(Architecture Ebook) Building-Integrated Photo Voltaic Designs For Commercial and Industrial Structures

Building-Integrated Photovoltaic
Designs for Commercial and

Institutional Structures
A Sourcebook for Architects
Patrina Eiffert, Ph.D.
Gregory J. Kiss
Acknowledgements
Building-Integrated Photovoltaics for Commercial and Institutional Structures: A
Sourcebook for Architects and Engineers was prepared for the U.S. Department of
Energy's (DOE's) Office of Power Technologies, Photovoltaics Division, and the
Federal Energy Management Program. It was written by Patrina Eiffert, Ph.D.,
of the Deployment Facilitation Center at DOE’s National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL) and Gregory J. Kiss of Kiss + Cathcart Architects.
The authors would like to acknowledge the valuable contributions of Sheila

Hayter, P.E., Andy Walker, Ph.D., P.E., and Jeff Wiechman of NREL, and Anne
Sprunt Crawley, Dru Crawley, Robert Hassett, Robert Martin, and Jim Rannels of
DOE. They would also like to thank all those who provided the detailed design
briefs, including Melinda Humphry Becker of the Smithsonian Institution,
Stephen Meder of the University of Hawaii, John Goldsmith of Pilkington Solar
International, Bob Parkins of the Western Area Power Administration, Steve
Coonen of Atlantis, Dan Shugar of Powerlight Co., Stephen Strong and Bevan
Walker of Solar Design Associates, Captain Michael K. Loose, Commanding
Officer, Navy Public Works Center at Pearl Harbor, Art Seki of Hawaiian Electric
Co., Roman Piaskoski of the U.S. General Services Administration, Neall Digert,
Ph.D., of Architectural Energy Corporation, and Moneer Azzam of ASE Americas,
Inc.
In addition, the authors would like to thank Tony Schoen, Deo Prasad, Peter
Toggweiler, Henrik Sorensen, and all the other international experts from the
International Energy Agency’s PV Power Systems Program, TASK VII, for their
support and contributions.
Thanks also are due to staff members of Kiss + Cathcart and NREL for their
assistance in preparing this report. In particular, we would like to acknowledge
the contributions of Petia Morozov and Kimbro Frutiger of Kiss + Cathcart, and
Riley McManus, student intern, Paula Pitchford, and Susan Sczepanski of NREL.
On the cover: Architect’s rendering of the HEW Customer Center in Hamburg, Germany,
showing how a new skin of photovoltaic panels is to be draped over its facade and forecourt
(architects: Kiss + Carthcart, New York, and Sommer & Partner, Berlin).
Building-Integrated Photovoltaics for Commercial and Institutional Structures

Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Design Briefs
4 Times Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Thoreau Center for Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
National Air and Space Museum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Ford Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Western Area Power Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Photovoltaic Manufacturing Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Yosemite Transit Shelters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
Sun Microsystems Clock Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
State University of New York, Albany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Navajo Nation Outdoor Solar Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
General Services Administration, Williams Building . . . . . . . .42
Academy of Further Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
Discovery Science Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Solar Sunflowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Ijsselstein Row Houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
Denver Federal Courthouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
BIPV Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
BIPV Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
Appendix A: International Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Appendix B: Contacts for International Energy Agency
Photovoltaic Power Systems Task VII—Photovoltaics in the
Built Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Appendix C: Design Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
Building-Integrated Photovoltaics for Commercial and Institutional Structures 1

Introduction
Building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) electric power systems not only produce electricity, they
are also part of the building. For example, a BIPV skylight is an integral component of the building
envelope as well as a solar electric energy system that generates electricity for the building. These
solar systems are thus multifunctional construction materials.
The standard element of a BIPV system is the PV module. Individual solar cells are interconnected
and encapsulated on various materials to form a module. Modules are strung together in an
electrical series with cables and wires to form a PV array. Direct or diffuse light (usually sunlight)
shining on the solar cells induces the photovoltaic effect, generating unregulated DC electric
power. This DC power can be used, stored in a battery system, or fed into an inverter that
transforms and synchronizes the power into AC electricity. The electricity can be used in the
building or exported to a utility company through a grid interconnection.
A wide variety of BIPV systems are available in today's markets. Most of them can be grouped
into two main categories: facade systems and roofing systems. Facade systems include curtain
wall products, spandrel panels, and glazings. Roofing systems include tiles, shingles, standing
seam products, and skylights. This sourcebook illustrates how PV modules can be designed as
aesthetically integrated building components (such as awnings) and as entire structures (such as
bus shelters). BIPV is sometimes the optimal method of installing renewable energy systems in
urban, built-up areas where undeveloped land is both scarce and expensive.
The fundamental first step in any BIPV application is to maximize energy efficiency within the
building’s energy demand or load. This way, the entire energy system can be optimized.
Holistically designed BIPV systems will reduce a building’s energy demand from the electric
utility grid while generating electricity on site and performing as the weathering skin of the
building. Roof and wall systems can provide R-value to diminish undesired thermal transference.
Windows, skylights, and facade shelves can be designed to increase daylighting opportunities
in interior spaces. PV awnings can be designed to reduce unwanted glare and heat gain. This
integrated approach, which brings together energy conservation, energy efficiency, building
envelope design, and PV technology and placement, maximizes energy savings and makes the
most of opportunities to use BIPV systems.
It is noteworthy that half the BIPV systems described in this book are on Federal buildings. This is
not surprising, however, when we consider these factors: (1) the U.S. government, with more than
half a million facilities, is the largest energy consumer in the world, and (2) the U.S. Department
of Energy (DOE) has been directed to lead Federal agencies in an aggressive effort to meet the
government’s energy-efficiency goals. DOE does this by helping Federal energy managers identify
and purchase the best energy-saving products available, by working to increase the number and
quality of energy projects, and by facilitating effective project partnerships among agencies,
utilities, the private sector, and the states.
2 Building-Integrated Photovoltaics for Commercial and Institutional Structures

Because it owns or operates so many facilities, the U.S. government has an enormous number of
opportunities to save energy and reduce energy costs. Therefore, the Federal Energy Management
Program (FEMP) in DOE has been directed to help agencies reduce energy costs, increase their
energy efficiency, use more renewable energy, and conserve water. FEMP's three major work areas
are (1) project financing; (2) technical guidance and assistance; and (3) planning, reporting, and
evaluation.
To help agencies reach their energy-reduction goals, FEMP’s SAVEnergy Audit Program identifies
cost-effective energy efficiency, renewable energy, and water conservation measures that can be
obtained either through Federal agency appropriations or alternative financing. FEMP's national,
technology-specific performance contracts help implement cutting-edge solar and other renewable
energy technologies. In addition, FEMP trains facility managers and showcases cost-effective
applications. FEMP staff also identify Federal market opportunities and work with procurement
organizations to help them aggregate purchases, reduce costs, and expand markets.
All these activities ultimately benefit the nation by reducing building energy costs, saving taxpayers
money, and leveraging program funding. FEMP’s activities also serve to expand the marketplace
for new energy-efficiency and renewable energy technologies, reduce pollution, promote
environmentally sound building design and operation, and set a good example for state and local
governments and the private sector.
This sourcebook presents several design briefs that illustrate how BIPV products can be integrated
successfully into a number of structures. It also contains some basic information about BIPV and
related product development in the United States, descriptions of some of the major software design
tools, an overview of international activities related to BIPV, and a bibliography of pertinent
literature.
The primary intent of this sourcebook is to provide architects and designers with useful information
on BIPV systems in the enclosed design briefs. Each brief provides specific technical data about the
BIPV system used, including the system’s size, weight, and efficiency as well as number of inverters
required for it. This is followed by photographs and drawings of the systems along with general
system descriptions, special design considerations, and mounting attachment details.
As more and more architects and designers gain experience in integrating photovoltaic systems
into the built environment, this relatively new technology will begin to blend almost invisibly into
the nation’s urban and rural landscapes. This will happen as BIPV continues to demonstrate a
commercially preferable, environmentally benign, aesthetically pleasing way of generating
electricity for commercial, institutional, and many other kinds of buildings.
Building-Integrated Photovoltaics for Commercial and Institutional Structures 3

design briefs 4 Times Square
Location:
Owner:
Broadway and 42nd Street, New York City, New York
Durst Corporation
Date Completed: September 1999
Architect & Designer: Fox & Fowle Architects, building architects;
Kiss + Cathcart Architects, PV system designers
PV Structural Engineers: FTL/Happold
Electrical Engineers: Engineers NY
Tradesmen Required: PV glazing done by shop labor at curtain wall fabricator
Applicable Building Codes: New York City Building Code
Applicable Electric Codes: New York City Electrical Code and National Electric Code
PV Product: Custom-sized BIPV glass laminate
Size: 14 kWp
Projected System Electrical Output: 13,800 kWh/yr
Gross PV Surface Area: 3,095 ft2
PV Weight: 13.5 lb/ft2
PV Cell Type: Amorphous silicon
PV Module Efficiency: 6%
PV Module Manufacturer: Energy Photovotaics, Inc.
Inverter Number and Size: Three inverters; two 6 kW (Omnion Corp.), one 4 kW (Trace Engineering)
Inverter Manufacturers: Omnion Corp. and Trace Engineering
Interconnection: Utility-Grid-Connected
Kiss + Cathcart, Architects/PIX08458
Close-up view of curtain wall illustrates that BIPV panels (dark panels) can be mounted
in exactly the same way as conventional glazing (lighter panels).
4 design briefs: 4 Times Square

Description

The tallest skyscraper built in New York
City in the 1990s, this 48-story office tower
at Broadway and 42nd Street is a some-
what unusual but impressive way to
demonstrate "green" technologies. Its
developers, the Durst Organization, want
to show that a wide range of healthy
building and energy efficiency strategies
can and should be incorporated into real
estate practices.
Kiss + Cathcart, Architects, are consul-
tants for the building tower’s state-of-the-
art, thin-film BIPV system. Working in
collaboration with Fox and Fowle, archi-
tects for the base building, Kiss + Cathcart
have designed the BIPV system to func-
tion as an integral part of the tower's
curtain wall. This dual use makes it one
of the most economical solar arrays
ever installed in an urban area. Energy
Photovoltaics of Princeton, New Jersey, BIPV panels have been
developed the custom PV modules to integrated into the
meet rigorous aesthetic, structural, and curtain wall instead of
electrical criteria. conventional glass
Traditionally, solar technologies have spandrel panels on the
been considered economical only in 37th through the 43rd
remote areas far from power grids or in floor.
areas with an unusually high amount of

sunlight. Advances in PV efficiency are
overturning these assumptions, allowing
solar electricity to be generated cost-
effectively even in the heart of the city.
In fact, PV is the most practical means of
generating renewable electricity in an
urban environment. Further, BIPV can be
directly substituted for other cladding
materials, at a lower material cost than
the stone and metal it replaces. As the
first major commercial application of
BIPV in the United States, 4 Times Square
points the way to large-scale production
of solar electricity at the point of greatest
use. The next major market for PV may
well be cities like New York that have both
high electricity costs and high-quality
buildings.
Special Design Considerations
The south and east facades of the 37th
through the 43rd floor were designated
as the sites for the photovoltaic "skin." The custom-made BIPV
BIPV was incorporated into the design panels are visible in this
after the tower’s general appearance sidewalk view from
had already been decided upon, so the Broadway.
design briefs: 4 Times Square 5

installation was made to harmonize with

the established design concept.
PV System Configuration
The PV modules replace conventional
spandrel glass in the south and east
facades. There are four different sizes
of modules, and they correspond to the
spandrel sizes established earlier in the
design process.
PV Module Mounting and
Attachment Details
The PV modules are attached to the build-
ing structure in exactly the same way that
standard glass is attached. The glass
units are attached with structural silicone
adhesive around the back edge to an alu-
minum frame. An additional silicone bead
is inserted between the edges of adjacent
panels as a water seal.
There is a separate electrical system for
each facade. Each system consists of two
subsystems, feeding two 6-kW inverters
and one 4-kW inverter. The larger invert-
ers serve the two large-sized PV modules,
which have electrical characteristics that
are different from those of the smaller
ones. Using multiple inverters enables the
system to perform more efficiently. The
inverters are located in a single electrical
closet at the core of the building. The AC
output of the inverters is transformed
from 120 V to 480 V before being fed into
the main electrical riser.
4 Times Square during construction
6 design briefs: 4 Times Square

design briefs Thoreau Center for Sustainability
Presidio National Park, Building 1016
Location: Presidio National Park, Building 1016, San Francisco, California
Owner: U.S. Department of Interior, National Park Service
Date Completed: May 1996
Architect & Designer: Tanner, Leddy, Maytum, Stacy
Structural and Electrical Engineers: Equity Builders
Tradesmen Required: Glaziers
Applicable Building Codes: California structural and seismic codes
Applicable Electric Codes: National Electric Code
PV Product: Roof-integrated, translucent glass-laminate skylight
Size: 1.25 kWp
Projected System Electrical Output: 716.4 kWh/yr/AC
Gross PV Surface Area: 215 ft2
PV Weight: 8 lb/ft2
PV Cell Type: Polycrystalline silicon
PV Efficiency: 11% cell, 7% module The first application for
PV Module Manufacturer: Solar Building Systems, Atlantis Energy integrating photovoltaics
Inverter Size: 4 kW into a Federal building is the
Inverter Manufacturer and Model: Trace Engineering Model 4048 skylighted entryway of the
Interconnection: Utility-Grid-Connected Thoreau Center in Presidio
National Park.
Atlantis Energy, Inc./PIX04779
design briefs: Thoreau Center for Sustainability 7

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory/PIX01052
Description
The Greening of the Presidio demon-
strates the impact of successful partner-
ships between the private and public
sector. The Thoreau Center for Sustain-
ability is a historic building, located in the
National Historic Landmark District of the
Presidio in San Francisco, California. The
goal of transforming this historic building
into an environmentally responsive struc-
ture produced an opportunity to apply
principles of sustainable design and
architecture and educate the public about
them. Within this building rehabilitation
project, materials selected for the renova-
tion included recycled textile materials,
recycled aluminum, recycled newsprint,
recycled glass, and wood grown and
harvested sustainably.
The environmentally friendly strategy
included reducing energy consumption
through a Demand Side Management The PV arrays produce electricity and serve as a daylighting design
(DSM) Program with the local utility com- element.
pany, PG&E. The building has a highly effi-
cient direct/indirect lighting system with provided by the utility, thereby conserving project were custom-manufactured by
translucent office panels to allow inner fossil fuels and reducing pollution. Atlantis Energy to meet the esthetic
zones to borrow daylight from the perime- Converting the DC electricity to AC, the requirements of the architect. The square,
ter. The building is heated by an efficient system can produce about 1300 watts polycrystalline PV cells are spaced far
modular boiler and is cooled by natural during periods of full sun. The system enough apart from one another to permit
ventilation. The BIPV system is a highly is fully automatic and requires virtually daylighting and provide pleasant shad-
visible sustainable building feature. The no maintenance. Like other PV systems, ows that fall within the space. The amount
demonstration of this power system by it has no moving parts, so this solar of daylight and heat transfer through
DOE FEMP, the National Renewable generating system provides clean, quiet, these panels was considered in determin-
Energy Laboratory (NREL), and numerous dependable electricity. ing the lighting and HVAC requirements
private-sector partners illustrates that for the space. The panels themselves
BIPV is a technically and economically The entry area into the Thoreau Center is
were constructed to be installed in a stan-
valuable architectural element for a rectangular space with a roof sloping
dard overhead glazing system framework.
designers. slightly to the east and west. The roof is
constructed entirely of overhead glazing, The system is installed above seismic-
The skylit entryway of the Thoreau Center similar to a large skylight. PV cells are code-approved skylight glazing. The day-
for Sustainability at Presidio National laminated onto the 200 square feet of lighting and solar gains through the PV
Park was the first demonstration in the available overhead glazing to produce modules mounted above the skylight sys-
United States of the integration of photo- approximately 1.25 kW of electricity under tem do affect the building lighting and
voltaics into a federal building. Laminated standard operating conditions. The PV- HVAC loads, but the modules do not also
to the skylight glass are photovoltaic cells produced DC electric power is converted serve as the weathering skin of this build-
that produce electricity and also serve to high-quality AC by a power-conditioning ing envelope. Originally, the design called
as a shading and daylighting design ele- unit (inverter). After it is converted, the for the PV modules to replace the skylight
ment. Atlantis Energy provided custom- power enters the building to be consumed units. But during design approval, local
manufactured PV panels and the system by the building’s electrical loads. building code authorities were uncertain
design and integration for this project. whether the modules could meet seismic
The firm was joined by construction Special Design Considerations code requirements. So the alternative
specialists who made it possible to Design and construction issues for the design, stacking the skylights and the
transform this historic building into an relatively small Thoreau Center system modules, was used instead.
environmentally responsive structure. were similar in many ways to issues
To ensure that the glazing used in manu-
involved with designing and constructing
The solar electricity generated in the facturing the PV panels was acceptable
much larger systems. The panels for this
PV system in the skylight offsets power according to Uniform Building Codes
8 design briefs: Thoreau Center for Sustainability
02527226m
This schematic drawing shows how the PV modules were attached above the conventional skylight glazing.
design briefs: Thoreau Center for Sustainability 9

02527228m
This drawing shows how the photovoltaic skylight array was arranged. The total array area is 20.6 square meters.
(UBC), building code issues were an ethylene-vinyl acetate coating, a connected in series to feed the sine-wave
addressed. Special arrangements were translucent Tedlar-coated polyester back- inverter, which is configured to 48 V and
made with the local electrical utility to sheet, and two sealed and potted junction rated at 4,000 W capacity.
ensure that the grid-tied system would boxes with a double pole plug connector.
meet safety requirements. Finally, The PV cells are laminated in a 6-cell x 6- PV Module Mounting and
installing the system required coordina- cell matrix. The minimum spacing Attachment Details
tion between the panel supplier, electri- between cells is 1.25 cm (1/2 in.). The Structural upgrades were made to accom-
cian, glass installer, and Presidio facilities dimension of each module is 81 cm x modate the additional weight of the PV
personnel. 94 cm (32 in. x 37 in). The gross area of system. These added about $900 to the
the entire structure is 18.8 m2 (200 ft2). total cost, for structural components.
The power produced by the system is con-
The BIPV glazing system consists of 24 PV
verted to high-quality AC electricity and
glass laminates. The spacing of the cells
supplements power supplied to the build-
within the modules allows approximately
ing by the utility. The system is rated at
17% of the sunlight into the entryway,
1.25 kW. Each of the 24 PV modules gen-
reducing the need for electric lights. The
erates 8.5 V of DC power at approximately
modules consist of 6-mm Solarphire
5.5 amps. Six modules per sub-array are
glass, 36 polycrystalline silicon PV cells,
10 design briefs: Thoreau Center for Sustainability

design briefs National Air and Space Museum
Location:
Owner:
Dulles Center, Washington, DC
Smithsonian Institution
Date Completed: Construction begun in 2000, scheduled for completion in 2003
Architect & Designer: HOK, Building Architects; Kiss + Cathcart Architects, PV System Designers;
Satish Shah, Speigel, Zamel, & Shah, Inc.
Structural Engineers: N/A
Electrical Engineers: N/A
Tradesmen Required: Building tradesmen
Applicable Building Codes: BOCA, Metropolitan Washington Airport Authority
PV Product: Various BIPV systems
Size: To be determined for BIPV curtain wall, facades, and canopy
Projected System Electrical Output: 15.12 kWh for the canopy system
Gross PV Surface Area: 223 m2 for the canopy system
PV Weight: 5 lb/ft2 for the canopy system
PV Cell Type: Polycrystalline cells, amorphous silicon film for various systems
PV Efficiency: Systems will range from 5% to 12%
PV Module Manufacturer: Energy Photovoltaics, Inc., for the
canopy system
Inverter Number and Size: To be determined
Inverter Manufacturer & Model: To be determined
PV Canopy
PV Curtain Wall
The BIPV installations at the

entryway will demonstrate
different BIPV systems and
technologies, such as thin
films and polycrystalline
solar cells.
Project Overview:
Axonometric
02527218m
design briefs: National Air and Space Museum 11

Plan view of BIPV installation at entry areas
Description Kiss + Cathcart, Architects, are under core mission is to protect the nation’s
contract to the National Renewable collection of aviation and space-flight-
The National Air & Space Museum
Energy Laboratory as architectural- related artifacts. It will also house the
(NASM) of the Smithsonian Institution is
photovoltaic consultants to the preservation and restoration workshops
one of the most-visited museums in the
Smithsonian Institution. Working with of the Air and Space Museum.
world. However, its current building on
the Smithsonian and HOK Architects,
the Mall in Washington, D.C., can accom- The center’s design includes a large,
Kiss + Cathcart is identifying suitable
modate only a fraction of NASM’s collec- hangar-style main exhibition space that
areas for BIPV, selecting appropriate
tion of historical air- and spacecraft. will allow visitors to view the collections
technologies, and designing the BIPV
Therefore, a much larger expansion facil- from two mezzanines as well as from
systems. For DOE FEMP, a partner in the
ity is planned for a site adjacent to Dulles ground level. It is estimated that more
project, a primary goal is to demonstrate
Airport. Since the new facility will exhibit than 3 million people will visit the center
the widest possible range of BIPV applica-
technologies derived from space explo- annually to view aircraft, spacecraft, and
tions and technologies in one building.
ration, the use of solar energy, which has related objects of historic significance,
Construction should begin in 2000.
powered satellites and space stations many of which are too large to display at
since the 1950s, is especially fitting for The NASM Dulles Center will serve as the National Air and Space Museum in
this new building. an exhibit and education facility. Its Washington, D.C. The facility will set new
12 design briefs: National Air and Space Museum

The south- and west-facing facades of the entry hall will be glazed with polycrystalline glass laminates.

BIPV Canopy - section 1:60
Canopy:
Structural Details
BIPV Canopy detail 1:10 Thin-film BIPV glass

laminates will function
02527219m as the canopy.
standards for collections management met: (1) reduce the amount of energy visitors attention on the PV. Labels,
and the display of large, 20th-century required from the power grid, especially exhibit material, and museum tour staff
functional objects. during peak times, and thus conserve could further highlight the PV arrays and
energy and save operational funds, and call attention to the energy savings being
Smithsonian staff are evaluating the inte-
(2) demonstrate the use of PV in a highly realized. PV would also be used to power
gration of a number of grid-connected
visible context in a much-visited Federal some exhibit material exclusively. The
BIPV systems into the building. The NASM
facility. related exhibit materials could highlight
Dulles Center will be a very large structure
the many connections between PV and
(740,000 ft2), with commensurate energy Five BIPV subsystems could be demon-
the field of space exploration and utiliza-
and water requirements. As part of its strated at the new NASM facility, including
tion, as well as today’s construction and
educational mission, the museum plans the south wall and skylight of the entry
building industry.
to exhibit hardware that points to the "fuselage," the roof of the restoration
historic use of photovoltaic (PV) power hangar and space shuttle hangar, the
systems in space; the museum would facade of the observation tower, and
also like to demonstrate how that tech- awning canopies. The entry fuselage
nology can be used today in terrestrial figure clerestory windows will be a highly
applications such as BIPV. To this end, visible way of demonstrating PV to visi-
the Smithsonian is evaluating the highly tors approaching the center. Once in the
visible application of BIPV at this facility entryway, visitors would also see the
to meet a portion of its energy require- patterns of shadow and light the fritted
ments. In this way, two objectives will be glass creates on the floor, thus focusing
Fuselage detail illustrates patterns of polycrystalline glazing.

Curtain wall details indicate how mullion channels will act as electrical conduits.

The canopy plan and perspective demonstrate how shading and power output are combined in one architectural
expression.

Curtain walls typically will be 16 polycrystalline solar cells per panel, laminated between two clear glass panes.

design briefs Ford Island
Building 44, Pearl Harbor Naval Station
Location: Honolulu, Hawaii
Owner: U.S. Navy, Department of Defense, and Hawaiian Electric Company
Date Completed: September 1999
Architect & Designer: Victor Olgyay, Fred Creager, and Stephen Meder, University of Hawaii, School of
Architecture
Structural Engineers: Hawaiian Electric Co.
Electrical Engineers: Hawaiian Electric Co.; Peter Shackelford, Renewable Energy Services, Inc., system integrator
Tradesmen Required: Roofers, electrical contractors
Applicable Building Codes: Uniform Building Code
PV Product: Integrated standing seam metal roof
Size: 2.8 kW DC
Projected System Electrical Output: 9,720 kWh per month

PV Weight: 4 lb/ft2, with the roof
PV Cell Type: Multijunction amorphous silicon
PV Module Efficiency: 5%-6%
PV Module Manufacturer: Uni-Solar
Inverter Number and Size: One, 4-kW
Inverter Manufacturer and Model: Trace SW 4048PV
02527213m
This illustration is a view of the building from the southwest corner; the dark areas
represent the photovoltaic standing-seam metal roofing material.
design briefs: Ford Island 19

02527214m
In this illustration, the dark areas represent amorphous
silicon laminates on standing seam metal roofing panels.
Description PV system, the McElroy metal substrate, Special Design Considerations

and the Trace inverter in a tropical marine
A partnership consisting of the U.S. Navy, The context of this project is the naval
environment will provide valuable perfor-
Hawaiian Electric Co. (HECO), the industrial site at Pearl Harbor Naval
mance information to guide the future
University of Hawaii, the U.S. DOE Federal Base.The site contained a 90 ft x 52 ft
development and use of these products.
Energy Management Program (FEMP), (27.4 m x 15.8 m) open-wall boathouse
and the Utility PhotoVoltaic Group (UPVG) The total cost of this project was $92,000. structure. The existing roof of the struc-
was created in order to design and install This included design, procurement, roof ture was made of box rib metal on trusses
a 2-kW, grid-intertied, BIPV retrofit sys- removal and BIPV installation, and a year (Figure 2) in gable form, divided longitudi-
tem using the Uni-Solar standing seam of monitoring. nally on its east-west axis. The south
metal roofing product and to monitor its
performance for one year. The University
PIX08475
of Hawaii School of Architecture designed
and administered the project and a local
utility, HECO, funded it. Additional con-
struction cost support was supplied by
FEMP, NREL, and the Navy. The utility and
the Navy determined the site, and the
installation date was scheduled for the
third quarter of 1998 (Figure 1). HECO was
designated to be the client for the first
year, after which the Navy will assume
ownership of the system.
The tropical location (21° North) and the
site’s microclimate make it an ideal loca-
tion for PV installations. Project planners
expected an annual daily average of
5.4 peak sun hours and 20 to 25 in.
(57 cm) of annual rainfall. This project, at
this particular site, will also be testing the
limits of the products used in the installa-
tion. Monitoring the performance of the
The array in mid-installation is shaded only by cloud cover.
20 design briefs: Ford Island

Uni-Solar product; unless new PV-to-
metal laminating processes are devel-
oped, this product will be substantially
limited in metal roofing applications.
Joining the panels to extend their length
not only increases material and labor
costs, it also provides opportunities for
water penetration and corrosion. The
"galvalum" coating is cut away every-
where the panel is modified. This exposes
the steel of the standing seam panel to
the marine environment. Therefore,
McElroy, Uni-Solar’s metal roof supplier,
will not warranty the product for marine
applications.
In addition, to match the paint of the
existing structure, McElroy required a
minimum order to custom-paint the new
roof panels. Therefore, about one-third
more roofing panels had to be purchased
than were needed, and this increased the
overall project cost. The extra panels
turned out to be useful, however, since
many were damaged during transport to
Hawaii.
The part of the roof to be retrofitted spans
a dock area below. This presented staging
challenges for the roofing and electrical
contractors. Along with restricted access
to the military base and the need to take a
bridge to the site, the location of the roof
added to the complexity and costs of the
project. And the harsh marine environ-
ment could have a corrosive effect on the
array and its components.
This illustration shows how the notched BIPV standing-seam components The system is rated at 2.175 kW AC
overlap the regular roofing panels. (2.8 kW DC). The estimated system out-
put is 9,720 kWh per month. The building
is not independently metered. It is fed by
slope provides a 90 ft x 26 ft (27.4 m x provide is 20 ft (6.09 m) and the required the Pearl Harbor grid, to which HECO sup-
7.9 m) surface at a 5° incline. This half run is 26+ ft (8 m). This shortfall required plies power. The estimated demand of the
of the roof measured approximately overlapped joints to be used on the ends building is about 12000 kWh per month.
2,340 ft2 (217 m2). The box rib roofing of the panels and additional purlines The energy generated by the PV system
was removed from the entire south-facing to be welded for support. Full-length, will feed but not meet the average loads
slope, and new standing seam pans, standing-seam panels and non-PV panels of this building.
including 24 of the Uni-Solar SSR 120 were set in an alternating pattern with
photovoltaic standing seam panels, the PV modules. This arrangement
replaced the original roofing. allowed the full-length pans to add Attachment Details
strength over the required lap joint of Integrated connection follows standard
Integrating the new metal roofing with metal seam roof attachment process.
the shorter PV units.
the existing roof posed several design Notched PV panels are secured to non-PV
and construction challenges. In addition, The length limitation of the Uni-Solar panels with metal fasteners.
the longest panel that Uni-Solar could panels was a design deficiency of the

PIX08476
PIX08477
Workers install short lapped roofing pans at BIPV Additional electrical junction boxes were required over
module sections. potted terminals and raceways at the ridge, before the
ridge cap was installed.
PIX08478
PIX08480
Junction box at ridge, viewed from below Junction box at ridge, viewed from above
22 design briefs: Ford Island

02527289m
The part of the roof containing BIPV spans a dock area, as shown in this illustration.

design briefs Western Area Power Administration
Elverta Maintenance Facility, Phases I and II
Phase I
Location: Elverta, California
Owner: U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Western Area Power Administration
Architect & Designer: DOE Western Area Power Administration, PowerLight Corporation
System Integrator: PowerLight Corporation
Structural Engineers: DOE Western Area Power Administration
Electrical Engineers: DOE Western Area Power Administration
Tradesmen Required: Roofers, electrical contractors
Applicable Building Codes: Standard California building codes
PV Product: PowerGuard™ BIPV roof tiles
Size: 40 kW DC
Projected System Electrical Output: 70,000 kWh/year A 38-kW BIPV system supplements a
Gross PV Surface Area: 5,400 ft2 40-kW system installed in 1996.
PV Weight: 4 lb/ft2
PV Efficiency: 12% Phase I
PV Module Manufacturer: Solarex
Inverter Number and Size: 8 inverters, 6 kW each
Inverter Manufacturer: Omnion Corp.
Phase II
PIX08451
24 design briefs: Western Area Power Administration

Description
PIX08450
Staff in the Department of Energy’s
Western Area Power Administration
Sierra Nevada Region (SNR) have had two
main goals for SNR's photovoltaic (PV)
program: (1) promote PV systems as a
renewable energy resource, and (2) do
so in a cost-effective manner. In support
of these goals, SNR has incorporated
PV panels into the roofs of buildings in
Elverta and Folsom, California. The build-
ing-integrated systems will repay invest-
ments in them by extending roof lives,
reducing maintenance costs, generating
electric power, and reducing the build-
ings' cooling requirements.
In Phase I, a 40-kW building-integrated
photovoltaic system was installed at
SNR's Elverta Maintenance Facility. The
Sacramento Municipal Utility District A PowerLight rooftop PV system is installed on Western’s facility in
(SMUD) funded the PowerLight Corp. Elverta, California.
PowerGuard® system, while Western
contributed funds equivalent to the cost
of replacing the facility roof. Funding was
PIX08452
also provided by the Utility Photovoltaic
Group (UPVG) through TEAM-UP, with
support from the U.S. Department of
Energy.
With a power capacity of 40 kW peak DC
and an annual energy output of more
than 70,000 kWh/year, the PV systems
have significant environmental benefits.
Phase I prevents the emission of
2,300 tons of carbon dioxide, 8.7 tons
of nitrogen oxides and 16.4 tons of sulfur
dioxides; these emissions would be the
result if fossil fuels were burned to
generate the same amount of electricity.
Because this system is designed to have
a life expectancy of 20 years, the cumula- A view of the rooftop of the Elverta facility after the PV system installation.
tive benefits for the environment are
many.
for greater annual energy production. In PV System Configuration
Special Design Considerations addition to generating clean renewable
A 40-kW PowerGuard building-integrated
PowerGuard PV tiles were used to reroof energy, the lightweight system provides
PV system was installed at the Elverta
the building, saving on the cost of con- R10 roof insulation for improved building
Maintenance Facility in Western's Sierra
ventional roofing material. The patented comfort and membrane protection for
Nevada Region to function as both a roof
PowerGuard tiles incorporate high-effi- extended roof life. Installation took only
and solar electric photovoltaic (PV) power
ciency polycrystalline silicon cells from 7 days to complete once the building's
plant. Phase I modules were installed in
Solarex. Site conditions were favorable old roof was replaced with a new single-
parallel strings containing 56 modules per
for this sytem: 38° latitude; a dry, sunny ply membrane roof.
string (7 series, 8 parallel).
climate throughout most of the year; and
no shading. The system features horizon-
tal tiles and tiles with an 8° southerly tilt
design briefs: Western Area Power Administration 25

02527230m
The temperature curves show how the PV-integrated roof compares with various roofs without solar electric
systems. Roof-integrated PV with integral insulation reduces a building’s heat load as much as 23°C. The
measurements were derived from sensors placed in representative roof specimens.
PIX08453
Attachment Details
The panels are designed to interlock
using a tongue-and-groove assembly.
Panels with 3/8-in. concrete topping,
instead of PV modules, are set among
the PV panels to allow working access
throughout the roof. Along the edges
of the PV array, a steel ribbon links the
modules together, in order to connect
everything structurally.
Workers carry PV modules with attached foam backing in preparation for

rooftop mounting. Smaller panels with concrete topping were also
installed as a walking surface.
26 design briefs: Western Area Power Administration

Phase II
Location: Elverta, California
Owner: U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Western Area Power Administration
Date Completed: June 1998
Architect & Designer: DOE Western Area Power Administration, PowerLight Corporation
System Integrator: PowerLight Corporation
Structural Engineers: DOE Western Area Power Administration
Electrical Engineers: DOE Western Area Power Administration
Tradesmen Required: Electrical and building contractors
Applicable Building Codes: Standard California building codes
PV Product: PowerGuard™ BIPV roof tiles
Size (kWp): 38 kW DC
Projected System Electrical Output: 67,500 kWh/year
PV Weight: 5 lb/ft2
PV Cell Type: Thin-film amorphous silicon
PV Efficiency: 4%-5% Phase I
PV Module Manufacturer: Solarex (762 modules) and APS (264 modules)
Inverter Number and Size: One 32-kW AC
Inverter Manufacturer and Model: Trace Technologies
Interconnection: Utility-Grid-Connected Phase II
Description Special Design Considerations produce 43 watts each. The APS modules
were installed in 22 parallel strings with
This 38-kW BIPV system supplements the The flush roof design provides excellent
12 modules in series per string. The APS
Phase I system. Both systems completely insulation as well as electricity, as shown
modules produce 22 watts each.
cover the Elverta roof and are the largest in the graph comparing roof temperature
PV application of its kind in the United data. PV Module Mounting and
States. Phase II is totally funded and Attachment Details
owned by Western. The PV systems utilize PV System Configuration
thin-film amorphous silicon technology. The Solarex modules were installed in Same as those for Phase I.
The DC output from the PV modules is 254 parallel strings, with three Solarex
converted to 240 V AC by means of a modules in series per string. The modules
custom-built 32-kW Trace inverter, and
then stepped up to 480 V, three-phase
AC by a 45-kVA transformer for direct Solar Electric
Roofing Panel
connection to the building's service Membrane
panel. Besides replacing grid power, the Styrofoam®
Powerlight system protects the roof Insulation
membrane, which extends its life. The roof
system also provides R10 insulation to
reduce cooling and heating loads, thereby
decreasing energy consumption.
Substrate Roof Deck 02527234m
The illustration shows how the layers in the roofs provide above-average
insulation as well as a good base for the PowerGuard PV system.
design briefs: Western Area Power Administration 27

design briefs Photovoltaic Manufacturing Facility
Location:
Owner:
Fairfield, California
BP Solar
Date Completed: 1993
Architect & Designer: Kiss Cathcart Anders, Architects
Structural Engineers: Ove Arup & Partners
Electrical Engineers: Ove Arup & Partners
Tradesmen Required: Glaziers, electricians
Applicable Building Codes: BOCA and California Title 24
PV Product: Glass laminates as curtain wall spandrel, skylight, and awning
Size: 9.5 kWp
Projected System Electrical Output: 7.9 kW
PV Weight: 3 lb/ft2
PV Efficiency: 5%
PV Module Manufacturer: APS
Inverter Number and Size: 6 kW
Inverter Manufacturer: Omnion Corporation
Views looking north (top) and south show how BIPV is integrated into both the facade and the
canopy that runs the length of the building.
PIX08446
PIX08449
28 design briefs: Photovoltaic Manufacturing Facility

PIX08447
that demonstrates BIPV in a typical com-
mercial building. The cube’s PV cladding,
the solar entrance canopy, and the trans-
lucent BIPV skylight provide more than
enough energy to power the control
center’s lighting and air-conditioning
systems.
The production floor and warehouse
space are housed in a tilted-up concrete
shell with a steel intermediate structure
and a timber roof. Glass blocks embedded
as large-scale "aggregate" in the outside
walls provide a pattern of light in the inte-
rior during the day and on the exterior at
night. Mechanical service elements are
contained in a low, steel-framed structure
on the north side of the building. The
entry court is paved in a pattern of tinted
concrete and uplighting that represents
an abstracted diagram of solar energy
generation.

In addition to providing a working product
development test bed for BIPV systems,
the project serves an educational function
for public and private groups. The
lobby/reception area provides display
space for products and research. A pat-
tern cast into the paving in front of the
main entry combines a sun path diagram
with a representation of the photovoltaic
effect at the atomic level. The control
room/cube also serves an educational
Interior view shows how BIPV is
PIX08448
used with vertical and sloped
glazing.
Description
Completed in 1993, this 69,000-ft2 manu-
facturing facility houses a new generation
of production lines tailored to thin-film
PV technology. The building also incorpo-
rates into its design several applications
of thin-film solar modules that are proto-
types of BIPV products.
The heart of the project is a 22.5-ft-high
BIPV glass cube containing the factory’s
control center and visitor facilities. This
cube is perched on the second floor, and
half of it is outside of the manufacturing
building, emphasizing its status as an
independent element and a prototype
This office interior view demonstrates the quality of light transmitted
by the approximately 5% translucent BIPV panel skylight.
design briefs: Photovoltaic Manufacturing Facility 29

30
PV skylight
Parapet beyond
D.1 Built-up roofing
Tapered insulation
4
A37 Metal deck
Scupper & D.S. beyond
C
Steel beam
2'-6"
Aluminum curtain wall
C
REFER TO MECHANICAL DWGS FOR
PV glass Parapet beyond
ALL MECHANICAL LOCATIONS
Flashing Built-up roofing, min. slope 1/4" per 1'-0" to drain
5'-0"
5 Elevator bulkhead beyond Wood frame roof - See structural dwgs
Plywd panels A37
Vision glass, tempered type D typ.
Glu-lam beam
C
2'-6"
5'-0"
2'-6"
Vision glass,
C
tempered glass, type B,
6
typ. A16
8'-4 1/4"
5'-0"
C
6 Braced frame beyond glass
A37
1'-9"
Aluminum frame
5'-0"
Steel stair beyond
Vision glass
2'-7"
Expanded metal panel
C
3
GWB
2 Steel guardrail
A37 A37 7 Oriented strand board
A39 Plastic coated wire
Integral duct
PV awning
Steel column
Concrete walk
12'-4 3/4"
Wainscot
Concrete base @ column
Concrete slab
Spread footing beyond - see

structural dwgs
Stainless steel panel

Receptionist's booth, see sheet A39
02527210m
Footing beyond
Elevator pit beyond
Sectional view shows office “cube” and factory.
design briefs: Photovoltaic Manufacturing Facility

PV panel
C Purlins
Frame
Bracing rods
Light fixture
Stainless steel awning assembly

3352.8
above slab
2743.2
above slab
Awning Section
1
1/2" = 1'0"
design briefs: Photovoltaic Manufacturing Facility

14 typ. PV spacing 15
381 381
See structural drawings
typ. PV connection point spacing
for frame dimensions
914.4 914.4 533.4 533.4 914.4
508 406.4 330.2

PV panel
Panel connection below
Purlin below
Panel wiring points typ.
Light fixture below (25' O.C.)
Curved Stainless panel below
Vertical Stainless stiffener
381 152.4
152.4 381 1066.8 381
1,2 eq. eq.
Axonometric
A40 3505.2 1828.8 6
Awning Plan NTS 02527206m
3 Typ. braced bay (see A06-A07 for locations) Typ. awning bay (see A06-A07 for locations) East end bay (West end opposite hand)
1/2" = 1'0"
The PV awning provides a sunscreen.
31
REFER TO SHT. A/20 FOR LOCATIONS OF
WALL OPENINGS AT TILT-UP PANELS REFER TO MECHANICAL DWGS FOR
ALL MECHANICAL LOCATIONS
8 7
7.9 7.8 7.2 7.1 6.8 6.5
PV skylight
7 Built-up roofing, min. slope 1/4" per 1'-0" to drain

A37
+35'-2 1/2" Tapered insulation
T.O.Cube
Metal deck
Steel beam
Aluminum curtain wall
PV glass
Plywood interior finish panels

7'-6"
Vision glass tempered glass type D, typ.
+27'-8" Flashing
T.O.Conc. tilt-up wall
+25'-0"-26'-8"
T.O.Frame varies
22'-9 1/2"
8'-4 1/4"
8
A37
Steel guardrail
Expanded metal pane
Plastic coated wire

1'-9"
+15'-0"
T.O.Mezz.
2'-7"
9
A37
12'-4 3/4"
12'-4 3/4"
+0'-0"
T.O.Slab
02527208m
Section looking south through cube
1
Scale: 1/4"=1'-0"
Sectional view indicates skylight configuration and curtain-wall facade.
32 design briefs: Photovoltaic Manufacturing Facility

function; a raised platform allows groups PV System Configuration nated products. The modules are installed
of visitors to view the control equipment, with an insulated inner liner, which forms
The PV module is a nominal 2.5 ft x 5.0 ft,
and beyond it, the production line. a plenum for ventilation. Heat radiated
a-Si thin-film device rated at 50 Wp stabi-
Computerized monitoring equipment dis- into the curtain wall plenum is vented to
lized. The PV system contains 84 full-size
plays the status of the PV systems as well the outside by natural convection through
modules mounted on the awning, 91 mod-
as information regarding building HVAC holes drilled in the horizontal mullions. In
ules installed in the curtain wall, and 8 in
and lighting energy use, exterior ambient some cases, the hollow vertical mullions
a skylight. The curtain wall modules are
conditions, insolation, and other data. are used as ducts to direct the warm air
installed in custom sizes as required by
upward.
Wherever possible, the PV systems are architectural conditions. The system has
designed to do double duty in terms of a total capacity of 7.9 kW; because of the The skylight panels are standard modules
energy management by reducing heat varying orientations of the modules, the that transmit approximately 5% of the
gain while providing power. The curtain peak output is 5 kW. Despite the hot local sunlight through the laser scribe lines.
wall and skylight are vented, eliminating climate, the power consumed by the cube The PV modules are supplemented by
radiant heat gain from the modules and for cooling and lighting never exceeds clear glazing units to increase light trans-
enhancing natural ventilation in the cube. 3.5 kW, producing a surplus of PV power mission. Another unique feature of this
The awning is designed to shade the row which is directed into the main building BIPV system is that the skylight is vented
of south-facing windows that open into grid. to remove heat gain from the modules.
the production area and employee
lounge. The cube curtain wall integrates PV Module Mounting and The awning panels are bolted through the
Attachment Details steel tube awning structure to aluminum
PV modules with vision glass in a
channels epoxied to the encapsulating
standard pressure plate curtain wall Standard PV modules are 31 in. x 61 in.
glass. This is the attachment used in typi-
framing system, modified to be self- but can be produced in custom sizes as
cal field-mounted arrays.
ventilating. The system is intended to required to fit the framing requirements of
be economical and adaptable to new the curtain wall. One unique feature is
construction or retrofit. that the modules are glass-to glass lami-
design briefs: Photovoltaic Manufacturing Facility 33

design briefs Yosemite Transit Shelters
Location:
Owner:
Yosemite National Park, California
U.S. Department of Interior, National Park Service
Date Completed: Scheduled for system completion in 2001
Architect & Designer: Kiss + Cathcart, Architects
Structural Engineers: Ove Arup & Partners, Structural Engineers
Electrical Engineers: None; design overview provided by inverter manufacturer
Tradesmen Required: Standard Contractor/Carpenter and Electrician
Applicable Building Codes: National Park Service, self-regulating
Applicable Electrical Codes: National Park Service, self-regulating
PV Product: Amorphous silicon glass panels
Size: 560 Wp per transit shelter
Projected System Electrical Output: 1.15 MWh/yr
PV Efficiency: 6%
PV Module Manufacturer: Energy Photovoltaics, Inc.
Inverter Numbers and Size: 1 kW
Inverter Manufacturer: Advanced Energy Systems
Interconnection: Optional—Grid-Connected or Stand-Alone
02527238m
The transit shelter prototype makes use of both high-tech and low-tech materials, combining
locally forested lumber with BIPV panels.
34 design briefs: Yosemite Transit Shelter

Dave Parsons, NREL/PIX00923
Description
Yosemite National Park is one of the most
treasured environments in the United
States – and also the site of serious vehic-
ular traffic congestion. The National Park
Service is working to reduce traffic and
pollution in Yosemite by expanding the
shuttle bus service and introducing elec-
tric shuttle buses. This necessitates an
infrastructure of combined weather shel-
ters and information boards at the new
shuttle stops.
Funded by DOE FEMP, Kiss + Cathcart,
Architects, is under contract to NREL to
design a prototypical bus shelter incorpo-
rating BIPV panels. The park will begin
installing the first of 19 new shuttle stops
in the summer of 2000. The shelters that
are near existing electrical lines will send
the power they generate into the utility
grid system serving Yosemite; the more
remote shelters will have battery storage
for self-sufficient night lighting. Yosemite National Park

The design mandate for this project is to
undesirable in terms of both appearance
balance a sense of the rustic historical
and material use.
building style of the Yosemite Valley with
the frankly technological appearance of PV System Configuration
BIPV systems. The overall structure is Fourteen semitransparent, 40-W thin-film
a composite of heavy timber and steel modules make up the PV system for each
plates that serves two purposes: accom- shelter. Power is fed to a single inverter.
modating heavy snow loads with mini- Some systems will be grid-connected and
mum structural bulk and projecting an some will be stand-alone with batteries
appearance that is rustic from a distance for backup.
but clearly modern in a close-up view.
The structural timbers (unmilled logs PV Module Mounting and
from locally harvested cedar) are split Attachment Details
in half, and the space between them is
The PV roof of the shelter is not designed
used for steel connections, wiring, and
to be watertight like the roof of an
mounting signage. The BIPV roof struc-
enclosed building. Instead, it is designed
ture is made of a single log cut into eight
to be waterproof so that water does not
separate boards.
drip through the roof in normal weather
A shallow (10°) tilt was chosen for the PV conditions. Therefore, the PV modules are
roof. A latitude tilt of approximately 37° overlapped (shingled) slightly along the
would provide the maximum annual out- center seam, and sheet metal gutters are
put in an unobstructed site; however, a inserted at the seam between the rough
shallower angle is better suited to wood rafters and the modules.
Yosemite because of the considerable
shading that occurs at low sun angles in
the valleys, especially in winter. A steeper
slope would also have made the shuttle
stop much taller, significantly increasing
structural loading and demanding a heav-
ier structure. This was determined to be
design briefs: Yosemite Transit Shelter 35

design briefs Sun Microsystems Clock Tower
Location:
Owner:
Burlington, Massachusetts
Sun Microsystems
Date Completed: October 1998
Architect & Designer: HOK Architects and ASE Americas, Inc.
Structural Engineers: Whiting-Turner Contracting Co.
Electrical Engineers: Enertech Engineering
Tradesman Required: Glaziers, electricians
Applicable Building Codes: Uniform Building Code
Applicable Electrical Codes: National Electric Code Section 620
PV Product: BIPV curtain wall
Size: 2.5 kWp
Projected System Electrical Output: 2.5 kWp
PV Cell Type: Polycrystalline silicon manufactured by ASE Americas, Inc.
PV Efficiency: 12.8%
PV Module Manufacturer: Pilkington Solar International
Inverter Number and Size: One 2.5 kWp inverter
Inverter Manufacturer and Model: Omnion Power Corp.
ASE Americas, Inc./PIX07044
North-facing view of
the clock tower at Sun
Microsystems facility.
36 design briefs: Sun Microsystems Clock Tower

Pilkington Solar International’s East view of the clock tower shows BIPV installation.
project leader, John Goldsmith, is
shown with the integrated curtain
wall on the south and west faces
of the clock tower.
Description Special Design Considerations PV Module Mounting and

ASE Americas recently provided the The PV panels were custom designed to Attachment Details
design, PV panels, and electronic equip- match the dimensions of the Kawneer Eight electrically active panels were fuly
ment needed to power an 85-ft high clock Series 1600 mullion system used on the wired and interconnected through an
tower on Sun Microsystems' new 1 million four sides of the clock tower. They were inverter and transformer into the building
ft2 campus in Burlington, Massachusetts. fabricated as dual-glazed, thermally wiring as a utility-interactive system.
The architects who designed the building insulating panels with a glass-cell-glass These systems are the simplest and most
included both electrically active and elec- laminate as the outer surface and a economical way to install a PV power
trically inactive glass panels on four sides frosted glass sheet as the inner surface. source. There are no batteries in this type
of the tower. The electrically active panels Some of the panels were required to wrap of system, since the system draws power
incorporating PV modules were used on around the clock, so three different basic from the building's electrical grid.
the east and west sides. A diffuse light shapes were designed with round cusps
pattern washes around the edges of the cut out of the corners to match the curva-
solar cells in the inside of the tower to ture of the round, 7.5-ft-diameter clock.
create a soft look in the interior. The clock Two rectangular shapes were required so
tower load is primarily a nighttime load. the panels were vertically arranged to
Energy from the PV array goes into the match the floor levels.
building by day, and the clock tower
draws power at night from the building's PV System Configuration
electrical grid. This could be the first use The PV modules are connected in series
of dual-glazed, thermally insulated PV and feed electricity into an inverter that
panels in a U.S. building structure. converts the 2.5 kW DC power to AC.
design briefs: Sun Microsystems Clock Tower 37

design briefs State University of New York, Albany
Location:
Owner:
Albany, New York
State University of New York, Albany
Date Completed: Summer 1996
Architect: Cannon Architects
Electrical Engineer: Cannon Architects
Solar Consultant: Solar Design Associates, Inc.
Tradesmen Required: Beacon Sales Corporation, roofing contractors
Applicable building codes: New York State Building Code and ANSI Z97.1
Applicable electrical codes: National Electric Code
PV product: Kawneer 1600 PowerWall™
Size: 15 kWp
Project System Electrical Output: 19,710 kWh / yr.
PV Weight: 1.93 lb / ft2
PV Cell Efficiency: 12%
PV Module Manufacturer: Solarex
Inverter Number and Size: AES 250 watt
Inverter Manufacturer and Model: Advanced Energy Systems Micro Inverter
Interconnection: Utility-Grid Connected
Gordon Schenck/PIX084
Looking southeast
at the Center for
Environmental
Sciences and
Technology
Management
38 design briefs: State University of New York, Albany

Gordon Schenck/PIX08464
Description
For the new Center for Environmental
Sciences and Technology Management
(CESTM) at the State University of New
York in Albany, Cannon Architects devel-
oped an energy-conscious design strat-
egy. This strategy included the integration
of solar electric systems into both the
building and the project site as landscape
elements. The building incorporates
15 kWp of custom PV modules in building-
integrated sunshades that support the
PV modules while reducing cooling loads
and glare on the south facade. The PV
modules feature module-integrated
inverters.
This system was the first of its kind in the
United States to tie together more than
2 kW of AC modules, and the first to use
the AC module platform for a sunshade.
AC modules proved to be far more effec-
tive than a typical single inverter, given
the different light levels on the modules
over the course of a day.
There are two different system configura-
tions in the CESTM solar system. The
sunshade portion consists of 59 pairs of
framed Solarex MSX 120 modules. Each
pair is connected to its own accessible AC
micro-inverter. The inverters are installed
inside the building for ease of service. The
landscape portion consists of 18 pairs of
Solarex MSX 240 modules. An AC micro-
inverter is attached to the underside of
each pair.
PV Mounting and Attachment

Details Close-up view of photovoltaic sunshade
Solarex provided framed PV modules that
were modified to incorporate the AES
micro-inverters. Most of the modules
were mounted in an aluminum strut,
creating a solar sunshade. The rest of the
modules were mounted above ground,
along a curved pathway at the main
approach to the building. The building’s
sunshades use standard extrusions from
the Kawneer curtain wall system, the
Kawneer 1600 PowerWallTM. This custom
configuration provided structural support
to the modules.
design briefs: State University of New York, Albany 39

design briefs Navajo Nation Outdoor Solar Classroom
Location:
Owner:
Seba Dalkai, Navajo Reservation, Arizona
Seba Dalkai Boarding School
Scheduled Completion Date: Fall 1999
Architect: Kiss + Cathcart, Architects
Electrical Engineer: Energy Photovoltaics, Inc.
Solar Consultant: Kiss + Cathcart, Architects
Tradesmen Required: Electricians, laborers
Applicable Building Codes: Standard building codes
Applicable Electrical Codes: National Electric Code
PV Product: Energy Photovoltaics EPV-40 modules
Size: 4.0 kWp
PV Type: Amorphous silicon
PV Efficiency: 6%
PV Module Manufacturer: Energy Photovoltaics, Inc.
Inverter Number and Size: Four 2.5 kW inverters
Inverter Manufacturer: Trace Engineering
Interonnection: Stand-Alone System
02527276m
Each new BIPV structure at the Seba Dalkai School will serve as an open-air classroom
supported by timber columns in a concrete foundation.
02527274m
40 design briefs: Navajo Nation Outdoor Solar Classroom

02527275m
The design attempts to establish a connection with Navajo building traditions.
Description Special Design Considerations PV Mounting and Attachment

The Seba Dalkai Boarding School, a The installation is designed to minimize Details
Bureau of Indian Affairs school on the the cost of the support structure while The PV modules are attached with alu-
Navajo Reservation in Arizona, is con- incorporating sustainable construction minum extrusions fixed with silicone to
structing a new K-8 facility to be com- materials. Within an enforced simplicity, the back of the glass (four per module).
pleted in 2001. Funded by DOE FEMP, this the design attempts to establish a con- Each aluminum channel is 12 ft long. The
facility will incorporate a BIPV system nection with Navajo building traditions. channels are supported on a grid of rough
capable of producing approximately timber beams, which in turn are sup-
4.0 kW of electricity. PV System Configuration ported by timber columns on concrete
The design includes two 25-ft x 25-ft, foundations.
The school is currently housed in a open-sided, timber-framed structures.
traditional hogan and in a stone facility Each one supports 2.88 kW of semitrans-
built in the 1930s. These will remain and parent PV modules, and each one
be juxtaposed with a new school facility. includes two Trace 2.5-kW inverters plus
The photovoltaic component of this batteries for three days’ worth of energy
project will mediate between the old and storage. Each structure will function as an
the new, and it will add a structure that open-air classroom.
clearly expresses solar technology and
BIPV principles. Funded by DOE FEMP,
this structure will serve as an outdoor
classroom and as part of the school’s
HVAC circulation system. It will also be a
hands-on laboratory for educating people
about BIPV systems and training them in
system installation.
design briefs: Navajo Nation Outdoor Solar Classroom 41

design briefs General Services Administration, Williams Building
Location:
Owner:
408 Atlantic Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts
U.S. General Services Administration
Date Completed: September 30, 1999
Project Developers: Enron Energy Services and U.S. General Services Administration
Electrical Engineer: PowerLight Co.
Solar Consultant: PowerLight Co.
Tradesmen Required: Electricians and roofers
Applicable Building Codes: Standard building codes
Applicable Electrical Codes: National Electric Code, Boston Electric Interconnection Guidelines, and IEEE
Specifications
PV Product: PowerLight, using ASE Americas, Inc., solar panels
System Size: 37 kW DC, 28 kW AC
Gross PV Surface Area: Approx. 3,800 ft2
PV Weight: 4 lb/ft2
PV Efficiency: 12%
PV Module Manufacturer: ASE Americas, Inc.
Inverter Number and Size: 1 30 kVa
Inverter Manufacturer: Trace Engineering
PIX08465
The nine-story Williams Building in Boston PIX08474

(at right in photo above) has a new BIPV roof
(bottom, lower right photo) rather than a
conventional one.
42 design briefs: General Services Administration, Williams Building

Description Special Design Considerations PV Mounting and Attachment
In this project, a regularly scheduled roof The building is located on a wharf, so the Details
replacement was upgraded to the installa- design must take into account not only A metal raceway, ballast, and anchoring
tion of a building-integrated photovoltaic the water but also 140-mile-per-hour wind system is used. It was also necessary to
roof. The BIPV roof is installed on the conditions at the site. add rigid insulation for thermal protection.
Williams Building in downtown Boston.
After a site review, including a review of The PowerLight RT system is fastened to
The U.S. Coast Guard is the leading tenant
the wind conditions, the contractor the roof along its perimeter using epoxy-
of this 160,000-ft2 building, which sits on
decided to use a PowerLight RT photo- embedded anchors set into the concrete
Rowe’s Wharf at 408 Atlantic Avenue, near
voltaic system. The RT system was chosen deck. These use pitch pans and a raceway
the city’s financial district.
for its cost-effectiveness when extreme for moisture protection. The system
In addition to the new PV system for the roof penetrations are required (for exam- allows water to flow under the
roof, the building is also switching from ple, with penthouses, skylights, and HVAC PowerGuard to existing roof drains. It
district steam to on-site gas boilers. Two frames). should not be necessary to add new
75-kW Teco-gen co-generation units are drains.
also being added, as well as a high- PV System Configuration
efficiency chiller, more efficient lighting, This system produces 37 kWp DC and A harness from the panels goes through
and upgraded, more efficient motors. 28 kW AC. Its 372 PV panels are con- two conduits into attic space located
nected in sets of 12. Each panel has a above the eighth floor. Part of the attic
maximum output of 100 watts. needed additional metal decking.
Wiring for the rooftop installation

Paul King, DOE Boston Regional Office FEMP
PIX08473
liaison, surveys the installation work.
PIX08470
PIX08472
PIX08471
View of the new BIPV roof on

the Williams Building, during
and after construction
Pavers are in foreground, PV array is in background on

the rooftop.
design briefs: General Services Administration, Williams Building 43

02527263m
The plan for the roof of the Williams Building included a rooftop BIPV system consisting of 372 solar panels.
Jeff Ansley, PowerLight Corporation/PIX08461
Jeff Ansley, PowerLight Corporation/PIX08466
Co-funded by the DOE FEMP Renewable Energy Shading from other buildings is not a problem at this
Program, this BIPV application illustrates how the site, which is in urban Boston.
technology can be introduced into complex roof spaces.
44 design briefs: General Services Administration, Williams Building

design briefs Academy of Further Education
Location:
Owner:
Herne, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
EMC, Ministry of Interiors of North Rhine-Westphalia, City of Herne
Architect & Designer: Jourda et Perraudin Architects, HHS Architects
Structural Engineers: Schleich, Bergermann and Partner
Electrical Engineers: HL-Technik
Tradesmen Required: Glaziers, electricians
PV Product: BIPV roof
Size: 1 MWp
Gross PV Surface Area: 10,000 m2
PV Weight: 130 kg per each 3.2 m2 module
PV Cell Type: Polycrystalline and monocrystalline silicon
PV Efficiency: 12.8% to 16%
PV Module Manufacturer: Pilkington Solar International, Cologne
Inverter Number and Size: 600, 1.5 kW
Inverter Manufacturer and Model: SMA, Kassel
PIX08454
The Academy of Further Education under construction in Herne, Germany
design briefs: Academy of Further Education 45

PIX08455
Description
As part of the International Construction
Exhibition, Emscher Park, the site of a for-
mer coal mine in Herne, Germany, is being
used for a new purpose. A comprehensive
urban development plan is providing the
district of Sodingen with a new center-
piece: the Academy of Further Education,
Ministry of Interior, North Rhine-
Westphalia.
The large glass hall incorporates not only
the Academy but also a hotel, library, and
administrative municipal offices. The
glass hall is multifunctional. It protects
the interior from harsh weather and uses
solar energy both actively and passively
by producing heat as well as electric
power.
Approximately 3,180 multifunctional roof
and facade elements are the core of the An inside view of the Academy building as construction progressed
solar power plant. With a total area of
PIX08456
10,000 square meters, most of the roof
and the southwest facade is covered by
photovoltaics, making this system the
largest building-integrated PV power
plant in the world. It produces approxi-
mately 750,000 kWh of electric power
per year. This is enough to supply more
than 200 private residences. About
200,000 kWh is used directly by the
Academy building, and the remaining
550,000 kWh is fed into the public power
grid in Herne.
The Optisol photovoltaic elements were
produced by Pilkington Solar at a site in
Germany. The PV system consists of solar
cells embedded between glass panes.
Daylighting needs were taken into
account in designing the roof- and facade-
integrated system. The PV modules have
areas of 2.5 to 3.2 square meters and an
output of 192 to 416 peak watts each. This This photo shows how the PV panels are angled to capture the sunlight
makes them larger and more powerful shining on the roof.
than most conventional solar modules.
Direct-current electricity is converted to
Mounting and Attachment
230 V alternating current by means of Details
a modular inverter. This is made up of The building-integrated photovoltaic
roughly 600 decentralized string inverters panels are set into aluminum mullions
and allows optimal use of the incident like skylights. The rooftop panels are
solar radiation. positioned at an angle to capture as much
of the incident sunlight as possible.
46 design briefs: Academy of Further Education

PIX08457
Rooftop view shows placement of insulation and PV panels.
design briefs: Academy of Further Education 47

design briefs Discovery Science Center
Location:
Scheduled Completion Date:

Santa Ana, California
November 1999
Architect & Designer: Arquitectonica for the cube, Solar Design Associates for the PV system
Structural Engineers: Advanced Structures, Inc.
Electrical Engineers: Solar Design Associates, Inc.
Tradesmen Required: Electricians
Applicable Building Codes: Building Administrators Code Administrators International (BOCA)
PV Product: Thin-film photovoltaic system
Size: 20 kWp
PV Weight: 3 lb/ ft2
PV Cell Type: Thin-film technology
PV Efficiency (%): 5.1 %
PV Module Manufacturer: BP Solarex
Inverter Number and Size: 4
Inverter Manufacturer and Model: Omnion 2400, Model 5015
Interconnection: Utility Grid-Connected
Solar Design Associates, Inc./02527271
Architect’s rendering
of the Discovery
Science Center Cube
in Santa Ana,
California
48 design briefs: Discovery Science Center

Description architectural glazing element, replacing Science Center, displacing conventional
what would have been a glass canopy. utility power. When the solar system
This solar electric system, located in
They produce up to 20 kW of DC electricity produces more electricity than the
Santa Ana, California, boasts one of the
at mid-day and 30,000 kWh of electrical Science Center needs, the excess elec-
world's largest building-integrated thin-
energy per year, which is enough to run tricity is "exported" to the utility, thereby
film applications to date. The PV-covered
four typical homes. effectively spinning the electric meter
surface of the cube is tilted at 50° for
backwards.
maximum visual impact and optimal solar The solar energy system is connected
harvest. BP Solarex's Millennia modules to the Discovery Science Center's main
cover the entire 4,334-ft2 top of the cube utility line. When the solar system pro-
The thin-film modules are treated as an duces energy, it feeds the energy to the
Solar Design Associates, Inc./02527277m
The view from inside the cube
design briefs: Discovery Science Center 49

design briefs Solar Sunflowers
Location:
Date Completed:
Napa, California
N/A
Architect & Designer: Solar Design Associates, Inc.
Structural Engineers: Solar Design Associates, Inc.
Electrical Engineers: Solar Design Associates, Inc.
Tradesmen Required: Electricians
Applicable Building Codes: Building Officials Code Administrators International (BOCA)
PV Product: BP Solarex
Size: 36,000 Wp
Projected System Electrical Output: N/A
PV Weight: 3.4 lb/ ft2
PV Cell Type: Polycrystalline
PV Efficiency: 11.1%
PV Module Manufacturer: BP Solarex
Inverter Number and Size: 6
Inverter Manufacturer and Model: Omnion Series 2400, Model 6018
PIX08468
These Solar Sunflowers

track the sun to produce
electricity.
50 design briefs: Solar Sunflowers

Description Just like a sunflower, the Solar Electric
Sunflowers look and act like nature's own
Nestled atop a hillside in Northern
variety. Making use of a two-axis tracking
California, 36 Solar Electric Sunflowers
system, the sunflowers wake up to follow
represent an elegant combination of art
the sun's path throughout the day,
and technology. The clients requested an
enabling the system to produce enough
unconventional and artistic installation.
energy for eight to ten homes.
They got just that.
PIX08467
Solar electric sunflowers resemble nature’s own.
design briefs: Solar Sunflowers 51

design briefs Ijsselstein Row Houses
Location:
Date Completed:
Ijsselstein Zenderpark, Ijsselstein, The Netherlands
Scheduled for completion in late 2000
Architect & Designer: Han Van Zwieten, Van Straalen Architecten, co-designer; Gregory Kiss, Kiss + Cathcart
Architects, co-designer
Structural Engineers: N/A
Electrical Engineers: N/A
Tradesmen Required: Building tradesmen
Applicable Building Codes: Dutch Building Code
Applicable Electrical Codes: Dutch Electrical Code
PV Product: Standard-size BIPV glass laminate panels
Size: 1.6 kWp per housing unit
Projected System Electrical Output: 1150 kWh/year per housing unit
Gross PV Surface Area: 30 m2 per housing unit

PV Cell Type: Amorphous silicon, both opaque and 15% translucent
PV Efficiency: 6%
PV Module Manufacturer: EPV
Inverter Number and Size: N/A
Inverter Manufacturer and Model: N/A
02527269m
Fourteen planned new row-house units in the Netherlands demonstrate the aesthetic use of
building-integrated photovoltaics: front (above) and back views.
02527270m
52 design briefs: Ijsselstein Row Houses

02527268m
rooster
M.K.
M.K.
Sample floorplans for row-house units
Description positive responses among many Dutch chimney that actually uses the heated
architects, who perceive them as looking air produced in the sunrooms to draw air
This Dutch-American design collaboration
much more like an architectural material currents through the entire row house,
is intended to develop a new standard in
than polycrystalline panels do. cooling it in warm weather. Cold weather
Europe for moderately priced housing
conditions are addressed simply by
with integrated solar electric systems. The Special Design Considerations providing a suitable layer of insulation
first phase consists of 14 row-house units,
In marked contrast to the United States, between the cladding and the interior
each with its own grid-connected BIPV
The Netherlands favors residential design finish.
array. As part of a highly ordered "new
that is largely modern and rational in
town" development adjacent to the city PV System Configuration
character. The ubiquitous pitched roofs
center of Ijsselstein, these units conform
of North American houses (which provide A 1.6-kW, grid-connected BIPV system is
to strict space and budget guidelines
convenient mounting surfaces for PV part of each row house. Each system will
as well as to advanced standards of PV
arrays) were considered aesthetically be individually metered, and there is no
integration.
undesirable at Ijsselstein. However, at battery storage.
The overall design is a composition of higher latitudes with low sun angles, ver-
brick volumes and two-level, wood- tically mounted BIPV panels can generate PV Module Mounting and
framed sunrooms. The latter are partially power at output levels competitive with Attachment Details
clad in opaque and translucent PV units, those of optimally angled panels. The Standard PV modules are set into a wood
and they are raised and staggered to design takes advantage of this by using framing system, which can be either site-
maximize solar exposure. The sunroom standard-sized units as glazing and built or prefabricated. The opaque units
volumes are wood-paneled on the sides exterior enclosure combined in a simple are set as typical single glazing, using
facing north. wooden frame wall. minimum-profile glazing stops and caulk.
The translucent panels are incorporated
The Netherlands is home to some of the Extensive computer modeling studies
into double-glazed window units. The
most advanced PV systems in the world. were done to ensure that the complex
horizontal members of the wood frame
However, before this project began, little massing of the row houses works to pro-
have an absolute minimum exposed
work had been done on integrating solar vide maximum solar exposure for each
depth to prevent shadowing. The vertical
arrays into the prevailing Dutch architec- unit’s array and minimum shadowing of
members, which are not as likely to inter-
tural idiom of abstract cubic forms. The BIPV surfaces by adjacent units.
fere with solar exposure, have a raised
Ijsselstein row houses demonstrate how
Given that BIPV glass is a major cladding profile.
photovoltaics can be a fully participating
component for the sunroom elements,
element in the design, rather than just
excessive interior heat loss or gain was
an applied system. Amorphous silicon
a significant design consideration. The
modules in particular are generating very
adjacent stair serves as a convection
design briefs: Ijsselstein Row Houses 53

design briefs Denver Federal Courthouse
Location:
Owner:
Denver, Colorado
U.S. General Services Administration
Date Completed: Scheduled for completion in 2002
Architect & Designer: Anderson Mason Dale (Architects); Hellmuth, Obata, & Kassabaum, St. Louis
(Designers); Architectural Energy Corporation (Energy Consultants)
System Integration: Altair Energy (PV Consultant)
Structural Engineers: Martin/Martin, Inc.
Electrical Engineers: The RMH Group, Inc.
Tradesman Required: Building tradesmen/glaziers
Applicable Building Codes: Uniform Building Code (1997)
Applicable Electric Codes: National Electric Code (1999)
PV Product: Custom-sized BIPV glass laminate
Size: 15 kWp (roof ); 3.4 kWp (skylight)
Projected System Electrical Output: 20,150 kWh per year (roof ); 4,700 kWh per year (skylight)
Gross PV Surface Area: 172 m2 (roof ); 59 m2 (skylight)
PV Module Weight: 4,661 kg (roof ); 2,749 kg (skylight)
PV Cell Type: Single- or polycrystalline silicon
PV Efficiency: 10% or greater
PV Module Manufacturer: Pilkington Solar
Inverter Number & Size: One 20-kW and one 3.4-kW inverter
Suggested Inverter Manufacturers: Trace Technologies, Trace Engineering, Omnion
02527279m
The U.S. Court House expansion in Denver will be a showcase for sustainable building design.
54 design briefs: Denver Federal Courthouse

02527278m
Insulated
Photovoltaic
Standard Glass
Skylight
Glazing
02527294m
Photovoltaics will be integrated into the top roof louver of the tower and into a skylight above the lobby rotunda.
Description and a special proceedings courtroom. courthouse tower caps the structure
Anderson Mason Dale P.C. is the architect with an open framework and a floating
The United States Courthouse Expansion
of record, and HOK served as the design horizontal roof of photovoltaic panels.
in Denver, Colorado, consists of 17 new
architect.
courtrooms and associated support With technical assistance provided by
spaces for an additional 383,000 ft2 Recalling a traditional town square FEMP, the project’s sustainable design
(35,600 m2). The U.S. General Services courthouse, the two-story pavilion is an consultant, Architectural Energy Corpora-
Administration (GSA) approached the arrangement of two geometric forms tion of Boulder, Colorado, and the design
expansion of this Federal Courthouse in under a large horizontal roof. It is the team developed the building’s overall
downtown Denver as a showcase building frontispiece of the entire composition. sustainable design strategies. The build-
for sustainable design. One of the GSA’s An open peristyle colonnade supports ing achieves a high level of energy effi-
project goals was to "use the latest avail- the roof and transparently encloses the ciency through a combination of
able proven technologies for environmen- entrance lobby and the drum-shaped strategies that seek first to reduce build-
tally sensitive design, construction, and secured lobby. As a series of vertically ing energy loads as low as possible and
operation. It should set a standard and be oriented rectangular planes, the then to satisfy the remaining reduced
a model of sustainable design." Another
goal was to create a building that would
remain usable for its 100-year lifespan. This chart summarizes the BIPV system design:
The design projects an image of respect Component Orientation Effective Size Annual
and reflects the city’s rich architectural Area (m2) (kW) kWh
heritage. The 11-story structure houses
six floors of district courts, two floors of
Roof area Horizontal 173.4 13.9 23,300
magistrate courts, offices for the United Lobby skylight Horizontal 63.6 4.4 7,400
States Marshal, a jury assembly area,
design briefs: Denver Federal Courthouse 55

loads through state-of-the-art, high- expresses both energy efficiency and Special Design Considerations
efficiency mechanical and electrical sys- adaptation to climate. The glazing-
The basic laminated BIPV glazing panels
tems and renewable energy sources. The integrated PV array at the top horizontal
are a compilation of square polycrystaline
unique attributes of the Denver climate, roof louver of the tower is composed of
cells measuring 125 mm x125 mm. The
sunny skies and low humidity, are used crystalline cells covering approximately
manufacturing process varies the density
throughout the design to minimize energy 87% of the visible glazing area. This is
and coverage of these cells within the
consumption. The resulting building is intended to be a highly visible element of
BIPV panel to accommodate the design
a visible expression of sustainability the building’s architecture, recognizable
intent. This ability to custom-design indi-
through features that work together in from many places around the city.
vidual BIPV panels allowed the design
an integrated energy-efficient system.
The cylindrical volume of the secure lobby team to specify skylight panels to be more
The improved building envelope allows rotunda culminates in an insulated BIPV light transmissive, thereby providing
substantial reductions in energy use for glass skylight using crystalline cells cover- ample illumination of the lobby rotunda,
lighting, ventilation, and cooling. These ing approximately 60% of the visible glaz- and to design the roof louver panels with
reductions, along with the energy gener- ing area; it provides necessary shading greater opacity, thereby providing
ated from the BIPV system, will make the while generating power for the building increased power capabilities.
annual operating energy costs of the new and making a statement about alternative
The laminated BIPV glazing panel of the
courthouse 43% lower than those of a energy sources. Perimeter skylights
skylights allows the phototvoltaic system
building designed according to Depart- around the outside of the rotunda are
to be responsive to indoor safety and
ment of Energy standards for energy laminated glass. Setting the tone for
security requirements. Condensation con-
efficiency (10 CFR Part 436, which is other special places within the building,
cerns also required that the skylight’s
based on ASHRAE 90.1-1989). a perforated metal scrim ceiling diffuses
BIPV panels be integrated into an insu-
this light.
Energy savings were calculated by con- lated glazing element.
structing a simulation model of the build- The BIPV panels provide electricity during
In addition, the inside glass pane is lami-
ing that meets the minimum requirements daylight hours, reducing the building’s
nated with a milk-white, PVB (polyvinyl
of the Federal Energy Standard (10 CFR peak electricity requirements. Direct cur-
butyral) inner layer to diffuse direct sun-
Part 435). This minimally compliant build- rent from the BIPV system is fed into the
light and obscure the less visually appeal-
ing (the base building) was the baseline building’s electrical system via a DC to AC
ing side of the crystalline cells from view.
from which energy savings were calcu- power-conditioning unit. Since the system
lated. A comparison of the simulated is utility-interconnected, battery storage PV System Configuration
annual energy costs for the base building is not necessary. Estimated total energy A one-line electrical schematic is given
and the proposed design is shown below. production from the two systems is for the two photovoltaic systems. The
approximately 25,000 kWh per year, or photovoltaic modules are wired in series
Local materials, such as precast concrete
about 2% of the building’s total annual and parallel to meet the voltage and cur-
and native stone, have been incorporated
electrical consumption. rent input requirements of the power
into the exterior cladding system. The
building will have a steel frame with recy- The new U.S. Federal Courthouse expan- conditioning unit (PCU). To simplify the
cled material content. Most of the flooring sion lends an optimistic, forward-looking wiring between the PV array and the PCU,
materials in the building are made from image to the City of Denver while making combiners are installed near the array.
recycled or native sources, including a strong case for sustainable design. The array combiners include reverse
native stone, cork, or recycled plastics. Inside the courthouse, the design will current protection, surge protection,
Low-impact landscaping is used to mini- project a bright, airy appearance. "Green" and series string fusing, and they provide
mize water use, reduce the "urban heat design features also improve the work a convenient place for testing and
island" effect, and provide an attractive environment, which can lead to increases troubleshooting the PV array.
outdoor space. Low-flow lavatory faucets in employee productivity and satisfaction. DC and AC disconnects enable proper
and water closets will be used throughout disconnection and protection for the PCU.
By investing in improved materials and
to minimize water use. All interior finish Depending on whether the output of the
systems, and using an integrated, envi-
materials were carefully selected on the PCU is compatible with utility voltage and
ronmentally conscious design approach,
basis of their impacts on the environment grounding requirements, an external (to
the GSA will reduce environmental
and occupants. the PCU) isolation transformer may be
impacts as well as long-term operating
The building is crowned by a series of costs. Because the courthouse expansion needed. A utility-required relay mecha-
glazing-integrated PV modules incorpo- has been designated a "demonstration nism provides over- and under-frequency
rated into the top horizontal roof louver of project" by GSA, it will be used to influ- protection and over- and under-voltage
the tower and the skylight element above ence future courthouse design projects. protection. The utility disconnect is a
the cylindrical volume of the secure lobby redundant measure required by the utility
rotunda. This bold architectural statement to ensure that the PV system will not
56 design briefs: Denver Federal Courthouse

backfeed utility lines that are not meant (2) Wind speed (m/s) will measured with available on this display, along with
to be energized. The PCU has an anti- an NRG systems cup anemometer educational screens.
islanding feature that is the first line of mounted near the array.
defense against undesired backfeed
onto the utility grid. The point of intercon- (3) Ambient temperature (°C) will be Attachment Details
nection can be made in any electrical measured with a thermistor inside The glazing-integrated PV modules will
distribution panelboard with the proper a radiation shield mounted near the be shipped to the site individually with
voltage and current ratings. array. terminals for making electrical connec-
tions. Because the skylight installer will
Because the BIPV arrays are located in (4) PV system AC power/energy output
mount the modules into the mullions and
different places on the building, each (kW/kWh) will be measured with a
make the electrical connections, the elec-
array will be equipped with its own data standard accumulating energy meter
trical connections must be very simple.
acquisition system. The data acquisition with a special pulse output device.
Electrical terminals are located on the
systems will measure and record four This device will be located near the
panel edges so they are concealed by
parameters that can be used to scrutinize PCU.
the mullion system. Traditional modules
the performance of the BIPV systems.
The data from the two data acquisition have a junction box mounted on the back.
These parameters are the four required
systems will go to a central computer via Special plug-and-socket connectors will
by the Utility Photovoltaic Group (UPVG)
standard telephone wire. The computer enable easy one-wire connections to be
for its monitoring and rating program.
will probably be in a busy area, such as made between adjacent modules. The
This may also make the PV systems
the special proceedings lobby, to help mullions will be constructed so that indi-
eligible for cost-sharing with UPVG. The
educate the general public about BIPV vidual modules may be removed for
following measurements and sensors
systems. The computer will have custom- repairs.
will be employed:
designed software for displaying the data
(1) Plane-of-array global solar irradiance in a "cockpit" format (i.e., with graphic
(W/m2) will be measured with a Licor elements such as dials and strip charts).
pyranometer mounted on the array. Both real-time and archived data will be
Insulated
Photovoltaic Tower
Glass BIPV
Roof
Louver
Standard
Skylight
Glazing
02527293m
02527292m
These drawings show the position of BIPV modules on the skylight and the tower roof louver.
design briefs: Denver Federal Courthouse 57

BIPV Basics
Photovoltaic Technologies One of these PV materials, silicon, is
highly abundant; it constitutes more PV Cells
A French physicist, Alexandre Edmond
than 25% of the Earth's crust. Silicon is PV cells are the basic building blocks
Becquerel, was the first to record his
used in more than 90% of all PV appli- of PV modules. They are made of semi-
observation of the photovoltaic effect
cations, including building-integrated conducting materials, typically silicon,
(photo denotes light and voltaic denotes
photovoltaics or BIPV. Silicon solar doped with special additives. Approx-
the generation of electricity) in the 19th
technologies can be grouped in these imately 1/2 volt is generated by each
century. Since then, many scientists
three basic areas: single-crystal silicon, silicon PV cell. The amount of current
have worked to develop energy tech-
polycrystalline silicon, and thin-film produced is directly proportional to
nologies based on this effect. It is a
amorphous silicon. The primary dis- the cell’s size, conversion efficiency,
process in which electricity is generated
tinctions among the three technologies and the intensity of light. As shown in
in the boundary layers of certain semi-
are their sunlight-to-electricity conver- the figure below, groups of 36 series-
conductor materials when they are
sion efficiency rates, the methods by connected PV cells are packaged
illuminated. Today’s photovoltaic semi-
which they are manufactured, and their together into standard modules that
conductor materials include silicon,
associated manufacturing costs. provide a nominal 12 volt (0r 18 volts
gallium arsenide, copper indium dise-
@ peak power). PV modules were
lenide, cadmium sulfide, and cadmium The efficiency of each BIPV product originally configured in this manner
telluride. is specified by the manufacturer. to charge 12-volt batteries. Desired
Efficiencies range from as low as 5% power, voltage, and current can be
Photovoltaic materials are classified as
to as high as 15%–16%. A technology's obtained by connecting individual PV
either crystalline, polycrystalline, or
conversion efficiency rate determines modules in series and parallel combi-
thin-film in form. These classifications
the amount of electricity that a com- nations in much the same way as
represent the three major PV technolo-
mercial PV product can produce. For batteries. When modules are fixed
gies. These are the building blocks for
example, although thin-film amor- together in a single mount they are
today's commercial PV products,
phous silicon PV modules require less called a panel and when two or more
which include consumer electronics
semiconductor material and can be less panels are used together, they are
(such as a solar-powered calculator or
expensive to manufacture than crys- called an array. (Single panels are also
watch), remote electric power systems,
talline silicon modules, they also have called arrays.)
utility-connected power systems, and
lower conversion efficiency rates. Until
building-integrated systems.
these conversion efficiencies increase,
Cell
The Photovoltaic Effect

Sunlight is composed of photons—discrete units of light energy. When photons
strike a PV cell, some are absorbed by the semiconductor material and the energy
is transferred to electrons. With their new-found energy, the electrons can escape Module
from their associated atoms and flow as current in an electrical circuit.
PV arrays require no care other than occa-
sional cleaning of the surfaces if they become
soiled or are used in dusty locations. However,
Light
they must be kept clear of snow, weeds, and
energy other sources of shading to operate properly.
Panel
PV cells are connected in series, so shading
even one cell in a module will appreciably
decrease the output of the entire module. Array
n-Type
semiconductor Electrical
energy
p-Type
semiconductor
Photovoltaic device 02527264m
02527265m
58 BIPV Basics
PV modules were connected to, or
mounted on, buildings that were usu-
ally in remote areas without access to
an electric power grid. In the 1980s,
PV module add-ons to roofs began
being demonstrated. These PV systems
were usually installed on utility-grid-
connected buildings in areas with cen-
tralized power stations. In the 1990s,
BIPV construction products specially
designed to be integrated into a build-
ing envelope became commercially
available.
Internationally, the past decade has

ushered in a myriad of BIPV demon-
stration buildings and other structures.
In both new projects and renovations,
02527266m
BIPV is proving to be an effective
building energy technology in residen-
tial, commercial, industrial, and institu-
Schematic of a typical stand-alone PV system tional buildings and structures.
BIPV systems are considered to be

Utility service multifunctional building materials,
connection
and they are therefore usually designed
to serve more than one function. For
kWh example, a BIPV skylight is an integral
meter component of the building envelope,
PV array
Source a solar energy system that generates
combiner electricity for the building, and day-
with DC UI Electrical lighting element.
Lightning string DC/AC AC distribution
protection disconnects DC inverter AC disconnect panel The standard element of a BIPV system
is the PV module. Individual solar cells
are interconnected, encapsulated, lami-
AC to all
loads nated on glass, and framed to form a
02527267m
module. Modules are strung together
in an electrical series with cables and
Block diagram of a utility-interactive PV system wires to form a PV array. Direct or dif-
fuse light (usually sunlight) shining on
more amorphous silicon modules will modules are a reddish-brown to black; the solar cells induces the photovoltaic
be required to generate the same the surface may appear uniform or effect, generating unregulated DC elec-
amount of electric power produced by nonuniform, depending on how the tric power. This DC power can be used,
other silicon-based PV modules. modules are made. Consequently, stored in a battery system, or fed into
Continuing research and development typical system colors are blues, browns, an inverter that transforms and syn-
in thin-film silicon should increase its and black. However, some PV manu- chronizes the power into AC electricity.
conversion efficiencies. facturers can fill special orders for col- The electricity can be used in the build-
ors such as gold, green, and magenta. ing or exported to a utility company
An important architectural considera- These color variations will result in through a grid interconnection.
tion is aethetics, and PV modules do some loss in performance efficiencies.
differ in appearance. Single-crystalline BIPV systems are made up of BIPV
PV modules are dense blue (almost construction materials and balance-of-
BIPV Systems system (BOS) hardware. The BOS hard-
black), with a flat, uniform appearance.
PV applications for buildings began ware is composed of cabling, wiring,
Polycrystalline modules are multicol-
appearing in the United States and else- and structural elements that hold
ored, having a variety of sparkling blue
where in the 1970s. Aluminum-framed the modules in place, as well as
tones. Thin-film amorphous silicon
BIPV Basics 59
grid-metered connections, fault pro- system orientation and tilt, electrical basis. In comparison to a system's per-
tectors, a power conditioning unit characteristics, and system sizing. formance at latitude angle, annual
(inverter), and an electricity storage performance losses for vertical facade
system (usually batteries), as needed. Solar access — Solar access, the inci- systems can be as high as 30% or more.
dence of solar radiation (insolation) In contrast, annual performance losses
Demonstrations of BIPV systems have that reaches a PV surface at any given for horizontal installations can be as
greatly increased people's awareness time, determines the potential electrical high as 10%, in comparison to those of
of the potential of BIPV products. This output of a BIPV system. Solar systems installed at latitude angle.
is especially true for members of the radiation data for sites in the United
building profession and construction States can be obtained from the Electrical Characteristics — The perti-
trades. At the same time, the PV indus- Department of Energy's National nent electrical characteristics of a PV
try has gained experience in designing, Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). module or array are summarized in the
manufacturing, and installing BIPV The data are available in publications relationship between the current and
systems. The current challenge for the such as the Solar Radiation Data Manual voltage. The amount and intensity of
industry is to penetrate the commercial for Flat-Plate and Concentrating Collectors solar insolation controls the current (I);
construction market. This is being and the Solar Radiation Data Manual for the temperature of the solar cells affects
achieved through new linkages Buildings (call (303) 275-4363 to request the voltage (V) of the PV module or
between PV manufacturers and the copies) or online from the Renewable array. Module I-V curves that sum-
building materials manufacturing Resource Data Center (http://rredc. marise the relationship between the
industry. nrel.gov). Statistical estimations of current and voltage are furnished by
average daily insolation levels for spe- manufacturers. I-V curves provide
The economics and aesthetics of BIPV cific locations are commonly used in information designers need to config-
systems are optimized when PV is the BIPV design process and measured ure systems that can operate as close
integrated into the building during pre- as kilowatt-hours per square meter per to the optimal peak power point as
liminary design stages. In order to be day (kWh/m2/day). possible. The peak power point is mea-
effective, BIPV products should match sured, under standard testing condi-
the dimensions, structural properties, System Orientation and Tilt — To max- tions (STC), as the PV module produces
qualities, and life expectancy of the imize solar access and power output, its maximum amount of power when
materials they displace. Like standard the physical orientation of the BIPV exposed to artificial solar radiation of
construction glass, cladding, and roof- system and the tilt angle of the array 1000 W/m2.
ing materials, they can then easily be should be considered relative to the
integrated into the building envelope. geographical location of the building System Sizing — Choosing a BIPV type
site. As a general rule of thumb, BIPV and sizing a system have three main
Design Issues installations north of the equator per- components: energy loads, architectural
Beyond comfort and aesthetics, BIPV form optimally when oriented south or aesthetic considerations, and eco-
design considerations encompass both and tilted at an angle 15 degrees higher nomic factors. To determine the desired
environmental and structural factors. than the site latitude. Conversely, BIPV power rating of a BIPV system for a
Environmental factors include a struc- installations south of the equator per- building, the electrical requirements of
ture's solar access as well as average form best when oriented north and the building should first be evaluated.
seasonal outdoor temperatures at the tilted at an angle 15 degrees lower than The optimum power rating of the sys-
site, local weather conditions, shading the site latitude. The orientation and tem can be calculated and sized, based
and shadowing from nearby structures tilt may vary from this formula when on the portion of the building's electric-
and trees, and the site's latitude, which a BIPV system's particular seasonal ity that will be supplied by the BIPV
influences the optimum BIPV system performance must be optimized. For system. For example, an autonomous or
orientation and tilt. Structural factors example, a system might be designed off-grid building may require a large
include a building's energy require- to produce maximum power output system with battery storage capabilities
ments, which influences the size of the only in the summer months in order to provide 100% of the building's elec-
system, and the BIPV system's opera- to reduce peak electricity costs for air- tricity requirements; a building owner
tion and maintenance requirements. conditioning loads; thus, the system desiring to reduce demand charges will
These factors must all be taken into should be installed at an optimum require a small system that produces
account during the design stages, when orientation and tilt for summer power electricity only during peak utility
the goal is to achieve the highest possi- output. charge hours.
ble value for the BIPV system. Some of
Demonstrations have shown that a sys- Architecturally, the size of the BIPV
the major design considerations unique
tem installed at a tilt angle equivalent system is physically limited to the
to solar energy systems are solar access,
to the site latitude produces the greatest dimensions of the building's available
amount of electricity on an annual surface area. The balance between the
60 BIPV Basics
amount of power required and the the inverter from DC to AC power and lifetime of the PV module. If the
amount of surface area available can then fed into the building or an electric inverter has a lifetime of only 5 years
determine the type of PV technology utility system. If the inverter fails, the and the BIPV facade lasts 25 years,
that will be used. Each technology has entire system malfunctions. replacing the modular inverter has an
an associated range of output in watts associated periodic cost, and access
per square foot or per square meter and Today, most inverters are highly reli- needs to be anticipated and designed
cost per watt. For example, systems able. However, the practice of relying into the project.
made of amorphous silicon require a on only one inverter for a BIPV system
larger surface area but cost less than in a commercial building is problem- The string inverter is the second
equivalent systems composed of single- atic. When BIPV systems are made generation of inverters for buildings.
crystal solar cells. Therefore, in projects up of a large series of interconnected In Europe, one string inverter with the
that have a limited budget but include a strings, there is a technical difficulty in nominal power of 750 watts can con-
large south-facing facade surface area, determining where a system has failed. nect as many as 10 PV modules in a
amorphous silicon can be the most suit- This is akin to the problem people had series and be connected anywhere in
able BIPV technology.To achieve the with old-fashioned Christmas tree the building's electricity distribution
appearance of a uniform surface area, lights. When one light malfunctioned, system. The flexibility, reliability, and
less expensive "mock" or imitation PV the entire string went down, and each increased efficiency offered by string
panels can also be provided by the bulb had be tested to determine the inverters may further reduce the cost
manufacturer. source of the problem. of BIPV systems.
Once the building energy load require- A BIPV system designed so that multi- New AC modules are being equipped
ment is determined, the watt-hour ple inverters work together ensures with individual AC mini-inverters
method can be used to design the elec- greater system reliability. If one inverter mounted on the backs of the PV panels.
trical system. An evaluation of seasonal malfunctions or requires maintenance, They are at the early commercial stages
climatic conditions and variations (tem- it can be disconnected from the array of development in the United States
perature and solar insolation) and the and the BIPV system can still operate. and Switzerland. One benefit of these
available surface area will determine A cascading hierarchy "master-slave" is that they eliminate the need in the
the number of modules that will satisfy configuration includes one master building for the high-voltage DC
the voltage and current requirement inverter and multiple slave inverters wiring associated with other BIPV
of the load. After that, corresponding that operate together for maximum systems.
inverter requirements and BOS require- efficiency
In regard to electrical safety issues,
ments can be specified. Currently, PV
Modular, "micro," or "mini" inverters it is important to note that lightning,
specialists, system integrators, and
allow each module to be tested (each ground faults, and power line surges
consultants provide electrical sizing
has its own address) through the use can cause high voltages in otherwise
information, assessments, and recom-
of a power line carrier signal injected low-voltage BIPV systems. National
mendations. However, BIPV manufac-
into the building's electrical distribu- and international electric code regula-
turers are increasingly providing full
tion system. This way, each unit's tions and building codes are being
turn-key services for large systems
performance can easily be evaluated. amended to include PV technologies
for commercial buildings, and prepack-
Modular inverters also enable PV to and address fire and safety issues con-
aged, standardized, residential systems
be integrated into complex, geometric cerning BIPV design, installation, and
are being sold by distributors. For more
building designs. maintenance.
information on software tools for opti-
mizing PV systems, see Appendix B. Modular inverters are desirable for Codes and Standards
commercial buildings because they
Electrical and Safety Issues The national model codes historically
operate independently. Shading one
have been composed of three primary
Electrical issues primarily involve the module will not interrupt the power
organizations: the International
performance and reliability of the output of the whole array. In single or
Conference of Building Officials
inverters. The variety available for multiple inverter systems, a number
(ICBO), Building Officials Code
BIPV systems include single inverters, of modules are connected in series to
Administrators International (BOCA),
master-slave inverter configurations, achieve the voltage needed by the
and the Southern Building Code
modular inverters, and parallel- selected inverter. Shading any one
Conference International (SBCCI).
independent or string inverters. A module in this series can negate the
These organizations have collaborated
BIPV system is most vulnerable to a output of the entire string.
to create one umbrella organization,
single-point failure where the power
One design issue related to the modular the International Code Conference
generated from the BIPV array must be
inverter is whether it will last the (ICC). The ICC has begun the process
transformed and synchronized through
BIPV Basics 61
of writing one model code, the Inter- 2000 by the International Residential package known as FEDcheck to assist
national Building Codes. These codes Code. The CABO document is not users in understanding and complying
began development in 1996, and the being updated at this time, and changes with the code. For more information,
entire group will be published by the will need to be made to the IRC. The contact Stephen Walder, DOE, 202-
year 2000. Although these codes must change process for both the IECC and 586-9209, or Robert Lucas, Pacific
be adopted by each municipality to IRC will occur annually until 2003 and Northwest National Laboratory,
have any authority, they will be the at three-year intervals after 2003. 509-375-3789 (online, see http://www.
most up-to-date ones that can be energycodes.org/federal/federal.htm).
adopted after the year 2000. This is a Commercial Codes & Products — DOE
major step toward a unifying model supports commercial energy codes, DOE has also prepared a third edition
code, reducing the duplication and especially ASHRAE 90.1, by helping to of its Building Standards and Guide-
diversity of the previous three code develop them and by providing tools lines Program catalogue. This catalogue
bodies. The change process for all ICC and resources that make the codes is one of many services that promote
codes will occur annually until 2003 easier to use. The COMcheck-EZTM the adoption, implementation, and
and at three-year intervals after 2003. materials were developed to simplify enforcement of residential and com-
and clarify commercial and high-rise mercial building energy codes. One of
To date, these codes do not refer specifi- residential building energy code the primary goals of the program is to
cally to BIPV systems, leaving compli- requirements. The materials include provide products and services that
ance to the discretion of local building easy to use IBM-compatible software; make it easy for builders, architects,
inspectors. If BIPV is the structural compliance guides for envelope, light- designers, building code officials, and
equivalent of a current building mater- ing, and mechanical requirements; and state energy officials to implement
ial, only specific code provisions or prescriptive packages for county-based building energy codes.
compliance required for the structural climate zones. Forms and a checklist
equivalent will be necessary. However, are included to document compliance. The catalogue features many products
the typical crystalline PV cell adds All COMcheck-EZ materials can be that will quickly and efficiently imple-
weight to the traditional building downloaded at no cost. If you down- ment the requirements of the Model
product relative to a thin filmed glaz- load any material, please register with Energy Code; the American Society
ing, and this may require closer evalua- the program so you will be notified of of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-
tion by code officials. Because of their upgrades (online, see http://www. Conditioning Engineers and Illumin-
multifunctional nature, BIPV systems energycodes.org/comm/comm.htm). ating Engineering Society of North
must also comply with the National America Standard 90.1-1989; and the
Electric Code (NEC), which addresses Federal Building Codes — The current Federal Performance Standards for
PV power systems but not BIPV Federal code for low-rise residential New Commercial and Multi-Family
specifically. energy efficiency (10 CFR Part 435, High-Rise Residential Buildings.
sub-part C) can be obtained online (see
Local codes vary by state and munici- http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/ In addition to the catalogue, the
pality, and some covenant-controlled cfr-retrieve.html#page1). DOE has been MECcheck and COMcheck-EZ compli-
communities regulate the appearance updating this code. The proposed rule- ance tools and manuals may be down-
of buildings for architectural aesthetics making for the Energy Efficiency Code loaded at no cost from the Building
and homogeneity. This may affect deci- for new Federal Residential Buildings Standards and Guidelines Web site at
sions about the suitability of BIPV sys- was published in the May 2, 1997, edi- http://www.energycodes.org/. For
tems. Furthermore, a few communities tion of the Federal Register. A printed more information, or to place an order,
in the United States have developed copy of the rulemaking can be obtained call the U.S. Department of Energy
zoning ordinances relative to solar in Federal Register Volume 62, Number Building Standards and Guidelines
access laws that could affect BIPV sys- 85, pages 24163-24209, or at the online program hotline at 1-800-270-CODE
tems and structures that may shade address above. (online, see http://www.energycodes.
solar systems. org/news/catalog.htm).
The proposed rule is based on the 1995
Residential Energy Codes — The Model version of the Model Energy Code, but State Energy Codes — The status of
Energy Code (MEC) has been pub- it contains more stringent envelope each state’s building energy codes is
lished by the Council of American requirements and rules related to radon current as of September 1997. The list is
Building Officials (CABO). The MEC is control and backdrafting from fossil- likely to become less accurate in time,
no longer being updated, and is being fuel-burning appliances. DOE has been however, as states adopt new codes.
replaced by the International Energy preparing the final rule based on com- Thus, there will be continual updates.
Conservation Code (IECC). The CABO ments received on the proposed rule Printed copies of the State Building
requirement for one- and two-family and expects to issue it in 1999. DOE Codes Database are available for $15 by
dwellings is being replaced in the year is also preparing a code compliance calling 1-800-270-CODE. To view the
62 BIPV Basics
status of a particular state’s energy This exhaust can combine with sun- Atrium systems — BIPV is a glass ele-
codes, select a state from the list online baked atmospheric dust to reduce the ment that provides different degrees
(see http://www.energycodes.org/ amount of light that can reach the of shading and can be designed to
states/ states.htm). The status of the modules and thus reduce system per- enhance indoor thermal comfort as
state energy codes can be found at formance. Such systems may require well as daylighting.
http://www.bcap.com . periodic cleaning with chemical agents
to maximize the system's electrical out- Awning and Shading systems — A vari-
Maintenance put. Consequently, system designers ety of PV materials can be mounted
must ensure adequate access to the onto a facade in aesthetic manner to
PV has no recurring fuel costs, and it
system to perform these maintenance serve as awnings.
is promoted as a simple energy technol-
ogy that is durable and relatively main- activities.
Roofing systems — The BIPV system
tenance-free because it has no moving displaces conventional roofing materi-
Failure-related maintenance involves
parts. However, designers should als such as tiles, shingles, and metal
repairs and replacements associated
ensure that BIPV installations allow roofing.
with poor performance or failures of
easy access for inspecting, repairing,
the BIPV system. This can be covered
and replacing components. Mainten- The cost of a BIPV system depends
under traditional and extended
ance costs can be divided into two cate- on the type of system and the PV
warranties.
gories: preventive and failure-related. technology used in manufacturing it.
Currently, only a few U.S. manufactur-
Preventative maintenance can ensure Warranties ers produce custom and standardized
the performance of a BIPV system. BIPV systems are generally covered BIPV products. For commercial and
Shadowing on the PV array caused by a limited 12-month replacement institutional structures and buildings,
by the natural or built environment warranty that guards against defects the two primary types of BIPV prod-
reduces system output. Sunlight and ensures system repair and product ucts, facades and roofing materials, are
reflects off expanses of sand, snow, replacements or an optional full refund available for both new construction and
ice, and other light surfaces, and can of the purchase price. In case of an acci- refurbishment projects.
increase output by reflecting additional dent, such as a fire, ancillary damage to
solar energy onto arrays. However, a BIPV system may be covered by a BIPV Facade Systems — BIPV facade
other structures, trees, and bushes near conventional building insurance policy. systems include laminated and pat-
a BIPV system can inhibit solar access terned glass, spandrel glass panels, and
and thus reduce system performance. Currently, the major PV manufacturers curtain wall glazing systems. These
This is in turn detrimental to the offer power production warranties for BIPV products can displace traditional
economic performance of the system. as long as 10, 20, and 25 years. These construction materials. Laminated glass
manufacturers will replace the power is a standardized BIPV product. It is
In the case of building retrofits, land- output lost from modules that fail to composed of two pieces of glass with
scaping can often shade parts of a roof produce at least 80% of the minimum PV solar cells sandwiched between
and limit solar access, so landscape power output specified on the back of them, an encapsulant of ethylene-vinyl
architecture must be considered, and the module. This warranty dates from acetate (EVA) or another encapsulant
trees must be trimmed periodically. the sale of the product to the original material, and a translucent or colored
purchaser and is generally nontrans- tedlar-coated polyester backsheet. It
The electrical performance of a BIPV ferrable. Other suppliers also offer can also be made with only one piece
system can also be affected by accumu- optional warranties on roofing through of glass and a tedlar backsheet.
lations of dirt on the modules. In most service and maintenance contracts. Architects can specify the color of the
locations, normal rainfall removes the
tedlar backsheet.
layers of dust and pollution that can BIPV Products
accumulate on the outer surface. Where Spandrel panels are the opaque glass
These are the types of BIPV systems
there is little rainfall, occasionally used between floors in commercial
commercially available:
spraying the system with water from glass building facades. A glazed curtain
a standard garden hose to remove Facade systems — The BIPV system is wall is a non-load-bearing exterior wall
dirt and debris is adequate but not designed to act as an outer skin and suspended in front of the structural
required. weather barrier as part of the building frame and wall elements. Patterned or
envelope. An example is a BIPV system fritted glass is semitransparent with
The performance of a BIPV system can
used for rainscreen overcladding. Glass distinctive geometric or linear designs.
decline if it is located in a particularly
BIPV products are typically used as
dirty urban environment. Layers of
facade systems.
grime, caused by fuel exhaust and other
emissions, can accumulate on a system.
BIPV Basics 63
PIX08462
Solar Design Associates, Inc./PIX04472
Figure 1. AC PV modules, Solar Design Associates Figure 2. Architectural PV glazing system, Innovative
Design, Inc.
Tim Ellison, ECD/PIX04473

FIRST, Inc./PIX03612
Figure 3. PV-integrated modular homes, Fully Figure 4. Rooftop PV systems, Energy Conversion
Independent Residential Solar Technology, Inc. Devices, Inc.
Some companies sell custom-made Curtain wall laminates are available for Flexible thin-film amorphous silicon
BIPV glazing products, available in any both AC and DC power. The AC panel BIPV shingles can replace asphalt
size or dimension and consisting of any has its own mini-inverter attached to shingles. This BIPV product is nailed to
PV technology (crystalline or thin film). the back of the laminate. The AC the roof deck, very much the way that
The architect can indicate the spacing PowerWall™ operates with current at traditional asphalt shingles are attached
between solar cells, which will deter- maximum power with 2.0 amps (A) to a roof. This technology was designed
mine the power supply and also permit and 110 volts (V). The DC PowerWall™ as a 2-kilowatt peak (kWp) BIPV sys-
the design of passive solar features by operates at maximum power with 3.5 A tem for the Southface Energy Institute
regulating the amount of daylighting and 68.4 V. The PowerWall™ generates in Atlanta, Georgia. Also available
allowed to enter into the builiding. 250 watts (W) under standard test are fiber cement PV roofing shingles
These products can be used in any com- conditions (STC). measuring 16 in. (40 cm) by 12 in.
mercial glazing application. Standard (30 cm) by 1/4 in. (0.6 cm) and weigh-
and custom products are available in BIPV Roofing Systems — Roofing sys- ing 5 pounds (2.27 kg). Crystalline sili-
many sizes (as large as 1.3 m x 1.7 m) tems include BIPV shingles, metal con cells are laminated to fiber cement
and in a range of thicknesses (0.5 mm roofing, and exterior insulation roof roofing shingles and are rated at 11 W
to 2.5 mm glass). systems. These BIPV products can dis- of power output under STC.
place traditional construction materials.
64 BIPV Basics
BIPV metal roofing can replace an has brought together PV and building funding additional projects in 1997
architectural standing seam. The thin- product manufacturers in a coordinated under a second program known as
film amorphous silicon PV material is effort to develop PV roofing shingles, PV:BONUS Two.
laminated directly onto long metal facade glazing, and curtain wall prod-
roofing panels. The BIPV metal roofing ucts for buildings and other structures. PV:BONUS (June 1993 – May 1999). The
panels, with edges turned up, are laid Today there is a recognizable commer- five projects originally funded by the
side by side and a cap is placed over the cialization trend toward standardizing PV:BONUS program have all been suc-
standing edges to form a seam. These BIPV construction products. In the long cessfully installed in demonstration
metal panels can be installed by a tradi- run, product standardization will be an projects, and most are now commer-
tional roofer followed by an electrician. essential element in reducing the cost cially available to the buildings indus-
of manufacturing BIPV systems. The try. These new technologies include the
As an exterior insulation BIPV roof sys- following section on new construction following.
tem, PV laminates are attached to poly- materials for buildings was extracted
styrene insulation, and it provides • AC photovoltaic module and curtain
from a paper written by Sheila J.
thermal insulation rated R-10 or R-15. wall application (Figure 1)
Hayter, P.E. (NREL) & Robert L. Martin
It rests on the waterproof membrane (DOE). This paper, titled "Photovoltaics • Architectural PV glazing system
without penetrating or being mechani- for Buildings, Cutting Edge PV," was (Figure 2)
cally fastened to the building. In an presented at the UPEX conference in
interlocking tongue-and-groove assem- 1998. Below is the section on Building • Dispatchable PV peak-shaving
bly, the panels are weighed down by Opportunities in the U.S. for Photo- system
pavers that surround the system to voltaics (PV:BONUS).
provide access for maintenance and • PV-integrated modular homes
repairs. Channels or raceways are The U.S. Department of Energy demon- (Figure 3)
designed to provide access to the elec- strates its commitment to supporting
trical connections. This technology can new PV-for-buildings technologies by • Rooftop BIPV standing-seam systems
be used to redo the roof of an existing awarding Cooperative Agreement (Figure 4).
building, as demonstrated by the New funding to U.S. manufacturers and
AC Photovoltaic Module and Curtain
York Power Authority on a community organizations for product develop-
Wall Application. The product devel-
center in Tuckahoe, New York. ment. These agreements are within the
oped for this PV:BONUS project was a
Additionally, the PV portion of the Building Opportunities in the U.S. for
large-area PV module with a dedicated,
product can be tilted up to 12° to help Photovoltaics (PV:BONUS) program.
integrally mounted, direct-current (DC)
optimize the system's orientation. The objective of the PV:BONUS pro-
to alternating-current (AC) power
gram is to develop technologies and to
This system can be installed on built- inverter (Figure 1). The module is
foster business arrangements that inte-
up and single-ply membranes of flat designed to be integrated into the
grate photovoltaics or hybrid products
commercial roofs and typically weighs vertical facades and sloped-roof
into buildings cost-effectively. Cost-
4 lb/ft2 versus 10 lb/ft2 for a conven- construction of residential, commercial,
effectiveness, either through design;
tional aggregate ballast roof. Any PV or institutional buildings. Large spaces
integration (i.e., components, system,
technology can be applied in this pro- between the PV cells can be incorpo-
and/or building integration); dedicated
cess and will provide power according rated into the module design to allow
end-use applications; or technology
to its solar cell and system efficiency direct sunlight to transmit through the
bundling (i.e., PV/thermal hybrids) is
rating. module. The building designer can use
a major factor in selecting PV:BONUS
this feature to enhance daylighting and
projects. DOE is interested in products
The manufacturer claims that this provide passive solar heating to the
that can replace commercial building
product extends normal roof life by space adjacent to the modules. Solar
products and be installed without the
protecting insulation and membranes Design Associates, Inc., led develop-
necessity for specialized training. The
from ultraviolet (UV) rays and water ment efforts for this project. Other team
ultimate goal of the PV:BONUS pro-
degradation. It does this by eliminating members included Mobil Solar Energy
gram is market demonstrations of com-
condensation because the dew point Corp., New England Electric, New
mercially viable products that lead to
is kept above the roofing membrane. York Power Authority, Pacific Gas and
manufacturer commitments to pursue
Electric, Kawneer, Maryland Energy
production and sales.
BIPV Product Development Administration, and Baltimore Gas
Since the early 1990s, the U.S. Depart- In 1993, the U.S. Department of Energy and Electric.
ment of Energy's (DOE's) Photo- awarded cooperative agreements for
Architectural PV Glazing System. A
voltaics: Building Opportunities in the five PV:BONUS projects. The success
system of matching building facade
United States (PV:BONUS) program of this initial effort resulted in DOE
glazing products including opaque,
BIPV Basics 65
semitransparent, and clear units was this PV:BONUS project was to design divided into four categories: 1) glazing
developed. A large-area, thin-film PV a line of modular solar homes that products; 2) roofing materials; 3) PV/
module option was available for the include photovoltaic power. To meet thermal (PV/T) hybrid systems; and
opaque and semitransparent units. The this objective, it was necessary to mini- 4) other related projects (inverter tech-
system was incorporated into the over- mize construction costs of the home so nology, fire retardancy investigations,
head glazing of a demonstration project that the higher cost of the PV system and development of a "mini-grid").
in an Applebee’s Neighborhood Grill could be absorbed into the overall cost At the completion of Phase I, seven of
and Bar in Salisbury, NC (Figure 2). The of the home. The effort was lead by these projects were selected for contin-
designers placed a high-absorptance Fully Independent Residential Solar ued Phase II funding. Phase II is cur-
metal pan approximately 1 in. (2.5 cm) Technologies, Inc. (FIRST, Inc.), a rently under way and the following
below the back of the panel to increase non-profit organization teamed with projects are being pursued:
effectiveness for solar heating of the air Bradley Builders and Avis America
behind the panels. Fans operated by the (a builder of manufactured homes). • PV-powered electrochromic windows
PV system drew the heated air through
Rooftop Photovoltaic Systems. The • Thin-film PV product line
an air-to-water heat exchanger to
reduce the restaurant’s energy demand result of this PV:BONUS project was
• Hybrid PV/thermal collector
for producing hot water. Drawing hot the development of residential and
air off the back of the PV panels also light-commercial PV-integrated roofing • Ballast-mounted PV arrays
increased the operating efficiency of materials. These amorphous-silicon
the panels. Although the manufacturer modules are manufactured either to • PV string inverters
of the PV panels and leader of this resemble asphalt shingles or to be lami-
nated onto metal standing-seam roof • Field-applied PV membrane
PV:BONUS team, Advanced Photo-
voltaic Systems (APS), is no longer in modules (Figure 4). One of the goals of
• PowerRoofTM 2000.
existence, the PV technology the com- the project was to develop a product
pany developed continues to be used that required no special training to PV-Powered Electrochromic Windows.
by the PV industry. Innovative Design install the PV-roof on actual buildings. Sage Electrochromics, in conjunction
partnered with APS to design the These products have been tested in with Solarex, proposes to develop and
Applebee’s system. demonstration projects and are now commercialize photovoltaic (PV) pow-
commercially available. The leader ered electrochromic (EC) "smart win-
Dispatchable PV Peak Shaving of this development team, Energy dows." EC windows control the amount
System. A fully integrated dispatchable Conversion Devices, Inc., worked of sunlight and solar heat by dynami-
peak-shaving system for commercial with United Solar Systems Corp., the cally switching between darkened and
applications was designed for this National Association of Home Builders, clear states and anywhere in between.
PV:BONUS project. The focus of the Solar Design Associates, Inc., and a They provide an opportunity to realize
project was to reliably control the PV number of utility companies, construc- energy savings and reduce peak
system output for a prescribed length tion companies, government agencies, electrical demand in buildings. The
of time by including battery storage and educational institutions to design, low-power DC voltage required to
with the PV system. The dispatchable manufacture, and test this product. power the EC window glazing will be
system made it possible to displace a supplied by PV solar cells incorporated
load greater than the array’s output PV:BONUS Two (September 1997 – early
in the double-pane insulating glass unit
during peak demand periods. This fea- 2000s). PV:BONUS Two activities are
(IGU) so that no external hard-wired
ture is especially important in commer- being carried out in three phases. Phase
connections are needed.
cial buildings where the peak demand I was the concept development and
period often extends beyond the period business planning phase. Prototype Thin-Film Photovoltaics. With the
of peak power production of the PV systems will be developed and tested support of subcontractors Kawneer,
system. Delmarva Power and Light in Phase 2, the product and business Solar Design Associates, Inc., and
Company was responsible for this development phase. Product demon- Viracon, Solarex will develop building-
PV:BONUS effort. stration and marketing will occur in integrated photovoltaic products using
Phase 3. It is expected that viable prod- tandem-junction amorphous silicon
PV-Integrated Modular Homes. ucts will be offered commercially dur- modules. Major objectives of the pro-
Installing residential photovoltaic sys- ing Phase 3. Participation in Phases 2 gram include: 1) developing a commer-
tems onto homes constructed in a fac- and 3 depend on the accomplishments cial photovoltaic curtain wall module
tory along with other energy-efficient of the previous phases. (Spandrel Module); 2) developing a
features result in reducing the total commercial photovoltaic sunshade for
construction cost of the manufactured The U.S. Department of Energy
curtain walls (PowerTint Window);
homes to be comparable to typical site- awarded 17 Phase I cooperative
and 3) developing a light-transmitting
built homes (Figure 3). The objective of agreements. These project areas were
66 BIPV Basics
must exist for the ballast-mounting and fabric roofing systems. The
Solar Design Associates, Inc./PIX06429

approach to succeed. Ascension UNI-SOLAR PV Membrane will be
Technology has already developed a shipped directly to the site for field
ballast-mounting system for PV arrays. application or to a building product
The system is applicable for both new company for integration with its own
and retrofit construction on flat or products. The membrane uses United
nearly flat roofs, typically on commer- Solar Systems Corp.’s multijunction
cial buildings. a-Si stainless steel PV cells laminated
in flexible UL-approved
PV String Inverters. Advanced Energy materials.
Systems, Inc., proposes to design and
manufacture a low-cost string inverter PowerRoofTM 2000. PowerLight
system (SIS), which will minimize the Corporation, in cooperation with
cost of the BOS components (i.e., the AstroPower, Solarex, BP Solar, and
inverter and the PV output circuit Siemens Solar, proposes to develop an
wiring). The SIS is an inverter and innovative building-integrated PV
associated wiring that is designed to roofing system called PowerRoofTM
operate with a single string of photo- (Figure 6). PowerGuard® is the first
voltaic (PV) modules. By using a single core product in the PowerRoof family
string, the need for an expensive string- and has been successfully developed
combiner is eliminated. The paralleling under prior programs. The PowerRoof
of multiple strings is accomplished by 2000 proposal targets the development
Figure 5. PV sunshades at the State the utility or AC side of the system, of two next-generation core PowerRoof
University of New York, Albany which can result in inexpensive instal- building products, HeatGuardTM and
lation costs. PowerThermTM. Each builds upon the
photovoltaic module and incorporating proven technological approach of the
it into the curtain wall product. Field-Applied PV Membrane. United PowerGuard solar electric roofing
Solar Systems Corp., in collaboration system.
Hybrid Photovoltaic/Thermal with Energy Conversion Devices, Inc.,
Collector. Solar Design Associates, Inc., the National Association of Home Other PV for Buildings Products on
United Solar Systems Corporation, Builders, Phasor Energy, Arizona Public the Market and on the Horizon.
and SunEarth, Inc., propose to design, Service, Southern California Edison Building designers have shown great
develop, demonstrate, manufacture Co., Southern Cal Roofing, ATAS interest in the new PV-for-buildings
and commercialize a hybrid flat-plate International, Elk Corp., and San Diego systems, as indicated by the number of
photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) collector Gas & Electric intend to develop a participants in BIPV workshops for
to deliver both electricity and thermal field-applied, flexible photovoltaic architects sponsored by DOE, the
energy. The PV/T collector design (PV) membrane product for the 'built- American Institute of Architects (AIA),
will employ a liquid thermal transfer environment." UNI-SOLAR PV Roll and other organizations. In general,
medium and closely resemble conven- Membrane is a
tional flat-plate solar thermal collectors flexible PV lami-
Power Light Coproration/PIX04471

in size, appearance, installation, and nate designed for a
function. However, in place of the range of market
normal thermal absorber plate, it will applications, such
employ a PV element of triple-junction as covered parking
amorphous silicon alloy solar cells structures, "flat"
made with United Solar's proprietary roof commercial
UNI-SOLAR technology, in which the buildings, archi-
material and thermal characteristics tectural and struc-
are well suited for combined PV/T tural metal roofing
applications. (including new
Ballast-Mounted PV Arrays. Ascension construction and
Technology will develop analytic and retrofit, flat, and
experimental capabilities for quantify- curved roofs),
ing the balance between driving (wind, facades, prefabri-
seismic) forces and the restraining cated stress skin
(gravitational/frictional) forces that panel production, Figure 6. PowerLight roof on Tuckahoe Community
Center
BIPV Basics 67
building designers want PV systems PV modules will be close to that of Other products are designed to be used
that can be integrated into the building high-end glass products, making it in flat-roof commercial retrofit applica-
envelope and blend well with other easier for designers to justify the cost tions. They include an insulated unit
building envelope components and of PV. with PV integrated into the top layer
materials. Many of the products that and a roof membrane product with PV
have been or are being developed with Designers are beginning to integrate integrated into the membrane.
assistance from the PV:BONUS photovoltaics into sunshade building
Program meet these criteria. components. Sunshades are used to The cutting-edge PV products dis-
reduce the direct solar gain into a build- cussed in this paper are only an exam-
New products such as transparent ing, which also reduces the building ple of what is available or expected to
thin-film PV modules, for which the cooling loads (Figure 5). The angle of become available for buildings applica-
designer can specify the transmissivity, the sunshade can also be set to optimize tions. This is not an exhaustive list,
are expected to become commercially the output of the PV/sunshade system. however.
available in the near future. The
designer will be able to specify both Several PV-roofing products are Source: Sheila J. Hayter, P.E., and
view glass and curtain wall PV now commercially available. One Robert L. Martin, "Photovoltaics for
modules, so that the entire facade of crystalline-silicon-cell product replaces Buildings, Cutting Edge PV," presented
a building can be clad in PV. Manu- traditional roofing materials and is at the Utility PV Experience Conference
facturers predict that the price of these usually used in new construction. & Exhibition, October 1998.
68 BIPV Basics
BIPV Terminology
Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) is a relatively recent new application of
photovoltaic (PV) energy technologies. These are some of the basic terms used in
describing PV technologies, BIPV products, and their uses:
Antireflection coating — a thin coating of a material that reduces light reflection

and increases light transmission; it is applied to the surface of a photovoltaic cell.
Balance of System (BOS) — Non-PV components of a BIPV system typically

include wiring, switches, power conditioning units, meters, and battery storage
equipment (if required).
Bypass diode — a diode connected across one or more solar cells in a photovoltaic
module to protect these cells from thermal destruction in case of total or partial
shading of individual cells while other cells are exposed to full light.
Conversion efficiency — Amount of electricity a PV device produces in relation

to the amount of light shining on the device, expressed as a percentage.
Curtain wall — an exterior wall that provides no structural support.
Encapsulant — Plastic or other material around PV cells that protects them from
environmental damage.
Grid-connected — Intertied with an electric power utility.
Inverter — Device that transforms direct-current (DC) electricity to alternating-

current (AC) electricity.
Module — Commercial PV product containing interconnected solar cells;

modules come in various standard sizes and can also be custom-made by the
manufacturer.
PV array — Group or string of connected PV modules operating as a single unit.
PV laminate — Building component constructed of multilayers of glass, metal or

plastic and a photovoltaic material.
PV solar cell — Device made of semiconductor materials that converts direct or

diffuse light into electricity; typical PV technologies are made from crystalline,
polycrystalline, and amorphous silicon and other thin-film materials.
Solar access — Insolation incidence of solar radiation that occurs on a PV

system’s surface at any given time; it determines the potential electrical output
of a BIPV system.
Stand-alone — Remote power source separate from an electric utility grid; a

stand-alone system typically has a battery storage component.
BIPV Terminology 69
Kiss, G.; Kinkead, J. (1995). Optimal Schoen, T.; Prasad, D.; Toggweiler, P.;
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Eiffert, P.; and Sorensen, H. (1997).
“Building with Photovoltaics—The
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Architecture, 17–21 May, Florence, Italy; Building-Integrated Photovoltaics: A Case
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CO: National Renewable Energy the Utility Distribution System: The
Berdner, J.; Whitaker, C.; Wenger, H.; Laboratory. Evaluation of System and Distribution
Jennings, C.; Kern, E.; Russell, M. Benefits." Proceedings from the Institute
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WCPEC, Dec. 5–9, Hawaii; pp. 981–985. Energy,Vol. 5, Part I; pp. 154–161. pp. 836–843.
Carlisle, N.; Taylor, P. Eiffert; Crawley, Murphy, A. (1998) Pacific Northwest Sick, F.; Erge, T. (eds). (1996).
A. Sprunt. (1997). "Federal Efforts to National Laboratory. Personal commu- Photovoltaics in Buildings. IEA Task 16.
Implement Renewable Energy nication. See also http://www.energy- London: James & James.
Projects." Proceedings of the American codes.org/meccheck/
Solar Energy Annual Conference, April Taylor, P.; Becker, M.; Ezell, L. (1997).
25-30, Washington, DC. National Renewable Energy "Technical Assistance for New Federal
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Dinwoodie, T.L.; Shugar, D.S. (1994). Buildings: An Overview of Today’s Institution Air and Space Museum
"Optimizing Roof-Integrated Applications (Revised). DOE/GO-10097- Dulles Center." Energy & Environmental
Photovoltaics: A Case Study of the 357. Produced for the U.S. Department Visions for the New Millennium.
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First WCPEC; Dec. 5–9, Hawaii; pp. Engineering Congress, Nov. 19–21.
1004–1007. National Renewable Energy
Laboratory. (1994). Solar Radiation Data U.S. Department of Energy. (1998).
Eiffert, P. (1998). An Economic Manual for Flat-Plate and Concentrating Federal Technology Alert: Photovoltaics.
Assessment of Building Integrated Collectors. NREL/TP-463-5607, DOE/GO-10098-484. Washington, DC:
Photovoltaics. Ph.D. Dissertation, DE93018229. Golden, CO: NREL, April. US DOE, April.
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Demeo, E.A. (1995). "Terrestrial, Grid- Today, Vol. 8, No. 3, May/June; pp. 203-Rev1, DE93000075. Washington,
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70 Bibliography
Appendix A:
International Activities
"Building with Photovoltaics — The Challenge For Task VII Of The IEA PV Power Systems
Program" by T. Schoen1, D. Prasad2, P. Toggweiler3, P. Eiffert4 and H. Sørensen5
1: Ecofys Energy and Environment, P.O. Box 8408, NL-3503 RK Utrecht,
2: National Solar Architecture Research Unit, UNSW, Sydney NSW 2052, Australia,
3: ENECOLO, Lindhofstrasse 13, CH-8617 Mönchaltorf, Switzerland
4: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Center for Energy Analysis and

Application, 1617 Cole Blvd, Golden, CO 80401, USA,
5: Esbensen Consulting Engineers, Teknikerbyen 38, DK-2830 Virum, Denmark
Abstract
On January 1, 1997, a new Task started within International Energy Agency’s Photovoltaic
Power Systems (IEA PVPS) Program: Task VII. The objective of Task VII is to enhance the archi-
tectural quality, the technical quality and the economic viability of PV systems in the built envi-
ronment and to assess and remove non-technical barriers to their introduction as an
energy-significant option. The value of building integration for the introduction of grid-con-
nected PV is recognized around the world. Rooftop programs, aiming at large-scale application
in the next century, are carried out in many countries. In order to reach this widespread applica-
tion, however, cost reductions still are essential. BIPV research and development should there-
fore focus on achieving these cost reductions, by optimizing integration concepts, by
developing new building products and by the development of standardized products.
Building-integrated PV does more than offer perspectives for the next century. PV systems are
installed today by building owners who appreciate the added value of solar roofs and facades,
and who are willing to pay a premium for PV. This market potential must be captured and
assisted. From the research and development side, this can be done by focusing on architectural
issues and on non-technical barriers that impede short-term market penetration. The work in
Task VII concentrates on all these aspects. The Task VII research and development strategy is to
enhance systems technologies, to work on the architecture of building integrated PV, and to
assess and remove non-technical barriers that impede the widespread application of PV in the
built environment.
Note: One ECU is approximately equivalent to one U.S. dollar.
Appendix A: International Activities 71

INTRODUCTION THE COSTS OF BIPV in the last five years, it can be estimated
that these cost reductions will be
It is generally expected that in the next Figure 1 gives the breakdown of the
reached within only a few years, indi-
century, photovoltaics will be able to average costs for building-integrated
cating that BIPV will rapidly become
contribute substantially to the main- PV systems, though estimates vary
interesting and competitive.
stream power production, even though from country to country.
PV now is up to five times more expen- PV, well integrated into the architec-
sive than grid power. As can be seen in this figure, the costs
tural design of the building, can
for building integration currently range
enhance the aesthetics of the building
In densely populated areas, such as from 30% to 50% of the total system
and give the property owner a 'green'
major parts of Europe, Japan and the costs. Reduction of module costs will
and self-sufficient image. Owners of
US, large-scale realization of systems enlarge the need for attention to opti-
commercial buildings are increasingly
will only be possible through distrib- mal building integration, i.e., reducing
more interested in installing PV sys-
uted PV systems in the urban environ- the costs for substructures, mounting
tems as a high-value feature of their
ment since no land is available for the and wiring to the absolute minimum.
property. Projects are being realized
installation of ground-based systems.
In order to achieve widespread applica- with limited or no government support
Rooftop programs in Japan (70,000+),
tion of PV as a competitive power at all, indicating that cost reductions of
US (1,000,000) and Europe (1,000,000)
source, PV electricity must be produced a mere 25% to 50% are sufficient for
illustrate the worldwide attention given
at the level of 0.05 to 0.10 ECU per kWh opening up the market.
to building-integrated PV.
(5¢ to 10¢). From Fig. 1, it can be seen
The housing market is increasingly sen-
Integration of PV into buildings offers that even for Italy, this would require
sitive for this 'added value' of the PV
cost advantages that make this concept cost reductions by a factor 3 to 4. In the
system; house owners are willing to
attractive for urbanized regions as well Netherlands, cost reductions by a factor
pay a premium price for a PV-clad
as for less densely populated areas with 10 or more are required.
house, thereby generating additional
sufficient unoccupied land available.
Here is where the major challenge funding for the PV system.
PV installations can be installed on
surfaces of buildings and along roads lies for R&D programs in the field of
The AC module system seems to be
or railways, with the possibility to BIPV: cost reductions are essential for
very attractive for this type of applica-
combine energy production with other large-scale introduction of building-
tion. Property developers in the
functions of the building or non- integrated PV systems. R&D should
Netherlands have shown interest in
building structure. Compared with focus on these cost reductions.
introducing PV systems consisting of
large-scale, ground-based PV power 4 AC modules on a regular basis in the
plants, cost savings through these com- PV FOR THE FUTURE — building programs, if the prices are
bined functions can be substantial, e.g., PV FOR TODAY reduced to 5 ECU ($5) per Wp. This
in expensive facade systems where In addition to cost reduction opportuni- makes PV a technology not just for the
cladding costs may equal the costs of ties as previously mentioned (such as future but also for today.
the PV modules. replacement of building materials and
avoidance of land use), building inte- The challenge of national programs as
Additionally, no high-value land is well as international actions, such as
gration offers interesting cost benefits.
required, and no separate support Task VII, is to assist these emerging
If PV systems are installed as decentral-
structure is necessary. Electricity is gen- markets by developing photovoltaics
ized power systems on buildings, and
erated at the point of use. This avoids into a cost-effective and clean power
if net metering is used for selling back
transmission and distribution losses source, available for application in dis-
surplus power to utilities, PV electricity
and reduces the utility company's tributed systems of utilities, builders,
will only have to be produced at con-
capital and maintenance costs. and cities of the future as well as today.
sumer tariff prices, ranging from 0.10 to
0.20 ECU per kWh. For the Netherlands R&D should therefore not only address
Following the advantages of building
this implies required cost reductions long-term developments for large-scale
integration, more and more countries
by a factor of 3 to 5. For Italy, cost application as a bulk power source, but
view distributed PV as a power source
reductions by a factor of 2 to 3, or in also short-term application as competi-
with a large potential for the future and
the optimistic scenario, a 50% cost tive feature of the built environment.
are correspondingly starting to con-
reduction would be sufficient for The integration of PV into architecture
struct and operate building-integrated
market introduction. and the building market are important
PV systems on a large scale [1].
issues in such an R&D strategy.
Given the cost reductions that have
been achieved by BIPV R&D programs
72 Appendix A: International Activities

standards and guidelines, and the
PV costs, ECU/Wp PV electricity costs, ECU/kWh study of economic aspects and other
02527250m
(U.S. $/Wp) (U.S. $/kWh) market factors that impede the wide-
8 0.8
Mounting and spread application of PV in buildings.
7 installation 0.7
6 0.6 In brief, Task VII will work on R&D in
Substructure
the following fields:
5 0.5
Cabling
4 0.4 (1) BIPV technologies
Inverters
3 0.3 (2) PV and architecture
2 Modules 0.2
0.1 (3) Non-technical barriers
1
0 0.0 BIPV Technologies
NL NL IT IT
(NL = Netherlands; IT = Italy.) The technologies that are now available
for the integration of PV into buildings
Figure 1. Overview of BIPV system costs in ECU/Wp (left) and the resulting are, in general, too expensive for large-
PV electricity costs in ECU/kWh (right), for different countries and scale introduction. Cost reductions
calculation methods (optimistic: maximum performance ratio, low interest are thus still essential. They can be
rate; pessimistic: average performance ratio, high interest rate). achieved by carefully redesigning the
Note: Currently, the ECU is equivalent to one U.S. dollar. PV support structure, and by integrat-
ing the PV system into well-known
building components such as the pre-
Upscaling of the near-term BIPV mar- energy-significant option. This objec- fabricated roof or the structural-glazing
ket will, moreover, be possible only if tive reflects the R&D strategies men- facade.
non-technical barriers that impede the tioned earlier.
application of BIPV are addressed and Development of standardized
dealt with successfully. The major bar- The primary focus of Task VII is on the PV/building units
rier to overcome here could well be the integration of PV into the architectural
design of (roofs and facades of residen- The development of low-cost, flat roof-
involvement of builders and building mounting elements such as the Sofrel
owners in the design and implementa- tial, commercial, and industrial) build-
ings and other structures in the built [3] show that, through careful redesign
tion of building integrated PV. R&D, of substructures from the low-cost
as well as pilot and demonstration environment (such as noise barriers,
parking areas, and railway canopies). point of view, cost reductions up to
projects, should work on the achieve- 50% are possible for substructure and
ment of this involvement as well as Also important are the market factors,
both technical and non-technical, that mounting costs. A similar strategy
on the removal of other non-technical could be applied in the development of
barriers such as the lack of information, need to be addressed and resolved
before wide adoption of PV in the built mounting structures for sloped roofs
confidence, or appropriate financing and facades. PV facades in general still
mechanisms. environment will occur.
use tailor-made solutions, suitable only
Essential for the success of Task VII is for custom-made modules, requiring
R&D STRATEGIES FOR the active involvement of urban plan- case-by-case engineering and installa-
TASK VII ners, architects, building engineers, tion by specialists, which lead to high-
In recognition of the potential of and the building industry. Task VII is quality but high-price solutions.
building-integrated PV to the develop- very keen on the collaboration between
ment and introduction of photovoltaics, these groups and PV system specialists, For new buildings, integration of stan-
IEA's PV Power Systems Program in utility specialists, the PV industry, dard PV modules into low-cost, every-
January 1997 launched a new task: Task and other professionals involved in day cladding systems is required,
VII - PV in the Built Environment. photovoltaics. whereas for existing buildings, low-cost
add-on systems offer good cost per-
The objective of Task VII is to enhance The joint effort will consist mainly of spectives. In order to make mounting
the architectural quality, the technical the evaluation and development of concepts suitable for application in the
quality, and the economic viability of innovative concepts for the integration vast number of existing buildings with
PV systems in the built environment of PV into the built environment, the a poor energy balance, add-on systems
and to assess and remove non-technical demonstration of integration concepts, should include extra thermal insulation
barriers to its introduction as an contribution to the development of layers.

Integration of PV modules and It should, however, be noted that the barrier. A number of R&D actions are
cells into standard building application of custom-made PV prod- discussed here.
materials ucts has economic consequences. The
costs of modules can go down substan- Development of
The integration of PV into well-known financing schemes
tially if they are produced in bulk. At a
building materials, such as roof tiles,
production level of 500 MWp per year, The availability of appropriate financ-
is under way. Attention to these devel-
costs of less than 1 ECU ($1) per Wp are ing mechanisms in Germany and
opments around the world shows the
achievable with today's technologies Switzerland has been shown to have a
cost reduction potential of this R&D
[5]. This cost level will not be reached major impact on the introduction of PV.
path.
with tailor-made modules produced In Germany, rate-based incentives have
Optimal tuning of PV modules to exist- on a smaller scale. led to a substantial increase in the PV
ing building materials can result in sub- market, with annual growth figures
The challenge for the PV R&D com- larger than ever (1996: 3 MW;1997:
stantial reduction of mounting and
munity, together with architects and 10 MW) [6].
substructure costs. In the end, these
builders, is to develop high-quality
costs might be fully omitted through
integration concepts that can make The assessment of such financing
the integration of PV cells into building
use of the low-cost potential of bulk- schemes, tailored to the specific needs
materials. Similar attempts are being
produced modules. of individual countries, will be one of
made in the field of stand-alone PV sys-
tems, where PV cells are being inte- the key activities of Task VII.
As a first activity, Task VII has dealt
grated into bus shelters, vessels, and with the evaluation of existing BIPV Integration into the
other applications. projects. The result is a list of architec- building process
tural quality criteria for BIPV projects
Integration of PV into If PV is to become a well-accepted tech-
(please see Table 1).
prefabricated building elements nology readily available for architects,
This R&D path is especially suitable Using these criteria in the design of the building industry, and property
for countries where the prefabricated new projects and integration concepts owners, integration concepts will have
buildings and building components are based on standard modules can to meet regular building quality stan-
commonly used (e.g., the Netherlands, enhance the architectural quality of dards. This can be achieved by fully
Japan). Preliminary research indicates BIPV without introducing high-cost integrating the PV system into building
that cost reductions up to 50% (com- (custom-made) products. materials and by integrating the con-
pared with that of today's technology) struction process of BIPV systems into
through prefabrication are possible [4]. Non-Technical Barriers the building construction process.
Building integration must include inte-
As mentioned above, a number of non-
PV and Architecture gration into the contractual framework
technical barriers exist that impede
and the organizational structure of
Market enhancement requires accep- the implementation of PV in buildings.
building projects.
tance of PV by builders, architects, and Assessment and removal of these barri-
users. Full integration into architecture ers will result in enhancement of both Building integration also must include
is therefore essential. the near-term and the long-term PV integration into the regular quality
market. A preliminary listing of barriers schemes for building components.
The physical characteristics of PV prod- has been prepared by
ucts for integration in buildings must Task VII. Task VII will
meet architectural requirements for work on the analysis of Table 1: Architectural criteria for the review of
color, size, and these market barriers, PV buildings and integration products
materials. Products that meet these followed by recom- • Natural integration and visually acceptable
requirements are being developed mendations for their
around the world. Cells are available removal. • Architecturally pleasing and visually pleasing
in different colors and textures; mod-
ules can be produced to the designer’s As can be expected, • Good composition between materials and colors
specification. budgetary constraints
are the main barrier. • Fit the grid, harmony, composition
These developments have certainly The removal of other
assisted the creation of high-end, high- barriers, however, • Appropriately links with the context of the project
quality examples of building-integrated will most certainly help
PV. They are thus very important to the overcome this prime • Well-engineered and designed
introduction of BIPV.
• Innovative new design

FINAL REMARKS
Tim Ellison, ECD/PIX04473

The aforementioned R&D directions are
reflected in the projected activities of
Task VII. It can, therefore, be concluded
that Task VII can contribute to the fur-
ther development and implementation
of PV in the Built Environment. The
success of Task VII will of course
depend on the effectiveness of the
international collaboration and on
the contributions of the participating
countries to the overall framework of
the Task.
The coming five years will show if

Task VII can achieve its challenging
objective. All experts in the countries
participating in Task VII are requested
to closely follow the task and, where
appropriate, collaborate in its work.
REFERENCES
[1] Palz, W., and Van Overstraeten, R.
(1995). Strategic Options for PV
Development in Europe. In:
Figure 2: The National Association of Home Builders 21st Century Proceedings of the 13th EC
Townhome at the National Research Home Park in Bowie, Maryland, USA; Photovoltaic Energy Conference,
883–886.
it is one of the Task VII projects to be evaluated.
[2] Barnes, H. (ed) (1997). Photovoltaic
PV will be largely accepted by builders, taken into account from the very start power systems in selected IEA
architects, and end-users only if the of the building process, where the first member countries. EA Technology,
quality of BIPV systems fully meets the decisions have a major impact on the Capehurst Chester, UK.
requirements of everyday construction ways to include PV in the building (e.g.,
elements. the orientation of the building). Tools [3] Toggweiler, P., Ruoss, D., Roecker, C.,
for shaping and sizing of the PV system Bonvin, J., Muller, A., and Affolter, P.
The development of such quality can range from intricate software pack- (1997). Sofrel flat roof system and first
schemes is a part of the work of Task ages (linked to the overall energy installation. In: Proceedings of the
VII as well as an import issue of the design tools) to easy aids as an irradia- 14th EC Photovoltaic Energy
European BIPV programs. As an exam- tion disk. Conference, 701–704.
ple, the Joule PRESCRIPT project aims
at the development of guidelines and R&D is required in both energy plan- [4] Boumans, J.H. and Schoen, T. (1996).
pre-standards for the testing and certifi- ning and the design and sizing of PV Prefab Energy-roof — trends and
cation of building-integrated PV [7]. systems, within the overall design of developments. Ecofys, Utrecht, the
the energy system of the building. Netherlands.
Training and education
PV can be included in building projects Concerning education, 'PV at schools' [5] Bruton, T.M, e.a. (1997). A study of the
only if architects and principals have programs have proven to be successful Manufacture of 500 Wp p.a. of
sufficient knowledge about PV tech- in a number of European countries [8]. Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic
nologies and appropriate design tools In order to teach the architects, Modules. In: Proceedings of the 14th
to assist them. builders, and occupants of the future EC Photovoltaic Energy Conference,
how to work with PV, integration of PV 11–16.
Design tools can range from planning into educational programs at all levels
instruments to tools for shaping and is important. A follow-up of national
sizing the PV systems. Planning instru- activities at the European level could
ments are required to ensure that PV is enhance this process.

[6] Gabler, H., Heidler, K., and Hoffmann,
V.U. (1997). Market Introduction of
Grid-Connected Photovoltaic
Installations in Germany. In:
Proceedings of the 14th EC
Photovoltaic Energy Conference,
27–32.
[7] Van Schalkwijk, M., Hoekstra, K.J.,

Schoen, T., and Van der Weiden, T.C.J.
(1997). Quality Assurance of PV
Integration in Buildings: Experiences
from Practice and Future Outlook. In:
Proceedings. of the 14th EC
1616–1619.
[8] Nordmann, T. (1995). The Swiss 1 MWp

PV-School Demonstration Program. In:
Proceedings of the 13th EC
894–897.

Appendix B:
Contacts for International Energy Agency
Photovoltaic Power System Task VII —
Photovoltaics in the Built Environment
Australia Spain
Deo Prasad Nuria Martin
d.prasad@unsw.edu.au chivelet@dec.ciemat.es
Austria Sweden
Reinhard Haas Mats Andersson
haas@risc.iew.tuwien.ac.at mats.andersson@mbox10.swipnet.se
Canada Switzerland
Per Drewes Christian Roecker
Per.Drewes@hydro.on.ca Roecker@LESOsun1.epfl.ch
Denmark Peter Toggweiler

Henrik Sorensen enecolo@.active.ch
esbensen@inet.uni-c.dk
United Kingdom
Germany David Lloyd Jones
Hermann Laukamp 1014572375@compuserve.com
helau@ise.fhg.de
Donna Munro
Netherlands dkm@hga.co.uk
Henk Kaan
kaan@ecn.nl Paul Ruyssevelt
par@hga.co.uk
Bert Middelman
middelman.bert@enw.emswitch.nl United States
Patrina Eiffert
Tjerk Reijenga Patrina_Eiffert@nrel.gov
tjerk@bart.nl
Steven Strong
Tony Schoen Sjstrong@solardesign.com
T.Schoen@ecofys.nl
Appendix B: Contacts for International Energy Agency Photovoltaic Power System Task VII 77
Appendix C:
Design Tools
Dru Crawley, DOE Program Manager for Building Energy Tools, has established a Building
Energy Software Tools Directory. This directory is available on the Internet online; see
http://www. eren.doe.gov/buildings/tools_directory/.
Software building design tools are divided into categories that include Energy Simulation,
Utility Evaluation, Energy Economics, Atmospheric Pollution, Envelope Systems, Solar Climate
Analysis, Codes and Standards: Development and Compliance, and Load Calculations. The
software tools described in this section may be particularly useful to those designing buildings
and other structures into which photovoltaic power systems are integrated.
78 Appendix C: Design Tools

AWNSHADE BEES overall performance score. Default
values are provided for all of this
This program calculates the unshaded A powerful technique for selecting cost-
Windows-based input.
fraction of a rectangular window for effective, environmentally preferable
any given solar position coordinates building products, BEES (Building for Output: Summary graphs depicting
relative to the window. Calculations are Environmental and Economic Sustain- life-cycle environmental and economic
made for window shading configura- ability) is based on consensus stan- performance scores for competing
tions, including awnings, with or with- dards. The Windows-based decision building product alternatives. Detailed
out side walls or overhangs of arbitrary support software, aimed at designers, graphs are also available, depicting
dimensions above the window. builders, and product manufacturers, scores for the six environmental
Awnshade can also calculate the includes actual environmental and eco- impacts underlying the life-cycle envi-
unshaded fraction for a sequence of nomic performance data for a number ronmental performance score, and
solar positions. It calculates the effec- of building products. depicting first and future costs underly-
tive unshaded fraction of diffuse sky ing the life-cycle economic performance
irradiance or illuminance incident on BEES measures the environmental per-
score. Graphs are live in the sense that
the window, assuming uniform sky formance of building products by using
alternative graph types (pie graph, bar
radiance/luminance, and the effective the environmental life-cycle assessment
graph, etc.) may be displayed; rows and
ground-reflected unshaded fraction. It approach specified in the latest versions
columns may be moved; colors, labels,
can handle cases in which shadows of of ISO 14000 draft standards. All stages
and other display attributes may be
the side of the awning/overhang cross in the life of a product are analyzed:
customized; and graphs may be
the top of the window. raw material acquisition, manufacture,
printed.
transportation, installation, use,
Audience: This is for architects, building recycling, and waste management. Computer Platform: Windows 95 or
designers, building energy perfor- Economic performance is measured higher personal computer with a 486
mance simulators. using the American Society for Testing or higher microprocessor, 32 megabytes
and Materials (ASTM) standard life- or more of RAM, at least 10 megabytes
Expertise Required: Basic understanding cycle cost method, which covers the of available disk space, and a 3.5-in.
of building shading geometry. costs of initial investment, replacement, floppy diskette drive. The program-
operation, maintenance, repair, and ming language is CA Visual Objects.
Input: User-friendly I/O screens,
disposal. Environmental and economic
describing geometry of windows,
performance are combined into an Strengths: The program offers a unique
awnings, and vertical side fins.
overall performance measure using the blend of environmental science, deci-
Output: Results can be printed directly ASTM standard for Multi-Attribute sion science, and economics. It uses
to a printer, saved to a print file, or Decision Analysis. For the entire BEES life-cycle concepts, is based on consen-
saved to files formatted for importing analysis, building products are defined sus standards, and is designed to be
into graphic plotting programs. and classified according to the ASTM practical, flexible, and transparent. It is
standard classification for building practical in its systematic packaging of
Strengths: Outputs a table of unshaded elements known as UNIFORMAT II. detailed, science-based, quantitative
fractions for a range of incident sun environmental and economic perfor-
directions. Audience: This is for designers, speci- mance data in a manner that offers
fiers, builders, product manufacturers, useful decision support. It is flexible
Weaknesses: No fancy graphics of win- researchers, and policy makers. in allowing tool users to customize
dow shadows or their movement across judgments about key study parameters.
the window. Expertise Required: None; there were
It is transparent in documenting and
more than 500 users in the first 6
providing all the supporting perfor-
Availability: Awnshade version 2.0 is months of availability, both in the U.S.
mance data and computational
available from the contact at a cost of and abroad.
algorithms.
$45 (including shipping and handling).
Input: The user sets relative importance
Weaknesses: It includes environmental
Contact: weights for (1) synthesizing six envi-
and economic performance data for
Joanne Stirling, Document Sales Office ronmental impact scores (global warm-
only 24 building products covering
Florida Solar Energy Center ing, acid rain, nutrification, resource
12 building elements.
1679 Clearlake Road depletion, indoor air quality, solid
Cocoa, Florida 32922-5703 waste) into an environmental perfor- Availability: BEES 1.0 software and
Telephone: 407- 638-1414 mance score; (2) discounting future printed documentation available free
Facsimile: 407-638-1439 costs to their equivalent present value; of charge through the EPA Pollution
E-mail: joann@fsec.ucf.edu and (3) combining environmental and Prevention Information Clearinghouse
Online: http://www.fsec.ucf.edu economic performance scores into an at 202-260-1023 or via e-mail,
Appendix C: Design Tools 79

ppic@epamail.epa.gov. BEES was Output: More than 50 user-selected, version has links to a Schematic
developed by the NIST Green Buildings formatted reports printed directly by Graphic Editor and two simplified
Program with support from the EPA BLAST; the REPORT WRITER program simulation tools, one for daylight and
Environmentally Preferable Purchasing can generate tables or spreadsheet- one for energy analyses.
Program. ready files for more than 100 BLAST
variables. Audience: Architects and engineers
Contact: working in early building design
Barbara C. Lippiatt Strengths: PC Format has Windows phases.
National Institute of Standards and interface as well as structured text
Technology interface; detailed heat balance algo- Expertise Required: Knowledge of
Office of Applied Economics rithms allow for analysis of thermal Windows applications; there are at least
100 Bureau Drive, Stop 8603 comfort, passive solar structures, high 200 users.
Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899-8603 and low intensity radiant heat, mois-
Input: Graphic entry of basic building
Telephone: 301-975-6133 ture, and variable heat transfer coeffi-
geometry and space arrangements.
Facsimile: 301-975-5337 cients æ none of which can be analyzed
Default descriptive and operational
E-mail: BLippiatt@nist.gov in programs with less rigorous zone
characteristics can be edited by user.
Web: http://www.bfrl.nist.gov/oae/ models.
bees.html Output: User-selected output parame-
Weaknesses: High level of expertise
ters displayed in graphic form, includ-
BLAST required to develop custom system and
ing 2-D and 3-D distributions.
plant models.
This program performs hourly simula-
tions of buildings, air handling sys- Computer Platform: PC-compatible,
Availability: Software prices range from
tems, and central plant equipment in Windows 95/98/NT, 30 megabytes of
$450 for an upgrade package to $1500
order to provide mechanical, architec- hard disk space; the programming
for new installations. This package
tural, and energy engineers with accu- language is C++.
contains complete sources, almost 400
rate estimates of a building's energy weather files, numerous documents Strengths: It allows comparisons of mul-
needs. The zone models of BLAST about using BLAST as well as docu- tiple design solutions with respect to
(Building Loads Analysis and System mentation (all on CD ROM). Contact multiple descriptive and performance
Thermodynamics), which are based on the Building Systems Laboratory for parameters. It also allows the use of
the fundamental heat balance method, additional information. sophisticated analysis tools from the
are the industry standard for heating
early, schematic phases of building
and cooling load calculations. BLAST Contact:
design, and does not require the user to
output may be utilized in conjunction Building Systems Laboratory
have in-depth knowledge to use linked
with the LCCID (Life Cycle Cost in University of Illinois
tools for energy, daylighting, and other
Design) program to perform an eco- 1206 West Green Street
analyses.
nomic analysis of the building, system, Urbana, Illinois 61801
and plant design. Telephone: 217-333-3977 Weaknesses: Version 1.0 is linked to
Facsimile: 217-244-6534 simplified tools for daylight and
Audience: Mechanical, energy, and E-mail support@blast.bso.uiuc.edu energy analyses.
architectural engineers working for Online: http://www.bso.uiuc.edu
architectural-engineering firms, con- Availability: Version 1.0 is available at
sulting firms, utilities, Federal agencies, BUILDING DESIGN ADVISOR the Web site below.
research universities, and research labo-
This provides a software environment
ratories. Contact:
that supports the integration of multi-
Konstantinos Papamichael
Expertise Required: High level of com- ple building models and databases
Lawrence Berkeley National
puter literacy not required; engineering used by analysis and visualization
Laboratory
background helpful for analysis of air- tools, through a single, object-based
Mail Stop 90-3111
handling systems. representation of building components
1 Cyclotron Road
and systems. Building Design Advisor
Berkeley, California 94720
Input: Building geometry, thermal char- (BDA) acts as a data manager and
Telephone: 510-486-6854
acteristics, internal loads and sched- process controller, allowing building
Facsimile: 510-486-4089
ules, heating and cooling equipment designers to benefit from the capabili-
E-mail: K_Papamichael@lbl.gov
and system characteristics. Readable, ties of multiple analysis and visualiza-
Web: http://kmp.lbl.gov/BDA
structured input file may be generated tion tools throughout the building
by HBLC (Windows) or the BTEXT design process. BDA is implemented as
program. a Windows-based application. The 1.0

CLIMATE CONSULTANT DOE-2 DOS, VMS; the programming language
is FORTRAN.
This program graphically displays cli- This is an hourly, whole-building
mate data in dozens of categories useful energy analysis program calculating Strengths: Detailed, hourly, whole-
to architects. These include tempera- energy performance and life-cycle cost building energy analysis of multiple
tures, wind velocity, sky cover, percent of operation. It can be used to analyze zones in buildings of complex design; it
sunshine, psychrometric chart, the energy efficiency of given designs is widely recognized as the industry
timetable of bioclimatic needs, sun or the efficiency of new technologies. standard.
charts, and sun dials showing hours Other uses include utility demand-side
when solar heating is needed and when management and rebate programs, Weaknesses: A high level of user knowl-
shading is required. The psychrometric development and implementation of edge and computer literacy is required.
analysis recommends the most appro- energy efficiency standards and com-
priate passive design strategy as out- pliance certification, and training a new Availability: The cost is $300 to $2000,
lined in Givoni, Man, Climate and corps of energy-efficiency-conscious depending upon the hardware platform
Architecture (ref. date). It also develops building professionals in architecture and software vendor.
the kind of data incorporated in Watson and engineering schools.
Contact:
and Labs, Climatic Design (ref. date).
Audience: Architects, engineers in pri- Fred Winkelmann
Audience: Architects, students of vate A&E firms, energy consultants, Lawrence Berkeley National
architecture. building technology researchers, utility Laboratory
companies, state and Federal agencies, Mail Stop 90-3147
Expertise Required: Intended to be self- and university schools of architecture 1 Cyclotron Road
instructional, the program requires and engineering. Berkeley, California 94720
only basic familiarity with computers Telephone: 510-486-5711
and architectural vocabulary. Expertise Required: A high level of com- Facsimile: 510-486-4089
puter literacy is required; a 5-day ses- E-mail: FCW@gundog.lbl.gov
Input: Typical Meteorological Year sion of formal training in basic and Web: http://gundog.lbl.gov
(TMY) weather data in short format. advanced DOE-2 use is recommended.
Output: Graphic plots of weather data.
There are 800 user organizations in EMISS
the United States and 200 user organi- This software generates a file of local
Strengths: Highly graphic, user-friendly. zations internationally; user organiza- air-pollution emission coefficients. It
tions consist of 1 to 20 or more is used with the BLCC life-cycle cost
Weaknesses: Requires weather data in individuals. program to estimate reductions in emis-
TMY weather data format. sions associated with energy conserva-
Input: Hourly weather file plus
tion projects. Three types of emission
Availability: Not copy protected; sharing Building Description Language input
factors are currently included: carbon
is encouraged. It is most easily aquired describing geographic location and
dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrous
by copying a disk or by downloading building orientation, building materials
oxide. Emissions factors are specified
off the Web; otherwise, users can send a and envelope components (walls, win-
separately for six different end-use
check to the technical contact for $35, dows, shading surfaces, etc.), operating
energy types: electricity, distillate and
payable to the Regents of the schedules, HVAC equipment and con-
residual fuel oil, natural gas, liquid
University of California. trols, utility rate schedule, building
petroleum gas, and coal. It is distrib-
component costs. The program is avail-
Contact: uted in connection with the BLCC
able with a range of user interfaces,
Professor Murray Milne life-cycle cost program to several thou-
from text-based to interactive/graphi-
Department of Architecture and Urban sand users.
cal windows-based environments.
Design
Audience: Federal energy managers
Box 951467 Output: Twenty user-selectable input
and energy coordinators; engineers
University of California at Los Angeles verification reports, 50 user-selectable
and architects; budget analysts and
Los Angeles, California 90095-1467 monthly/annual summary reports, and
planners.
USA user-configurable hourly reports of 700
Telephone: 310-825-7370 different building energy variables. Expertise Required: None required.
Facsimile: 310-825-8959
E-mail: Milne@ucla.edu Computer Platform: PC-compatible; Sun; Input: Regional or local emissions fac-
Online: http://www.aud.ucla.edu/ DEC-VAX; DECstation; IBM RS 6000; tors or fuel-specific end-use data.
energy-design-tools NeXT; 4 megabytes of RAM; math
coprocessor; compatible with UNIX,

Output: Preformatted tables of com- Expertise Required: A moderate level of hot water, daylighting with windows,
puted emission factors by type of fuel. computer literacy is required; two days daylighting with skylights, photo-
of training are advised. voltaics, solar thermal electric (para-
Strengths: Emission factors for fossil bolic dish, parabolic trough, central
fuels can be regionalized or localized. Input: Only four inputs are required to power tower), wind electricity, small
Program contains state-specific electric- generate two initial generic building hydropower, biomass electricity (wood,
ity emission factors and U.S. average descriptions. Virtually everything is waste, etc.), and cooling load avoidance
sulfur content of fossil fuels as default defaulted but modifiable. User adjusts (multiple glazing, window shading,
data. A users guide is included as file descriptions as the design evolves, increased wall insulation, infiltration
with program. using fill-in menus, including utility- control). Life-cycle cost calculations
rate schedules, construction details, comply with 10 CFR 436.
Weaknesses: The quality of the emissions materials.
factors depends on the user's knowl- Audience: Building energy auditors.
edge of the factors that contribute to Output: Summary table and 20 graphi-
these emissions. cal outputs are available, generally Expertise Required: Must be able to
comparing current design with base gather summary information on build-
Availability: Free to Federal agencies case. Detailed tabular results are also ing and installation energy use pat-
through the Energy Efficiency and available. terns; intended for use by trained
Renewable Energy Clearinghouse, auditors; results should be interpreted
1-800-DOE-EREC (363-3732). Strengths: Fast, easy-to-use, accurate. by someone familiar with the limita-
Automatic generation of base cases tions of the program.
Contact: and energy-efficient alternate building
Linde Fuller descriptions; automatic application of Input: Summary energy load data; solar
National Institute of Standards and energy-efficient features and rank- and wind resource data provided in a
Technology ordering of results; integration of day- database indexed by ZIP code; biomass
Office of Applied Economics lighting thermal effects with thermal and solid waste resource data must be
Building 226, Rm B226 simulation; menu display and modifi- gathered by the auditor.
Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899 cation of all building-description and
Telephone: 301-975-6134 other data. Output: Annual cost and energy sav-
Facsimile: 301-208-6936 ings; life cycle economics; a red flag if
E-mail: Sieglinde.Fuller@nist.gov Weaknesses: Limited to smaller build- an option is viable; viable options
Online: http://www.eren.doe.gov/ ings and HVAC systems that are most ranked by savings-to-investment ratio.
femp/ often used in smaller buildings.
Strengths: Establishes consistent
ENERGY-10 Contact: methodology and reporting format for
Passive Solar Industries Council a large number of audits in varying
This is a design tool for smaller residen-
Suite 600 locations and with varying building
tial or commercial buildings (e.g., those
1511 K Street, NW use types; sophisticated analyses of
that are less than 10,000 square feet in
Washington, DC 20005 technology performance and cost
floor area) or buildings that can be
Telephone: 202-628-7400 while keeping data requirements to a
treated as one- or two-zone increments.
Facsimile: 202-393-5043 minimum.
The software performs a whole-build-
Online: http://www.psic.org/
ing energy analysis for 8760 hours Weaknesses: Provides only first-order
energy10.htm
per year, including dynamic thermal screening, to focus design; requires
and daylighting calculations. It is more detailed feasibility analyses on
specifically designed to facilitate the
FRESA
applications most likely to be cost-effec-
evaluation of energy-efficient building This is a first-order screening tool to
tive; requires high level of knowledge
features in the very early stages of the identify potentially cost-effective appli-
about energy audits and the limitations
design process. cations of renewable energy technology
of the program; not suitable for general
on a building and facility level. FRESA
use.
Audience: This is for building designers, (Federal Renewable Energy Screening
especially architects; HVAC engineers; Assistant) is useful for determining Availability: Available from the technical
utility companies; university schools which renewable energy applications contact.
of architecture and architectural require further investigation. Tech-
engineering. nologies represented include active
solar heating, active solar cooling, solar

Contact: depict power usage by day, week, or program CD-ROM includes a climate
Andy Walker, Ph.D. month. Variables include kilowatts at database of 239 locations in the conti-
National Renewable Energy Laboratory a minimum and may include kilovars nental United States, Alaska, Hawaii,
1617 Cole Boulevard and kilovolt-amperes, if the source data Puerto Rico, and Guam and a World-
Golden, Colorado 80401 file contains this information. wide Hourly Climate Generator
Telephone: 303-384-7531 Program that generates hourly climates
Facsimile: 303-384-7411 Strengths: Identifies, by time of day, for 2,132 global locations from monthly
E-mail: Andy_Walker@nrel.gov periods of excessive power demand data. The SolarPro 2.0 solar water heat-
Online: http://www.eren.doe.gov/ and consumption. Also useful in bench- ing program is also included. Six types
femp/techassist/softwaretools/ marking a facility's power usage before of panel surface tracking are incorpo-
softwaretools.html energy measures are implemented and rated into the program: fixed slope and
tracking the results after implementa- axis, tracking on a horizontal east-west
IDEAL tion. Ability to immediately utilize axis, tracking on a horizontal north-
more than 25 data formats without south axis, tracking on a vertical axis
This software is designed to read elec-
prior conversion of the data by the user. with a fixed slope, tracking on a north-
tronic data records of facilities’ electri-
cal energy use; the data records are south axis parallel to the Earth's axis,
Weaknesses: Limits analysis to month-
compiled by electric utility companies and continuous tracking on two axes.
by-month studies. Can produce records
and normally used internally only for Panel shading information can also be
suitable for greater-than-one-month
billing purposes. Upon request, the input.
analysis using conventional spread-
utility will release the data to the cus- sheets. Must use DOS sequences for Audience: This program is for PV sys-
tomer for analysis purposes. These printing reports and graphs. tem design professionals, architects,
data records are formatted in more than
engineers, energy offices, universities,
25 distinct file types identified thus far. Availability: Download demos from
and students.
IDEAL (Interval Data Evaluation and the Web to determine suitability to task.
Analysis of Load) translates all these Price negotiable based on number of Expertise Required: Knowledge of elec-
formats into a common database and copies; list price $1,000. trical design, PV basics.
produces informative graphs and
reports to assist the user, the energy Contact: Input: Windows 95-based interface;
management team, or consultants in John D. Helms uses the electrical system load by hour
quickly identifying periods of serious PC Application Systems for weekdays, weekends, and holidays;
power mismanagement. Extensions to 4310 Twin Pines Drive requires panel type from database,
the basic program will perform power Knoxville, Tennessee 37921-5143 number of parallel connections and
bill calculations, time-of-use analysis, Telephone: 423-588-7363 series strings of similar panels; battery
temperature and humidity plots, and Facsimile: 423-584-1350 backup charging parameters; AC
optimum standby generator sizing and E-mail: john_helms@msn.com inverter requirements; and climate file.
run times. Online: http://ourworld.compuserve.
com/homepages/john_helms/ Output: Solar Fraction charts by month,
Audience: Industrial and large com- battery states of charge by month (max-
mercial accounts who have electronic PV-DesignPro imum, average, minimum), annual
metering on their electrical power ser- This program simulates photovoltaic performance table (energy produced,
vice (typically, loads with more than system operation on an hourly basis for necessary backup, and states-of-
500 kilowatts demand, and virtually all one year, based on a user-selected cli- charge), prospective cash-flows of pur-
with time-of-use metering). mate and system design. PV-DesignPro chased and sold energy, system costs,
is recommended for designs that costs of backup energy, prices of sold
Expertise Required: No special expertise energy, maintenance and replacement
include battery storage, which can be
required. costs, and the estimated life of the sys-
either stand-alone systems with genera-
tor backup or utility-interconnected tem. A rate of return is calculated, as
Input: Data file, normally obtained from
systems. The purpose of the program well as an overall price per kWh of the
the electric utility company, which
is to aid in photovoltaic system design system and payback years.
includes interval recordings of power
usage. Program requires data to be an by providing accurate, in-depth infor-
Strengths: Most information needed for
ASCII-formatted data file on diskette. mation on the likely system power
PV designs is included in databases.
output and load consumption, backup
Output: Both detailed and summary power needed during system opera- Weaknesses: Resistive loads, such as
reports of facility electrical usage. More tion, and the financial impacts of water pumping with a motor only,
than 70 preformatted graphs visually installing the proposed system. The cannot currently be modeled.

Relatively high level of PV expertise Weaknesses: No private-sector tax analy- contact for $35, payable to the Regents
recommended. sis included. of the University of California.
Availability: CD-ROM, $149.00 + $10.00 Availability: Free to Federal agencies Contact:

shipping and handling. Price includes through the Energy Efficiency and Professor Murray Milne
Worldwide Hourly Climate Generator Renewable Energy Clearinghouse, Department of Architecture and
1.0 program and SolarPro 2.0 solar 1-800-DOE-EREC (363-3732). Urban Design
water heating program. See Web site Box 951467
or call for more information. Contact: University of California at Los Angeles
Linde Fuller Los Angeles, California 90095-1467
Contact: National Institute of Standards and Telephone: 310-825-7370
Mike Pelosi Technology Facsimile 310-825-8959
PV-DesignPro Software Office of Applied Economics E-mail: Milne@ucla.edu
P.O.Box 1043 Building 226, Rm B226 Online: http://www.aud.ucla.edu/
Kihei, Maui, Hawaii 96753 Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899 energy-design-tools
Telephone: 808-879-7880 Telephone: 301-975-6134
Facsimile: Facsimile: 301-208-6936 Florida Solar Energy Center
E-mail: MPelosi@maui.net E-mail: Sieglinde.Fuller@nist.gov 1679 Clearlake Road
Online: http://www.maui.net/ Online: http://www.eren.doe.gov/ Cocoa, Florida 32922-5703
~sandy/PV-DesignPro.html femp/techassist/softwaretools/ Telephone: 407-638-1414
softwaretools.html Facsimile: 407-638-1439
Quick BLCC E-mail: joann@fsec.ucf.edu
This program is used to set up multiple SOLAR-2 Online: http://www.fsec.ucf.edu
project alternatives for life-cycle costing This software plots sunlight penetrat-
analysis in a single input file. The Quick ing through a window with any SOLAR-5
BLCC (Quick Building Life-Cycle Cost) combination of rectangular fins and This program displays 3-D plots of
program provides a convenient method overhangs. It also plots an hour-by- hourly energy performance for the
for solving relatively simple LCC prob- hour, three-dimensional suns-eye view whole building or for any of 16 differ-
lems that require finding the lowest "movie" of the building. It prints annual ent components. SOLAR-5 also plots
LCC design alternative among many tables of the percentage of the window heat flow into and out of thermal mass
mutually exclusive alternatives for the in full sun, radiation on glass, and other as well as indoor air temperature,
same project. Input data files are trans- data. output of the HVAC system, cost of
ferrable to BLCC for more detailed electricity and heating fuel, and the
analysis. Audience: This is for architects, students corresponding amount of air pollution.
of architecture, building managers, and It uses hour-by-hour weather data. It
Audience: Federal energy managers knowledgeable homeowners. contains an expert system to design
and energy coordinators; engineers an initial base case building for any
and architects; budget analysts and Expertise Required: Intended to be self-
climate and any building type, which
planners. instructional, it requires only basic
an architect can copy and redesign.
familiarity with computers and archi-
Contains a variety of decision-making
Expertise Required: Familiarity with tectural vocabulary.
aids, including combination and com-
present-value concept is helpful.
Input: Window, overhangs, and fins parison options, color overlays, and bar
Input: Initial investment costs; base- geometry. charts that show for any hour exactly
year annual energy costs; maintenance, where the energy flows.
repair, and replacement costs; time Output: Graphic plots, tables.
Audience: This is for architects, students
period.
Strengths: User-friendly, highly graphic. of architecture, building managers, and
Output: Preformatted tables of input knowledgeable homeowners.
Weaknesses: Allows only rectangular
data summary and LCC and compara-
shading elements. Expertise Required: It is intended to be
tive analyses results. Exportable data
self-instructional, with built-in help
files. Availability: Not copy protected; sharing options; requires only basic familiarity
is encouraged. The software is most with computers and with architectural
Strengths: Ideal for preliminary eco-
easily aquired by copying a disk or by vocabulary.
nomic evaluation of multiple design
downloading off the Web; otherwise,
alternatives. Users guide is included as
users can send a check to the technical
file with program.

Input: From only four pieces of data SOMBRERO 5 days after it is first started up. The full
initially required (floor area, number of version sells for $230.
In designing both active (domestic hot
stories, location, and building type), the
water, photovoltaics) and passive solar Contact:
expert system designs a basic building,
energy systems, shading of collectors Prof. Dr.-Ing. F.D. Heidt
filling in hundreds of items of data; the
or windows by other objects plays an Building Physics and Solar Energy
user can make subsequent revisions,
important role. SOMBRERO provides University of Siegen
usually beginning with overall building
quantitive solutions to these problems. Siegen, 57068
dimensions, window sizes, etc.
It calculates geometrical shading coeffi- Germany
Output: Dozens of different kinds of cients, which can be used either directly Telephone: +49 271-740-4181
three-dimensional plots, tables, and for visualization or as quantitative Facsimile: +49 271-740-2379
reports. For example, displays heat gain input to other thermal simulation E-mail: heidt@physik.uni-siegen.
or loss for more than a dozen different programs. d400.de
building components; shows heat flow Web: http://nesa1.uni-siegen.de
Audience: Architects, engineers for ther-
into and out of the thermal mass of the
mal simulations of buildings or solar
building, as well as the output of the
plants.
SUN POSITION
heating and air conditioning systems; The program calculates time series of
displays air temperatures (outdoors or Expertise Required: Basic knowledge of sun angles (such as solar altitude and
indoors) and air change rates; predicts geometry and solar radiation. solar azimuth) for a given location and
the cost of heating fuel and electricity. outputs them as text files that can be
Input: Three-dimensional objects are imported into spreadsheets and solar
Strengths: Intended for use during built up by their boundary planes. Up energy analysis programs. Sun Position
the very earliest stages of the design to 300 plane areas with 12 points each is highly customizable; it can calculate
process (when most critical energy can be treated. Objects like houses and angles for one specific day, once a
decisions are made); extremely user trees are predefined and described by month for one year, once a week, daily,
friendly and rapid, calculating a full parameters like height, width, and etc., and in a given day calculate the
year using TMY data in less than a position in space. Single planes are angles once a day, hourly, every 15 min-
minute on a 486 MB machine. described by their vertex-points in the utes, etc. Its primary purpose is to assist
two-dimensional co-ordinate system architects and solar designers.
Weaknesses: Not intended for complex
related to the plane itself (in case of
mechanical system design or equip-
rectangles simply by their length and Audience: Architects, passive solar
ment sizing.
height) and positioned by indication designers, PV and solar thermal energy
Availability: SOLAR 5.4 is the most of azimuth, elevation, and origin in the system designers.
recent public release, updated in three-dimensional space. Time steps
for simulation can be selected freely. Expertise Required: Understanding of
September 1997. It writes out its own
Foliage of trees and reflection factors fundamentals of sun angles (see
users manual. Not copy protected;
of the ground can be given as monthly www.crest.org/staff/ceg/sunangle/
sharing is encouraged. Most easily
schedules. for an introduction to sun angle
aquired by copying a disk or by down-
concepts).
loading off the Web; otherwise, users
Output: Values of the daily course of
can send a check to the technical con- Input: The user inputs the geographical
geometrical shading coefficients are
tact for $35, payable to the Regents of location, the frequency of the data
calculated hourly.
the University of California. desired, and the output format desired;
Computer Platform: MS-DOS 5.0 the program has a graphical user
Contact:
and MS-Windows 3.1 or better; PC- interface.
Professor Murray Milne
compatible system with VGA-
Department of Architecture and Output: The output is text files consist-
compatible graphic-board (at least
Urban Design ing of tables of sun angle data; the
640 x 480 pixels); about 5 MB free
Box 951467 specific sun angles, format of the data,
space on hard disk. The programming
University of California at Los Angeles etc., are specified by the user.
language is Delphi.
Los Angeles, California 90095-1467
Telephone: 310-825-7370 Strengths: Easy to handle. Computer Platform: Windows and
Facsimile: 310-825-8959 Macintosh; the programming language
E-mail: Milne@ucla.edu Weaknesses: Unknown. is MacroMedia Director.
Online: http://www.aud.ucla.edu/
energy-design-tools Availability: A demonstration version Strengths: Best for people performing
can be downloaded free; it expires analyses of buildings or solar energy

systems over a year who need to know and heat transfer properties of win- to handle input of weather or other
solar altitude and azimuth angles for dows in buildings. time-dependent functions and output
their analysis. of simulation results. TRNSYS
Audience: This is for architects, build- (TRaNsient SYstem Simulation
Weaknesses: While Sun Position can ing designers, fenestration energy Program) is typically used for HVAC
compute individual sun angles (i.e., at performance simulators, atmospheric analysis and sizing, solar design, build-
one specific time instead of throughout scientists, and others interested in ing thermal performance, and analysis
the year), it would be more efficient to determining the spectrum of radiation of control schemes.
use the internet SunAngle calculator for from the sun and sky.
single calculations. Audience: Engineers, researchers, and
Expertise Required: Basic understanding architects.
Availability: Free. of solar geometry.
Expertise Required: None to use standard
Contact: Input: User-friendly I/O screens, solar package; FORTRAN knowledge is help-
Christopher Gronbeck position, atmospheric conditions. ful for developing new components
Seattle Energy Works
1020 NE 68th Street Output: Results can be printed directly Input: TRNSYS input file, including
Seattle, Washington 98115 to a printer, or saved to a print file or to building input description, characteris-
Telephone: 206-729-5260 files formatted for importing into tics of system components and manner
Facsimile: 206-522-5051 graphic plotting programs. in which components are intercon-
E-mail: ceg@energysoftware.com nected, and separate weather data (sup-
Strengths: Provides a solar spectrum
Web: http://www.energysoftware. plied with program). Input file can be
data file with columns for wavelength,
com generated by graphically connecting
direct normal, direct horizontal, direct
components.
tilted, diffuse horizontal, and diffuse
SUNSPEC tilted spectral irradiances, as well as the Output: Life-cycle costs, monthly
This software calculates clear-sky direct global (both direct and diffuse) versions summaries, annual results, histograms,
beam and diffuse-sky solar spectral of these. Also outputs the integrated plotting of desired variables (by time
irradiances and the sum of these two total irradiances in W/m2 and the total unit), online variable plotting (as the
spectra for sun positions and atmos- integrated illuminances in lux for all simulation progresses).
pheric conditions specified by the user. these beams.
Sunspec also calculates the spectral Strengths: Because of its modular
irradiances from the direct beam, dif- Weaknesses: Current menu of typical approach, the program is extremely
fuse sky, or ground reflections that are atmospheric conditions is limited. It flexible for modeling a variety of ther-
incident on an arbitrarily tilted plane. does not yet have the latest version of mal systems at different levels of
Sunspec integrates these spectra to the SMARTS algorithm and is not as complexity; supplied source code
determine the total irradiances, user-friendly as a planned future and documentation provide an easy
illuminances, and luminous efficacies version. method for users to modify or add
for each component. components not in the standard library;
Availability: Sunspec 1.0 is available
extensive documentation on compo-
Sunspec offers the user a menu of typi- from the contact at a cost of $35
nent routines, including explanation,
cal atmospheric conditions to choose (including shipping and handling).
background, typical uses and govern-
from and follows this with detailed
Contact: ing equations; supplied time step,
editing screens permitting the user to
Joanne Sterling, Document Sales Office starting, and stopping times allow
change any input parameter. The input
Florida Solar Energy Center choice of modeling periods. Version
parameters include values for ozone
1679 Clearlake Road 14.2 moves all the TRNSYS utility pro-
concentration, water vapor, turbidity,
Cocoa, Florida 32922-5703 grams to the MS Windows platform
ground reflectance (albedo), solar alti-
Telephone: 407- 638-1414 (95/NT), including a choice of graphi-
tude and azimuth angles, and tilted
Facsimile: 407-638-1439 cal drag-and-drop programs for creat-
plane altitude and azimuth angles.
E-mail: joann@fsec.ucf.edu ing input files, a utility for easily
Sunspec includes a loop option permit-
Online: http://www.fsec.ucf.edu creating a building input file, and a
ting repeated calculations at different
program for building TRNSYS-based
solar positions for the same atmos-
TRNSYS applications for distribution to
pheric conditions. It also has an option
nonusers. Web-based library of addi-
for outputting solar spectral data files This modular system simulation soft-
tional components and frequent down-
that can be read by the Window 4 pro- ware includes many of the components
loadable updates are also available.
gram, which calculates the solar optical commonly found in thermal energy
systems as well as component routines

Weaknesses: No assumptions about the
building or system are made (although
default information is available) so the
user must have detailed information
about the building and system and
enter this information into the TRNSYS
interface.
Availability: Version 14.2, Commercial,

$4000; Educational, $2000. Free demon-
stration diskette and information are
available from the technical contact.
International distributors are located
in Germany, France, Belgium, and
Sweden in addition to two distributors
in the United States.
Contact:
TRNSYS Coordinator
Solar Energy Laboratory
University of Wisconsin
1500 Johnson Drive
Madison, Wisconsin 53706
Telephone: 608-263-1589
Facsimile: 608-262-8464
E-mail: trnsys@sel.me.wisc.edu
Online: http://sel.me.wisc.edu/
trnsys/download.htm

About the Authors
Patrina Eiffert, Ph.D. Gregory J. Kiss
Dr. Eiffert is a project leader in the National Mr. Kiss, a specialist architect, has been a principal of
Renewable Energy Laboratory’s (NREL’s) Kiss + Cathcart since 1984. His work has focused on
Deployment Facilitation Center. NREL is a U.S. the integration of solar technologies into architecure
Department of Energy (DOE) national laboratory. and product design, and has included built projects
As a Deputy Team Leader within NREL’s Federal research and education. Kiss + Cathcart have won a
Energy Management Program (FEMP) team, Dr. number of awards and invited competitions, includ-
Eiffert has had experience managing projects that ing top prizes in every solar-architecture competition
assist in implementing renewable energy in the since 1992. Kiss + Cathcart’s projects range from
Federal sector. Primary activities range from con- first-of-a-kind photovoltaic buildings in Port Jarvis,
ducting economic feasibility analysis and design New York, and Fairfield, California, to major PV
studies through assessment and exploration of buildings projects in progress at Four Times Square
alternative financing mechanisms. Dr. Eiffert leads in Manhattan, New York; in Yosemite National Park;
national activities under the Save with Solar: Federal and in Hamburg, Germany.
Participation in the Million Solar Roofs Initiative on
behalf of DOE FEMP. Research by the firm has included three studies on
building-integrated photovoltaics commissioned
Additionally, Dr. Eiffert co-represents the United by NREL. In conjunction with Energy Photovoltaics
States in the International Energy Agency, of Princeton, New Jersey, Kiss + Cathcart has devel-
Photovoltaic Power Systems (PVPS) Task VII, oped several BIPV construction products, including
Photovoltaics in the Built Environment, along with large-area lamiations for facades and skylights. The
Steven Strong of Solar Design Associates. In this firm is also developing custom patterned, semitrans-
position, as an internationally recognized expert in parent PV panels for building use.
Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV), Dr. Eiffert
leads the effort to develop International Guidelines Consulting activities include the Whitehall Ferry
for the Economic Evaluation of BIPV and is the Terminal project in New York and solar housing in
Activity Leader for Subtask 3: Non-technical Winslow, Arizona, as well as the projects listed in
Barriers. the design briefs in this book.
Dr. Eiffert completed her doctorate in Architecture Kiss + Cathcart designed "Under the Sun," a major
on building-integrated photovoltaics at Oxford exhibition of solar design and architecture at the
Brookes University Post-Graduate Research School Cooper Hewitt, National Design Museum,
in the United Kingdom. Dr. Eiffert has authored Smithsonian Institution. The exhibit is an investiga-
many articles and publications related to renewable tion of the design implications of the solar future;
energy systems and programs and is a guest lecturer it was originally held in one of the most prestigious
at universities across the country. garden sites in the United States. This is now a
traveling exhibit.
Patrina Eiffert
NREL, M.S. 2723 Gregory J. Kiss
1617 Cole Blvd. 150 Nassau Street, Top Floor
Golden, CO 80401-3393 New York, NY 10038
88 About the Authors

NOTICE: This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States
government. Neither the United States government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees,
makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accu-
racy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or
represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific
commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does
not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States
government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not neces-
sarily state or reflect those of the United States government or any agency thereof.
Available for a processing fee to U.S. Department of Energy and its contractors, in paper, from:
U.S. Department of Energy
Office of Scientific and Technical Information
P.O. Box 62
Oak Ridge, TN 37831-0062
phone: 865.576.8401
fax: 865.576.5728
email: reports@adonis.osti.gov
Available for sale to the public, in paper, from:
U.S. Department of Commerce
National Technical Information Service
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22161
phone: 800.553.6847
fax: 703.605.6900
email: orders@ntis.fedworld.gov
online ordering: http://www.ntis.gov/ordering.htm
Available electronically at http://www.doe.gov/bridge
89
NREL/BK-520-25272
February 2000
Printed on paper containing at least 50% wastepaper,

including 20% postconsumer waste

(Architecture Ebook) Building-Integrated Photo Voltaic Designs For Commercial and Industrial Structures

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(Architecture Ebook) Building-Integrated Photo Voltaic Designs For Commercial and Industrial Structures

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Building-Integrated Photovoltaic

Designs for Commercial and

The authors would like to acknowledge the valuable contributions of Sheila

Building-Integrated Photovoltaics for Commercial and Institutional Structures

Building-Integrated Photovoltaics for Commercial and Institutional Structures 1

2 Building-Integrated Photovoltaics for Commercial and Institutional Structures

Building-Integrated Photovoltaics for Commercial and Institutional Structures 3

Kiss + Cathcart, Architects/PIX08458

4 design briefs: 4 Times Square

Kiss + Cathcart, Architects/PIX06457

Kiss + Cathcart, Architects/PIX08460

design briefs: 4 Times Square 5

Kiss + Cathcart, Architects/PIX06458

4 Times Square during construction

6 design briefs: 4 Times Square

Atlantis Energy, Inc./PIX04779

design briefs: Thoreau Center for Sustainability 7

design briefs: Thoreau Center for Sustainability 9

10 design briefs: Thoreau Center for Sustainability

The BIPV installations at the

design briefs: National Air and Space Museum 11

12 design briefs: National Air and Space Museum

design briefs: National Air and Space Museum 13

BIPV Canopy detail 1:10 Thin-film BIPV glass

design briefs: National Air and Space Museum 15

16 design briefs: National Air and Space Museum

design briefs: National Air and Space Museum 17

18 design briefs: National Air and Space Museum

Gross PV Surface Area: 571 ft2

design briefs: Ford Island 19

Description PV system, the McElroy metal substrate, Special Design Considerations

20 design briefs: Ford Island

design briefs: Ford Island 21

22 design briefs: Ford Island

design briefs: Ford Island 23

24 design briefs: Western Area Power Administration

design briefs: Western Area Power Administration 25

Workers carry PV modules with attached foam backing in preparation for

26 design briefs: Western Area Power Administration

Substrate Roof Deck 02527234m

design briefs: Western Area Power Administration 27

28 design briefs: Photovoltaic Manufacturing Facility

Special Design Considerations

Interior view shows how BIPV is

design briefs: Photovoltaic Manufacturing Facility 29

D.1 Built-up roofing

Scupper & D.S. beyond

Concrete base @ column

Spread footing beyond - see

Stainless steel panel

Elevator pit beyond

Sectional view shows office “cube” and factory.

design briefs: Photovoltaic Manufacturing Facility

Stainless steel awning assembly

design briefs: Photovoltaic Manufacturing Facility

508 406.4 330.2

Panel connection below

Panel wiring points typ.

Light fixture below (25' O.C.)

Curved Stainless panel below

Vertical Stainless stiffener

The PV awning provides a sunscreen.