: CanadianCaesar, CanisRufus, Conf, Lugnuts, Peanutbuttertoast, Rbellin, Rbrwr, Ricky81682,
Supernumerary, Sus scrofa, Thedarkestclear, Woohookitty, Zigzig20s, 4 anonymous edits
Article Sources and Contributors 1105

La strada (film)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=377697478  Contributors: Ajshm, Ameliorate!, Attilios, Azucar, BD2412, Betacommand, BomBom, BostonRed, Capitalg,
Clarityfiend, Cooksey, Cop 663, Cuchullain, David Gerard, Dutzi, Ecoleetage, Erik, Estrose, GTBacchus, Girolamo Savonarola, Grahamec, Grenavitar, Gökhan, Hathawayc, Hmains, Ikmarchini,
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Takwish, Ted Wilkes, Thismightbezach, Tryptofeng, Tvaughn05, Veritasmaximal, Wars, Woohookitty, Wool Mintons, 46 anonymous edits

The Whalestoe Letters  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=376961230  Contributors: Alanlastufka, Aristophanes68, Classicfilms, Dancter, David Shankbone, Easterbradford,
GrahamHardy, GregorB, Hephaestos, Kevinalewis, Lkinkade, Luigi30, MakeRocketGoNow, Pegship, Slicing, Stan Shebs, 4 anonymous edits

The Fifty Year Sword  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=355598255  Contributors: 23skidoo, Alanlastufka, Cell84, Dancter, David Shankbone, Debresser, Drmies, Ellimist,
Henry Merrivale, Kevinalewis, Mrsdapenglish, Pegship, Rory096, Rothycat, Serious Name, Zenohockey, 11 anonymous edits

Only Revolutions  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=378459197  Contributors: Alanlastufka, Alton, Andrewpmk, Boltaxgallery, CyberSkull, Dancter, David Shankbone, Doc
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Phil Sandifer, RaulGroom, Rbifan, SadMarvin, SeizureToday, Setrajonas, Teppei Aita, Tregoweth, VivaLaZombie!, Woohookitty, 55 anonymous edits

Pantheon Books  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=378810915  Contributors: A2Kafir, Brenont, Caerwine, Closedmouth, Emperor, Encyclopédiste, Gaius Cornelius,
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anonymous edits

Random House  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=381700356  Contributors: 121a0012, A2Kafir, AdRock, Ageekgal, Airplaneman, Al Lemos, Americasroof, Andrea105,
AndrewHowse, Animal Guy, Anonymous013, Aranherunar, Arcadian, Assassinoc714, Astuishin, Atavi, Atonement, Babajobu, Biblbroks, BorgQueen, Brennen, Bubba73, CSTAR,
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Tombright, Tomj, Unscented, Uris, VasilievVV, Viriditas, WCCasey, WhisperToMe, Wimvandorst, Yandorado, Zeimusu, Zombiema7, Zzyzx11, 146 anonymous edits

Bestseller  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=382149665  Contributors: 83d40m, Accountwiki2, Adam sk, Alansohn, Andycjp, Asav, Ayls, BD2412, Belovedfreak, Bucketsofg,
CanisRufus, Ciphers, Cnyborg, Colonies Chris, Dbarefoot, Dominic, Dungodung, Dybeck, Elonka, Emurphy42, Gary D Robson, Glenjenvey, Grochim, Gscshoyru, G®iffen, Henry Merrivale,
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Stbalbach, Tfine80, The JPS, TheRegicider, Tikiwont, Tregoweth, Tsavage, Twang, Uncle G, Volatile, Vorash, Zafiroblue05, 85 anonymous edits

Library of Congress  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=382638224  Contributors: 0dd1, 203.109.250.xxx, 208.187.217.xxx, AKGhetto, Aboyko, Absecon 59, Accer1102,
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Erianna, Ericamick, EvelynES, Everyking, Evrik, Excirial, F, Faithlessthewonderboy, FayssalF, Feedmecereal, Figbush1, Finlay McWalter, Frank, FrankRitter, Fredrik, Fuzheado, G Clark,
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Mateus, Levineps, LiDaobing, Lightdarkness, Lightmouse, Ligulem, Lisbk, Little Professor, Liwis, Lockesdonkey, Lokifer, Lugnuts, Lunchboxhero, MPorciusCato, Magnus Manske, Mahewa,
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NOLA504ever, Naina bharti, NawlinWiki, Nemesis63, Netsnipe, Neutrality, Neverquick, Nk, Nn123645, Noctibus, Nononsenseplease, Nottherugman, NuclearWarfare, Ohnoitsjamie, Oneiros,
PassionoftheDamon, Patagovia, Patrickneil, PaulVQ, Paxsimius, Pb30, PeaceNT, Ph89, PhatPharmer44, Phgao, Philip Trueman, Pigman, Piledhigheranddeeper, Pisharov, Pixel23, Plasticup,
Postdlf, Professor marginalia, Qaz, R'n'B, R3m0t, Rainjam, Raul654, Raven4x4x, Raysonho, Rdsmith4, Realman208, Reywas92, Rholton, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), RickDC, Rjwilmsi,
Rlevse, Rlitwin, Rnt20, Robert Merkel, Robertgreer, RussBlau, SAE1962, SallyForth123, Sanao, Schaengel89, SchuminWeb, ScottyBoy900Q, Sdgjake, Seth Goldin, Sevilledade, Shagifier,
Shultzc, SimonP, Sinn1sl0ken, Slawojarek, Snowolf, Solitude, Spamguy, Spittips101, Stan Shebs, StaticGull, Stephen Gilbert, SteveHopson, Streltzer, SummerWithMorons, Superm401, T1980,
Tarotb, Tbone, Technopilgrim, TerraFrost, Tfine80, The Cave Troll, TheKMan, TheLeopard, Thelonepickle, Thernlund, Thewallowmaker, Thingamagizmo, Thorpus, Thuresson, Tom, Tony
Myers, Tregoweth, Twang, TypoDotOrg, Uncle Dick, UpstateNYer, Uriyan, User6854, Versageek, VeryVerily, Vicharam, Vina, Vipinhari, VolatileChemical, Waggers, Wavelength, Wetman,
Whitebox, Wikieditor06, Wikitanvir, Wizardman, Wolfgang nj, Wright123, Zanimum, Zchris87v, Zeamays, ZephyrAnycon, Zereshk, 414 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 1106

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:House of leaves.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:House_of_leaves.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Lifefeed, 4 anonymous edits
Image:Mark Damezewski by David Shankbone 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mark_Damezewski_by_David_Shankbone_1.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution 2.5  Contributors: David Shankbone
Image:HouseOfLeavesPage134.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HouseOfLeavesPage134.gif  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Seelebrenntdotcom
File:Ranch style home in Salinas, California.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ranch_style_home_in_Salinas,_California.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation
License  Contributors: BrendelSignature at en.wikipedia
File:Gingerbread House Essex CT.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gingerbread_House_Essex_CT.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gregoryj77 at
en.wikipedia
File:Gurvger.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gurvger.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Adagio at en.wikipedia
(Original text : )
File:Wood Cottages Verbier Valais 074.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wood_Cottages_Verbier_Valais_074.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5
 Contributors: User:Noebu
File:Taravadu.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taravadu.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mulavelil cheriyanadu
File:Pomerodee.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pomerodee.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Noddy93, Opinoso, Relena, 1 anonymous edits
File:HouseFlrPlan.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HouseFlrPlan.JPG  License: GNU General Public License  Contributors: Original uploader was MrDrew508 at
en.wikipedia
File:HouseStructure.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HouseStructure.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Audriusa
File:Saitta House Dyker Heights.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Saitta_House_Dyker_Heights.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
Beao, Cjz208, DanTD, Jim.henderson, 1 anonymous edits
File:Passivhaus thermogram gedaemmt ungedaemmt.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Passivhaus_thermogram_gedaemmt_ungedaemmt.png  License: GNU Free
Documentation License  Contributors: Passivhaus Institut
File:Canberra house.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canberra_house.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Kate Webb
File:Antique-Theater-Staircase.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Antique-Theater-Staircase.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Edal
File:Milan stairway.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Milan_stairway.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Dela Andy Kumahor
File:steps to man o'war cove dorset england arp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Steps_to_man_o'war_cove_dorset_england_arp.jpg  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: Arpingstone, Yuval Y
File:Stair10.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stair10.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Imager Visioner
Image:Potemkinmarch.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Potemkinmarch.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Adelchi, Kakoui, TwoWings
File:WinderStairs.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WinderStairs.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Martin2Reid
File:escalators at cabot circus in bristol arp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Escalators_at_cabot_circus_in_bristol_arp.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Arpingstone
File:Stairway in ford plant in LA from HABS.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stairway_in_ford_plant_in_LA_from_HABS.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:
David G. De Vries
File:Stairway Measurements.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stairway_Measurements.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Jaksmata
File:Cremona, torrazzo interno 02 scala a chiocciola.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cremona,_torrazzo_interno_02_scala_a_chiocciola.JPG  License: Creative
Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: user:sailko
File:TulipStair QueensHouse Greenwich.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TulipStair_QueensHouse_Greenwich.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: User Mcginnly on en.wikipedia
File:Melk53.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Melk53.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Georges Jansoone
File:Model of an Alternating Tread Stair.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Model_of_an_Alternating_Tread_Stair.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Diomidis Spinellis
File:Step by Step.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Step_by_Step.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Wingchi
File:Niesen4.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Niesen4.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Herzi Pinki, OsamaK, Samulili, Sgruenig
File:VaticanMuseumStaircase.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VaticanMuseumStaircase.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Apalsola, Berrucomons, Conti,
Coyau, Didactohedron, Docu, FEXX, Mac9, NormanB, Para, Roberta F., Ronaldino, Schneelocke, Tangopaso, Tillea, Yareite, Yuriy75
File:Steps-ankor.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Steps-ankor.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: User:Billbeee
File:Thai-stairs.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thai-stairs.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: User:Billbeee
File:potemkinstairs.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Potemkinstairs.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Arpingstone, Bdk, Cecil, Ghirlandajo, Irpen, Kaganer, Man
vyi, Para, Ronaldino, Tomaxer, 姫宮南, 2 anonymous edits
File:White metal spiral staircase.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:White_metal_spiral_staircase.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors:
Raymond
File:Rockstairs.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rockstairs.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Common Good, User:Conscious, User:G®iffen
File:Alameda Stairway 3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alameda_Stairway_3.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Axcordion
File:Kaiserstiege, Residenz München.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kaiserstiege,_Residenz_München.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Gryffindor
File:Weissenhorn Stadttheater Treppenhaus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Weissenhorn_Stadttheater_Treppenhaus.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution
3.0  Contributors: Photo: Andreas Praefcke
File:Scala Contarini del Bovolo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Scala_Contarini_del_Bovolo.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Attilios,
G.dallorto
File:Endlose Treppe KPMG Muenchen.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Endlose_Treppe_KPMG_Muenchen.JPG  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Raupach
File:Ascending and Descending.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ascending_and_Descending.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Drilnoth, Justin Foote, Pais, Rje
File:Maze01-01.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maze01-01.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:ZeroOne
File:Labyrinth 2 (from Nordisk familjebok).png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Labyrinth_2_(from_Nordisk_familjebok).png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Den fjättrade ankan, Gabbe, Peng
File:cg pp maze.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cg_pp_maze.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Ilkant, Mysid
File:Maze 2008a Edit.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maze_2008a_Edit.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Gregory Stewart
File:Schönbusch4.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Schönbusch4.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Peng
File:Labyrint barvaux.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Labyrint_barvaux.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Benoit.dessucy
File:Labirinto villa Pisani 4.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Labirinto_villa_Pisani_4.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
User:P tasso
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 1107

File:MysteryMaze.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MysteryMaze.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Mjrmtg

File:Maze.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maze.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bachrach44, Claus Ableiter
Image:Brosen windrose.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brosen_windrose.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Brosen, Mnd, StMH, Wst,
3 anonymous edits
Image:Direction Watch.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Direction_Watch.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Klimot, 2 anonymous edits
Image:MaoriChief1784.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MaoriChief1784.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Parkinson, Sydney, 1745-1771. Parkinson was
the artist on Captain Cook's 1st voyage to New Zealand in 1769. From: Parkinson, Sydney. A journal of a voyage to the South Seas. London, 1784, plate 16, opposite page 90.
File:Roshi Ensei lifting a heavy beam.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Roshi_Ensei_lifting_a_heavy_beam.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Amcaja, Aotake,
Lamilli, Morio, Petrusbarbygere
Image:Scythian tatoo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Scythian_tatoo.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: Ghirlandajo, Oden, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Jaipuri tribal hand tattoo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jaipuri_tribal_hand_tattoo.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Meena
Kadri
Image:Mjwtattoo.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mjwtattoo.PNG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Hmwith at en.wikipedia
File:Auschwitz survivor displays tattoo detail.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Auschwitz_survivor_displays_tattoo_detail.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Air
Force photo by Rudy Purificato
Image:Mark of a deserter.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mark_of_a_deserter.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Gaius
Cornelius
Image:Tattoo-back.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tattoo-back.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Dennis Mojado
File:Aglometrun-1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aglometrun-1.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: Grisha Maslov Григорий Маслов
Image:Modern primitive.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Modern_primitive.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: User:Nicor
Image:TattooInProgress.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TattooInProgress.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User Moqui on en.wikipedia
Image:Tattoo machine 2 coil.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tattoo_machine_2_coil.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Evrik, Jmabel,
Mendaliv, William Rafti of the William Rafti Institute
Image:Tattoo Salves.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tattoo_Salves.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Endlessdan,
User:Endlessdan/CLAN IN THE FRONT
Image:Tattoo artist with latex gloves.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tattoo_artist_with_latex_gloves.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors:
Giovanni Gallucci from Plano, Texas ('burb of Dallas), USA
Image:Lower leg Tattoo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lower_leg_Tattoo.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Evrik, FlickrLickr,
FlickreviewR, MBisanz, Para
File:Alesya Nazarova Model 2009.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alesya_Nazarova_Model_2009.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Toglenn
File:ModelsCatwalk.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ModelsCatwalk.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: José Goulão
File:Glamour Models on Red Carpet.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glamour_Models_on_Red_Carpet.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Toglenn
File:Fitness Model Britt 2007.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fitness_Model_Britt_2007.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Toglenn
File:2009-08-31-akt-muehla-063.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2009-08-31-akt-muehla-063.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Ralf Roletschek
File:Masked nude woman, seated, by Thomas Eakins.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Masked_nude_woman,_seated,_by_Thomas_Eakins.jpg  License: unknown
 Contributors: Docu, Frank C. Müller, Ragesoss
File:Large format camera lens.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Large_format_camera_lens.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 32bitmaschine, Hydrargyrum,
Joanjoc, Juiced lemon, Mattes
File:Contax-s.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Contax-s.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: Original uploader was Jeff dean at en.wikipedia
File:Nikonf.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nikonf.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: Original uploader was Jeff dean at en.wikipedia
File:minoxA.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MinoxA.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Original uploader was Olegvolk at en.wikipedia
File:Photographing a model.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Photographing_a_model.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Mila
Zinkova
File:A photographer on the ruins of Sutro Bath.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_photographer_on_the_ruins_of_Sutro_Bath.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Mila Zinkova
File:Nicéphore Niépce Oldest Photograph 1825.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nicéphore_Niépce_Oldest_Photograph_1825.jpg  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: Nicéphore Niépce
Image:Daguerreotype tintype photographer model studio table brady stand cast iron portrait photos.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Daguerreotype_tintype_photographer_model_studio_table_brady_stand_cast_iron_portrait_photos.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Cramyourspam
File:In de donker kamer.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:In_de_donker_kamer.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: 32bitmaschine,
Maksim
File:Prokudin-Gorskii-12.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Prokudin-Gorskii-12.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: , digital rendering for the Library of Congress
by Walter Frankhauser / WalterStudio
File:IMG 0575.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IMG_0575.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Martinmaniac, 2 anonymous edits
Image:OlympusE-420.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OlympusE-420.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:7castle
File:Capas-d1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Capas-d1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was WikiCapa at en.wikipedia
File:Coolscan-V.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coolscan-V.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: Original uploader was Jeff dean at en.wikipedia
File:K800i-back.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:K800i-back.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Asim18, MB-one, 2 anonymous edits
File:Freak Out, Oblivion, night.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Freak_Out,_Oblivion,_night.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Freddo, JackyR, Man vyi,
Solipsist, 1 anonymous edits
File:The Steerage 1907 Stieglitz Corrected.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Steerage_1907_Stieglitz_Corrected.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
SteveHopson
Image:Wootton bridge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wootton_bridge.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Prlewis
File:Image-Taybridge01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Image-Taybridge01.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Immanuel Giel,
Kilom691, 2 anonymous edits
File:Tay bridge down.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tay_bridge_down.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Immanuel Giel
File:Wrightflyer highres.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wrightflyer_highres.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Attributed to Wilbur Wright (1867–1912)
and/or Orville Wright (1871–1948). Orville Wright preset the camera and had John T. Daniels squeeze the rubber bulb, tripping the shutter.
Image:Assorted video tapes.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Assorted_video_tapes.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Austinmurphy, 1 anonymous edits
Image:2-inch Quad Tape Reel with miniDV cassette.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2-inch_Quad_Tape_Reel_with_miniDV_cassette.jpg  License: GNU Free
Documentation License  Contributors: 1-1111, 32bitmaschine, Responsible?, Yrithinnd
Image:U-matic.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:U-matic.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Andreas -horn- Hornig, Grm wnr
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 1108

Image:Vhs cassette bottom.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vhs_cassette_bottom.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Timo
Beil
Image:DV tape sizes 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DV_tape_sizes_2.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: 32bitmaschine, Andreas
-horn- Hornig, Grm wnr, Kozuch, 1 anonymous edits
Image:☑.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:☑.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Beao, Edokter, Erin Silversmith, Hintswen, Me6620, Remember the dot,
Rocket000, Rugby471, Sarang, Tony Rotondas
Image:Liberty Bell 2008.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Liberty_Bell_2008.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Tony the Misfit on Flickr
Image:Pennsylvania Locator Map.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pennsylvania_Locator_Map.PNG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: US Census, Ruhrfisch
Image:Locator Red.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Locator_Red.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Unknown
File:3b02916r.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:3b02916r.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Reproduction of painting by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris (died 1930
File:Exterior view of Independence Hall (circa 1770s).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Exterior_view_of_Independence_Hall_(circa_1770s).jpg  License: Public
Domain  Contributors: Unidentified engraver
File:Libbell1908.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Libbell1908.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Unknown.
File:Bellringer1776.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bellringer1776.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown.
File:Liberty Bell 1872 - crop.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Liberty_Bell_1872_-_crop.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Wehwalt
File:Liberty Bell at Bunker Hill 1903.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Liberty_Bell_at_Bunker_Hill_1903.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: George
Grantham Bain
File:Liberty Bell tour 1951-crop.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Liberty_Bell_tour_1951-crop.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Wehwalt
File:Crowd around the Liberty Bell, 1951 - cropped.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crowd_around_the_Liberty_Bell,_1951_-_cropped.jpg  License: Public
Domain  Contributors: User:Wehwalt
File:US Liberty Bell Eisenhower Dollar.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:US_Liberty_Bell_Eisenhower_Dollar.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Connormah
File:S8000749.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:S8000749.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Dodo, FlickreviewR, UCinternational
File:Liberty Bell, Independence Hall.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Liberty_Bell,_Independence_Hall.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0
 Contributors: Eoghanacht, Evrik, FlickrLickr, FlickreviewR, Wehwalt
Image:Parallax Example.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Parallax_Example.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Booyabazooka
Image:Parallax.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Parallax.gif  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Natejunk2004
Image:The sun, street light and Parallax edit.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_sun,_street_light_and_Parallax_edit.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation
License  Contributors: Mila Zinkova
Image:Stellarparallax2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stellarparallax2.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Booyabazooka at
en.wikipedia
Image:Lunaparallax.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lunaparallax.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Logicus
Image:Lunarparallax 22 3 1988.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lunarparallax_22_3_1988.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Helix84,
Joanjoc, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Venus Transit & Parallax.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Venus_Transit_&_Parallax.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Duckysmokton, User:Ilia Kr., User:Vermeer
file:Gold-crystals.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gold-crystals.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: User:Alchemist-hp
File:Native gold nuggets.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Native_gold_nuggets.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Aramgutang
File:Nugsrandt.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nugsrandt.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Gold Guru at en.wikipedia
File:Ag-Au-Cu-colours-english.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ag-Au-Cu-colours-english.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Metallos
File:MocheGoldNecklace.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MocheGoldNecklace.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Pattych (talk).
Original uploader was Pattych at en.wikipedia
File:220kg Gold brick Taiwan Museum.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:220kg_Gold_brick_Taiwan_Museum.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original
uploader was Texcoco at en.wikipedia
File:Toi 250kg gold bar.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Toi_250kg_gold_bar.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:PHGCOM
File:Small gold nugget 5mm dia and corresponding foil surface of half sq meter.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Small_gold_nugget_5mm_dia_and_corresponding_foil_surface_of_half_sq_meter.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:PHGCOM
File:TurinPapyrus1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TurinPapyrus1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Zyzzy
File:Tuthankhamun Egyptian Museum.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tuthankhamun_Egyptian_Museum.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
3.0  Contributors: User:Uspn
File:Jason Pelias Louvre K127.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jason_Pelias_Louvre_K127.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Jastrow
File:Stringer156 nugget.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stringer156_nugget.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Reno Chris at
en.wikipedia
File:Gold 30g for a 860kg rock.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gold_30g_for_a_860kg_rock.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:PHGCOM
File:GoldinPyrite.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GoldinPyrite.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Qfl247
File:Gold-tt48a.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gold-tt48a.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Ra'ike
File:Gold-mz4b.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gold-mz4b.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:
File:Gold-37466.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gold-37466.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:
File:Gold world production.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gold_world_production.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Realterm
File:Gold (mined)2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gold_(mined)2.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Anwar saadat at en.wikipedia
File:Gold mine.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gold_mine.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Fir0002, Saperaud
File:golddust.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Golddust.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Greenhorn1
File:Gold price in USD.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gold_price_in_USD.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Realterm
File:Goldkey logo removed.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Goldkey_logo_removed.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Swiss Banker
File:GoldBarAtGrandEmperorCasino.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GoldBarAtGrandEmperorCasino.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Photnart
Image:Minotauros Myron NAMA 1664 n1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Minotauros_Myron_NAMA_1664_n1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5
 Contributors: User:Marsyas
File:Pasiphae Minotauros Cdm Paris DeRidder1066 detail.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pasiphae_Minotauros_Cdm_Paris_DeRidder1066_detail.jpg  License:
Public Domain  Contributors: User:Bibi Saint-Pol
Image:Minotaur-at-Greek-pavilion-Expo-88.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Minotaur-at-Greek-pavilion-Expo-88.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
G.dallorto, Jkelly
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 1109

Image:Minotaurus.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Minotaurus.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnonMoos, Bibi Saint-Pol, Elphion, Ilkant, Jkelly,
MistWiz, 3 anonymous edits
Image:Theseus Minotaur Ramey Tuileries.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Theseus_Minotaur_Ramey_Tuileries.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Jastrow
File:Gehörnter Gott, Enkomi.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gehörnter_Gott,_Enkomi.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Haubi
Image:Classical 7-Circuit Labyrinth.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Classical_7-Circuit_Labyrinth.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:JamesJen
Image:Labirinto do Outeiro do Cribo.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Labirinto_do_Outeiro_do_Cribo.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Froaringus
Image:Theseus Minotaur Mosaic.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Theseus_Minotaur_Mosaic.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Barosaul, Butko, Maksim,
Man vyi, Nikola Smolenski, Roomba, Wst, Xenophon, Zykasaa, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Labyrinth 1 (from Nordisk familjebok).svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Labyrinth_1_(from_Nordisk_familjebok).svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Sebastián Asegurado
Image:Labyrinth at Chartres Cathedral.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Labyrinth_at_Chartres_Cathedral.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: AFBorchert, Bibi Saint-Pol, Daderot, Dodo, Maksim, MathKnight, 1 anonymous edits
File:Chakravyuha-labyrinth.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chakravyuha-labyrinth.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnonMoos
Image:Labyrinth tattoo DSC04809 ms.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Labyrinth_tattoo_DSC04809_ms.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Comixboy
File:Labirinto,_armati_e_figure_di_paletta_-_Naquane_R_1_-_Capo_di_Ponte.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Labirinto,_armati_e_figure_di_paletta_-_Naquane_R_1_-_Capo_di_Ponte.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: Luca Giarelli
Image:Halebid2.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Halebid2.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: AnRo0002, Calvinkrishy, Ranveig,
SiGarb, Xufanc, 1 anonymous edits
image:NAMA Tablette 1287.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NAMA_Tablette_1287.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol,
Claus Ableiter, Jastrow, Marsyas, Mdd, Mutter Erde, Phso2, Sumerophile, Umherirrender, Wolfmann, Wst, 1 anonymous edits
image:Conímbriga minotauro.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Conímbriga_minotauro.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: G.dallorto,
Lusitana, Manuel Anastácio, Merops, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Villard de Honnecourt - Sketchbook - 14.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Villard_de_Honnecourt_-_Sketchbook_-_14.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:
GDK, Warburg
image:Labyrinth_Lucca.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Labyrinth_Lucca.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Catrin, Error, G.dallorto, Mac9, Pixeltoo,
Roomba, Sailko, Wst, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Map of Jericho in 14c Farhi Bible by Elisha ben Avraham Crescas.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_of_Jericho_in_14c_Farhi_Bible_by_Elisha_ben_Avraham_Crescas.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: AnonMoos, Bontenbal, David
Kernow, Flamarande, Humus sapiens, Infrogmation, Juiced lemon, Malcolm Schosha, Man vyi, Roomba, Talmoryair, Wst
Image:St quentin Basilica 003.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St_quentin_Basilica_003.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Mattis
Image:AmienCathedralLabyrinth.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AmienCathedralLabyrinth.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Wi1234
Image:Labyrinth-at-bla-jungfrun.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Labyrinth-at-bla-jungfrun.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors:
User:Mingusrude
image:Rocky_Valley_labyrinth_Tintagel.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rocky_Valley_labyrinth_Tintagel.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SiGarb
image:Dalby_City_of_Troy_turf_maze.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dalby_City_of_Troy_turf_maze.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SiGarb
image:Wing_Maze.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wing_Maze.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SiGarb
Image:Veneto 0006.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Veneto_0006.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Flominator, Mattes, Svajcr
image:Minotaurus.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Minotaurus.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnonMoos, Bibi Saint-Pol, Elphion, Ilkant, Jkelly,
MistWiz, 3 anonymous edits
Image:Edinburgh labyrinth.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Edinburgh_labyrinth.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Di Williams
Image:BCmemoriallabyrinth.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BCmemoriallabyrinth.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors:
Svajcr, Yelm
Image:8250 Church of Abbaye Notre-Dame de Saint-Remy Rochefort 2007 Luca Galuzzi.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:8250_Church_of_Abbaye_Notre-Dame_de_Saint-Remy_Rochefort_2007_Luca_Galuzzi.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
2.5  Contributors: User:Lucag
Image:Labyrinth vor St. Lambertus, Mingolsheim.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Labyrinth_vor_St._Lambertus,_Mingolsheim.JPG  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Claus Ableiter
Image:Labyrinth.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Labyrinth.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Marlith
Image:International Morse Code.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:International_Morse_Code.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Rhey T. Snodgrass &
Victor F. Camp, 1922
Image:J38TelegraphKey.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:J38TelegraphKey.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ChrisJ, Teslaton, ‫יסוי‬
Image:VibroplexBug.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VibroplexBug.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Lou Sander at en.wikipedia
Image:Bencher paddle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bencher_paddle.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Amada44, ChrisJ, Maksim,
MisterSanderson
File:Seaman send Morse code signals.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seaman_send_Morse_code_signals.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Tucker M.
Yates
Image:SOS.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SOS.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Xorx
Image:Morse code tree3.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Morse_code_tree3.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was
Aris00 at en.wikipedia
Image:Time Life logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Time_Life_logo.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: Neurolysis
Image:Time-life building.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Time-life_building.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Filip Maljković
Image:Time-life statue.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Time-life_statue.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Filip Maljković
File:Bluebox im Heureka 01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bluebox_im_Heureka_01.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User Andre
Riemann on de.wikipedia
File:SpiderwickChroniclesSet.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SpiderwickChroniclesSet.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
Sean Devine at http://picasaweb.google.com/seanmdevine
File:MuseumOfScienceBoston BlueScreenAtSpecialEffectsShow.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MuseumOfScienceBoston_BlueScreenAtSpecialEffectsShow.jpg
 License: unknown  Contributors: User MaxHund on en.wikipedia
File:ChromaKeyDemo.ogv  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ChromaKeyDemo.ogv  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Allmightyduck
Image:IsraelCVFRmag.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IsraelCVFRmag.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Etan Tal
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 1110

Image:Bruce Martin hexadecimal notation proposal.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bruce_Martin_hexadecimal_notation_proposal.png  License: Attribution

 Contributors: Bruce A. Martin, Applied Mathematics Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory
Image:Hexadecimal-counting.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hexadecimal-counting.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Boolean hexadecimal
Image:Hexadecimal multiplication table.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hexadecimal_multiplication_table.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Bernard Ladenthin
File:Hexedit-screenshot.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hexedit-screenshot.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Bobo192, CLUBMDC, Rwxrwxrwx, 2
anonymous edits
File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Algorithme,
Beyond My Ken, Bjankuloski06en, Grenavitar, Infrogmation, Kelson, Kilom691, Porao, Saperaud, Semnoz, Siebrand, Sparkit, Thomas Gun, Wknight94, Wst, Zaphod, 4 anonymous edits
File:Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Beyond My Ken,
Davidlud, Eusebius, Factumquintus, Gabor, Luestling, Mattes, Schaengel89, Svencb, Tomisti, 4 anonymous edits
File:Tangent derivative calculusdia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tangent_derivative_calculusdia.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
Minestrone Soup
File:Sec2tan.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sec2tan.gif  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:OSJ1961
File:Integral as region under curve.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Integral_as_region_under_curve.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: 4C
File:NautilusCutawayLogarithmicSpiral.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NautilusCutawayLogarithmicSpiral.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: User:Chris 73
File:Flag of India.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_India.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Emblem of India.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Emblem_of_India.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Abhishekjoshi, BRUTE, Bender235, Cheguthan,
Editor at Large, Eugenio Hansen, OFS, Faizhaider, Fred the Oyster, Fry1989, Havang(nl), Jed, Jmabel, Jovianeye, Klemen Kocjancic, Legoktm, Leit, Miljoshi, Nightstallion, Roland zh, Str4nd,
Vaishu2, 27 anonymous edits
File:India (orthographic projection).svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_(orthographic_projection).svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Ssolbergj
Image:Indian Rupee symbol.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indian_Rupee_symbol.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Orionist
File:Loudspeaker.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Loudspeaker.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bayo, Gmaxwell, Husky, Iamunknown, Nethac DIU,
Omegatron, Rocket000, 5 anonymous edits
File:Speaker Icon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Speaker_Icon.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Blast, G.Hagedorn, Mobius, 2 anonymous edits
File:Indischer Maler des 6. Jahrhunderts 001.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indischer_Maler_des_6._Jahrhunderts_001.jpg  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: Gryffindor, Imz, Jastrow, 1 anonymous edits
File:Nehru Gandhi 1937.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nehru_Gandhi_1937.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown
Image:India-states-numbered.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India-states-numbered.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Grenavitar,
Jayantanth, Nichalp, Rode idias, 9 anonymous edits
File:NorthBlock.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NorthBlock.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Flickr user: Nimrod Bar
File:SU-30MKI-g4sp - edit 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SU-30MKI-g4sp_-_edit_1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors:
Shot by: g4sp Edited by: diego_pmc
File:Dmitry Medvedev at the 34th G8 Summit 7-9 July 2008-61.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dmitry_Medvedev_at_the_34th_G8_Summit_7-9_July_2008-61.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Presidential Press and Information Office
File:India topo big.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_topo_big.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Jodelet2, LX, PawełS, Slomox,
Sting, 2 anonymous edits
File:India north.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_north.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Jochen Westermann from
München, Germany
File:BSE.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BSE.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Uploaded to Flickr on August 18, 2007 by
Flickr user anappaiah). Uploaded to the English Wikipedia by
File:Nano.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nano.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: arulnathan from New Delhi, India
File:India population density map en.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_population_density_map_en.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: Grenavitar,
Indianhilbilly, Planemad, Quibik, Timeshifter
File:Taj Mahal in March 2004.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taj_Mahal_in_March_2004.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: User:Deep750, user:jaknudsen
File:IPL T20 Chennai vs Kolkata.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IPL_T20_Chennai_vs_Kolkata.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors:
User:Chandrachoodan Gopalakrishnan
File:New LA Infobox Pic Montage 5.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:New_LA_Infobox_Pic_Montage_5.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Adrian104, User:Nserrano, User:Oreos, User:Taifarious1
File:Flag of Los Angeles, California.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Los_Angeles,_California.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: w:User:MysidMysid
File:Seal of Los Angeles, California.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seal_of_Los_Angeles,_California.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: w:User:MysidMysid
File:LA County Incorporated Areas Los Angeles highlighted.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LA_County_Incorporated_Areas_Los_Angeles_highlighted.svg
 License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ixnayonthetimmay
File:USA location map.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USA_location_map.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:NordNordWest
File:Red pog.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_pog.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Andux
File:Flag of the United States.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Dbenbenn,
User:Indolences, User:Jacobolus, User:Technion, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of California.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_California.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: w:en:User:DevinCookDevin Cook
Image:LosAngeles-Plaza-1869.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LosAngeles-Plaza-1869.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Bobak at
en.wikipedia
Image:LosAngelesCityHall1931.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LosAngelesCityHall1931.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Mike Cline
Image:LA05.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LA05.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Garion96, Pag293, 2 anonymous edits
File:Los angeles mountains to ocean pano.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Los_angeles_mountains_to_ocean_pano.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Mfield
File:Magnify-clip.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnify-clip.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Erasoft24
Image:Hollywood boulevard from kodak theatre.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hollywood_boulevard_from_kodak_theatre.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Diliff
Image:Grauman's Chinese Theatre, by Carol Highsmith fixed & straightened.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Grauman's_Chinese_Theatre,_by_Carol_Highsmith_fixed_&_straightened.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Diliff
Image:IMG 9136.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IMG_9136.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Plane777
Image:Capitol Records Building LA.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Capitol_Records_Building_LA.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Amineshaker,
AndreasPraefcke, Evrik, Geofrog, Ies, Juiced lemon, Man vyi, Multichill, Solipsist, 1 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 1111

Image:LAColiseumStatues.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LAColiseumStatues.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User
Cbrown1023 on en.wikipedia
File:Los Angeles Basin JPLLandsat.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Los_Angeles_Basin_JPLLandsat.jpg  License: SpaceShuttle  Contributors: NASA/JPL/NIMA
Image:Los Angeles River Anas platyrhynchos crop.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Los_Angeles_River_Anas_platyrhynchos_crop.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Ed Fitzgerald, MPF, SoCal L.A.
Image:LA Echo.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LA_Echo.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: USer:Nikkul
File:Macarthur park LA 01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Macarthur_park_LA_01.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Wurzeller at
en.wikipedia
Image:Los Angeles Pollution.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Los_Angeles_Pollution.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Diliff
File:Downtownplazala.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Downtownplazala.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: w:en:User:Pag293Pag293
Image:L.A Financial district.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:L.A_Financial_district.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
Original uploader was Bobak at en.wikipedia
Image:Los Angeles World Cruise Center - Berth 91 - Norwegian Star.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Los_Angeles_World_Cruise_Center_-_Berth_91_-_Norwegian_Star.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Benefactor123
Image:Image-Disney Concert Hall by Carol Highsmith edit.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Image-Disney_Concert_Hall_by_Carol_Highsmith_edit.jpg  License:
Public Domain  Contributors: Carol M. Highsmith
Image:Oscar1 (2).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oscar1_(2).jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Googie Man
Image:PB050006.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PB050006.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Oreos
Image:Foxyplaza.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Foxyplaza.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: w:en:User:Pag293Pag293
Image:Latimeshq.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Latimeshq.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Wars
Image:Dodger Stadium.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dodger_Stadium.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Dodo,
FlickreviewR, UCinternational
Image:StaplesCenter051209.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:StaplesCenter051209.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Rina Laxa from
Philippines
Image:Los Angeles Temple 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Los_Angeles_Temple_1.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Brian Davis
Image:Lacathedral.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lacathedral.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Kelvin Kay
Image:UCLA-old-statenormal-campus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:UCLA-old-statenormal-campus.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original
uploader was Bobak at en.wikipedia
File:Los-angeles-central-library.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Los-angeles-central-library.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Mfield
File:Los angeles metro existing and under construction 2009.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Los_angeles_metro_existing_and_under_construction_2009.png
 License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: User:Alossix
Image:LAX LA.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LAX_LA.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Michael Zara
Image:Los Angeles Bridge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Los_Angeles_Bridge.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Joe
Image:Los Angeles, CA from the air.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Los_Angeles,_CA_from_the_air.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0
 Contributors: Marshall Astor from San Pedro, United States. Original uploader was Zink Dawg at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Raeky at en.wikipedia.
Image:Bunker Hill Downtown Los Angeles.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bunker_Hill_Downtown_Los_Angeles.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5
 Contributors: Original uploader was Geographer at en.wikipedia
Image:May Day Immigration March LA66.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:May_Day_Immigration_March_LA66.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5
 Contributors: User:thehero
Image:Los Angeles City Hall with sister cities 2006.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Los_Angeles_City_Hall_with_sister_cities_2006.jpg  License: Creative
Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Fschoenm, MGA73, Matheus Wahl, Thomas doerfer
File:Flag of Israel.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Israel.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnonMoos, Bastique, Bobika, Brown spite, Captain
Zizi, Cerveaugenie, Drork, Etams, Fred J, Fry1989, Himasaram, Homo lupus, Humus sapiens, Klemen Kocjancic, Kookaburra, Madden, Neq00, NielsF, Nightstallion, Oren neu dag, Patstuart,
PeeJay2K3, Pumbaa80, Ramiy, Reisio, SKopp, Technion, Typhix, Valentinian, Yellow up, Zscout370, 31 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Japan.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Japan.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Various
File:Flag of Brazil.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Brazilian Government
File:Flag of France.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_France.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: (Portuguese)
File:Flag of Germany.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Germany.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Pumbaa80
File:Flag of Zambia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Zambia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Zscout370
File:Flag of Mexico.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Mexico.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:AlexCovarrubias, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of New Zealand.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Adambro, Arria Belli, Bawolff,
Bjankuloski06en, ButterStick, Denelson83, Donk, Duduziq, EugeneZelenko, Fred J, Fry1989, Hugh Jass, Ibagli, Jusjih, Klemen Kocjancic, Mamndassan, Mattes, Nightstallion, O, Peeperman,
Poromiami, Reisio, Rfc1394, Shizhao, Tabasco, Transparent Blue, Väsk, Xufanc, Zscout370, 35 anonymous edits
File:Flag of South Korea.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Various
File:Flag of Iran.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Iran.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: Various
File:Flag of the Republic of China.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 555, Bestalex,
Bigmorr, Denelson83, Ed veg, Gzdavidwong, Herbythyme, Isletakee, Kakoui, Kallerna, Kibinsky, Mattes, Mizunoryu, Neq00, Nickpo, Nightstallion, Odder, Pymouss, R.O.C, Reisio, Reuvenk,
Rkt2312, Rocket000, Runningfridgesrule, Samwingkit, Shizhao, Sk, Tabasco, Vzb83, Wrightbus, Zscout370, 72 anonymous edits
File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Denelson83, User:SKopp, User:Shizhao, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of Greece.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Greece.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: (of code) (talk)
File:Flag of Russia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Russia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AndriusG, Artem Karimov, Davepape, Dmitry
Strotsev, Drieskamp, Enbéká, Fred J, Gleb Borisov, Herbythyme, Homo lupus, Kiensvay, Klemen Kocjancic, Kwj2772, Mattes, Maximaximax, Miyokan, Nightstallion, Ondřej Žváček, Pianist,
Pumbaa80, Putnik, R-41, Radziun, Rainman, Reisio, Rfc1394, Rkt2312, Rocket000, Sasa Stefanovic, SeNeKa, Srtxg, Stianbh, Wikiborg, Winterheart, Zscout370, Zyido, ОйЛ, 34 anonymous
edits
File:Flag of Canada.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Canada.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:E Pluribus Anthony, User:Mzajac
File:Flag of Egypt.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Egypt.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: 16@r, Alnokta, Anime Addict AA, ArséniureDeGallium,
BomBom, Denelson83, Dinsdagskind, Duduziq, Duesentrieb, F l a n k e r, Flad, Foroa, Fry1989, Herbythyme, Homo lupus, Iamunknown, Klemen Kocjancic, Kookaburra, Ludger1961,
Lumijaguaari, Mattes, Moroboshi, Neq00, Nightstallion, OsamaK, Permjak, Reisio, Rimshot, Str4nd, ThomasPusch, Thyes, Vonvon, Wikiborg, Wikimedia is Communism, Überraschungsbilder,
27 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Indonesia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Gabbe, User:SKopp
File:Flag of Lithuania.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Lithuania.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of the Philippines.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Various
File:Flag of Croatia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Croatia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnyFile, Argo Navis, Denelson83, Denniss, Dijxtra,
Klemen Kocjancic, Kseferovic, Minestrone, Multichill, Neoneo13, Nightstallion, O, PatríciaR, Platonides, R-41, Rainman, Reisio, Rocket000, Suradnik13, Zicera, Zscout370, 5 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 1112

File:Flag of El Salvador.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anime Addict AA, Dahn, Darwinek,
Discospinster, Duduziq, F l a n k e r, Fry1989, HansenBCN, Jack Phoenix, Jarekt, Klemen Kocjancic, Kookaburra, Mattes, Neq00, Nightstallion, Ninane, Reisio, Sandcat01, ThomasPusch,
Vzb83, Wikiborg, Ysangkok, 20 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Lebanon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Lebanon.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Traced based on the CIA World Factbook with
some modification done to the colours based on information at Vexilla mundi.
File:Flag of Italy.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Italy.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: see below
File:Flag of Armenia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Armenia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Zscout370
File:Flag of Poland.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Poland.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Mareklug, User:Wanted
File:Seattle 4.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seattle_4.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Dschwen
File:Seattle seal.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seattle_seal.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Bobblehead, Cacophony, DangApricot, Gurchzilla, Malo,
Nehrams2020, ShadowDragon, Shizhao, Shyam, Skier Dude, Stan Shebs, 2 anonymous edits
File:King_County_Washington_Incorporated_and_Unincorporated_areas_Seattle_Highlighted.svg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:King_County_Washington_Incorporated_and_Unincorporated_areas_Seattle_Highlighted.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
2.5  Contributors: Arkyan
File:Usa_edcp_location map.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Usa_edcp_location_map.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Uwe
Dedering
Image:Pioneer square.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pioneer_square.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Photographer: C.F. Todd ,Sepia: ShadowDragon.
Original uploader was ShadowDragon at en.wikipedia
Image:Alaska Yukon Pacific Exposition - Rainier Vista.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alaska_Yukon_Pacific_Exposition_-_Rainier_Vista.jpg  License: Public
Domain  Contributors: Bjh21, Bobblehead, DrKiernan, Finnrind, Infrogmation, Jmabel, Kevmin, Urban
Image:SCL.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SCL.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: DVD R W
Image:Seattle Ferry.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seattle_Ferry.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jamies
Image:Seattledowntown.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seattledowntown.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Kelvin Kay
user:Kkmd. Original uploader was Kkmd at en.wikipedia
File:Space Needle 360 Panorama.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Space_Needle_360_Panorama.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: A. Hornung
Image:Seattle 07752.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seattle_07752.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Walter Siegmund
Image:Downtown Seattle 2.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Downtown_Seattle_2.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Jmabel, Marku1988
Image:Seattle-myst.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seattle-myst.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Cyverius
File:Seattle skyline seen from waterfront evening June 2010.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seattle_skyline_seen_from_waterfront_evening_June_2010.JPG
 License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:MarmadukePercy
File:Seattle panorama Pierson 1917.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seattle_panorama_Pierson_1917.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Pierson & Co
File:Seattle 8.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seattle_8.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Dschwen
File:Panorama_Kerry_Park_Seattle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Panorama_Kerry_Park_Seattle.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Westonmr
File:Seattle 3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seattle_3.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Dschwen
File:VolunteerParkNeedle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VolunteerParkNeedle.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
User:Cacophony
Image:Pike Place Market Seattle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pike_Place_Market_Seattle.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Dschwen
Image:Seattle - The Moore Theater entrance 01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seattle_-_The_Moore_Theater_entrance_01.jpg  License: GNU Free
Documentation License  Contributors: User:Jmabel
Image:Seattle Cruise Ship.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seattle_Cruise_Ship.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: mahalie
from seattle, USA
File:Lake Union Plane.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lake_Union_Plane.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Bubsty
Image:SafecoFld.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SafecoFld.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Galaksiafervojo,
KAMiKAZOW, 2 anonymous edits
File:Qwest Field Nighttime.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Qwest_Field_Nighttime.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Rattlhed at
en.wikipedia
Image:Greenlaketrail.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greenlaketrail.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Popcultureguy at
en.wikipedia
Image:Wamuseattle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wamuseattle.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jmabel, Superm401, Venske, 1 anonymous edits
File:Seattle City Hall 01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seattle_City_Hall_01.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Jmabel
Image:Suzzallo Library Graduate Reading Room.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Suzzallo_Library_Graduate_Reading_Room.jpg  License: GNU Free
Documentation License  Contributors: Jmabel, Mortadelo2005
Image:SeattleI5Skyline.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SeattleI5Skyline.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Cacophony
Image:Link Tunell Sound transit.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Link_Tunell_Sound_transit.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Fanboy
Image:Seattle Steam Company-1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seattle_Steam_Company-1.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was
Shakespeare at en.wikipedia
File:Flag of Virginia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Virginia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ABCD, Awg1010, Dzordzm, Eugenio Hansen,
OFS, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Hoshie, Juiced lemon, Kam Solusar, Kelvinc, 12 anonymous edits
File:Seal of Virginia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seal_of_Virginia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Patrickneil
File:Map of USA VA2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_of_USA_VA2.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: User:Old Guard
File:Virginia painted relief.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Virginia_painted_relief.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Patrickneil
File:Chimney Rock Mountain Overlook crop.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chimney_Rock_Mountain_Overlook_crop.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Edbrown05, User:Patrickneil
File:shenandoah deer 20050521 191017 1.3008x2000.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shenandoah_deer_20050521_191017_1.3008x2000.jpg  License: GNU Free
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File:Pocahontas Saving Life.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pocahontas_Saving_Life.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Alonzo Chappel
File:Colonial Williamsburg Governors Palace Front Dscn7232.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Colonial_Williamsburg_Governors_Palace_Front_Dscn7232.jpg
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File:Patrick Henry Rothermel.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Patrick_Henry_Rothermel.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: w:Peter F. RothermelPeter F.
Rothermel (1817–1895)
File:Richmond Civil War ruins.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Richmond_Civil_War_ruins.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: War Department. Office of
the Chief Signal Officer
File:Virginia Civil Rights Memorial wide.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Virginia_Civil_Rights_Memorial_wide.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:
Hammersoft, Patrickneil, Sfan00 IMG, Skier Dude, Stifle
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 1113

File:Norfolk Skyline.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Norfolk_Skyline.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Michael
File:Virginia population map.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Virginia_population_map.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original
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File:Virginia Ancestries by County no text.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Virginia_Ancestries_by_County_no_text.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Gpvos, User:Patrickneil
File:Christchurchalexandria.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Christchurchalexandria.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:RebelAt
File:Virginia Beach waterfront.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Virginia_Beach_waterfront.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0
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File:The Pentagon January 2008.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Pentagon_January_2008.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0
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File:Colonial Williamsburg ladies.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Colonial_Williamsburg_ladies.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0
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File:Wolf Trap (national park) meadow pavilion.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wolf_Trap_(national_park)_meadow_pavilion.jpg  License: GNU Free
Documentation License  Contributors: User:Gmaxwell
File:Chincoteague pony swim 2007.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chincoteague_pony_swim_2007.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: United States Coast
Guard, PA2 Christopher Evanson
File:USA Today building.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USA_Today_building.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Patrickneil
File:Rotunda-dusk.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rotunda-dusk.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Patrickneil, Tdvance
File:A.D. Williams Clinic and West Hospital.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A.D._Williams_Clinic_and_West_Hospital.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Taber Andrew Bain from Richmond, VA, USA
File:Virginia Railway Express train.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Virginia_Railway_Express_train.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors:
John from Southern Maryland, USA
File:Va State Capitol.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Va_State_Capitol.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Anderskev
File:Jim Webb Rally.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jim_Webb_Rally.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Daniel Farrell from Richmond,
VA, USA
File:Glennon Hands off to Ore 2007 ECU crop.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glennon_Hands_off_to_Ore_2007_ECU_crop.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Erich Geist of flickr ()
File:Virginia new sign.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Virginia_new_sign.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Aurora30
Image:DAVID LYNCH (CannesPhotocall).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DAVID_LYNCH_(CannesPhotocall).jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Nikita
File:Gheorghe Marinescu - Science films.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gheorghe_Marinescu_-_Science_films.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Gheorghe Marinescu
Image:Nanook of the north.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nanook_of_the_north.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Robert J. Flannery / Pathe Pictures
Image:VoicesOfIraq.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VoicesOfIraq.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Dream out loud, Fizbit, Mkunert
Image:Leavessnipedale.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leavessnipedale.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: HuBoro, The cat
File:Eenbruinigherfstblad.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eenbruinigherfstblad.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Ischa1
File:Bifacial leaf cross section.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bifacial_leaf_cross_section.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Mnolf
Image:Leaf anatomy.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leaf_anatomy.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: w:User:DynaBlastH
McKenna
File:Leaf epidermis 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leaf_epidermis_2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Mnolf
Image:Leaf epidermis w scale.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leaf_epidermis_w_scale.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Laitr Keiows
File:Leaf palisade mesophyll.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leaf_palisade_mesophyll.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Mnolf
File:Leaf spongy mesophyll.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leaf_spongy_mesophyll.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Mnolf
Image:Vein sceleton hydrangea ies.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vein_sceleton_hydrangea_ies.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Lưu Ly
File:Citrus leaf(crop).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Citrus_leaf(crop).jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Laitr Keiows,
User:ZooFari
Image:Fichtennadel (crop).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fichtennadel_(crop).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Laitr Keiows
Image:Leaves opposite.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leaves_opposite.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Ies, Severino666, Yonatanh
Image:Leaf 1 web.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leaf_1_web.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ies, Ranveig, Red devil 666, Rocket000, WeFt,
Überraschungsbilder
Image:Rabarber stelen.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rabarber_stelen.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Ies, Maksim, Quadell,
Rasbak
File:Taro leaf underside, backlit by sun.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taro_leaf_underside,_backlit_by_sun.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Avenue
File:Tilia x cordata flower veination.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tilia_x_cordata_flower_veination.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Rosser1954
File:Tilia x cordata leaf underside.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tilia_x_cordata_leaf_underside.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Rosser1954
Image:Palmate.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Palmate.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Circeus, Maksim
File:Leaf morphology.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leaf_morphology.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:McSush
Image:Celery Leaf.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Celery_Leaf.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:ZooFari
Image:Leaves-scan.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leaves-scan.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Amada44, Ies, Maksim, Michau Sm
Image:Norfolk Pine 1758c.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Norfolk_Pine_1758c.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Rs3
Image:Tulip Leaves AWL.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tulip_Leaves_AWL.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Drewboy64
Image:Starr 040723-0032 Verbascum thapsus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Starr_040723-0032_Verbascum_thapsus.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution
3.0  Contributors: Forest & Kim Starr
Image:Coleus leaf trichomes SEM.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coleus_leaf_trichomes_SEM.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dartmouth Electron
Microscope Facility, Dartmouth College
Image:Inflorescence 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Inflorescence_1.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Nvineeth
File:Kallima inachus2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kallima_inachus2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Noumenon
File:Autumn girl.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Autumn_girl.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Tom O Fitz
Image:H2g2book.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:H2g2book.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Mavarin
Image:Tumnusficbooks.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tumnusficbooks.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Mavarin
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 1114

Image:P literature.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:P_literature.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Booyabazooka, Pegship, Rocket000,
Sfan00 IMG, The Illusional Ministry
File:2009 new novels in a Berlin bookshop.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2009_new_novels_in_a_Berlin_bookshop.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution
3.0  Contributors: User:Olaf Simons
File:Gerard ter Borch d. J. 008.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gerard_ter_Borch_d._J._008.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Concord, EDUCA33E,
Kresspahl, Mattes
File:Madame de Pompadour.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Madame_de_Pompadour.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Cybershot800i,
Diligent, EDUCA33E, Fanfwah, Goldfritha, Jean-Frédéric, Kilom691, Mattes, Salignac, TFCforever, Thorvaldsson, Torvindus, Zolo, 3 anonymous edits
File:1877-winslow-homer-the-new-novel.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1877-winslow-homer-the-new-novel.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
AndreasPraefcke, Jean-Frédéric, Olaf Simons, OsamaK, Shakko, TFCforever
File:2009 urban-commuter reading a novel.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2009_urban-commuter_reading_a_novel.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution
3.0  Contributors: User:Olaf Simons
File:Snoopy-7-12-65.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Snoopy-7-12-65.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Charles M. Schulz
File:Tosa Mitsuoki 001.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tosa_Mitsuoki_001.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Tosa Mitsuoki
File:Chaucer Troilus frontispiece.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chaucer_Troilus_frontispiece.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Peter cohen
File:Canterbury Tales.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canterbury_Tales.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Deadstar, Jed, Wolfmann, Xenophon
File:1474 Melusine Ausgabe Augsburg Johann Bämler Blatt 2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1474_Melusine_Ausgabe_Augsburg_Johann_Bämler_Blatt_2.png
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File:Honour of Chivalry c1715.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Honour_of_Chivalry_c1715.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bogdangiusca, Olaf Simons
File:François Rabelais, Gargantua, Lyon, Denis de Harsy, 1537.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:François_Rabelais,_Gargantua,_Lyon,_Denis_de_Harsy,_1537.jpg
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File:Amadis-spanish-1533.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Amadis-spanish-1533.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Olaf Simons at
de.wikipedia
File:ScuderyArtamene.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ScuderyArtamene.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Madeleine de Scudéry
File:Richard Head 1666.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Richard_Head_1666.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Olaf Simons
File:1613 cervantes novelas exemplares.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1613_cervantes_novelas_exemplares.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Miguel de
Cervantes
File:Congreve Incognita (1692).png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Congreve_Incognita_(1692).png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Olaf
Simons at en.wikipedia
File:1719-heathcot-robinson-crusoe.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1719-heathcot-robinson-crusoe.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Daniel Defoe
File:Fenelon Telemachus-1715 DeFoe Crusoe 1719.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fenelon_Telemachus-1715_DeFoe_Crusoe_1719.jpg  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: User:Olaf Simons
File:ESTC-Title-count-1600-1800.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ESTC-Title-count-1600-1800.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors:
User:Olaf Simons
File:1700 London's Book Market according to Term Catalogues.png  Source:
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User:Olaf Simons
File:1600-1799-estc-fiction.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1600-1799-estc-fiction.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Olaf Simons
File:1711 The Court and City Vagaries.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1711_The_Court_and_City_Vagaries.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown
File:1715 Constantin de Renneville imprisoned.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1715_Constantin_de_Renneville_imprisoned.jpg  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: Constantin de Renneville
File:Romances-novels-1600-1799.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Romances-novels-1600-1799.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors:
User:Olaf Simons
File:Select Collection Novels 1722.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Select_Collection_Novels_1722.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Man vyi, Olaf
Simons, Urumi
File:Richardson pamela 1741.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Richardson_pamela_1741.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Olaf Simons, Ottava Rima,
PDH, 1 anonymous edits
File:Werther.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Werther.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Aristeas, Maksim, W!B:
File:1766 John Cleland Fanny Hill v1 p50.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1766_John_Cleland_Fanny_Hill_v1_p50.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
John Cleland
File:1769 Laurence Sterne Tristram Shandy v6 p70.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1769_Laurence_Sterne_Tristram_Shandy_v6_p70.jpg  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: Laurence Sterne
File:Gill-Dickens.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gill-Dickens.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Cecil, DostoHouskij, Infrogmation, Olaf Simons
File:Charles Dickens, public reading, 1867.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charles_Dickens,_public_reading,_1867.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Charles A. Barry
File:Zola sortie.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zola_sortie.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Henry de Groux
File:Oscarwildetrial.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oscarwildetrial.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: unknown
File:Juliette Sade Dutch.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Juliette_Sade_Dutch.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: AxelBoldt, Ferbr1, Fg68at, G.dallorto, Kilom691,
Poisend-Ivy, TX55, TwoWings, Ustas, 1 anonymous edits
File:UncleTomsCabinCover.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:UncleTomsCabinCover.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Hammatt Billings
File:T25-011.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T25-011.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alex Bakharev, AndreasPraefcke, Tobo71de
File:20000 Nautilus engines.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:20000_Nautilus_engines.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, Dub, Man vyi, Rama, Red
devil 666, Sevela.p
File:Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre 1795.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wilhelm_Meisters_Lehrjahre_1795.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
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File:MS A la recherche du temps perdu.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MS_A_la_recherche_du_temps_perdu.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original
upload: en.wikipedia 21:16, 4 October 2004 . . Solipsist
File:1933-may-10-berlin-book-burning.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1933-may-10-berlin-book-burning.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: User Dyss on
en.wikipedia
File:Salman Rushdie, Satanic Verses -1988- illegal Iranian edition.JPG  Source:
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Simons
File:Nobel2008Literature news conference1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nobel2008Literature_news_conference1.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors:
User:Prolineserver
File:Literary Communication.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Literary_Communication.gif  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Olaf Simons
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 1115

File:2001 Numbers of Titles published in the UK.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2001_Numbers_of_Titles_published_in_the_UK.png  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: User:Olaf Simons
File:2008 UK Book Sales Volume.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2008_UK_Book_Sales_Volume.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Cflm001
File:ulyssesCover.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:UlyssesCover.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Darwinek, Fallout boy, Lupo, Telso
File:VirginiaWoolf.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VirginiaWoolf.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: George Charles Beresford (1864-1938)
File:Evstafiev-solzhenitsyn.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Evstafiev-solzhenitsyn.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
User:Evstafiev
File:JoyceCarolOates.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JoyceCarolOates.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Blackcat, Isthmus
File:Doris lessing 20060312.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Doris_lessing_20060312.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
User:Elya
File:Chinua Achebe - Buffalo 25Sep2008.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinua_Achebe_-_Buffalo_25Sep2008.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
 Contributors: Stuart C. Shapiro
File:2008.06.09. Michel Houellebecq Fot Mariusz Kubik 11.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2008.06.09._Michel_Houellebecq_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_11.JPG
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File:Elfriede jelinek 2004 small.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Elfriede_jelinek_2004_small.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: Original uploader was Ghuengsberg at en.wikipedia
File:Paul Auster, Salman Rushdie and Shimon Peres.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Paul_Auster,_Salman_Rushdie_and_Shimon_Peres.jpg  License: Creative
Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: David Shankbone
File:Oe kenzaburo japaninstitut koeln 041108.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oe_kenzaburo_japaninstitut_koeln_041108.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Hpschaefer
File:Henning Mankell lecturing at Parkteateret.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Henning_Mankell_lecturing_at_Parkteateret.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Jeblad
File:2009 Bestseller im Supermarktregal.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2009_Bestseller_im_Supermarktregal.JPG  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Olaf Simons
File:2009 Deutschsprachige Trivialliteratur im Zeitungsgeschaeft.JPG  Source:
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User:Olaf Simons
File:Dan Brown - bookjacket.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dan_Brown_-_bookjacket.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
Photographer Philip Scalia
Image:Punch.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Punch.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Fastfission, Fennec, Infrogmation, Plugwash, Sertion, Wolfmann, 1
anonymous edits
Image:Stephen Colbert by David Shankbone.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stephen_Colbert_by_David_Shankbone.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation
License  Contributors: David Shankbone (attribution required)
Image:Paul Gustave Doré (1832-1883) - Baron von Münchhausen (1862) - 009.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Paul_Gustave_Doré_(1832-1883)_-_Baron_von_Münchhausen_(1862)_-_009.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Aiko, Goldfritha, Suhadi
Sadono, Thebrid, 1 anonymous edits
Image:PD-icon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PD-icon.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Duesentrieb, User:Rfl
File:Long cane.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Long_cane.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Sarah Chester
File:Caoguia2006.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Caoguia2006.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Antonio Cruz/Abr
Image:Long cane folded.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Long_cane_folded.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Sarah Chester
Image:Watch for the blind2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Watch_for_the_blind2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: user:F16
Image:Banknote feature.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Banknote_feature.JPG  License: Attribution  Contributors: user:Sprocket
File:Velazquez Niewidoma.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Velazquez_Niewidoma.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: BurgererSF
File:Panic_attack.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Panic_attack.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: FrozenMan
Image:The Rake's Progress 8.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Rake's_Progress_8.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: 84user, Awadewit, Dante Alighieri,
Mattes, NotFromUtrecht, Olivier2, Wst, 2 anonymous edits
File:Murder per capita by country.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Murder_per_capita_by_country.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Urban
File:Color icon blue v2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Color_icon_blue_v2.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Booyabazooka, Indolences, Penubag,
Badseed, FedericoMP, Jacobolus
Image:Gtk-dialog-info.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gtk-dialog-info.svg  License: GNU Lesser General Public License  Contributors: David Vignoni
File:Bunch of blueberries, one unripe.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bunch_of_blueberries,_one_unripe.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
2.0  Contributors: Scott Schopieray
File:Lactarius indigo 48568.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lactarius_indigo_48568.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Dan
Molter
File:Blue Turkish Tiles.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blue_Turkish_Tiles.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Khalid
Mahmood
File:Chiemsee010.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chiemsee010.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: waterborough
File:Dendrobates azureus (Dendrobates tinctorius) Edit.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dendrobates_azureus_(Dendrobates_tinctorius)_Edit.jpg  License: Creative
Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Michael Gäbler
File:Cyanocitta cristata blue jay.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cyanocitta_cristata_blue_jay.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Rob
Hanson from Welland, Ontario, Canada
File:Coat of arms of Israel.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coat_of_arms_of_Israel.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: , based on national symbol.
File:Western Wall - by Jacob Rask.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Western_Wall_-_by_Jacob_Rask.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors:
FlickrLickr, FlickreviewR, Talmoryair
Image:Color icon red v2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Color_icon_red_v2.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mizunoryu, Badseed, Jacobolus
Image:Remebrance poppy ww2 section of Aust war memorial.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Remebrance_poppy_ww2_section_of_Aust_war_memorial.jpg
 License: unknown  Contributors: Fir0002, Foroa, Man vyi, TeunSpaans, Una Smith
File:Mars atmosphere.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mars_atmosphere.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Alkuin at de.wikipedia
Image:Agarplate redbloodcells edit.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Agarplate_redbloodcells_edit.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Fir0002
Image:Stop sign MUTCD.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stop_sign_MUTCD.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Adambro, Bryan, Da Man2, Editor at
Large, Fabartus, Fred J, Herbythyme, Infrogmation, Kazuya360, Lensovet, Ltljltlj, MagicImage, O, Patstuart, Rappingwonders2, Rfc1394, Rocket000, SPUI, Siebrand, Thisisbossi, Yung6, ŠJů,
52 anonymous edits
Image:Sunset with funnel clouds.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sunset_with_funnel_clouds.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Fir0002, Mbz1, Semnoz, Shinka,
1 anonymous edits
Image:RS Redz.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RS_Redz.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Sam Smith
Image:Flag of the Soviet Union.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: A1, Alex Smotrov, Alvis
Jean, BagnoHax, Denniss, EugeneZelenko, F l a n k e r, Fred J, G.dallorto, Garynysmon, Herbythyme, Homo lupus, Jake Wartenberg, MaggotMaster, Ms2ger, Nightstallion, Pianist, R-41,
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 1116

Rainforest tropicana, Sebyugez, Solbris, Storkk, Str4nd, Tabasco, ThomasPusch, Toben, Zscout370, Серп, 55 anonymous edits
Image:Red apple.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_apple.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Joonasl, MPF
Image:Color icon purple v2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Color_icon_purple_v2.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mizunoryu, Badseed, Jacobolus
File:Purple plasma ball.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Purple_plasma_ball.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: daz smith
from Bath, UK
File:Murex sp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Murex_sp.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.1  Contributors: User:Luis_Fernández_García
File:CIExy1931.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CIExy1931.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:PAR
File:Justinian.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Justinian.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Adam Bishop at en.wikipedia
File:Scrocuses2A.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Scrocuses2A.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Storye book
File:Labiata.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Labiata.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: PicTrans, Quadell
File:Heliotropium arborescens1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Heliotropium_arborescens1.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
Nilfanion
File:Purple Pansy.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Purple_Pansy.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Schoinard at en.wikipedia
File:Leon Arms.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leon_Arms.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: user:Ipankonin
Image:Color icon gray v2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Color_icon_gray_v2.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mizunoryu, Badseed, Jacobolus
Image:grays.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Grays.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Knulclunk, vectorized by
Image:Ammonitenmauer Laibaroes.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ammonitenmauer_Laibaroes.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Immanuel Giel
Image:Powerlines Over Fields Erzhausen.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Powerlines_Over_Fields_Erzhausen.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Ingolfson
Image:Caslon-schriftmusterblatt.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Caslon-schriftmusterblatt.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: William Caslon
Image:Oscar wilde english renaissance of art 2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oscar_wilde_english_renaissance_of_art_2.png  License: GNU Free Documentation
License  Contributors: Angr, James Arboghast
Image:Latex example type.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Latex_example_type.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Porge,
User:Porge/Esperanza
Image:John Wilkes Booth wanted poster new.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_Wilkes_Booth_wanted_poster_new.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Childzy, Finnrind, Frank C. Müller, Jappalang, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Xhienne
Image:EncycBrit1913.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EncycBrit1913.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:James Arboghast
File:Caslon-schriftmusterblatt.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Caslon-schriftmusterblatt.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: William Caslon
Image:Serif and sans-serif 01.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Serif_and_sans-serif_01.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Stannered
Image:Serif and sans-serif 02.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Serif_and_sans-serif_02.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Stannered
Image:Serif and sans-serif 03.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Serif_and_sans-serif_03.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Stannered
Image:Proportional-vs-monospace-v4.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Proportional-vs-monospace-v4.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors:
User:Garethlwalt
Image:Typography Line Terms.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Typography_Line_Terms.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Max Naylor
Image:Font types.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Font_types.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: BANZ111, Lovelac7
File:Baskerville sample.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Baskerville_sample.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Rivertorch
Image:Faux Hebrew.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Faux_Hebrew.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ChristTrekker
File:Blank page intentionally end of book.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blank_page_intentionally_end_of_book.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Roke, Whym, 1 anonymous edits
Image:DSC 4050-MR-Braille.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DSC_4050-MR-Braille.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: Christophe.moustier, Editor at Large,
Matilda, Para, Suruena, Walter, 3 anonymous edits
Image:Braille A1.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_A1.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille B2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_B2.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille C3.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_C3.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille D4.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_D4.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille E5.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_E5.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille F6.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_F6.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille G7.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_G7.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille H8.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_H8.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille I9.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_I9.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille J0.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_J0.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille K.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_K.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille L.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_L.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille M.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_M.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille N.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_N.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille O.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_O.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille P.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_P.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille Q.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_Q.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille R.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_R.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille S.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_S.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille T.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_T.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille U.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_U.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille V.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_V.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille W.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_W.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille X.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_X.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille Y.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_Y.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille Z.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_Z.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille CapitalSign.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_CapitalSign.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille NumberSign.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_NumberSign.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille Apostrophe.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_Apostrophe.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille Period.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_Period.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille Comma.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_Comma.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 1117

Image:Braille Semicolon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_Semicolon.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille ExclamationPoint.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_ExclamationPoint.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247,
User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille QuoteOpen.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_QuoteOpen.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille QuoteClose.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_QuoteClose.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille Bracket.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_Bracket.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille Hyphen.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_Hyphen.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille AND.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_AND.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247/braille.pl, User:Dmazzoni
Image:Braille_Â.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_Â.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille SH.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_SH.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247/braille.pl, User:Dmazzoni
Image:Braille ST.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_ST.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247/braille.pl, User:Dmazzoni
Image:Braille_Ô.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_Ô.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3247, User:3247/braille.pl
Image:Braille Writer.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_Writer.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Gveret Tered, Korrigan, MASA,
Warden
Image:Braille on tablet box.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_on_tablet_box.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
User:Trounce
Image:Braille book.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_book.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Karl-Heinz
Wellmann
File:Rapperswil - Duftrosengarten 20080222 005.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rapperswil_-_Duftrosengarten_20080222_005.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Roland zh
File:Courier.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Courier.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Inductiveload
File:TimesRomanSp.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TimesRomanSp.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Rbpolsen
Image:GeorgiatTmes.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GeorgiatTmes.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was GearedBull at en.wikipedia
image:Pelham Infant.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pelham_Infant.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: DTP Types
File:BookmanSpec.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BookmanSpec.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Pablohoney77
File:Beethoven.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beethoven.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: ADGE, Butko, Codeispoetry, Herbythyme, Hotshot977, Howcheng,
Ies, Interpretix, Jappalang, Johney, Jusjih, Mattes, Pixel ;-), Thuresson, 3 anonymous edits
File:Beethoven Signature.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beethoven_Signature.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ludwig van Beethoven
Image:Universität Bonn.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Universität_Bonn.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Der Wolf
im Wald
Image:Beethoven house of birth Bonn 2008.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beethoven_house_of_birth_Bonn_2008.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Sir James
Image:Thirteen-year-old Beethoven.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thirteen-year-old_Beethoven.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: User:RobertG
File:Beethoven Riedel 1801.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beethoven_Riedel_1801.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Riedel, Carl Traugott (1769 - 1832)
Image:Beethoven Hornemann.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beethoven_Hornemann.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Christian Hornemann
Image:Beethoven 3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beethoven_3.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jusjih, Michael Bednarek, Phrood, QwertyUSA,
Yonatanh
Image:Beethoven Mähler 1815.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beethoven_Mähler_1815.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jusjih, Kokin, Opponent,
Андрей Романенко
Image:Rudolf-habsburg-olmuetz.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rudolf-habsburg-olmuetz.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Anathema, Ecummenic, OsamaK,
Polarlys, Skim, Snek01
File:Beethoven monument bonn muensterplatz 2008.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beethoven_monument_bonn_muensterplatz_2008.jpg  License: Creative
Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Sir James
Image:Masque de Beethoven.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Masque_de_Beethoven.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Perky
Image:Beethoven Letronne.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beethoven_Letronne.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Louis Letronne
Image:Beethoven 7.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beethoven_7.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Davepape, Johney, Jusjih, Phrood
Image:Beethoven Waldmuller 1823.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beethoven_Waldmuller_1823.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jusjih, Kokin, Mattes,
Michael Bednarek, PKM
Image:Beethovendeathmask.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beethovendeathmask.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Daniel Hass
Image:Zentralfriedhof Vienna - Beethoven.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zentralfriedhof_Vienna_-_Beethoven.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: Banana patrol, Eknuf, G.dallorto, Gaodifan
Image:Beethoven bust statue by Hagen.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beethoven_bust_statue_by_Hagen.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: W.J. Baker
(held the expired copyright on the photograph)
file:Jorge Luis Borges 1951, by Grete Stern.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jorge_Luis_Borges_1951,_by_Grete_Stern.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Grete Stern (1904-1999)
Image:JorgeLuisBorges.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JorgeLuisBorges.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknow. uploader Claudio Elias
File:Borges 001.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Borges_001.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknow
Image:Buenos Aires L1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Buenos_Aires_L1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: w:en:User:JavitomadJavitomad
File:Jorge Luis Borges Hotel.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jorge_Luis_Borges_Hotel.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ALE!, Andreagrossmann,
Claudio Elias, Sking, Str4nd, 13 anonymous edits
Image:Moneda 2 pesos-Argentina-Borges-1999.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moneda_2_pesos-Argentina-Borges-1999.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Barcex, FlickreviewR, Movses
File:Kenburns.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kenburns.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: dbking
Image:Ann_Danielewski.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ann_Danielewski.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Kent Hagan
Pox Rox Original uploader was Poxrox at en.wikipedia
File:Derrida main.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Derrida_main.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Gregbard, Grunge6910, J Milburn
File:Federico Fellini NYWTS 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Federico_Fellini_NYWTS_2.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Walter Albertin, World Telegram
staff photographer
Image:Fellini plaque, Via Veneto.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fellini_plaque,_Via_Veneto.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Peter Clarke
file:Hofstadter2002.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hofstadter2002.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Maurizio Codogno,
Image:Homer British Museum.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Homer_British_Museum.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: DenghiùComm, G.dallorto,
Jastrow, Kalki, Man vyi, Xenophon, Yonidebest, 4 anonymous edits
File:William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1825-1905) - Homer and his Guide (1874).jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:William-Adolphe_Bouguereau_(1825-1905)_-_Homer_and_his_Guide_(1874).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Bibi
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 1118

Saint-Pol, Ecummenic, Eugenio Hansen, OFS, MU, Olivier2, Ossopyvn, Ranveig, Saperaud, Thebrid, 1 anonymous edits
File:Homer Statue Munich.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Homer_Statue_Munich.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
JW1805
File:Homeric Greece.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Homeric_Greece.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Pinpin
File:Apotheosis Homer BM 2191.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Apotheosis_Homer_BM_2191.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Jastrow
file:Stephen King, Comicon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stephen_King,_Comicon.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: "Pinguino"
file:Stephen King Signature.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stephen_King_Signature.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Connormah
File:StephenKingGFDL.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:StephenKingGFDL.PNG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: bunkosquad /
Michael Femia
Image:Stephenking house.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stephenking_house.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Julia Ess
File:KubrickForLook.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KubrickForLook.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Stanley Kubrick
File:Stanley Kubrick 1949 with Rosemary Williams a showgirl.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stanley_Kubrick_1949_with_Rosemary_Williams_a_showgirl.jpg
 License: unknown  Contributors: Stanley Kubrick
File:KillingShots.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KillingShots.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Hammersoft, WickerGuy
File:Pathsofglory3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pathsofglory3.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: WickerGuy
File:Spartacus-douglas-kubrick.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spartacus-douglas-kubrick.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Wisconsin Center for Film and
Theater Research
File:KubrickLolita.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KubrickLolita.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: WickerGuy
File:3SellersRoles.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:3SellersRoles.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: AdamSmithee, Ian Dunster, Luigibob, Plumber, WickerGuy
File:2001Montage3rd.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2001Montage3rd.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Hammersoft, Killiondude, Klow, WickerGuy
File:ActKubrickClockwork.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ActKubrickClockwork.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Hammersoft, WickerGuy
File:Barry12.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Barry12.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: Johnbod, Lee M, Luigibob, MachoCarioca
File:SteadicamDanny.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SteadicamDanny.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: WickerGuy
File:JacketBleakUrbanWar.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JacketBleakUrbanWar.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: WickerGuy, 1 anonymous edits
File:KidmanCruiseEyesWideShut.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KidmanCruiseEyesWideShut.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Hammersoft, WickerGuy
File:KubrickWalls.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KubrickWalls.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: WickerGuy
File:KubrickStare.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KubrickStare.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Klow, WickerGuy
File:CRM114Kubrick.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CRM114Kubrick.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Klow, WickerGuy
File:20050613-007-childwickbury.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:20050613-007-childwickbury.jpg  License: Creative Commons Zero  Contributors: User:Ghouston
file:Pagliaphoto.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pagliaphoto.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Blackcat, Chico, Fran Rogers, G.dallorto,
Grenavitar, Outsider80, Piechjo, Uncia
Image:Paglia 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Paglia_1.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Tom Joudrey
file:Milorad Pavic.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Milorad_Pavic.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Original uploader was Djordjes at
sr.wikipedia Later version(s) were uploaded by Jefe at sr.wikipedia.
file:Edgar Allan Poe 2 retouched and transparent bg.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Edgar_Allan_Poe_2_retouched_and_transparent_bg.png  License: Public
Domain  Contributors: User:Beao
file:Edgar Allan Poe Signature.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Edgar_Allan_Poe_Signature.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Connormah
File:Edgar Allan Poe Birthplace Boston.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Edgar_Allan_Poe_Birthplace_Boston.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Alansohn, DMacks, Jpeeling, Midnightdreary, Swampyank, 6 anonymous edits
File:FtIndependence2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FtIndependence2.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Midnightdreary
File:VirginiaPoe.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VirginiaPoe.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Midnightdreary at en.wikipedia
File:P1020279.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:P1020279.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Zoirusha at en.wikipedia
File:EdgarAllanPoeGrave.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EdgarAllanPoeGrave.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
File:Edgar Allan Poe portrait B.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Edgar_Allan_Poe_portrait_B.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Oscar Halling
File:Raven Manet D2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Raven_Manet_D2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Durova, Kozuch, Shakko
File:Edgar Allan Poe-circa1849.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Edgar_Allan_Poe-circa1849.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown
File:PoeNHS.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PoeNHS.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Midnightdreary
File:Anthony Quinn 1988 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anthony_Quinn_1988_2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Alan Light
File:Anthony Quinn c1970s.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anthony_Quinn_c1970s.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Florida Memory
Image:Anthony quinn black swan 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anthony_quinn_black_swan_1.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Trailer screenshot
Image:Anthony Quinn in Blood and Sand trailer.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anthony_Quinn_in_Blood_and_Sand_trailer.jpg  License: unknown
 Contributors: Trailer screenshot
Image:Viva Zapata movie trailer screenshot (26).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Viva_Zapata_movie_trailer_screenshot_(26).jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:
Gustav VH, Petrusbarbygere, Red devil 666
Image:Anthony Quinn 1988.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anthony_Quinn_1988.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Photo by Alan
Light
Image:AnthonyQuinnFootPrint.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AnthonyQuinnFootPrint.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:3scandal0
file:Anne Rice.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anne_Rice.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anne Rice
file:Hunter S. Thompson, 1988.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hunter_S._Thompson,_1988.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:MDCarchives
File:Duke and gonzo.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Duke_and_gonzo.png  License: unknown  Contributors: VolatileChemical
File:Thecurseoflonocover.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thecurseoflonocover.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Hunter S. Thompson
File:New-Map-Francophone World.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:New-Map-Francophone_World.PNG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Aaker,
Bestofmed, Bosonic dressing, Gutenberg1, Hypersite, J.delanoy, Jimmy, Wikinv, 26 anonymous edits
Image:Flag of La Francophonie.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_La_Francophonie.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Denelson83
File:Brussels signs.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brussels_signs.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Ejk81 at en.wikipedia
File:Knowledge French EU map.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Knowledge_French_EU_map.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Aaker, JLogan, Petri
Krohn, SammyV, Serg!o, Stannered, Wikinv, 6 anonymous edits
File:Arret.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Arret.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Kaihsu Tai
File:French in the United States.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:French_in_the_United_States.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Angr
File:Yoff-Tonghor.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yoff-Tonghor.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ji-Elle
File:Francophone Africa.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Francophone_Africa.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
User:CrazyPhunk
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 1119

File:1000 Lebanese pound reverse.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1000_Lebanese_pound_reverse.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: http://www.banknotes.it/Ricerca_03.asp?ID=806&Side=r
File:Flag of Europe.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Europe.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:-xfi-, User:Dbenbenn, User:Funakoshi,
User:Jeltz, User:Nightstallion, User:Paddu, User:Verdy p, User:Zscout370
File:Flag of Austria.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Austria.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of Belgium (civil).svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Belgium_(civil).svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bean49, David Descamps,
Dbenbenn, Denelson83, Fry1989, Howcome, Ms2ger, Nightstallion, Oreo Priest, Rocket000, Sir Iain, ThomasPusch, Warddr, Zscout370, 3 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Liechtenstein.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Liechtenstein.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Denelson83, Duduziq, F l a n k e r,
Fry1989, Himasaram, Homo lupus, IJA, Klemen Kocjancic, Krun, Madden, Mattes, Mevsfotw, Mnmazur, Nightstallion, Reisio, Umaluagr, WikipediaMaster, Zscout370, 7 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Luxembourg.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of Switzerland.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Switzerland.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:-xfi-, User:Marc Mongenet,
User:Zscout370
File:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: special commission (of
code): SVG version by cs:-xfi-. Colors according to Appendix No. 3 of czech legal Act 3/1993. cs:Zirland.
File:Flag of Hungary.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Hungary.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of Namibia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Namibia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Vzb83
File:Flag of Romania.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Romania.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AdiJapan
File:Flag of Slovakia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Slovakia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of the Vatican City.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Vatican_City.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: user:F l a n k e r
File:Map German World.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_German_World.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Ilario
File:NamibiaDeutscheSprache.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NamibiaDeutscheSprache.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:BlueMars
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 137-005795, Deutsche Zeitungen in Nordamerika.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_137-005795,_Deutsche_Zeitungen_in_Nordamerika.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Mayer
File:AlthochdeutscheSprachräume962 Box.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AlthochdeutscheSprachräume962_Box.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: User:El bes
File:Austria Hungary ethnic.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Austria_Hungary_ethnic.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Andrei nacu
File:Historical German linguistical area.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Historical_German_linguistical_area.PNG  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Original uploader was Rex Germanus at en.wikipedia
File:German standard varieties.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:German_standard_varieties.png  License: Attribution  Contributors: User:Zoris Trömm
File:Knowledge of German EU map.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Knowledge_of_German_EU_map.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:HernauMan, User:NuclearVacuum, user:Alphathon
File:German foreign language EU.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:German_foreign_language_EU.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Aaker
File:German dialectal map.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:German_dialectal_map.PNG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Rex Germanus
File:Continental West Germanic languages.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Continental_West_Germanic_languages.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Rex Germanus
Image:wikisource-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: Nicholas Moreau
File:Flag of San Marino.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_San_Marino.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: B1mbo, Dbenbenn, Denelson83, Duduziq,
Dzordzm, Florival fr, Fry1989, Gabbe, Herbythyme, Homo lupus, Keepscases, Klemen Kocjancic, Lokal Profil, Mattes, MichaelMaggs, Nameless, Neq00, Nightstallion, Pumbaa80, Samah10,
Vonvon, Vzb83, 5 anonymous edits
File:Flag of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta.svg  License: unknown
 Contributors: Zscout370
File:Flag of Slovenia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Slovenia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp, User:Vzb83, User:Zscout370
File:Knowledge Italian Europe map.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Knowledge_Italian_Europe_map.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: Hidra92
File:Map Italophone World - updated.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_Italophone_World_-_updated.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: Fsolda, Sinigagl, 4 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Albania.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Albania.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anime Addict AA, Consta, David Kernow,
Dbenbenn, Denelson83, Esc, Frumpy, Fry1989, Happenstance, Homo lupus, Klemen Kocjancic, Mnmazur, Neq00, Nightstallion, Nikola Smolenski, Radu Gherasim, Ratatosk, Reisio, Sgt bilko,
Sir Iain, Slomox, ThomasPusch, TigerTjäder, Torstein, Zscout370, 2 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Malta.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Malta.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Fry1989, Gabbe, Homo lupus, Klemen Kocjancic,
Liftarn, Mattes, Nightstallion, Peeperman, Pumbaa80, Ratatosk, Zscout370, 2 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Monaco.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Monaco.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of Montenegro.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Montenegro.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:B1mbo, User:Froztbyte
File:Flag of Eritrea.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Eritrea.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Homo lupus, Klemen Kocjancic, Mattes,
Moipaulochon, Neq00, Nightstallion, Ninane, Ratatosk, ThomasPusch, Vzb83, WikipediaMaster, 2 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Somalia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Somalia.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: Anakin101, Anime Addict AA, Anonymous101, Flad,
Fry1989, Gdgourou, Homo lupus, JLogan, Klemen Kocjancic, Mattes, Permjak, SKopp, ThomasPusch, Tvdm, Ultratomio, Vzb83, ‫دمحا‬.‫ةيطع‬1, 11 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Libya.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Libya.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 16@r, Anime Addict AA, Avala, Bapho,
EugeneZelenko, Flad, Fred J, Homo lupus, J.delanoy, JR98664, Klemen Kocjancic, MaggotMaster, Mattes, Nematavka, Neq00, Olavfin, Paradoctor, Reisio, Rocket000, Simetrical, Str4nd,
Superm401, Udonknome, Vzb83, Wutsje, X!, Zscout370, 14 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Tunisia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Tunisia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnonMoos, Avala, Bender235, Duduziq, Elina2308,
Emmanuel.boutet, Flad, Fry1989, Gabbe, Juiced lemon, Klemen Kocjancic, Mattes, Meno25, Myself488, Neq00, Nightstallion, Reisio, Str4nd, 6 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Austria-Hungary 1869-1918.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_1869-1918.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:B1mbo
File:Flag of Argentina.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Argentina.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Dbenbenn
File:Flag of Uruguay.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Uruguay.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Fry1989, Homo lupus, Huhsunqu, Kineto007,
Klemen Kocjancic, Kookaburra, Lorakesz, Mattes, Neq00, Nightstallion, Pumbaa80, Reisio, ThomasPusch, Zscout370, 6 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Venezuela.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Venezuela.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bastique, Denelson83, George McFinnigan,
Herbythyme, Homo lupus, Huhsunqu, Infrogmation, Klemen Kocjancic, Ludger1961, Neq00, Nightstallion, Reisio, ThomasPusch, Vzb83, Wikisole, Zscout370, 11 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Australia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Australia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ian Fieggen
File:Languages spoken in Italy.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Languages_spoken_in_Italy.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Wento
File:Rome Colosseum inscription 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rome_Colosseum_inscription_2.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Wknight94
File:Coat of arms of the Vatican.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Vatican.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Escondites
File:Roman Empire map.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Roman_Empire_map.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Ssolbergj
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 1120

Image:Latin dictionary.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Latin_dictionary.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Dr. Marcus Gossler
Image:Calligraphy.malmesbury.bible.arp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Calligraphy.malmesbury.bible.arp.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alatius,
AnRo0002, AndreasPraefcke, Arpingstone, Berteun, Liftarn, Man vyi, Yarl, 3 anonymous edits
Image:Duenos inscription.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Duenos_inscription.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: G.dallorto, Jonathan Groß, Man vyi, Mirv,
TcfkaPanairjdde
Image:Hocgracili.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hocgracili.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Alatius at en.wikipedia
Image:Wallsend platfom 2 02.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wallsend_platfom_2_02.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: INVERTED, Jed, Man vyi, Ranveig,
Thryduulf, Timeshifter, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Beowulf cropped.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beowulf_cropped.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Hayden120
Image:Old norse, ca 900.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Old_norse,_ca_900.PNG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Dbachmann
File:Beowulf.firstpage.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beowulf.firstpage.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Caravaca, Davepape, EugeneZelenko, Evrik,
Jastrow, Jonathunder, Leos vän, Neddyseagoon, Ranveig, Semnoz, Verica Atrebatum, 3 anonymous edits
File:Anglosaxonrunes.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anglosaxonrunes.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Rursus
File:Map-Hispanophone World.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map-Hispanophone_World.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Aaker, Aeusoes1,
Al-Andalus, Angr, AtilimGunesBaydin, Backpackers, Christopher Sundita, David Kernow, Docu, Dúnadan, Hairy Dude, Huhsunqu, Interlingua, Javier Carro, Kazem, Keepscases, Lyhana8,
Migang2g, Miguel303xm, NapsterX, Onofre Bouvila, Ottaviano II, PatríciaR, Roke, Ronaldmolina20, Rülpsmann, Serg!o, Sligocki, SpiderMMB, Sting, The Ogre, V79benno, Xinese-v, Yug, 136
anonymous edits
Image:Page of Lay of the Cid.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Page_of_Lay_of_the_Cid.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Chamaeleon,
User:Chameleon
File:Cervates jauregui.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cervates_jauregui.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Balbo, Enrique Cordero, Joseluis bn, 8 anonymous
edits
File:Study of spanish.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Study_of_spanish.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Addicted04
File:Conocimiento de español en la U.E..PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Conocimiento_de_español_en_la_U.E..PNG  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Mapa
File:Spanish_In_America.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spanish_In_America.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Travürsa
File:CAspanish Voseo Analysis.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CAspanish_Voseo_Analysis.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: User:Mbhskid520
File:Banco Español del Río de la Plata (Madrid) 05.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Banco_Español_del_Río_de_la_Plata_(Madrid)_05.jpg  License: Creative
Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Zaqarbal
File:Nicaragua Voseo Aeropuerto C Sandino.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nicaragua_Voseo_Aeropuerto_C_Sandino.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution 2.0  Contributors: User:Mbhskid520
File:Academia de la Lengua.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Academia_de_la_Lengua.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: J.L. De Diego
Image:Honoré Daumier 017.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Honoré_Daumier_017.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Balbo,
Homonihilis, Joseolgon, Wst, 1 anonymous edits
File:Ordergarter crop.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ordergarter_crop.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: VAwebteam
Image:Order of the Garter UK ribbon.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Order_of_the_Garter_UK_ribbon.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
2.5  Contributors: Image sourced from 'Medals of the World' website: http://www.medals.org.uk/index.htm
File:Coat of Arms of Henri de Valois as lifelong king of Poland.svg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Henri_de_Valois_as_lifelong_king_of_Poland.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Avalokitesvara, User:Greentubing, User:Ipankonin, User:Orem, user:Sodacan, user:Steifer
Image:KG badge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KG_badge.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Nicholas Jackson
Image:Knights Companion of the Garter.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Knights_Companion_of_the_Garter.JPG  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Philip Allfrey
Image:MeijiEmperorReceivingOrderOfTheGarter1906.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MeijiEmperorReceivingOrderOfTheGarter1906.jpg  License: unknown
 Contributors: AusTerrapin, Dancingwombatsrule, Krinkle, Uaauaa, World Imaging, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Officers of the Order of the Garter.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Officers_of_the_Order_of_the_Garter.JPG  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Philip Allfrey
Image:Military Knights of Windsor.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Military_Knights_of_Windsor.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: Philip Allfrey
Image:Sovereign of the Order of the Garter.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sovereign_of_the_Order_of_the_Garter.JPG  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Philip Allfrey
Image:GarterInsigniaBurkes.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GarterInsigniaBurkes.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dowew, Evadb, G.dallorto, 1
anonymous edits
Image:KG Mantle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KG_Mantle.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Nicholas Jackson
File:Order of the Garter of Franz Joseph I of Austria.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Order_of_the_Garter_of_Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria.jpg  License: Creative
Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Sandstein
Image:1st Duke of Marlborough arms.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1st_Duke_of_Marlborough_arms.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AusTerrapin,
Boricuaeddie, Eduzão88, Henry Dorsett Case, Ilyaroz, Massimop, Warburg, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Arms of the Most Noble Order of the Garter.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Arms_of_the_Most_Noble_Order_of_the_Garter.svg  License: Creative
Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Sodacan
File:French M24 Chaffee Vietnam.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:French_M24_Chaffee_Vietnam.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Starry, Donn A
Mounted combat in Vietnam. DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
File:Dien Bein Phu map.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dien_Bein_Phu_map.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: David Kernow, Kirill
Lokshin, Mxn, Raul654, 2 anonymous edits
File:Dien Bien Phu zoom.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dien_Bien_Phu_zoom.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Erik Warmelink,
LeonidasSpartan, Raul654
File:French M24s atr Dien Bien Phu.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:French_M24s_atr_Dien_Bien_Phu.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Starry, Donn A
Mounted combat in Vietnam. DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY.
Image:Flag of North Vietnam 1945-1955.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_North_Vietnam_1945-1955.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anime
Addict AA, Gurch, Homo lupus, Kauffner, Madden, Mattes, Rocket000, Zscout370, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Colonies of the second French colonial empire.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Colonies_of_the_second_French_colonial_empire.jpg  License: Public
Domain  Contributors: M. G. Scott
File:Indochina 1954.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indochina_1954.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gryffindor, Man vyi, Sundgauvien38, Timeshifter,
W!B:, W.wolny, 1 anonymous edits
File:FrenchMarsouinsIndochina1888.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FrenchMarsouinsIndochina1888.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Unknown
File:French Indochina expansion.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:French_Indochina_expansion.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:PHGCOM
File:Siamese Army in Laos 1893.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Siamese_Army_in_Laos_1893.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Unknown
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 1121

File:OccupationOfTrat1904.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OccupationOfTrat1904.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Hdamm, Smooth O, Takeaway, World
Imaging, 2 anonymous edits
File:Indochine française (1913).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indochine_française_(1913).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown
File:Flag of legion.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_legion.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Emmanuel.boutet
File:FFLegion.JPEG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FFLegion.JPEG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: TECH. SGT. H. H. DEFFNER
File:Légion Étrangère 1852.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Légion_Étrangère_1852.png  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Milgesch
File:Main Danjou.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Main_Danjou.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: davric
File:Keelung Legionnaire.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Keelung_Legionnaire.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Rollet de l'Isle
Image:Legion sniper, Tuyen Quang.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Legion_sniper,_Tuyen_Quang.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown
File:Bonifacio Légion JPG1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bonifacio_Légion_JPG1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Jean-Pol
GRANDMONT
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 102-00721, Marokko, Fremdenlegion.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00721,_Marokko,_Fremdenlegion.jpg
 License: Public Domain  Contributors: Tresckow
File:French-foreign-legionnaire-indochina-1954.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:French-foreign-legionnaire-indochina-1954.gif  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: US Information Agency.
File:Mortier2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mortier2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: PHOTO 2E REP - Sgt REMY
File:053 French Foreign Legion.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:053_French_Foreign_Legion.JPG  License: Attribution  Contributors: user:jalpeyrie
Image:FRF2 Afghanistan.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FRF2_Afghanistan.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: davric
File:Pionnier-legion.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pionnier-legion.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: davric
File:Première classe.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Première_classe.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Bilou, Rama, Zscout370
File:Caporal.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Caporal.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Bilou, Rama, Zscout370
File:Caporal-chef.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Caporal-chef.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Avron, Bilou, F l a n k e r, Rama
File:Sergent.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sergent.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Bilou, Rama, Zscout370
File:Sergent-chef.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sergent-chef.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Bilou, Rama, Zscout370
File:adjudant.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Adjudant.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bilou, F l a n k e r, Rama, Rocket000
File:adjudant-chef.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Adjudant-chef.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bilou, F l a n k e r, Rama, Rocket000
File:Major-French-Army.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Major-French-Army.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Bilou, Rama,
Zscout370
File:Aspirant de l'armée de terre.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aspirant_de_l'armée_de_terre.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bilou, F l a n k e r,
Rama, Rocket000
File:sous-lieutenant.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sous-lieutenant.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Bilou, Rama, Zscout370
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Cornelis
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Department of Defense photo by: MCC PHILIP A. FORTNAM
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File:Alan seeger foreign legion.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alan_seeger_foreign_legion.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Halsey, Francis Whiting,
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Institucional de la Administración General del Estado
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