SOLDERING, BRAZING & WELDING

 
INTRODUCTION
 
Some products cannot be manufactured as a single piece.
The desired shape and size of such products can be
obtained by joining two parts of same or different
materials. These parts are manufactured individually and
are joined together to obtain the desired product.

For example, aircraft and ship bodies, welded machine

frames, furniture, computers, bridges and the transmission
or electric towers etc., are all fabricated by joining several
different parts.
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Classification of joining processes:
Temporary Joint
Permanent Joint

A temporary joint can be easily dismantled

separating the original parts without any damage to
them

In case it is a permanent joint, an attempt to separate

the parts already joined will result in the damage of the
parts. In a permanent joint, the joint is made such that it
has properties similar to the base metal of the two
parts. These parts cannot be separated into their
original shape, size and surface finish 2
Based on the process used for making the joint, the
joining processes can be further classified as:

Soldering.
Brazing.
Welding.
Mechanical Fasteners - bolts, nuts, rivets, screws
Adhesive bonding.

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Welding is one of the most extensively used
fabrication method. The joint strength obtained in
welding is being equal to or some times more than
that of the parent metal.

Welding is not only used for making structures,

but also for repair work such as the joining of
broken castings.

The choice of a particular joining process

depends on several factors such as application,
nature of loads or stresses, joint design, materials
involved and size and shape of the components 4
WELDING

Welding is a process of metallurgical joining of

two pieces of metals by the application of heat with
or without the application of pressure and addition
of filler metal. The joint formed is a permanent
joint.

 It is extensively used in the fabrication work in

which metal plates, steel sections, castings of
ferrous metals are joined together. It is also used for
repairing broken, worn-out or defective metal parts.
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Modern methods of welding may be classified
under two broad headings.
• Plastic or pressure welding process
• Fusion or non-pressure welding process

In plastic or pressure welding process the

pieces of metal to be joined are heated to a
plastic state and then forced together by external
pressure. This procedure is used in forge
welding, resistance welding, spot welding in
which pressure is required.
 

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 In the fusion or non-pressure welding, the material
at the joint is heated to a molten state and allowed to
solidify. This includes gas welding, arc welding

The surfaces of the metal which are to be joined by

any of the welding processes must be sufficiently clean
to permit clean metallic surfaces to come in to contact.

Fluxes are applied to the parts being welded to

dissolve the oxides or to prevent the formation of
oxides.

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 Types of Welding Joints
 
The choice of the type of joint is governed by the kind of
metal to be welded, its thickness and technique of welding

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 GENERAL WELDING PROCEDURE

1.Surface Cleaning:
Surfaces of the parts to be welded need to be
thoroughly cleaned to remove dust, dirt, oil, grease etc.

2.Edge Preparation:
Preparing a contour at the edges of the pieces to be
joined. It may involve beveling or grooving. This is done in
order to get the fusion or penetration through the entire
thickness of the member.

3.Clamping:
Pieces to be welded are clamped suitably so that there
are no undesirable movements during welding. 9
4. Safety Devices:
Goggles & shields to protect the eyes, Apron to prvent
the sparks and flying globules of molten metal, shoes,
hand gloves etc.

5. Initial Weld:
Initial tack welds are done at the opposite corners of the
joint to secure the pieces together. Any cracks at this
stage must be removed as they cause residual stresses.

6. Intermediate and Final Welding:

The weld joint is formed through various weaving
movements (weld beads). During this process, filler
metal and a suitable flux are used. After the
intermediate run of welding, final run is taken. 10
7. Removal of Excess Material:
Extra material on the weld surface can be removed
using tongs and chipping hammer. The weld is allowed
to cool and then cleaned.

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 ARC WELDING

Joining of metals with heat produced by an electric

arc.

Heat necessary to melt the edges of the metal to be

joined is obtained from an electric are struck between
the electrode (filler rod) and the work, producing a
temperature of 50000C, in the welding zone.

The heat of the arc melts the base metal or edges of

the parts fusing them together.

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Filler metal, usually added melts and mixes with
molten base metal to form the weld metal.

The weld metal cools and solidifies to form the

weld.

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A typical arc welding setup consists of:
 
 An arc welding circuit - power supply

 An electrode to conduct the electricity to the arc.

 Cables which connect the power supply to the

electrode and workpiece to complete the welding
circuit.

 The arc itself provides the heat for welding.

 The workpieces to be welded are kept on a metallic

table. 14
Arc Welding Setup

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Arc Welding Process

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The arc must be shielded because - as it hardens the
molten metal combines with oxygen and nitrogen to
form impurities that weaken the weld.

The electrodes are usually coated with a flux. This

coating forms a gaseous cloud that shields the molten
metal from the atmosphere.

The coating also forms a protective slag. The slag

floats on the molten pool and hardens as the weld
cools. This keeps impurities out of the weld.

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 ARC WELDING MACHINE: AC or DC

AC Arc Welding Machine:

• A step down transformer - receives the AC supply

between 200 to 440volts and transforms it to the
required low welding voltage in the range of 80 to
100volts.

• A high current of 100 to 400A will be suitable for

general arc welding work.

• In AC arc welding, there is no choice of polarity

since they change in every cycle. 18
DC Arc Welding Machine:

• In DC welding, the workpiece is connected to the

positive pole of a DC generator and the electrode to
the negative pole in order to melt greater mass of the
metal in the base material. This is called straight
polarity.

• When the less heat is required at the base material, the

polarity is reversed. This is called reversed polarity.

• We can select the polarity depending upon the type of

the job. Hence, in DC arc welding, it is possible to melt
many metals which require more heat to melt. 19
 ARC WELDING ELECTRODES

1.Consumable Electrodes: Melt along with the

workpieces & fills the joint.

They are either Bare or Coated.

When the bare electrodes are used, the globules of

the molten metal while passing from the electrodes
absorb oxygen and nitrogen from the atmospheric air to
form non-metallic constituents which gets trapped in
the solidifying weld metal and thereby decreasing the
strength of the joint.
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Coated Electrodes facilitate:

1. Protection of molten metal from oxygen and

nitrogen of the air by providing a gaseous shield
around the arc and the molten metal pool.

2. To establish & maintain the arc throughout welding

3. The formation of slag over the joint, thus protects

from rapid cooling.

4. Addition of alloying elements

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2. Non-consumable Electrodes:

When non-consumable electrodes are used, an

additional filler material is also required. The
advantage of using this type of electrode is that the
amount of the metal deposited by the filler rod can
be controlled.

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 Advantages of Arc Welding
1.Applicable to an infinite variety of work & can be
executed in any position.

2.There is less buckling and warping of the work.

3.It produces strong sound and ductile welds.

4.Satisfactory welds can be produced in heavy & light

sections.

5.Low cost process & Low accuracy in setting up required.

6.Excellent joint properties can be obtained in mild, low

alloy and stainless steels, nickel and copper-base alloys. 23
 Disadvantages of Arc Welding

1.Basically a manual process requiring adequate operator

skill for good results.

2.Electrodes require frequent changing.

3.Multi run welds necessary on thick plate-slag chipping

necessary after each run.

4.The principal disadvantage has been the high heat of the

metal arc which makes it unsuitable for use on materials
less than 1.55 mm thick.

5.High initial cost of welding equipment. 24

Sl No. Aspect AC Welding DC Welding
1. Arc Stability Lower/ Unstable Higher/Stable

2. Cost Low High

3. Electrodes Only Coated Both Bare & Coated

4. Suitability Non-ferrous metals cannot be Suitable for both ferrous &

joined nonferrous metals

5. Electrical Less energy consumption per More energy consumption

energy kg of the metal deposited (3 per kg of the metal deposited
Consumption to 4 kWh) (6 to 10 kWh)

6. Efficiency High Low

7. Polarity No choice of polarity Straight or reversed polarity

can be used depending on the
type of job and heat required
at the base metal
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 GAS WELDING
 Gas welding is a fusion welding process

Flame produced by the combustion of gases is

employed to melt the metal

 The molten metal is allowed to flow together thus

forming a solid continuous joint upon cooling.

By burning pure oxygen in combination with other

gases, in special torches, a flame up to 33000C can be
attained.

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Oxy-acetylene Gas Welding Equipment

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 Oxy-acetylene Gas Welding Equipment

1.Welding torch & tip

2.An acetylene cylinder – 15.5 bar, red or maroon
3.An oxygen cylinder – 125 bar. Blue or black
4.Pressure regulator – Cylinder pressure to delivery
pressure
5.Pressure gauge- One shows cylinder pressure & the
other shows the working or delivery pressure
6.Rubber hoses - black/green hose for oxygen &
red/orange hose for acetylene
7.Safety devices – Goggle with coloured glasses, hand
gloves, helmet, apron, sleeves, shoes etc.

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The oxy-acetylene flame is used to pre heat the parts to
be welded around the joint and also to melt the filler
metal.

A jet of oxy acetylene flame issuing from the nozzle of

a burner is played on the junction of the two pieces to be
welded.

At the same time a filler rod is held in the zone of jet
and its melt is deposited on the fused junction.

A weld is obtained after the molten metal solidifies. The

coating on the filler rod acts as a flux to keep the joint
clean.
  29
GAS WELDING FLAMES (OXY-ACETYLENE
FLAMES)
(Based on Gas Ratio)
1.Neutral Flame: (Gas ratio is 1)
Oxygen & acetylene are supplied to the torch in nearly equal
volumes
Maximum temperature of 32000C.
This neutral flame is desired for most welding operations.
Used for welding steel, stainless steel, cast iron, Cu etc.

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2. Carburizing or Reducing Flame: ( Gas ratio 0.95 to 1)
 Excess of acetylene is present, Low temp flame
 The excess unburnt carbon is absorbed in ferrous metals,
making the weld hard and brittle.
 An intermediate flame feather exists - reddish in colour.

 The length of the flame feather is an indication of the excess

acetylene present.
 Carbonizing flame is used for welding high carbon steels
and cast iron, alloy steel.

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2. Oxidizing Flame: (Gas ratio 1.15 to 1.5)
 Excess of oxygen is present, similar to the neutral flame
 Inner white cone is some what small, giving rise to higher
tip temperatures.
 Excess of oxygen causes the metal to burn/oxidize quickly.
 Desirable for welding only brass because a thin layer of slag
forms over the molten metal.
 Widely used for oxyacetylene cutting and not suitable for
welding since the weld metal will be oxidised.

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 Advantages of Oxy-acetylene Gas Welding

1.The equipment is inexpensive, simple and is easily

portable.

2.Useful for welding light metals such as automobile

bodies and repair works.

3.A large variety of material can be welded.

4.Welds can be produced at reasonable cost.

5.Compared to electric arc welding this provides greater

flexibility with respect to heat impact and cooling rates.
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 Disadvantages of Oxy-acetylene Gas Welding

1. Equipment must always be handled carefully as in certain

circumstances acetylene is explosive as oxygen when used in
an oily atmosphere (such as an old dirty garage floor pit).
2. A high temperature flame from a hand held torch is
dangerous when handled carelessly.
3. It is much slower than electric arc welding and does not
concentrate the heat close to the weld. Thus, the heat treated
area is larger, which causes more distortion.
4. Highly skilled operators are required to produce a good
weld.
5. If electric arc welding is available gas welding is seldom
used for work over 3.2mm thick.
6. The process is not satisfactory for heavy sections
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 WELDING DEFECTS

1.Cracking: Due to incorrect electrodes or wrong working

procedure, locked up stresses set up by non-uniform heating &
cooling, excess sulphur or phosphorous present in the weld
metal. Cracked welds must be cut out & rewelded.
2. Incorrect edge preparation: Results in poor fusion, slag
inclusion, weak weld, overheating and build up of residual
stresses in the weld.
3.Craters: Concave depressions in the external surface of the
welded joints which reduces the strength of the joint.
4.Under cutting: Excess melting of the parent metal due to the
non-uniform feed of the welding rod, improper position of the
electrode etc.

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 WELDING DEFECTS

5.Porosity: Formation of blowholes, gas pockets or roughness

on the weld surface due to the presence of gases in the weld
metal, moisture in the flux or rust on the welded edges.
6.Over welding: Welding over an already welded layer.
Results in overheating of the earlier layer of weld and also in
improper fusion.
7.Slag inclusions: It is the presence of non-metallic
substances in the weld. This is due to the contamination of
the base & deposited metal by oxides, non-uniform melting
of the electrode coating & high viscosity of the slag.
8. Poor Fusion: The lack of thorough & complete union
between the deposited & parent metal.

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 WELDING-MERITS
1.Homogeneity and homogeneous properties.

2. Joints withstand elevated stresses.

3.Durable joints – unaltered due to environmental changes

or temperature changes.

4. leak-tightness

5.Portable equipment, cheap & economical process.

6.Less noisy operation compared to some of the

mechanical joining processes.
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 WELDING-DEMERITS

1.Causes residual stresses & distortion of the workpiece.

2. Eyes of the operator get strained due to continuous
welding or due to light radiations emitted during welding.
3.If the welding area is less ventilated or if the air
circulation is minimum, fumes that may come out can be
suffocating to the welders.
4.Requires edge preparation before welding.
5.Stress relieving is essential after welding.
6.Requires skilled operator for producing a neat job.

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 WELDING-APPLICATIONS

1.In aircraft building industry.

2.Cylinders, boilers & vessel manufacturing.
3.Structural constructions like bridges, buildings, ships etc.
4.Manufacture of various machineries like mechanical,
food processing, agricultural, earth moving & textile
machineries.
5.Building of automobile bodies and other parts.
6.Manufacturing of furnaces, tanks, cranes, hoists, railway
equipments, steel furniture etc.

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 SOLDERING
Method of joining similar or dissimilar metals by the
application of heat and using a filler metal or fusible alloy
called solder, whose liquidus temperature is below 4500 C

The molten filler metal is made to flow between the

two closely placed adjacent surfaces by the capillary
action.

Strength of the joint is limited by the strength of the

filler metal used.

Soldering is used for obtaining a leak proof joint or a

low resistance electrical joint.
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 The soldered joints are not suitable for high
temperature applications because of the low melting
temperatures of the filler metals used.

The purpose of using the flux is to prevent the

formation of oxides on the metal surface when the same
is heated.

The fluxes are available in the form of powder,

paste, liquid or in the form of core in the solder metal.

It is necessary that the flux should remain in the

liquid form at the soldering temperature and be reactive
to be of proper use
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 The composition of solder used for different purposes
are as given below:

Soft solder - lead 37% tin 63%

Medium solder - lead 50% tin 50%
Plumber’s solder - lead 70% tin 30%
Electrician’s solder - lead 58% tin 42%

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 SOFT SOLDERING
Used extensively in sheet metal work for joining parts
that are not exposed to the action of high temp & are not
subjected to excessive loads and forces or vibrations.

Also employed for joining wires and small parts. The

solder is mostly composed of lead and tin whose melting
temperature range is 150-350°C.

ZnCl2- commonly used flux- quick acting & produce

efficient joints. As they are corrosive,joint should
thoroughly cleaned of all the flux residue from the joint.

 A soldering iron is used to apply the heat produced

from the electrical source. 43
 HARD SOLDERING

 An alloy of copper, tin and silver known as hard

solder is used for stronger joints.

Hard soldering employs solder which melts at higher

temperatures ( 6000 C to 9000 C) is stronger than used in
soft soldering.

German silver, used as a hard solder for steel is an

alloy of copper, zinc and nickel.

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 SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS

 Shaping and fitting of metal parts together: The

two parts to be joined are shaped to fit closely so that the
space between them is extremely small and filled
completely with solder by capillary action.

Cleaning of surfaces: surfaces to be soldered are

cleaned to remove dirt grease or any other foreign material.

Application of flux: The flux is applied when the

parts are ready for joining. This cleans the surfaces
chemically and helps the solder in making a bond.

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 SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS

 Tinning & application of solder: After the soldering

iron has been heated to the desired heat, its surface is
cleaned and then dipped in a mixture of flux and solder.
The solder is then melted into the joint is smoothed over
and finished by the use of the soldering iron. Another
practice is to first dip it in a mass of flux followed by the
application of solder. This enables the solder to melt and
spread over the hot surface of the bit to form a coating over
it. This operation is known as tinning.

Final clean-up: Clean the soldered joints with solvent

to remove the remaining traces of flux.
46
 SOLDERING-MERITS

1.Simple method & less costlier.

2.Joints are easy to repair or rework.

3.Joint can last for many years.

4.Energy required for the process is less.

5.A high degree of control can be obtained over the

process by a skilled operator.

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 BRAZING
Brazing is a process of making joints where
incoalescence is produced by heating to suitable
temperatures above 5000 C and by using a non-ferrous filler
metal –SPELTER- having a melting point (up to 9000 C)
below that of the base metal

Filler metal being distributed between the closely

fitted surfaces of the joint by capillary action.

Both similar and dissimilar metals can be joined.

Brazing gives a much stronger joint than soldering.

Borax is the most widely used flux 48

 Spelter may be a silver based alloy or copper based
alloy

Copper base alloys – Brasses ( Cu & Zn), sometimes

with up to 20% tin are mostly used-melting range of
850°C-950°C - used for brazing ferrous metals.

Silver base alloys – (Ag & Cu or Ag, Cu & Zn) -

melting range of 600°C-850°C - clean finish & a strong
ductile joint.

Types of Brazing:
1.Torch Brazing
2.Furnace Brazing
3.Resistance Brazing
4.Immersion Brazing 49
Brazing is a much widely used joining process in various
industries because of its many advantages.

Dissimilar metals, such as stainless steel to cast iron can

be joined by brazing.

Almost all metals can be joined by brazing except

aluminium and magnesium which cannot easily be joined
by brazing.

Because of the lower temperatures used there is less

distortion in brazed joints.

The brazed joints are reasonably stronger, depending on

the strength of the filler metal used. 50
 12/07/21 03:47 PM
Sl. WELDING SOLDERING BRAZING
No
1. High temperature Low temperature Temperature range is
operation & the base operation in which the higher than that of
metals are melted base metals are not soldering, but lower
melted than the welding
temperature. Base
metals are not melted.
2. Applicable for joining For joining both similar For joining both
similar metals only and dissimilar metals similar and dissimilar
metals

3. Filler material is of Solder is the filler Spelter is the filler

similar composition as material which is an alloy material which may
that of the parent metal of lead & tin ( soft solder) be either a copper
or an alloy of copper, tin base alloy or a silver
& silver (hard solder) base alloy
4. Electrode is coated by the Flux is applied on the Flux is applied on the
required flux materials surface to be soldered surface to be brazed
separately separately

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 12/07/21 03:47 PM
Sl. WELDING SOLDERING BRAZING
No
5. Joint is formed by the Joint is produced by the Joint is produced by
solidification of the molten formation of an the formation of an
filler metal with the intermetallic compound intermetallic compound
molten base metal between the metals & between the metals &
filler material due to filler material due to
diffusion or alloying diffusion or alloying
process process

6. Heat affected zone is large Heat affected zone is nil Heat affected zone is
negligible
7. Very stronger joint Joint formed is Less Joint formed is
stronger than welded or stronger than soldered
brazed joint joint, but weaker than
the welded joint

8. Used to join thick metals, Mainly to join thin sheet For non-structural
in the fabrication work, metals, pipes, wires etc. applications
structural constructions
etc.
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