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Weed managementIntroduction:

A weed in a general sense is a plant that is considered to be a nuisance, and normally appliedto unwanted plants in human-made settings such as gardens, lawns or agricultural areas, but also inparks, woods and other natural areas. More specifically, the term is often used to describe native ornon-native plants that grow and reproduce aggressively. Generally, a weed is a plant in an undesiredplace. Weeds are plants that under certain conditions cause economic and social harm to thefarmers.Weeds continue to exist, because the environment is continually being disturbed to createopen conditions for new generations, such as forest fires and human activity.Weeds may be unwanted for a number of reasons: they might be unsightly, or crowd out orrestrict light to more desirable plants or use limited nutrients from the soil. They can harbour andspread plant pathogens that infect and degrade the quality of crop or horticultural plants. Someweeds are a nuisance because they have thorns or prickles, some have chemicals that cause skinirritation or are hazardous if eaten, or have parts that come off and attach to fur or clothes.The term weed in its general sense is a subjective one, without any classification value, sincea "weed" is not a weed when growing where it belongs or is wanted. Indeed, a number of "weeds"have been used in gardens or other cultivated-plant settings.

Characteristics of weeds:

Weeds generally produce large numbers of seeds.2.

Weed seeds can often germinate under a variety of conditions, but some portion of the seedpopulation remains dormant. Dormant weed seeds are insurance against conditions that mightdestroy growing plants.3.

Many weeds develop rapidly, are able to self-pollinate, disperse widely and tolerate a wide rangeof environmental conditions.4.

Most of the dominant weed species in tropical and subtropical areas are the C4 photosynthesisplants, which are better adapted to a hot and dry environment, having enhanced water absorptionand a more efficient use of soil moisture and sunlight.

Why bother about weeds:

Weeds can compete with productive crops or convert productive land into unusable scrub.2.

Weeds are also often poisonous, distasteful or otherwise interfere with the use andmanagement of desirable plants by contaminating harvests.3.

Weeds tend to thrive at the expense of the more refined edible or ornamental crops. Theycompete for space, nutrients, water and light.4.

Tall growing vigorous weeds can have the most pronounced effects on adjacent crops.5.

Perennial weeds with bulbils or with persistent underground stems are able to store reservesof food, and are thus able to grow faster and with more vigour than crop species.6.

There is also evidence that the roots of some perennials exude allelopathic chemicals whichinhibit the growth of other nearby plants.7.

Weeds can also host pests and diseases that can spread to cultivated crops.

In most of the poor or developing countries, however, the small farmer and his/her familyusually spend more than 40 percent of their time in hand weeding, which limits agriculturalproductivity and the improvement of their standard of living and culture.

Methods of weed control:

It is for these reasons that weed management should be part of plant protection or, rather, of the area devoted to plant production.1.

Preventative methods (legal and quarantine procedures, and others at the farm level):The methods to prevent the introduction and spread of species are many but the mostimportant are those of a legal nature, which prohibit the movement and/or entry of certaintypes of imported commodities of plant origin or impose certain restrictions to the entry of such material.2.

Chemical methods (use of herbicides):Well-applied herbicides can be an effective means to control weeds. However,previous training of farmers in their correct use and safe handling is required. The repeateduse of the same herbicide, a common practice in areas of monocropping, should be avoidedto prevent high weed infestations that are tolerant to the herbicide, and to prevent herbicideresistance in the longer term.3.

Biological methods (classical methods through the introduction of exotic natural enemies andincreasing the population of already existing natural enemies):

Invasive species

is a phrase with several definitions.1.

It is a non-indigenous species (e.g. plants or animals) that adversely affect the habitats theyinvade economically, environmentally or ecologically.2.

The second definition broadens the boundaries to include both native and non-native speciesthat heavily colonize a particular habitat.3.

An invasive species is a widespread non-indigenous speciesBecause of the ambiguity of its definition, the phrase invasive species is often criticized as animprecise term within the field of ecology

Species-based mechanisms of invasion

Species-based characteristics focus on competition. While all species compete to survive,invasive species appear to have specific traits or combinations of specific traits that allow them tooutcompete native species. Sometimes they just have the ability to grow and reproduce more rapidlythan native species. Common invasive species traits include:* The ability to reproduce both asexually as well as sexually* Fast growth* Rapid reproduction

* High dispersal ability

* Phenotypic plasticity (the ability to alter one’s growth form to suit current conditions)

* Tolerance of a wide range of environmental conditions* Ability to live off of a wide range of food types* Association with humans* Other successful invasionsAn introduced species might become invasive if it can out-compete native species forresources such as nutrients, light, physical space, water or food. Invasive species often coexist withnative species for an extended time, and gradually the superior competitive ability of an invasivespecies becomes apparent as its population grows larger and denser and it adapts to its new location.An invasive species might be able to use resources previously unavailable to native species,such as deep water sources accessed by a long taproot, or an ability to live on previously uninhabitedsoil types.Facilitation is the mechanism by which some species can alter their environment usingchemicals or manipulating abiotic factors, allowing the species to thrive while making theenvironment less favorable to other species with which it competes. One such facilitative mechanismis allelopathy, also known as chemical competition or interference competition. In allelopathy aplant will secrete chemicals which make the surrounding soil uninhabitable, or at least inhibitory, tocompeting species.

Ecological impacts

Biological species invasions alter ecosystems in many ways. As highly adaptable and generalizedspecies are introduced to environments already impacted by human activities, some native speciesmay be put at a disadvantage to survive while other species survival is enhanced.2.

Land clearing and human habitation put significant pressure on local species. This disturbedhabitat is prone to invasions that can have adverse effects on local ecosystems, changingecosystem functions.3.

Multiple successive introductions of different nonnative species can have interactive effects; theintroduction of a second non-native species can enable the first invasive species to flourish.4.

Invasive species can change the functions of ecosystems. For example invasive plants can alter thefire regime, nutrient cycling , and hydrology in native ecosystems.5.

Invasive species that are closely related with rare native species have the potential to hybridizewith the native species. Harmful effects of hybridization have led to a decline and even extinctionof native species. Thus, natural, wild species can be threatened with extinction through the processof genetic pollution.6.

Economic costs from invasive species can be separated into direct costs through production loss inagriculture and forestry, and management costs of invasive species.7.

Many weed species are accidental introductions with crop seeds and imported plant material.Many introduced weeds in pastures compete with native forage plants, are toxic (e.g., Leafy