Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2009
Casimir C. Akoh
University of Georgia
Rodney W. Nichols
New York Academy of Sciences
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
BACKGROUND
The Importance of Obesity as a Public Health Problem 2
Sound Approaches to Fighting Obesity 3
Food Technology Provides Solutions for Public Health Problems 5
Pasteurization
Fortification
Irradiation
3
DISCUSSION 23
REFERENCES 26
APPENDIX 31
EXECUTIVE S U M MARY
Obesity is one of today’s leading health concerns for both adults and
children. It is responsible for at least 100,000 deaths per year in
the United States, placing it second only to cigarette smoking as an
underlying cause of death.
Obesity increases the risk of multiple health Technological innovations that may be used in
problems, including heart disease, diabetes, the creation of lower-energy-density and/or
several types of cancer, stroke, liver disease, controlled-portion-size products include sugar
osteoarthritis, chronic kidney disease, some substitutes, fat replacers, addition of fiber, use of
gastrointestinal disorders, sleep apnea, asthma, chemical additives produced by biotechnology, new
and reproductive problems. production methods, and different food packaging
strategies. Designing foods that promote satiety or
The use of food technology to solve public health suppress appetite are active areas of research. For
problems has a long and impressive history. Three example, insulin-type fructans, added to foods,
important examples are the pasteurization of milk, have been shown to affect blood levels of appetite
the fortification of foods to prevent nutritional signaling hormones thereby helping to suppress
deficiencies, and the use of irradiation to enhance appetite. Some novel fat emulsions and types of
microbiological safety and to kill pests in foods. dietary fiber induce a feeling of fullness and may
reduce food consumption.
Research has shown that foods that are low
in energy density (calories per unit weight) can Many food products with reduced energy density or
be helpful in weight control by providing fewer controlled portion size are already being marketed
calories without making people feel deprived or successfully. Whether additional, newer products of
unsatisfied. The use of reduced portion sizes can these types will be commercially successful
also be helpful. depends on several factors, including economic
issues, government regulations, and the
Although innovations from food technology have knowledge and attitudes of the public, the food
contributed to the increased availability of abundant industry, and health professionals.
and tasty foods (that makes over consumption of
food easier), the food industry is not the cause of
obesity and its creativity may contribute to solving
the obesity problem.
Obesity is one of today’s leading health concerns for both adults and children.
Approximately one-third of all American adults are obese, Several types of cancer, including cancers of the
as compared to only 15% in the 1970s (1). Another one- endometrium (lining of the uterus), colon and rec-
third of adults are overweight. In American children and tum, esophagus, breast, kidney, and gallbladder,
adolescents, obesity rates have more than doubled in the and aggressive or fatal prostate cancers (obesity
may not be associated with prostate cancer in gen-
past 30 years]]] — a very serious issue because obesity
eral) (7, 8, 9)
in childhood often persists into adulthood, leading to long-
Strokes, especially those resulting from blockage of
term health problems, such as heart disease, diabetes, a blood vessel (10, 11)
and liver disease (2). Liver disease (obesity, along with alcohol abuse and
viral hepatitis, is one of the three leading causes of
serious liver diseases) (12, 13)
Osteoarthritis, particularly involving the knees (14)
Approximately one-third of all
American adults are obese, as compared Chronic kidney disease (15, 16)
Several diseases of the gastrointestinal tract,
including gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD),
to only 15% in the 1970s.
gallstones, and pancreatitis (17, 18, 19, 20)
Experts estimate that obesity is responsible for about
Asthma in adults and children (21)
112,000 excess deaths per year in the United States (3), Sleep apnea (a condition in which people repeated-
placing it second only to cigarette smoking as an under- ly stop breathing during sleep and must at least par-
lying cause of death. In terms of health care expendi- tially arouse themselves to resume breathing; it is
tures, obesity and cigarette smoking may actually be tied associated with daytime sleepiness and an
for first place (4). Obese people have higher-than-aver- increased risk of motor vehicle crashes) (22)
age rates of a variety of diseases that can cause ongoing Carpal tunnel syndrome (23, 24)
health impairment and require long-term treatment, such Erectile dysfunction (25, 26)
Difficulty conceiving, complications of pregnancy,
as diabetes, asthma, and osteoarthritis. Obesity is also
urinary incontinence, and polycystic ovary syn-
associated with increases in cardiovascular risk factors,
drome (27, 28, 29)
including high blood pressure and abnormal levels of
blood lipids. An individual’s likelihood of dying of cardio- One promising recent development is an
vascular disease can be reduced if these risk factors are increased awareness on the part of the American public
identified and treated, but diagnosis and treatment of obesity as an important health problem. Prior to 2005,
involve substantial costs for physician visits, diagnostic surveys by the International Food Information Council
tests, and medicines. Most types of health care expendi- found that the top health concerns for consumers were
tures are affected by obesity, but the highest relative cardiovascular disease and cancer, with concerns about
increases involve outpatient services, such as prescrip- obesity a distant third. However, weight is now the num-
tion medications and office visits (5, 6). ber two concern, behind cardiovascular disease and
When people think of health problems associat- ahead of cancer, with about one-third of consumers men-
ed with obesity, they usually think of heart disease and tioning weight as a health concern in surveys conducted
diabetes — and they’re right; both of these diseases are in 2005 and 2007 (30).
linked to obesity. Many people do not know, however, that
obesity is also associated with an increased risk of a vari-
ety of other health problems, including the following:
Sound ideas about how to fight obesity include dietary changes, increased
physical activity, and education to promote changes in behavior leading to
more desirable eating and exercise habits.
For some obese people, drugs and/or surgery may also the use of weight-loss drugs may be appropriate in
be options in treating their individual problems. And, as conjunction with (not as a substitute for) diet and
later sections of this report will discuss in detail, food exercise, but careful monitoring of the patient for
technology can also play a useful role in fighting obesity. side effects is needed.
6. Weight-loss surgery is an option for severely obese
Exercise is an important component of any
patients (those with BMIs of 40 or over or those with
weight loss strategy, not only because it burns calories
BMIs of 35 or over in combination with obesity-relat-
consumed in food but also because it helps to prevent the ed health problems) for whom more conservative
decrease in basal metabolic rate (BMR) that sometimes forms of therapy have failed and who are at high
accompanies dieting. When caloric intake is cut, the risk for obesity-related health problems.
body responds by reducing BMR as a means of preserv-
ing calories during a time of perceived starvation. Regular
exercise also appears to help regulate appetite (31). Another government agency with a strong interest in obe-
Many studies have shown that a combination of diet and sity is the FDA. A working group at the FDA has issued a
exercise result in a greater loss of weight than either report on obesity that focused on the importance of
strategy alone (32). caloric balance (34). Because obesity, at the most funda-
The National Institutes of Health has issued a mental level, is a result of an imbalance between energy
set of recommendations for health professionals that out- (calorie) intake and output, the FDA report emphasized
lines the methods of treatment for obesity that are sup- the importance of focusing educational messages on the
ported by sound scientific evidence (33). The recommen- basic concept that “calories count.” The report also noted,
dations include the following key points: though, that there is evidence that many people misper-
1. A low-calorie diet, preferably one individually ceive their own weight status and that of their children,
planned to provide 500 to 1,000 calories per day and that those who incorrectly believe that they or their
less than the individual would need for weight main- children are not overweight or obese are unlikely to pay
tenance, will aid in reducing weight by 1 to 2 pounds attention to educational messages aimed at fighting obe-
per week. sity (34).
2. Increased physical activity is recommended, with
The Nutrition Facts label on food products is one
the eventual goal of accumulating at least 30 min-
utes or more of moderate-intensity activity on most of the FDA’s principal educational tools. However, recent
days of the week for a minimum of 150 min/week. research indicates that many people are not using these
3. As an adjunct to diet and exercise, behavior modifi- labels effectively to achieve an appropriate calorie intake.
cation may help people make long-term changes in Recent surveys indicated that a large proportion of the
their patterns of eating and physical activity. respondents did not make use of the information on
4. After successful weight loss, a weight maintenance Nutrition Facts labels that is most crucial to weight man-
program consisting of dietary therapy, physical agement — calorie content and serving size (35).
activity, and behavior change needs to be continued Moreover, even if they had this information, a substantial
indefinitely to prevent weight regain.
minority of the study participants would not have known
5. For some patients (those with a body mass index
[BMI] of 30 or more or with a BMI of 27 or more how to interpret it. Only 33% could describe an appropri-
accompanied by obesity-related health problems ate daily calorie intake, even when a very broad definition
such as hypertension, diabetes, and dyslipidemia), of an appropriate intake (anywhere between 1,500 and
The use of food technology to solve public health problems has a long and
impressive history.
Three important examples are the pasteurization of milk Fortification
to prevent the transmission of infectious diseases, the
judicious fortification of foods to prevent nutritional Fortification is the addition of specific nutrients
deficiencies, and the use of irradiation to enhance to food, usually a staple food that people consume on a
microbiological safety and to kill pests in foods. daily basis, that may correct or prevent a nutritional
deficiency. It can be very effective because it does not
Pasteurization of Milk require people to change their habits by taking a dietary
supplement or choosing different foods.
In the late nineteenth century and early One of the first examples of food fortification
twentieth century, milk was a vehicle for transmission of was the addition of iodine to salt in the United States
many infectious diseases, including typhoid fever, to prevent goiter and other manifestations of iodine
tuberculosis, diphtheria, severe streptococcal infections deficiency. In the early 1900s, iodine deficiency was
such as scarlet fever, and potentially fatal diarrheal common in parts of the United States far from the oceans,
diseases (37). This public health threat was eliminated by where soils, and the foods grown in them, are low in
the development and near-universal adoption in the iodine. In 1924, iodized salt (salt containing added
United States of a technique now called pasteurization — sodium iodide) was first introduced in Michigan, leading
the heating of milk to specific temperatures below the to a decrease in the prevalence of goiter from 38.6% to
boiling point for strictly prescribed time periods to kill 9%. By the 1930s, iodized salt was in use throughout the
disease-causing microorganisms. This process, United States, and iodine deficiency was almost
combined with aseptic packaging techniques to prevent completely eliminated as a public health problem (40).
handling and recontamination after heating, renders milk Other successful fortification programs include
safe to drink without causing major changes in flavor or the addition of vitamin D to milk, beginning in the early
nutritional content. Pasteurization was first applied to milk 1930s, to prevent rickets and the enrichment of flours and
in the 1870s, and the process was performed on a breads starting in 1938 (made mandatory in 1943) to
commercial scale in Denmark and Sweden as early as prevent deficiencies of thiamin, niacin, riboflavin, and
1885 and in several US cities before 1900 (38). It was not iron. A more recent example of fortification is the addition
until several decades later, however, that its use became of the B vitamin folic acid to grain products to reduce the
nearly universal. occurrence of neural tube birth defects (anencephaly and
Today, federal law requires that all milk sold in spina bifida), which became mandatory in 1998 (41).
interstate commerce in the United States be pasteurized.
However, 25 states allow raw (unpasteurized) milk to be Irradiation
produced and sold within their borders. From 1998 to May
2005, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Irradiation is the process of exposing foods to
identified 45 outbreaks, involving more than 1000 cases, gamma irradiation, electron beams, or x-rays at approved
more than 100 hospitalizations, and two deaths, attribut- doses that do not cause deterioration of food
able to unpasteurized milk or cheese made from it (39). components. Irradiating foods in excess of the approved
levels can produce lipid oxidation products and some
undesirable tastes, particularly in high fat foods.
Irradiation kills harmful bacteria, eliminates insect
Scientific Rationale
Before discussing how lower-calorie foods can be created, it’s worth asking
whether this is desirable.
Some people may question — quite reasonably — if it is Increased visibility and availability of food lead to
worth the effort. After all, if people eat lower-calorie foods, increased consumption. People working in an office
won’t they still be hungry after they finish eating them? eat more candies if the container is kept on their
And won’t they simply eat more food to compensate? Will desks rather than several steps away and if the jar
is clear rather than opaque (49).
intense sweeteners increase the appetite for sweet foods
Variety increases consumption — even if it’s only
and promote overeating?
visual variety rather than flavor variety. In one study,
people given a bowl of M&M candies in ten colors
A substantial body of scientific evidence ate 43% more than those given a bowl containing
the same candies in seven colors (50).
People apparently use vision-based rules of thumb,
indicates that external cues, rather than
the body’s internal sensations of hunger or such as “I will eat until I have finished all (or half, or
some other proportion) of the contents of this bowl,”
to make consumption decisions. In one study, peo-
fullness, play a major role in determining
how much food people actually eat. ple were served tomato soup in bowls that were
slowly refilled through concealed tubing. People
who ate from these special bowls consumed 73%
The answer to these questions turns out to be more soup than those eating from normal bowls, but
“not necessarily.” A substantial body of scientific evi- they did not believe that they had eaten more and
dence indicates that external cues, rather than the body’s they did not preceive themselves to be more satis-
internal sensations of hunger or fullness, play a major role fied (51).
in determining how much food people actually eat. Under Larger packages, portions, plates, bowls, and drink-
both controlled experimental conditions and free-living ing glasses all lead to increased consumption, pre-
conditions, subjective hunger ratings are only moderately sumably by suggesting that it is appropriate to con-
sume larger amounts (47). Many studies in labora-
or weakly associated with energy intake (46). Apparently,
tory and natural settings have shown that giving
people are easily influenced by environmental factors.
people larger portions of food leads to greater food
For example: (or calorie) intakes (52). For example, adults served
Atmosphere matters. People stay longer in a 1000-g portions of macaroni and cheese consumed
restaurant and are more likely to order a dessert or 30% more calories than those served 500-g por-
extra drink if the lighting is dim and/or the music is tions (53). It is well documented that typical food
soft and pleasant, as is often the case in fine dining portion sizes in the United States have increased in
establishments. On the other hand, harsh or bright recent decades. In one study, data from successive
lighting and/or loud, fast music or loud ambient surveys of foods consumed by nationally represen-
noise can prompt diners to finish their meals quick- tative samples of the U.S. population between 1977
ly, which can also lead to overeating because the and 1996 showed that portion sizes increased over
diners do not take the time to monitor their own feel- the time period studied for all of the foods except
ings of fullness (47). pizza. (54). Data on food provided in restaurants
People eat more when they eat with others, and the indicated that portion sizes began to grow in the
greater the number of companions, the greater the 1970s, increased sharply in the 1980s, and have
effect. In one study, meals eaten in large groups continued to increase since then (55).
were more than 75% larger than those eaten when
alone (48).
Energy Density
Dietary prescriptions for weight loss usually emphasize eating less food
(reducing portion size) and/or eating less of certain foods (deserts, fried
foods) and more of other foods (fruits, vegetables, whole grain breads). The
less desirable foods are energy (or calorie) dense while the recommended
foods are less energy dense.
Energy density refers to the amount of energy or kilo- tion to their regular diet over a 10 week period. Energy
calories (kcal) contained in a quantity of food, expressed density of the total diet declined by 1.23-1.29 kcal/g for
as a function of weight (kcal/gram) or volume (kcal/cup the apple and pear groups and daily energy intake also
or tablespoon). The energy density of a particular food decreased significantly as compared to the oat cookie
depends on the proportions of its major components — group (62). Similar results have been obtained in studies
fat, protein, carbohydrate, water — and their energy den- in children (63, 64).
sity. Of these components, fat has the highest energy
density: 9 kcal/g. Protein and carbohydrate each provide Energy density is important because
4 kcal/g, and water provides 0 kcal/g. Insoluble fiber also research has shown that people tend to eat
provides 0 kcal/g because it is not digested.
Water has the greatest impact on energy densi-
a consistent weight (or volume) of food
ty because it adds substantial weight to a food without from day to day
adding calories. The foods that are lowest in energy den-
sity are those that are highest in water: vegetables, fruits, Varying both energy density and portion size
and broth-based soups. It is important to note that some has a greater effect on total food intake than could be
foods that are low in water may be high in energy densi- achieved by manipulating just one of these two variables.
ty even if they contain little or no fat. In a study in adults, reducing the energy density of the
Because fat has a higher energy density than overall diet by 25% for two days led to a 24% decrease in
any other nutrient, the amount of fat in a food or meal also calorie intake. Reducing portion size by 25% led to a 10%
has a substantial impact on energy density. For example, decrease in calorie intake while reducing both factors by
fatty meats have a higher energy density than lean 25% led to a 32% decrease. These findings indicate that
meats, and the energy density of full-fat dairy products is the effects of energy density and portion size are approx-
higher than that of low-fat or nonfat dairy products. imately additive, at least for these relatively small degrees
Energy density is important because research of modification. People did not compensate for changes
has shown that people tend to eat a consistent weight (or in intake at one meal by eating different amounts at sub-
volume) of food from day to day, rather than a consistent sequent meals, at least over a two-day period (65).
amount of energy (calories) (60). If the energy density of Similar combined effects of energy density and portion
foods is lowered without making the food unpalatable, size have been demonstrated in children in a single-meal
people will usually still eat the same amount and report a study (63). In these studies, participants found changes in
similar level of fullness as they did when they consumed energy density to be less noticeable than changes in por-
the higher-energy-density food (61). tion size. Thus, to help people reduce energy intake with-
In studies in which adults were given entrées of out making a dish or meal seem unsatisfying, changes in
varying energy density and allowed to choose how much portion size may need to be small. But more substantial
of the entrée to eat, they consumed similar amounts of changes can be made in energy density, if it can be
the entrée despite differences in its energy density and accomplished without compromising palatability (66).
therefore had lower total calorie intakes when consuming Since foods of low energy density tend to be low
entrées lower in energy density (61). In another study in fat, it may be that the participants in those studies were
women ate three apples (0.63 kcal/g), three pears (0.64 responding primarily to changes in the fat content of their
kcal/g), or three oat cookies (3.7 kcal/g) each day in addi- meals, rather than changes in energy density. In another
Although most overweight people realize that they are consuming too many
calories, it can be very difficult to change eating habits for the long term and
give up favorite foods that are high in energy density.
Food choices are not only a matter of habit, of course, but not use any low-calorie, reduced-sugar, or sugar-free
also of culture, availability, and cost. Food technologists products. The primary reason non-users gave for not
have been working for over 30 years to devise palatable, using the products was “don’t like the taste.” Some peo-
low energy density versions of some foods. A variety of ple can detect an undesirable aftertaste from sugar sub-
approaches have been used to reduce the caloric densi- stitutes while others are not sensitive to this taste.
ty of foods . Lessening energy density of a food can be A 2008 report from Credit Suisse, "Obesity and
accomplished either by removing some or all of the fat or Investment Implications," forecasts that the market for
sugar in a food, thereby decreasing its caloric content, or obesity fighting staple foods could reach a value of $1.4
by adding substances with few or no calories to the food trillion by 2012 as consumers around the world continue
to increase volume and weight. Other strategies may to gain weight. There are particularly good opportunities
include innovations in plant and animal breeding, for producers of healthier snack foods and beverages
changes in processing and production methods, and (76). Various approaches for manufacturing such foods
alterations in structures of foods. However, foods are very are described in the following sections.
complex mixtures of many ingredients with specific
tastes, textures, and mouthfeel. Therefore, formulation of
“light” and “nonfat” foods, with reduced levels of sugars
and/or fats, that still taste very similar to standard foods,
is not a simple matter.
Low-calorie products are a relatively recent
invention, and are only popular in developed countries. A
2007 survey of a nationally representative sample of the
U.S. population aged 18 and over, conducted for the
Calorie Control Council, a trade organization of manufac-
turers of low-calorie and reduced-fat foods and bever-
ages, showed that 86% of all survey respondents report-
ed the usage of low-calorie, reduced-sugar, or sugar-free
foods or beverages — the highest level ever reported
(75). Usage was higher among women than men, and the
product category with the highest level of acceptance was
non-carbonated sugar-free soft drinks, exceeding diet
carbonated soft drinks for the first time. In addition to
these beverages, other popular low-calorie items were
reduced-sugar frozen desserts, sugar substitutes, and
sugar-free gum. Frequency of consumption of low-calorie
products was highest among those aged 18 to 34 years
and among those who reported being on a weight-loss
diet. Eighty-seven percent of low-calorie product users
reported being interested in being offered additional prod-
ucts of this type. Only 14% of all survey respondents did
Sweetness Enhancers
In addition to other major components, some foods Since insoluble fiber does not contribute calories,
also contain significant amounts of air. Air does not con- increasing the proportion of insoluble fiber in a food can
tribute either energy (calories) or weight to foods but it does reduce its energy density. Soluble dietary fiber is digested by
increase the volume. People’s feelings of satisfaction with bacteria in the colon to produce some short chain fatty acids
the amount of food consumed may have as much to do with and other compounds. Some of these compounds may be
the volume of the food as with its weight. Whipped mar- absorbed into the body thereby contributing to caloric intake.
garines have fewer calories per serving because air has An increase in dietary fiber may have the helpful effect of
been added. In a study in which the volume of a yogurt shake enhancing feelings of fullness and decreasing subsequent
was modified by varying the amount of air in the shake, men hunger, leading to decreased food intake (127). Some of the
who consumed shakes that were higher in volume but iden- fat replacers discussed above, such as Z-Trim, are fiber-
tical to lower-volume shakes in both weight and energy con- based. However, fiber is also added to foods for reasons
tent had significantly lower energy intakes at a subsequent other than as a fat replacer.
meal (122). In another study, participants were allowed to One type of fiber that may find increased use as a
consume as much as they wanted of a snack food (cheese food ingredient is purified powdered cellulose, which can be
puffs) with different levels of air incorporated into it; those derived from soy or oat hulls, wheat stalks, or wood (128).
who were given the more-aerated cheese puffs consumed Not only does powdered cellulose contribute no calories to
21% less of the snack in terms of both weight and energy food itself, its inclusion in food formulations allows more
(calories), even though they consumed a greater volume of water to be added to the food than with other types of fiber.
cheese puffs (123). It has been suggested that the effects of Thus, both the water and the cellulose itself can contribute to
modifying volume by incorporating air could also be applied lowering energy density. Powdered cellulose can be used to
to other categories of food such as bakery products and replace some of the flour in breads, pizza crust, flour tortillas,
extruded breakfast cereals (124). and dry pasta, among other products, decreasing their ener-
New aerated products are appearing in grocery gy density and increasing their fiber content. Other types of
stores, some with novelty value such as bubble-included fiber, including resistant starches, from many vegetable
chocolate. A recent report described results of adding bub- sources are being added to a variety of foods.
Marketing
Foods with reduced energy density and/or controlled portion size have
great potential as part of overall weight management efforts.
Some such products are already being successfully mar- diets are more expensive than high-energy-density diets.
keted and are used by a large proportion of the popula- Some food components highest in energy density, such
tion. However, these reduced fat foods have not as yet as refined grains, fats, and sugar, are also among those
been effective in reducing obesity rates. New technology that cost the least, while foods naturally high in water con-
is providing many additional options. tent and therefore lower in energy density, such as veg-
Some reduced-energy-density food products etables and fruits, are much more expensive (57, 60).
are well established in the United States. According to Some processed products with decreased energy densi-
food industry sources interviewed by ACSH for this ty or controlled portion size are also more expensive than
report, there are at least 10,000 products on the market their conventional counterparts. For example, the popular
that have been modified in some way to reduce calories. 100-calorie, single-serving packages of various snack
Perhaps the best example of a product category foods are more expensive, ounce for ounce, than the
where reduced-energy products have become main- same snacks sold in large, multiple-serving packages.
stream is fluid milk. The traditional product that is highest Similarly, the recently introduced single-serving packages
in fat content and energy density, whole milk, no longer of frozen vegetables, which could help to encourage veg-
dominates the fluid milk market. In 1980, whole, 2% fat, etable consumption because they are quick-cooking,
1% fat, and nonfat milks accounted for 59%, 23%, 7%, convenient, and well-suited for those who live or eat
and 5% of total fluid milk sales, respectively, but by 2006, alone, cost more per serving than larger packages of veg-
sales of these different fluid milk categories were 30%, etables do.
32%, 12%, and 15%, respectively (142). Another obstacle is the lack of an FDA-approved
Another well-established product category is health claim, related to obesity, that can be displayed on
that of sugar substitutes and products such as diet bever- package labels. A food manufacturer who produces a
ages. These products have been popular since the product that is substantially lower in both fat and calories
1960s, when a noncaloric sweetener with a highly accept- than the standard product can place a health claim on the
able taste, cyclamate, came into widespread use. By product label about dietary fat and cancer risk but cannot
1977, products containing noncaloric sweeteners were so claim that foods lower in calories can help to prevent or
much a part of mainstream American culture that when ameliorate obesity because there is no authorized health
the FDA proposed to ban saccharin, there was a huge claim. The FDA panel that initiated the “Calories Count”
public outcry against this action, not because the scientif- educational campaign proposed that the FDA consider
ic evidence against the sweetener was very limited allowing a health claim related to calories and obesity
(although it certainly was), but rather because banning (144), such as “Diets low in calories may reduce the risk
saccharin, then the only available noncaloric sweetener, of obesity, which is associated with type 2 diabetes, heart
would mean that entire categories of popular products, disease, and certain cancers.” However, the process for
such as diet sodas, would be taken off the market (143). approving a new health claim is lengthy and no final
For several reasons, however, newer types of action has been taken. Food companies interested in
low-energy density products — as well as foods naturally obtaining permission for an FDA-approved health claim
low in energy density — may have more difficulty becom- related to obesity could aid their cause by funding inde-
ing accepted as part of the mainstream food supply. One pendent research that would demonstrate effects of con-
of these reasons is economic. One of the difficulties in suming lower-energy-density foods over a period of sev-
recommending diets of low energy density is that such eral years.
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C.N.S. Sally L. Satel, M.D. Sita R. Tatini, Ph.D.
University of Nevada, Reno American Enterprise Institute University of Minnesota
American Council on Science and Health
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