© 2010 SOHNEY MEHRABAN WELFARE TRUST

Islamic Scholars
Scholars of the Muslim World
Compiled & Designed by: Syed Shahrukh Kamal Mukarram Gilani
Research by: VANTAGE

MUNDAIR SHARIF SYEDAN, TEHSIL SAMBRIAL, DISTRICT SIALKOT.

 Islamic Scholars
Renaissance men of the Dark Ages
In a time known as Golden Age of Islam, when learning was intrinsic to society,
scholars gathered in Baghdad to debate, research and study at the House of Wisdom.

Europe was still in the Dark Ages when the Renaissance men of the Muslim world
were redefining the boundaries of knowledge. They wrote books that changed the
course of science and philosophy; their libraries overflowed when paper was still rare.
From philosophers to greengrocers they studied ancient sciences, then created
disciplines unknown to the world.

This is the story of twelve remarkable men out of the hundreds who shone during that
time. Some enjoyed fame for centuries; others were consigned to obscurity. They
healed kings and paupers, studied cultures and charted stars.

And illuminated the Muslim world with six hundred years of uninterrupted genius.

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 Abu Musa Jabir ibn Haiyan (721 – 815) – The Father of Chemistry
Renowned throughout Europe as the alchemist Geber, Jabir ibn Haiyan is widely
regarded as the Father of Chemistry. The son of an acclaimed pharmacist, he began his
career as a physician in Haroon Rashid‟s court.

Physics
Jabir‟s mastery over ancient knowledge is evident in his tributes to Egyptian and Greek
alchemists, but it is his addition to their work that is truly fascinating. Taking Aristotelian
physics to the next level, Jabir defined each element in terms of its physical values. He
theorised that rearranging the defining values of one metal to match the properties of
another should cause the metal to transmute. This assumption (though false) spurred
European alchemists to search for the Philosopher‟s Stone, and the secret to „creating‟
gold.

Chemistry
Despite his leanings towards mysticism (he was considered a Sufi, Jabir‟s alchemy is
characterised by a focus on scientific technique, objectivity and precision. He clearly
recognised the importance if experimentation, which he considered „the first essential in
chemistry‟. By freeing alchemy of superstition and magic potions Jabir set it on the path
of scientific discipline.

Jabir used his chemical adroitness to improve many manufacturing processes: making
steel, preventing rust, engraving gold, dyeing and waterproofing cloth, tanning leather,
and the chemical analysis of pigments. And he developed the use of manganese dioxide
in glassmaking to counteract the green tinge produced by iron – a process still used today.
His invention, the alembic, enabled him to become the first person to manufacture
hydrochloric and nitric acid. Combining the two, he invented aqua regia, a liquid that can
dissolve and purify gold.

Widely translated into Latin during the 11th and 13th centuries, Jabir‟s work profoundly
influenced European science. His Al Kimya in particular reveals many fundamental
techniques that led to the birth of modern chemistry and chemical engineering.

A „pseudo-Geber‟ is known to have „borrowed‟ Jabir‟s name in 14 th century, perhaps as a

way of paying homage to his work – or more possibly – as a way of capitalising on his
name.

Author of over 100 books, Jabir left behind a treasure trove of knowledge, particularly
noteworthy due to the precision with which he described his chemical preparations. In the
words of scholar Max Mayerhaff, the development of chemistry in Europe can be traced
directly to Jabir ibn Haiyan.

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So respected was Jabir‟s work that his (incorrect) theory of metal transmutation
led to an epic quest for the Philosopher‟s Stone.

Jabir‟s methodical approach towards fact-finding pioneered experimentation in

chemistry.

Jabir‟s solution for the greenish tinge left by iron in glassmaking was to add
manganese dioxide – exactly how it‟s done to this day.

Jabir was the first person to manufacture hydrochloric and nitric acid.

He also created aqua regia, a highly corrosive substance that to used to remove
impurities from gold.

As testimony to Jabir‟s widespread fame, a 14th century „pseudo-Geber‟ published

several titles under his name to Europe.

Despite his leanings towards mysticism (he was considered a Sufi), Jabir‟s
alchemy is characterised by a focus on scientific technique.

He discovered as many as 19 elements and is credited with correct measurements

of specific weights. He perfected chemical processes such as distillation,
crystallization and sublimation.

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 Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (780 – 850) – Father of Algebra
Astronomer, astrologer and geographer, the most celebrated mathematician at the House
of Wisdom: this is al-Khwarizmi.

Algebra
Khwarizmi wrote his most famous book Kitab al Mukhtasar fi Hisab al Jabr wa al
Muqabila (The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing) around
830. Pioneering the solution of linear and quadratic equations, he changed the way the
world solved complex mathematical problems, and earned the title Father of Algebra.

The word „algebra‟ is itself derived from one of the two operations described in his book
for solving quadratic equations, „al-jabr‟.

Arithmetic
Al-Khwarizmi‟s major work On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals was responsible
for the diffusion of the Indian system of numeration in the Middle East and Western
world. The word „algorithm‟ stems from „algoritmi‟, the Latinisation of his name.

Geography
Khwarizmi systematically calculated the coordinates of 2402 cities and geographical
features. His Book Of the appearance of the Earth, with its cities, mountains, seas, all the
islands and rivers was finished in 833, correcting in the process Ptolemy‟s values for the
length of the Mediterranean Sea, Africa and the Middle East.

With the aid of 70 geographers Khwarizmi determined the circumference of the Earth,
and created a map of the entire known world. Translated into Latin during the Middle
Ages, Khwarizmi‟s maps and books altered the realms of cartography and maritime
voyages.

Astronomy
Al-Khwarizmi‟s treatise on celestial calculations includes 116 tables with calendrical,
astronomical and astrological data, as well as a table of sine values. Translations were
widely referred to in Europe and China for centuries.

Of special interest is Khwarizmi‟s paper explaining how to determine the direction of a

celestial object. And his treatise on the Jewish calendar describes, among other things,
how to calculate the mean longitude of the sun and the moon.

Several Arabic manuscripts found in Berlin, Istanbul, Tashkent, Cairo and Paris contain
further material that is believed to come from Al-Khwarizmi. The Istanbul manuscript
contains a paper on sundials while another paper uses spherical astronomy to determine
the directions of Mecca.

Few understand the significance of al-Khwarizmi‟s work; his labours at the House of
Wisdom preserved not only ancient Greek and Byzantine knowledge but contributed new

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and astonishingly sophisticated additions to their work. Without it, the revival of learning
in Europe would have been impossible.

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 The word „algebra‟ is derived from „al-jabr,‟ one of the two operations
Khwarizmi pioneered for solving complex quadratic equations.

So advanced was his astrological work that Khwarizmi worked out how to
determine the direction of celestial body was moving in.

He was responsible for the diffusion of the Indian system of numeration in the
Middle East and Western world.

Khwarizmi corrected Ptolemy‟s value for the Mediterranean Sea, Africa and the
Middle East, besides calculating the coordinates of 2402 cities and geographical
features.

A manuscript found in Istanbul shows Khwarizmi used spherical astronomy to

determine the direction of Mecca.

Khwarizmi determined the circumference of the Earth and completed the

monumental task of drawing a map of the entire known world.

Al-Khwarizmi‟s way of working with quadratic equations were so popular that his
book Al Jabr was used as the principle mathematics books at European
universities until 16th century.

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 Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi (800 – 873) – Philosopher of the Arabs
Though he started as a calligrapher, al-Kindi‟s thirst for knowledge led him to make
original contributions in all manner of disciplines, from mathematics to astronomy,
medicine to music. Before long he became known as Philosopher of the Arabs.

Mathematics
In mathematics al-Kindi wrote four books on the number system, introduced the zero
digit from Indian numerals to the rest of the word, and laid the foundation for a large part
of modern arithmetic. He also contributed to spherical geometry to assist him in
astronomical studies.

Chemistry
Al-Kindi was among the earliest scientists to reject the popular belief that base metals
could be converted to precious metals. In contrast to the prevailing alchemical views, he
was emphatic that chemical reaction could not change the nature of elements.

Medicine
Al-Kindi‟s chief contribution to medicine was the systematic determination of the doses
to be administered. This reconciled the conflicting views prevailing among physicians
and resolved the difficulties in writing recipes.

Sound & Music

At a time when little was known about the science of sound and music, al-Kindi‟s
research led him to the discovery that each musical note has its own specific pitch, a
phenomenon which he then proceeded to measure. He was also the first to notice that the
ear perceives sound because of waves which travel through the air to the eardrum.

A prolific writer, al-Kindi wrote as many as 241 books on subjects as diverse as the
movement of tides, astronomical instruments, precious stones, and even cryptology. His
book on geometrical optics was widely referred to, and provided guidance and inspiration
to such eminent scientists as Roger Bacon. In the opinion of 16 th century scholar Cardano,
al-Kindi was “one of the twelve greatest minds of all time.”

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 Al-Kindi was one of the first scientists to correctly realise that metals could not be
transmuted to form gold. Alchemists would nevertheless continue trying for
centuries.

Al-Kindi‟s foremost contribution to medical science was the systematic

measurement of chemical ingredients to exactly determine dosages.

Al-Kindi‟s research into the science of music led him to discover that each note
has its own specific pitch.

Al-Kindi wrote several books on the number system, laying the foundation for
modern mathematics.

Kindi‟s research led him to discover that sound is audible only after travelling
through the air in waves which then reach the eardrum.

In addition, various monographs written by him concern tides, astronomical

instruments, rocks, precious stones, etc.

Besides translations and commentaries on Aristotle‟s works, he produced over

250 treatises on variety of subjects including medicine and astrology.

16th century scholar and mathematician Cardano refers to Kindi as “one of the
twelve greatest minds of all times”.

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 Abu Bakr, Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (865 – 925) – The Greatest
Physician of Islam
A thousand years ago a lute player was going blind. His search for a sure led him on a
lifelong quest for knowledge. An original thinker and the greatest physician of Islam, that
musician was al-Razi.

Medicine
An authority on ancient sciences, the freethinking Razi challenged the fundamentals of
prevalent medical theory in Doubts About Galen. Some of his observations can
potentially destroy Galen‟s Theory of Humours – and Aristotle‟s Theory of Four
Elements on which it is based.

Denouncing the mind-body dichotomy, Razi believed a healthy body was inseparable
from a healthy mind. His kind words and friendly manner hastened recoveries among the
princes of Baghdad and the poorest of the poor.

The first physician to differentiate smallpox from measles, Razi‟s research culminated in
Judari wa al Hasbah. A valued reference in Europe for centuries, it is recognised by the
World Health Organisation as “the first scientific treatise on the subject”.

Razi was also the first physician to publish research on allergies and immunology.
Another first was his medical manual for laypeople, A Medical Advisor for the General
Public, which provides remedies to common ailments using items easily available in any
kitchen or military camp.

Extremely significant was his encyclopaedic The Virtuous Life aka The Large
Comprehensive, which discusses classifications of diseases, nutrition and the social
responsibilities of doctors. Because of this book alone, many scholars consider Razi the
greatest doctor of his time.

Chemistry
Careful to record results methodically, Razi invented new techniques and essential
apparatus, discovered sulphuric acid and ethanol and introduced such empirical qualities
as „salinity‟ and „inflammability‟.

But his masterwork was yet to some. Searching for a way to help his friend pay off some
debts, Razi discovered how to gild copper with gold and silver. This and his work on
metal transmutation lead to (false) rumours that he had discovered the secret for turning
metals to gold.

Metaphysics & Existence

Razi believed God did not „create‟ the world from nothing but arranged a universe out of
pre-existing principles and that the universe was a way for the soul to express its desires,
and intellect a gift to find salvation and freedom.

While the rest of humanity was in the Dark Ages, the blind musician from Persia was
enlightening the Muslim World. He recognised the time and matter were infinite; and his

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theories regarding existence, continuity of space, and the existence of a void are
remarkably similar to the 20th century systems of such scientists as John Dalton.

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Razi was the first physician to differentiate smallpox from measles, and his book
on this subject has been recognised by the World Health Organisation as “the
first scientific treatise on the subject”

Razi has been mentioned in Chaucer‟s Canterbury Tales as the esteemed

physician Rasis, in the same rank as Hippocrates, Galen and fellow Muslim Ibn
Sina and Ibn Rushd.

Razi discovered how to plate copper with gold and silver, as well as how to
reverse the process.

Razi‟s A Medical Advisor for General Public was the first ever medical manual
written for laypeople and provides remedies and cures that can be managed
without help of a doctor.

Well ahead of his time, Razi‟s theories regarding time and matter, continuity of
space, and the existence of a void are remarkably similar to scientific systems
presented in the 20th century.

Razi was the first physician to publish research on allergies and immunology. His
books were used as valuable references in Europe for centuries.

He was a prolific author, who has left monumental treaties on numerous subjects.
He has more than 200 outstanding scientific contributions to his credit, our of
which about half deal with medicine and 21 concern alchemy.

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Abu Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Farabi (870 – 950) – The Second
Master
Abunasr al-Farabi is known as the „Second Master‟ (after Aristotle) for introducing
Neoplatonism to the Muslim world. Though later philosophers such as Ibn Sina have over
shadowed his name, most of their theories are extensions of Farabi‟s own work.

Metaphysics
Farabi‟s concept of God held that essence and existence fuse absolutely, replacing the
Qur‟anic concept of Creation from nothingness with Neoplatonic emanation.
Nevertheless Farabi does address God in a traditional, Qur‟anic and Islamic manner.

His magnum opus Ara Ahl al-Madina al-Fadila (The Model City) describes the universe
in Neoplatonic terms, with God at top, the world at the bottom, and the Ten Intellects
who created the heaven and planets in between.

Political Philosophy
Al Madina al Fadila is also a masterpiece in political philosophy. Farabi identified three
types of societies that are perfect and four corrupt ones, whose causes for failure are
ignorance, immorality, treachery and transgression. He believed the inhabitants of such
cities faced extinction, while those who have been the cause of their fall faced eternal
torment. Though Platonic themes such as the philosopher-king are mentioned, Farabi‟s
content is entirely original.

At the heart of Farabi‟s political beliefs is the concept of happiness (sa‟ada). His
„virtuous society‟ is where people cooperate to gain happiness, and a „virtuous world‟ can
only occur when all member nations collaborate to achieve happiness. Fundamentally,
Farabi opined that when the ruler and the ruled cooperate to achieve happiness they
receive the ultimate reward: salvation.

Epistemology
The treatise Risala fil Aql offers useful keys to unlocking Farabi‟s complex theories of
intellection. He divides aql (intellect/reason) into six major categories: good judgment;
common sense, or appreciation of the obvious; natural perception, through which we
recognise fundamental truths, and which he traced to Aristotle‟s Posterior Analytics. The
fourth intellect, conscience, differentiates between good and evil. Ultimately we arrive at
Divine Reason or God Himself, the source of all intellect and power.

Farabi‟s writings reveal his awareness of the immensity of knowledge. Bringing all
theological and philosophical sciences together, he divides them into five categories:
science of language, science of logic, mathematical science (including jurisprudence and
politics).

Music
A great expert in the art and science of music, Farabi invented several musical
instruments and helped develop musical notation. He wrote several books on music,

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including the highly influential Kitab al-Musial, which contains his contributions to the
study of musical notes. It has been reported that Farabi could play his instrument so well
that he could make people laugh or weep at will.

A prolific writer, al-Farabi is known to have written at least one hundred and seventeen
tomes; countless more remain undiscovered.

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 Making prolific contribution in every science he encountered, Farabi‟s work in
physics demonstrated the existence of vacuum.

It has been reported that al-Farabi could play his instruments so well as to make
people laugh or weep at his will.

Farabi‟s concept of God held that essence and existence fuse absolutely.

Farabi describes the universe in Neoplatonic tars, with God at top, the world at
the bottom, and the Ten Intellects who created the heavens and planets in between.

At the heart of Farabi‟s political beliefs is the concept of happiness when the
ruler and the ruled cooperate to achieve it, they receive the ultimate reward:
salvation.

Starting as a judge and becoming a renowned teacher of jurisprudence and

philosophy, al-Farabi was known as the „Second Master‟ (after Aristotle).

Though later philosophers such as Ibn Sina have overshadowed his name, most of
their theories are extensions of Farabi‟s own work.

Al-Farabi is known to have written at least one hundred and seventeen tomes,
countless more remain undiscovered.

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 Abu al-Hassan Ali al-Masudi (last decade of 9th century – 957) –
Herodotus of the Arabs
Physicist, historian and expert geographer, al-Masudi is best known for his insightful
descriptions of the peoples and cultures he encountered on his many voyages. Because of
this he was referred to as the Herodotus and Pliny of Arabs.

Masudi left his homeland, Arabia, and embarked on his travels in 915 AD After saying in
Fares (Persia) for a year he proceeded through Baghdad to India, where he visited Multan
and Mansoora.

At that time Mansoora was the capital of the state of Sind, a city of great renown
surrounded by the many settlements of new converts to Islam.

A few years later al-Masudi travelled to Gujrat, where more than 10,000 Arab Muslims
had settled in the seaport of Chamoor. He also travelled to Deccan, Ceylon, Indo-China,
and to Basra via Madagascar, Zanzibar, Mozambique and Oman.

His book Muruj al Thahab contains description of his experiences in countries he has
explored, their peoples and climates. He also narrated his personal encounters with Jews,
Iranians, Indians and Christians.

Masudi moved from Basra to Syria and from there to Cairo, where he wrote his second
extensive book Muruj al Zaman. In this tome, the described in detail the geography and
history of the countries that he visited. A supplementary book contains historical events
in chronological order.

Masudi created a change in the art of historical writings by introducing analysis,

reflection and criticism of historical events. His book Al Tanbeeh contains a systematic
study of history with a perspective of geography, sociology, ecology, and anthropology,
demonstrating Masudi‟s deep insight into the causes of rise and fall of nations.

With his scientific and analytic approach, Masudi uncovered the causes of the
earthquakes of 955, the secrets of the water of the Red Sea and other natural wonders. His
writings also contain the first mention of the Muslim invention windmills, and even the
history of chess in Persia and India (were the first boards were circular).

Masudi also made important contributions to music and other fields of science. In his
book, Muruj al Thahab, he provides important information on early Arab music as well
as music of other cultures.

Much of his work has been lost, but Masudi‟s matchless The Meadows of Gold has
almost miraculously survived. A compilation of stories and information showcasing
Masudi‟s knowledge of the Middle East, the Far East and Europe. A great monument to
Islamic scholarship and a time capsule, if offers a rare window into the many cultures and
people who lived in the world over a millennium ago.

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 Al-Masudi, known as the „Herodotus of the Arabs‟, was the first to combine
history with the scientific geography of the world.

Masudi wrote a 30-volume history of the world, which includes experiences of his
travels from Europe to India.

Masudi‟s great understanding of geography led him to uncover the causes of the
earthquakes of 955 and the secrets of the water of the Red Sea.

Masudi‟s The Meadows of Gold contains a history of chess, describing 6 varieties

including astrological and cylinder chess as well as chess wagers in India where
losers gave up money, fingers, or even a hand.

Masudi was one of the early scientists who propounded several aspects of
evolution viz., minerals to plant, plant to animal and animal to man.

Masudi‟s journey took him to Multan, Gujrat and Mansoora in India, Baghdad
and Basra in Iraq as well as Ceylon, Zanzibar, Oman, Madagascar and China.

Masudi‟s researches and views extensively influenced the science of

historiography, geography and earth sciences of several countries.

Masudi‟s books contain meticulous recordings of birds and flowers new to

science, unique geographical and personal encounters with people from all races
and religions.

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 Abu Ali al-Hassan ibn al-Haitham (965 – 1040) – The Father of Optics
Ibn al-Haitham, known to the West as Alhazen, is the undisputed Father of Optics. Born
in Basra and educated at Baghdad, the widely travelled al-Haitham spent his life pursing
the study of optics, mathematics, physics, and medicine.

Optics
As the first scientist to study optics, Haitham‟s systematic research is quite remarkable.
Unlike to his predecessors, who based their work on abstract theories his investigations
were based on experimental evidence. He examined the passage of light through various
media, studied how it disperses into colours, and discovered the laws of refraction.

Studying the physical nature of light, Haitham research shadows, eclipses, the rainbow;
and colours of the sunset. His work on binocular vision clarified why the sun and moon
appear larger near the horizon. For his work on reflection he investigated lens
magnification, and became the first user of the camera obscura.

Al- Haitham provides the earliest anatomically correct description of the eye, and a
scientific explanation for the process of vision. He showed that sight is the result of light
rays being reflected in the eye, contrary to the Greek perception that the eye produced
light. He also proved that regardless of the source, the physical nature of all light remains
uniform.

Haitham‟s seven-volume work on optics, Kitab al Manzir, is considered by many to be

his most important contribution. Alhazen‟s Problem, which appears in volume two, deals
with finding the point of reflection on the surface of a spherical mirror.

Physics & Mathematics

Haitham was the first to claim that a body in motion would move perpetually unless an
external force is applied to stop or change the direction of its motion. This is, in effect,
the first law of physics – 600 years before Newton.

Haitham also discussed the theories of attraction between masses, and was probably
aware of acceleration due to gravity.

He established a link between algebra and geometry to develop analytical congruencies

using what is now called Wilson‟s Theorem.

His book Mizan al Hikmah discussed the density of and refraction in the atmosphere, and
mentions his discovery that twilight can only cease or begin when the sun is 19 below
the horizon.

Al-Haitham‟s writings are significant because they validate theories by linking them with
systematic experimentation. This was major breakthrough in scientific methodology, and
helped to place scientific pursuits on a sound foundation based on observation,
hypothesis and verification.

The influence of his work cannot be overstated, its impact on the work of eminent
Western scientists spread from Bacon in England to Kepler in Germany.

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 Haitham was the first scientist to study optics. Investigating the passage of light
through various media, he studied its dispersal into colours.

Haitham researched shadows, eclipse, the rainbow, and the colour of the sunset.

Haitham established a link between algebra and geometry to develop analytical

geometry, and solved problems involving congruencies using what is not called
Wilson‟s Theorem.

Al-Haitham provided the earliest anatomically correct description of the eye, as

well as a scientific explanation for the process of vision.

Due to his quantitative, empirical and experimental approach to physics and

science, he is considered the pioneer of the modern scientific method and
experimental physics, and some have described him as the “first scientist” for this
reason.

Haitham was the first to claim that a body in motion would move perpetually
unless on external force were applied to stop or change the direction of its motion
– the first law of physics 600 years before Newton.

He is also considered by some to be the founder of psychophysics and

experimental psychology for his experimental approach to the psychology of
visual perception, phenomenology.

Haitham proved that the physical nature of all light is the same regardless of the
source, and discovered the laws of reflection.

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 Abu Raihan al-Biruni (973 – 1048) – Al Ustad
Abu Raihan al-Birnuni was a man of many talents, as adept at tracing civilisation as he
was charting starts. Recognition for his abilities came early, earning him the title „Al
Ustad‟, and a place at Mahmud Ghaznavi‟s court.

Natural History
Accompanying Mahmud‟s army, Biruni visited India several times, where he taught
Hindu pundits Greek, Arabic, science and philosophy in return for lessons in mathematics,
geography and Hindu theology.

On his return from India, Biruni recorded his observations and scientific data in Kitab al
Hind. Displaying his awesome grasp over geology, Biruni correctly determined the origin
of the Indus Valley from an ancient sea basin. His comprehensive descriptions of India
were even used by Abul Fadl for Ain e Akbari.

Astronomy
After years of exploring the world, al-Biruni turned his attention heavenward. Qanoon al
Masudi, a treatise on planetary sciences, is the result of some of the world‟s first
astrological experiments. In this book Biruni discusses trigonometry theorems, and the
movements of the sun, moon and planets. Another book contains accurate latitudes and
longitudes of various places in the world and even discusses the rotation of the earth –
long before people had accepted this phenomenon.

Biruni discovered seven methods finding the direction of the North and the South, and
constructed mathematical techniques to determine the exact time each season would
begin. He also studied eclipses and the movement of the sun and invented several
astronomical instruments.

Natural Science
Al-Biruni‟s thirst for knowledge spurred him to write Kitab al Jawahir – the third known
text on mineralogy. Containing descriptions of over 100 precious stones and metals from
throughout the then-known world, the precision of Biruni‟s density measurements
remained unequalled till the 18th century.

Fascinated by nature‟s mysteries Biruni conducted in-depth studies of Siamese twins,

revealed the working of natural springs and observed that flowers have 3,4,5,6 or 18
petals, but never 7 or 9.

Physics & Mathematics

Al-Biruni developed several trigonometric solutions for problems that cannot be solved
with a ruler and a compass, and accurately determined the atomic weights of eighteen
elements. He also established that the speed of light is many times greater than sound.

Astrologer, scientist, mathematician – seeker of truth – al-Biruni was a Renaissance man

when Europe was still in the Dark Ages.

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 In Kitab al-Jawahir Biruni recorded the densities of over 100 precious stones and
metals, the accuracy of which remained unmatched till the 18th century.

On his frequent visits to India, Biruni taught Hindu pandits Greek, Arabic,
science and philosophy in exchange for lessons in mathematics, geography and
theology.

The descriptions of India he recorded in Kitab al-Hind were so comprehensive

that centuries later Abul Fadl even referred to him for Ain e Akbari.

Biruni discovered seven different methods for determining the directions of the
North and South.

Biruni‟s contributions to the realm of physics include the accurate atomic weights
of 18 elements as well as proof that the speed of light is many times greater than
sound.

Biruni studied eclipses and the movement of the sun and invented several
astronomical instruments.

Al-Biruni also wrote a treatise on time-keeping, wrote several treaties on the

astrolabe and described a mechanical calendar.

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 Abu Ali al-Husain ibn Abd Allah Ibn Sina (980 – 1037) – A Universal
Genius
Known to the Western world as Avicenna, Ibn Sina was a physician, philosopher, and
scientist. Though he died at a relatively young age, partially due to his exhaustive pace of
work, he often said “I prefer a short life with width to a narrow one with length.”

Ibn Sina‟s yearning for knowledge manifested itself since childhood, and he obtained
enlightenment wherever he could: a renowned philosopher tutored him in logic; he
studied arithmetic from a local greengrocer, and a travelling scholar; metaphysics he
learnt by reading Aristotle and al-Farabi.

Medicine
At 16 he turned to medicine, and it wasn‟t long before word spread of his skill and
natural talent. Curing the Amir of a disease when other doctors had given up, Ibn Sina
became royal physician at 18.

His medical writings are historically significant because they combine the theories of
Galen and Aristotle with traditional Persian and Arab lore. The expansive Canon of
Medicine (Qanun fi al Tibb) was, up till about 1650, a standard medical text in European
universities. In the words of Dr. William Osler, the Qanun has remained “a medical bible
for a longer time than any other work”.

Ibn Sina discussed hygiene, pharmacology and symptoms, complications and

infectiousness of various diseases. The first person to correctly document the anatomy of
the human eye, record details of facial paralysis, and explain the working of the heart as
valve, Ibn Sina understood tuberculosis was contagious centuries before Europe would
agree. Interested in the mind‟s influence on the body, he also published several papers on
psychology.

Mathematics
His most important mathematical work is the immense Kitab al Shifa (The Book of
Healing). One of the four parts of this encyclopaedia is devoted to mathematics, which he
subdivides into geometry, astronomy, arithmetic, and music.

Music
His work on music researched rhythmic patters, intervals and musical instruments. While
Miyar al aqul, which deals with mechanics, discusses constructing rollers, levers,
windlasses, and pulleys.

Astrology
Ibn Sina made a number of astrological discoveries. He correctly deduced that light
travels at a finite velocity and observed that Venus is closer to the Earth than the Sun.
And by using the moon‟s movements, calculated the longitudinal distances between
Baghdad and Gurgan.

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Philosophy
Ibn Sina attempted to reconcile natural science with religious law, the organisation of
state and metaphysics, and answer the question of the ultimate destiny of man. He
attempted to explain the formation of the universe as well as clarify the problems of evil,
fate, prophecies, and miracles. His commentaries on Aristotle often corrected the
philosopher, encouraging a lively ijtihad-like debate.

In other words of science historian George Sarton, Ibn Sina was “the most famous
scientist of Islam and one of he most famous of all races, places and times.”

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A mutiny of soldiers against Ibn Sina over once caused his imprisonment and
dismissal from the post of Prime Minister, but when the Amir began to suffer from
a colic that only Ibn Sina had previously cured, the physician was summoned
back, apologised to and reinstated!

Besides his philosophy, teaching and courtly duties, Ibn Sina also had a thriving
medical practise. He is even known to have operated on a friend‟s gall bladder.

Ibn Sina recognised the close relationship between emotions and the physical
condition and felt that music had a definite physical and psychological effect on
patients.

Ibn Sina‟s life was at times very strenuous: during the day he was busy with
courtly duties, his nights passed in lecturing and dictating notes for his books.

Al-Qifti states that Ibn Sina completed 21 major and 24 minor works on
philosophy, medicine, theology, geometry, astronomy and the like. Another source
(Brockelmann) attributes 99 books to Ibn Sina comprising 16 on medicine, 68 on
theology and metaphysics, 11 on astronomy and 4 on verse.

From the 12th to 17th centuries, the Qanun served as the chief guide to medical
science in the West and even said to have influenced Leonardo da Vinci.

Endowed with great powers of absorbing and retaining knowledge, hw was in a

position to compose his first book at the age of 21.

Ibn Sina‟s exhaustive work Qanun fi al Tibb contains detailed descriptions and
diagnoses of almost every disease known at the time including, most interestingly,
love sickness!

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 Ghiyas ud-din Adbul Fatah Omer ibn Khayyam (1048 – 1131) – The
inventor of the Jalali Calendar
Famous today only for his poetry, Omer Khayyam‟s greatest accomplishments have been
forgotten. Widely acclaimed during his own lifetime as a mathematician and the inventor
of the Jalali Calendar, he was a skilled scientist, astronomer and philosopher.

Mathematics
A renowned mathematician in his own lifetime, Omar Khayyam was acclaimed for
solving cubic equation by intersecting a parabola with a circle, discovering binomial
expansion and working on the theory of proportions.

Algebra
His greatest work on algebra Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra, is
widely recognised as a milestone in the advancement of the field. In it he gave rules for
solving quadratic equations in a manner very similar to one in use today, and classified
algebraic equations based on their complexity. He also wrote about the triangular array of
binomial coefficients known as Pascal‟s Triangle and developed a geometric method for
solving cubic equations with real roots.

Astronomy
A few years later he was invited by the ruler of Isfahan to set up an observatory. Leading
a group of scientists, Khayyam would work there for the next eighteen years. His greatest
achievement was to very accurately measure the length of the solar year as
635.24219858156 days, thus creating the Jalali Calendar.

The Sultan had Omar‟s calendar put into effect in 1079. This calendar only has a one-
hour error in every 5,500 years, whereas the Gregorian calendar (implemented by Pope
Gregory XIII in 1552, and still used today) has a one-day error every 3,330 years. He also
calculated how to correct Persian calendar. Using a simple arrangement of star charts lit
by calendars, Omar Khayyam proved that the universe is not moving around earth but
rather the earth revolves on its axis, bringing into view different constellations throughout
the night and day. He also proved that stars are stationary objects in space which would
have burnt the earth to cinders if they had revolved around it. Only centuries later were
all these theories adopted by European astronomers.

Omar has been the subject of numerous references in Western and Eastern literature over
the last century. Martin Luther King Jr.‟s reference in his speech opposing Vietnamese
War is perhaps most evocative: “Omar Khayyam is right „The moving finger writes and
having writ, moves on.‟”

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Though known today primarily for his poetry, Omar Khayyam was a widely
acclaimed and respected mathematician in his lifetime.

Omar Khayyam proved that stars are stationary objects which would have burnt
the earth to cinders had they rotated around it.

Omar‟s book Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra is widely

considered a milestone in the advancement of the field. In it he gave rules for
solving quadratic equations in a manner very similar to the one in use today.

Omar Khayyam was the first to develop the binomial theorem and determine
coefficients, besides contributing to the theory of parallel lines.

Khayyam who stitched the tents of science,_

Has fallen in grief‟s furnace and been suddenly burned,_
The shears of Fate have cut the tent ropes of his life,_
And the broker of Hope has sold him for nothing!

Omar Khayyam invented the Jalali calendar, which measured the length of the
year to decimal points – even more accurate than Gregorian calendar in use
today.

Dreaming when Dawn‟s Left hand was in Sky_

I heard a Voice within the Tavern cry,_”
Awake, my Little ones, and fill the
Cups_” Before Life‟s Liquor in its Cup be dry.”

Omar once foretold that his tomb would be built in the shadow on an orchard
where flowers would fall twice yearly on his grave. His mausoleum is indeed in a
garden.

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 Allaudin Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi Huzm Al-Nafis (1213 – 1288) – Al-
Qarshi Al-Dimashqi
Ibn al-Nafis is well known in the Muslim World for his contributions to the Shafi School
of jurisprudence, literature and theology. Yet his greatest contribution, to the world of
medicine, remained unrecognised for six centuries.

A physician, linguist, philosopher, and historian, Nafis left Damascus upon completing
his education and moved to Cairo. There he was chief of physicians at Al Nassri and later
Al Mansuriya Teaching Hospital, besides becoming physician to the Sultan. Nafis
donated his house, library and clinic to Al Mansuriya at his death.

For centuries the idea of Galen, the famous Greek doctor, were accepted and no one
dared to challenge his views, until Nafis proved him wrong.

He worked out the correct anatomy of the heart and the way the blood flowed through it.
His writings clearly state that the blood from the right chamber of the heart must arrive at
the left chamber, but there is no direct pathway between them, The heart‟s walls are not
perforated and do not have invisible pores as Galen thought. The blood from the right
chamber flows to the lungs, mingles with air, and then reaches the left chamber of the
heart.

It was only after the Latin translation of al-Nafis‟ writings that his important observations
became available to Europe – only after which European scientists and doctors began to
make the same „discoveries‟!

In fact it was al-Nafis who first correctly described the constitution of the lungs and the
interaction between the human body‟s vessels for air and blood. He also elaborated on the
function of the coronary arteries as supplies of the blood to the cardiac musculature.

Al Shamil fi al Tibb is the most voluminous of his books, which was designed to be an
encyclopaedia. His most famous book, however, was Mujaz al Qanun (The Summary of
Law). His commentaries written on this topic include one on Hippocrates‟ book, several
volumes on Ibn Sina‟s Qanun, as well as another book on the effects of diet on health.

It was only in 1924 that a chance rediscovery brought his work to light again and people
became aware of how early he had reached his conclusions on the workings of heart.

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In 1924 an Egyptian discovered a script titled, „Commentary on the Anatomy of
Canon of Avicenna‟ in the state library in Berlin. Written by Ibn al-Nafis it
covered anatomy, pathology and physiology and revealed an important scientific
fact: the first correct description of pulmonary circulation.

Al-Nafis correctly believed that nutrients for the heart are extracted from the
coronary arteries, refuting the theories of Ibn Sina and Galen.

Al-Nafis was the first to correctly describe the structure of the lungs and the
interaction between the body‟s organs for air and blood.

When Michael Servetus described pulmonary circulation in his theological book

in 1553, reproducing al-Nafis‟ work in Latin, the Church, accusing Servetus of
heresy for opposing the teachings of Galen, burnt him and his book at the stake.

Apart from medicine, Nafis exhibited great knowledge in the fields of

jurisprudence, literature and theology.

Nafis served as Chief of Physicians at the Al Mansuriya teaching hospital in

Egypt. Upon his death he donated his house, library and clinic to the hospital.

Only one of his books was translated into Latin around 300 years after his
original writing and, therefore, a part of his work remained unknown to Europe
for a long time.

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Abdurahman ibn Muhammad ibn Khaldun (1332 – 1395) – The Father of
Sociology
Ibn Khaldun is the most important historian and sociologist in Muslim History. His
greatest contribution is to the understanding of civilisations, and the factors determining
stability and influence.

The Muslim World was experiencing turbulent changes during Ibn Khaldun‟s lifetime,
with infighting and coops becoming increasingly regular. As a consequence of politics in
the region he was even forced to go into hiding in an Algerian village for three years.

This however, gave him the opportunity to write Muqaddimah, the first volume of his
world history that won him a place of distinction among historians, sociologists and
philosophers.

From Algeria he moved on to Egypt. There he was appointed Chief Malakite Judge and
delivered lectures at the Al Azhar University.

Ibn Khaldun‟s biggest contributions lie in developing the philosophy of history and
sociology. Muqaddimah was based on his unique approach and original analysis, and
deserves to be recognised for what it is: a definitive masterpiece on the contextual and
anthropological study of culture.

His primary concern was to identify the psychological, economic, environmental and
social facts that contribute to the advancement of human civilisation. For this purpose he
analysed the dynamics of group relationships and showed how group feelings ultimately
lead up to shifts in political power.

Ibn Khaldun recognized the rhythmic repetition of rise and fall in human civilisation and
analysed the factors contributing to it. He is universally recognised as the founding father
of Sociology and Science of History for demonstrating through his work how
environmental and economic factors, and local customs, determine the behaviour of
society.

Some of his other works include volumes on the history of Arabs, the ancient histories of
the Greeks, Jews, Persians and contemporary European rulers, and his book Al Tasrif,
deals with the history of various tribes.

Khaldun‟s work is testament of the brilliance of Muslim scholarship and the

sophistication of the society he lived in. Contemporary scholars place Muqaddimah at par
with Machiavelli‟s 15th century work The Prince.

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Ibn Khaldun is the most important historian and sociologist in Muslim History.
His greatest contribution is the understanding of civilization, and the factors
determining stability and influence.

His greatest contribution is the Muqaddimah, the first volume of his world history.
Outlining the factors that determine the rise and fall of civilisations, it won him a
place of distinction among historians and philosophers.

When Ibn Khaldun went to Tunisia in search of reference books unavailable

elsewhere it was the first time he was returning to his homeland in 27 years.

Political turmoil and palace intrigues forced Ibn Khaldun to move from kingdom
to kingdom, sending him into exile more than six times.

After Ibn Khaldun‟s family died in shipwreck, he embarked on a pilgrimage to the

Holy Lands. Upon his return he was well received and appointed to be a teaching
position where he specialised in Hadith.

Ibn Khaldun was appointed chief Malakite Judge in Egypt. He worked hard to
eliminate corruption, and also taught several universities there, including Al
Azhar and the Biebers Sufi Institute.

He was officially part of the Sultan‟s literary circle (madhlisuh al-„ilmi) at the
court off Fez and soon afterwards also formed part of his secretariat (kitabatuh),
where he was barely 23 years old. Though without enthusiasm, as such a post was
not in the family tradition.

He was not yet 10, when the powerful chamberlain Ibn Tafragin appointed him to
the office of writer of the „alama (the ruler‟s official signature) on behalf of the
Sultan Abu Ishaq. He accepted and remained long in the post.

On an expedition to Damascus, Ibn Khaldun represented the Egyptian Sultan

during lengthy meetings with Taimur. Sent to discuss the terms of a treaty;
Khaldun so impressed the Mongol ruler that he offered Khaldun a place in his
court.

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