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Received: January 10, 2000Accepted: February 20, 2001
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
An Introduction to Buddhism for the Cognitive-Behavioral Therapist
Sameet M. Kumar,
University of MiamiBasic concepts in Buddhism are presented for cognitive-behavioral therapists. Buddhist theoretical causes of suffering are presentedas extensions of cognitive assumptions of selfhood. The essentialist position is contrasted to the Buddhist perspectives of dialecticsand interdependence. The focus on impermanence in Buddhist thought is presented. The synergistic relationship between compassionand mindfulness is examined. Compassion as both behavioral alternative to essentialism as well as precursor to mindfulness is dis-cussed. Additionally, mindfulness meditation from the Buddhist perspective is presented.
OTH Buddhism and psychology seek the facilitationof growth, insight, and meaningful connection withothers and freedom from suffering. The recent dialoguebetween psychology and Buddhism has resulted in the ac-ceptance of Buddhist meditational techniques and prin-ciples by many clinicians and their clients. Althoughmuch information exists on specific techniques and prac-tices relevant to clinical psychology, the original contextand rationale of these practices remains a mystery tomany psychologists, as well as clients. The purpose of thisarticle will be to present concisely the basic premises ofBuddhism for the cognitive-behavioral therapist.Given the inherent complexity in summarizing a2,500-year-old system, this presentation has no precon-ceptions of being comprehensive, and will undoubtedlybe insufficient to those already familiar with the basic te-nets of Buddhism. It should also be pointed out that thetopics that are presented here do not encompass the to-tality of Buddhism, or of all "Buddhisms."
Cognitive and Behavioral Practice 9, 40-43, 2002
1077-7229/02/40-4351.00/0Copyright © 2002 by Association for Advancement of BehaviorTherapy. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
Definitions of Buddhism
Buddhism
is a very broad generalization rather than aspecific term. In the United States, the popularizationof Buddhism has resulted in an amalgamation of di-verse Buddhist traditions from all over Asia. Althoughall schools of Buddhism share basic tenets, it is impor-tant to understand that on the level of daily practice,the Buddhism practiced in Sri Lanka differs signifi-cantly from that practiced in Mongolia. The informa-tion presented in this paper can therefore not be ex-haustive to all definitions of Buddhism, but is basic tomost of them.In addition, American Buddhism is still in its infancy,and can in itself be seen as a syncretism of differentstreams of practice. To be fair to the reader, it should benoted that the author is more familiar with TibetanBuddhism than other Buddhist traditions. This empha-sis on Tibetan sources is not meant to minimize thevalue or contributions of other schools such as Zen, butis rather a reflection of the author's own encounter withBuddhism.It is important to note that the classification of Bud-dhism remains controversial. As a body of beliefs con-tained in temples, rituals, doctrine, and a large body of
An Introduction to Buddhism 41monks, it certainly bears an outward resemblance to anorganized religious system. However, Buddhism does notpostulate the existence of a creator being, deity, or higherpower. The deified beings portrayed in Chinese and Ti-betan iconography can be understood to be personifica-tions of meditational practice, or even of certain texts.Therefore, for some scholars, Buddhism appears to bemore of a philosophy than a religion.Independent of its academic classification, Buddhismshares with clinical psychology the motivation to facilitatebeneficial growth and change on individual and societallevels. One of the fundamental assumptions of Buddhismis the inherent evolutionary potential within each indi-vidual toward continued growth.Because of its emphasis on growth and evolution, Bud-dhism was embraced by many existentialists and human-ists as it gained popularity in the sixties. The assumptionof evolutionary potential is clearly relevant for cognitive-behavioral therapists as well. In Buddhism, spiritual evo-lution occurs mainly as a result of investigating underly-ing cognitive assumptions about our perception of selfand other. In order to understand what these cognitiveprocesses are, it is important to understand the basic as-sumptions of Buddhism.
Historical Origin
Buddhism was founded in the sixth century B.C.E. innorth India by a man named Siddharta Gautama. As theheir of a local princely state, he was born and raised in asheltered life of luxury and ease behind the walls of a pal-ace. However, disgruntled at his lack of knowledge abouthis subjects, he ventured outside the palace walls in a se-ries of covert tours. On these tours, he was confronted bythe ubiquity of suffering evident in the forms of poor,sick, aged, and dying people. Thrown into an existentialcrisis as a consequence of these encounters with suffer-ing, he vowed to renounce his worldly life in order to bet-ter understand the human condition. After several yearsof performing various austerities in the company of wan-dering ascetics, he became convinced that the extremesof hedonistic gluttony and ascetic self-mortification didnot hold the answers he was seeking. Siddharta that dayresolved to meditate until he had either died or gainedfull enlightenment.After sitting under a banyan tree for many nights, andafter mindfully enduring temptations such as hunger,thirst, and lust, he experienced total clarity and insight.After spending nearly 7 weeks digesting this moment,and debating his ability to transmit his realization toothers, he taught the first of several sermons in whichhe expounded the Four Noble Truths. From this mo-ment after, he became known as the Buddha, or Awak-ened One.
The Buddhist Path
The Four Noble Truths simply state that (a) sufferingis ubiquitous; (b) suffering is a consequence of the auto-matic tendency to cling to phenomena; (c) the cessationof suffering is possible; and (d) this cessation can beachieved by practicing the Eightfold Noble Path. Thispath consists of fight vision, conception, speech, con-duct, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration(Thrangu, 1993). Taken together, the Eightfold Path di-minishes the tendency to cling to phenomena while en-riching the full experience of life.In the Buddhist context, suffering is an inalienablepart of existence inflamed by any attempt to contain it.Suffering is generated by the mental tendency toward es-sentialism, whose repercussions are of primary impor-tance in Buddhism. Essentialism refers to the assumptionof a discrete, fixed self and identity, independent of ex-ternal environmental influences or internal physical pro-cesses. This notion results from the mental tendency toperceive continuity while experiencing the passage oftime. Although simple and efficient, essentialism isviewed as an erroneous template because in postulating afixed self, it simultaneously assumes a fixed other, result-ing in a dichotomy of self versus other. This dualism alsoresults in the polarization of thoughts, emotions, and ex-periences as attractive or aversive in order to maintain apleasant sense of well-being to the assumed, discrete self(Gyatso, 1997). The result is referred to as self-cherish-ing. Ultimately, it is from self-cherishing as a conse-quence of essentialism that we reinforce a tendency tocling to phenomena. This is in contrast to the Buddhistconcept of selflessness, or emptiness.From the point of view of emptiness, phenomena arisefrom a dialectical confluence of their components. Dia-lectical emergence, unlike essentialism, does not rely ona concept of discrete, independent self. Instead, the dia-lectical perspective postulates an infinitely complex andinterconnected web of causes and effects simultaneouslyshaping each other across multiple levels of analyses.From the perspective of Buddhist dialectics, all phenom-ena, ranging from feelings to physical structures, aretemporary confluences of multiple influences. If the sim-pler essentialist perspective can be visualized as a tennismatch between the two players of self and other, complexdialectical emergence can be visualized as a gradually un-folding, fluid latticework.Self-cherishing should not be confused with modernpsychological constructs such as self-esteem. It refers in-stead to the cognitive assumption that identity is a stableand independent entity. Because of the automatic ten-dency toward self-cherishing, we experience the inevita-ble changes to ourselves, and others, as suffering. In try-ing to hold on to the stability of a passing moment,
4Z Kumarfeeling, or relationship, we struggle against the naturalimpermanence of all phenomena. Although self-cherish-ing can be beneficial to a limited extent, it ahnost always,in this context, leads to the experience of suffering; weexperience suffering as the natural order of interdepen-dence and impermanence constantly manifests itself. Inseeking contentment within the confines of a fixed self,we sow the seeds of our suffering as identity is constantlychallenged, changed, and molded by the very factors in-volved in its construction. For this reason, the Four NobleTruths address the origins and causes of suffering, as wellas its antidotes.The impermanence of all phenomena can be contex-tualized in the impermanence of life itself. In Buddhism,fear of impermanence and death is seen as a major con-tributory factor to self-cherishing. By embracing thesefears as well as the principle of impermanence, we alsocombat self-cherishing. Buddhist practice can involvedaily reflections on the certainty and unpredictability ofdeath. Like suffering, existential tensions concerningmortality also grow when attempts are made to deny orcontain them. By reflecting on death, the motivation ofthe practitioner becomes stronger to engage in properpractice and resultant behaviors lest death be close by(Gampopa, 1998). Reflecting on death, like reflectingon the causes of suffering, can weaken the tendency ofself-cherishing.Within the context of interdependent existence, allactions have resultant consequences. The law of causeand effect, or karma, plays a central role in the rationalebehind ethical behavioral principles presented in theFour Noble Truths. Karma literally means "action," or"behavior" (Brazier, 1995). Stated simply, karma theorystates that the consequences of our behaviors are evidentat multiple levels of analyses, not limited to our perceivedindividuality. However, like a boomerang, these conse-quences, wholesome and harmful, tend to be redirectedback to the behavioral agents that originate their exis-tence. Since Buddhism is concerned with the alleviationof suffering, becoming aware of harmful consequencesis essential for generating positive behaviors that willlimit them.
Compassion and Mindfulness
Loving-kindness is a Buddhist practice of primary im-portance that integrates the theory of karma with theprinciple of interdependence in order to limit self-cherishing. An acceptance of the ubiquity of suffering isnecessary for compassion to arise. Loving-kindness, oftentranslated as compassion, involves cultivating an attitudeof universal, unconditional acceptance. With this atti-tude, essentialist boundaries that define self and othertend to dissipate as one develops compassionate equa-nimity toward all living beings. Compassion is defined asactive caring, in contrast to the more passive connota-tions of pity or sympathy (Gyatso, 1994).We become aware of the limitations of our compassionin attempting to apply it in everyday life. Generatingawareness of these limitations is an essential foundationfor the development of mindfulness. In the cognizanceof our limitations, a compassionate, accepting attitudetoward ourselves forms the foundation for mindful-ness while strengthening a compassionate stance towardothers. Mindfulness is therefore an extension of a com-passionate attitude, while at the same time compassion isnecessary for mindfulness. Indeed, mindfulness andcompassion are frequently discussed as two intertwinedaspects of practice in Buddhist literature.Mindfulness is a primary practice used in Buddhistmeditation techniques. On a basic level, it involves follow-ing the rhythmic motion of the breath with an attitudeof nonjudgmental, present-centered awareness (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). This awareness is directed toward all thoughts,feelings, and sensations that occur during practice. Fre-quently referred to as distractions, they form the basis fordeveloping equanimity and acceptance. The practice ofmindfulness does not seek to "empty the mind"; instead,it is a much greater feat to observe, with acceptance, howfull the mind actually is. When applied sporadically,mindfulness can be extremely relaxing. However, whenapplied regularly, mindfldness can be a revolutionaryand transformative cognitive, emotional, and spiritualexperience.It is paradoxical that in order to facilitate mindfulnessof our own thoughts, feelings, and sensations, we mustfirst enable ourselves to be more compassionate towardothers. However, this paradox lies at the heart of the Bud-dhist path that seeks freedom from suffering for all be-ings, and does not distinguish between self and other. Ad-ditionally, the fact that compassion for others precedesmindfulness of one's own behaviors is further verificationof the interconnectedness of all beings (Rinpoche, 1991).
Cyclic Existence
Greater mental clarity, achieved by sustained mindful-ness practice, is a necessary foundation for the develop-ment of wisdom and insight. Meditation is therefore con-sidered to be a primary vehicle for facilitating clarity, andis therefore essential for spiritual development. Accord-ing to Buddhism, the spiritual progress of one lifetimelays the foundation for spiritual progress in the next life-time. Each lifetime is an effect caused by actions in theprevious existence. Beings reincarnate due to karmic res-idue and countless interconnected links that have accu-mulated over many lifetimes. This cycle of existence,
sam-sara,
complete with endless repetitions of birth, old age,and death, is wrought with suffering, yet is the only op-portunity for spiritual development. Indeed, it is only
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