Pub. No.

2458043A
(Supercedes No. 2458043)

Structural
Structural Performance
of Laminated
Architectural Glass

A SAFLEX DESIGN GUIDE

FOR ARCHITECTURAL
GLAZING SYSTEMS
 The Guide provides a
new, technically sound
basis for the structural
design of architectural
glazing systems under
a wide range of envi-
ronmental conditions.
ACKNOW LEDGEMENTS
This design guide was prepared by Solutia Inc.
using results from extensive research conducted
at the Glass Research and Testing Laboratory
at Texas Tech University and the Building
Envelope Research Laboratory at the University
of Missouri-Rolla. Contributions by individuals
at these two research institutions are gratefully
acknowledged: Dr. Joseph E. Minor, Dr. H. Scott
Norville, Dr. C.V.G. Vallabhan, Dr. Richard A. Behr,
Mr. Magnus P. Linden, Mr. Sesha R. Nagalla, and
Mr. Paul Kremer. Matching contributions by Texas
Tech University, the University of Missouri-Rolla
and the States of Texas and Missouri through
programs that assist university/industry
cooperative efforts are also acknowledged.
FOREWORD
A Design Guide to the Structural Performance of Laminated
Architectural Glass (the Guide) was developed to provide
the designer with the latest information and data on the
performance of this glazing product.
The Guide provides a new, technically sound basis for the
structural design of architectural glazing systems under
a wide range of environmental conditions. Since wind
and snow govern the design of most architectural glaz-
ing systems, special attention is given to these loads. In
addition, windborne debris that accompanies hurricanes,
typhoons and other extreme windstorms has become
recognized as an important factor in the performance
of the building envelope. Hence, new attention is given
to designs for windborne debris – a condition in which
laminated architectural glass is especially effective.
Testing in the 1980s at Texas Tech University revealed
that laminated architectural glass fabricated with Saflex
polyvinyl butyral (PVB) plastic interlayer is as strong
as monolithic glass under wind and snow loads. In
the 1990s, building codes and standards began to
emphasize protection of the building envelope from
windborne debris in extreme wind prone regions.
Te sting at the University of Missouri-Rolla defined the
attributes of laminated glass that enable it to perform
effectively in this new application. These two develop-
ments have projected laminated architectural glass as
the product of choice for a strong, “passive” window
system under wind, snow and debris impact.
The newly reported research and new provisions in
building codes and standards noted above are incorpo-
rated into the Guide. The new procedures make it possible
to design architectural glazing for wind and snow loads
using a simple process, to address designs for windborne
debris, and to employ the strengths and attributes of
laminated architectural glass in protecting the building
envelope from a wide range of environmental and
man-made hazards.
 contents
Structural Performance of Laminated Architectural Glass
Listing of Figures and Tables 2
The Changing Design Environment 3
Attributes of Laminated Glass 3
Research Results 3
New Design Methods 3

Introduction Purpose of the Guide

Organization of the Guide
4
4

Introduction 5
Simple Design Procedure: Wind and Snow 6
Comprehensive Design Procedure 10
Designs for Windborne Debris 17
Additional Design Requirements: 22
Earthquakes 22
Structural Design Human Impact 22

1 Human Loads 23
s ection

Methods Hail Impacts

Overhead Glazing
23
24

Annealed Glass Strength 25

Basic Factors in Glass Type Factors 25

2 Load Duration 26
s ection

Glass Strength ASTM E1300-97

Impact Strength
26
27

Research Summary 28
Lateral Pressure 28
Verification of Computer Programs 29
Laminated Glass Behavior 30
Laminated Time Duration of Load Effects 30

3 Interlayer Thickness 31
s ection

Glass Behavior Failure Strengths

Impact Strength
31
32

Windstorm Experiences 33
Hurricanes and Typhoons 34
The Nature of Windborne Debris 35
The Building Envelope 35
Windborne Post-Breakage Behavior 36

4 Test Protocols 36
s ection

Debris Research and Development

Laminated Architectural Glass
37
37

Summary 38
Closure The Future 38

Charts A.1-A.12 Glass Thickness Selection Charts 39

Charts A.13a-A.13i Deflections in Glass Plates 41
Table A.14 Load Sharing in Asymmetrical IG Units 43
Table A.15 Thickness Designations for
Laminated Glass 43
Table A.16 Equivalent Monolithic Glass Thickness
for Laminated Glass under Long-Term Load
at Room Temperature 43
Abbreviations 44
Symbols 44
Glossary 45

Appendix References
Specification
46
48
 Listing of Figures, Charts and Tables
Figure Title Page Table Title Page
1 Window Glass Design Chart 1 Table of Factors 7
(Symmetrical Products – 4-Side Support) 7
2 Requirements for Windborne Debris 18
2 Window Glass Design Chart
3 Establish Debris Impact Criteria 19
(Symmetrical Products – 2-Side Support) 9
4 Select Glazing Concept or Product 20
3 Butt Glazed System 9
5 LAG Constructions That Meet Missile
4 Deflection Calculations Chart (6 mm) 13 Impact Standards and Codes 20
5 Symmetrical Laminated Glass 14
6 Qualify Concept or Product for Use 21
6 Laminated Insulating Glass Unit 14
7 Safety Glazing Requirements – Consumer
7a Laminate Acting as Monolithic 16 Products Safety Commission 23
7b Laminate Responding as Layers 16 8 c2 Factors for Glass Floors 23
8a Strength – Room Temperature 16 9 Strength Factors 26
8b Strength – Elevated Temperature 16 10 Average Minimum Impact Velocity
Areas Requiring Consideration of Causing Fracture 27
9
Debris Impact 18 11 Inner Ply Breakage Rates in LAG
Glazing by Construction Glass Under Impacts 27
10
Industries Inc. 20 12 Impact Resistant LAG Constructions 27
11 Glazing Detail Passing Small Missile 13 Failure Strengths of AN Monolithic and
Impact Test 21 LAG at Room Temperature 31
12 Glazing Detail for Small Missile Impact 21 14 Failure Strengths of AN Monolithic and
Tempered Glass LAG as a Function of Temperature 31
13a 25
Stress Distribution in Fully 15 Failure Strengths of AN, HS and FT LAG 32
13b
Tempered Glass 25 16 LAG Breakage Rates as a Function of
Effect of Load Duration on Glass Strength Interlayer Thickness and Heat Treatment 32
14 26
Glass Plate Systems 17 Typical Standard for Windborne Debris
15 28
Impact Tests 36
16a Monolithic Maximum Stress 29
A.14 Load Sharing in Asymmetrical IG Units 43
16b Monolithic Deflection 29
A.15 Glass Thickness Designations for
16c Layered Maximum Stress 29 Laminated Glass 43
16d Layered Deflection 29 Equivalent Monolithic Glass Thickness
A.16
17a Maximum Stress 30 for Laminated Glass under Long-Term
Load at Room Temperature 43
17b Deflection 30
18 Effects of Sustained Load: Maximum
Deflection 30
19a Maximum Stress 31
19b Maximum Deflection 31
20 Houston, Texas – Hurricane Alicia 33
21 Miami, Florida – Hurricane Andrew 33
22 Hurricane/Typhoon Wind Field 34
23 Breaching of the Building Envelope
Doubles Forces 35
24 Silicone Anchored LAG 37
25 Sacrificial Ply LAG 37

Chart Title Page

A.1-A.12 Glass Thickness Selection Charts 39
A.13a-A.13i Deflections in Glass Plates 41

2
 Introduction
THE CHANGING DESIGN ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH RESULTS
Recent windstorm disasters have focused attention on Research conducted at the Glass Research and Testing
the building envelope (windows, doors, wall coverings Laboratory at Texas Tech University provides a basis for
and roof cladding) as an important part of any enclosed the strength of laminated architectural glass defined in
structure. Failures of the building envelope during wind- this Guide. Theory has been verified by experiment, and
storms have produced unacceptably large insured losses experiments were both non-destructive and destructive
and have sharpened awareness toward hazards presented (tests to failure).
by falling glass. This new attention to the building envel-
Full-scale experiments performed at the Building
ope has produced building code changes and forced
Envelope Research Laboratory at the University of
a reexamination of design methods for architectural
Missouri-Rolla established the ability of laminated
glazing. The fluctuating nature of wind pressures and
architectural glass to accept debris impacts and to
the presence of windborne debris in some extreme
remain in the opening during the application of
wind events are now being addressed as part of the
pressure cycles representing wind gusts that follow.
design process. Perhaps most significantly, the post-
In addition, full-scale tests established the superior
breakage behavior of architectural glazing has become
performance of laminated architectural glass in earth-
a crucial element to successful construction in the new
quake environments.
design environment.

NEW DESIGN METHODS

ATTRIBUTES OF LAMINATED GLASS
The new design environment and the attributes of
Two attributes of laminated architectural glass make this
laminated architectural glass defined by recent research
product attractive in the new design environment. First,
results have altered conventional approaches to design
recently completed research has shown that the strength
for architectural glazing. A simple approach to designing
of laminated architectural glass under wind and snow
for wind and snow is outlined first. This procedure is
loads is equivalent to that of monolithic glass of the
based on observations that laminated architectural glass
same nominal thickness. Second, the ability of lami-
acts like monolithic glass under these design conditions,
nated architectural glass to remain in its supporting
and that most insulating glass units are “thin and sym-
frame following breakage by windborne debris, or by
metrical.” A comprehensive design procedure is offered
unexplained events, is important to the preservation of
for the small percentage of design situations that do not
the integrity of the building envelope and to the limita-
meet these conditions. A new design method for wind-
tion of hazards to people who may occupy space below.
borne debris recognizes new requirements in the South
Florida Building Code, ASCE 7-98, The BOCA National
Building Code, the Texas Department of Insurance
Building Code for Wind Resistant Construction, and
an increasing number of municipal codes. Finally, infor-
mation is presented for earthquakes, human impact,
human loads, hail, and overhead glazing to assist the
designer in addressing these topics.

3
 Introduction
PURPOSE OF THE GUIDE
This publication has been prepared for the building
design professional by Solutia Inc., manufacturer of
Saflex® polyvinyl butyral (PVB) plastic interlayer for
laminated architectural glass. The principal purpose
of this publication is to present easy-to-follow guidelines
for designing laminated glass systems with Saflex for
wind, snow, impact, earthquake and other loads. These
methodologies are devised to enable the architect and
engineer to develop designs of glazing systems using
laminated architectural glass in a logical and a rational
manner. The need for the Guide is enhanced by the
more extensive use of laminated architectural glass
in glass curtain walls, storefront facades, atriums,
skylights, canopies and other glazing systems.
4
ORGANIZATION OF THE GUIDE
To provide a “user friendly” design tool, the Guide has
been organized as follows:
Section 1 contains (1) a simple design method for
wind and snow, (2) a comprehensive design
procedure for lateral pressures, and (3) a design
method for windborne debris. Information is also
presented for earthquakes, human impact, human
loads, hail, and overhead glazing. The design
methods are presented in condensed formats.
Supporting data are contained in subsequent
sections and the Appendix.
Section 2 contains discussions of factors which are
important to the definition of strength for
annealed glass, laminated architectural glass,
heat treated glass and insulating glass. Effects
of the time duration of loading on glass strength
are included in these discussions.
Section 3 summarizes extensive research on laminated
architectural glass that was used as a basis for the
design guidelines contained herein.
Section 4 contains information on windborne debris
that is currently being addressed in national
standards and building codes (ASCE 7-98, the
BOCA National Building Code, SBCCI SSTD
12-97, ASTM E1886-97 and TDI 1-98), as well
as in the South Florida Building Code and an
increasing number of municipal building codes
in hurricane-prone regions.
The Appendix contains design charts, laminated glass
thickness designations, abbreviations, symbols,
a glossary, lists of references, a model specification
and other supporting information.

Structural Design Methods
INTRODUCTION
Architectural glazing products are employed in a
myriad of situations that require structural design.
Windows, spandrel units, skylights, doors, storefronts,
atriums, greenhouses, passageways, side lites, and many
other uses of glazing each has its own requirements for
design. These requirements may involve combinations
of loads (wind, snow, dead, live), as well as additional
conditions involving earthquakes, human impact,
human loads, and hail.
Since most glazing designs are governed by wind loads
or snow loads, this section of the Guide begins with a
simple approach to the design of common architectural
glazing products for wind and snow. This simple design
method is followed by a comprehensive design proce-
dure for all products that experience lateral pressure,
including wind and snow. A new design procedure –
a method of design for impacts from windborne debris –
is presented next. Finally, many products must also be
designed for earthquakes, human impact, human loads,
and hail. Design methods for these additional condi-
tions are addressed in the final part of Section 1.
5
1
s ection
The Simple Design Procedure addresses the most
commonly occurring design loads: wind and snow.
These loads dominate and control many designs;
hence, the simple procedure presented in this
method will be sufficient for most glazing design
situations.
The Comprehensive Design Procedure addresses
design cases with lateral pressures that cannot be
handled by the simple procedures. For example,
this procedure can be used to design overhead
glazing for snow loads using an asymmetrical
insulating glass unit.
Designs for Windborne Debris is a new procedure
that will assist designers with requirements that
are appearing in national standards and building
codes. The procedure helps the designer determine
when windborne debris must be addressed, the
impact criteria that may apply, design concepts
and glazing products that can resist debris impact,
and test protocols that can be used to qualify
products for use in situations requiring considera-
tion of windborne debris.
Additional Design Requirements address conditions
that may influence products that have already
been designed for wind and/or snow loads.
Earthquakes, human impact, human loads (e.g.,
people walking on glass floors), hail and overhead
glazing are addressed in this part of Section 1.
 Structural Design Methods
SIMPLE DESIGN PROCEDURE:
WIND AND SNOW
The design of an architectural glazing product that
employs monolithic and/or laminated architectural
glass (LAG) can be very complex. However, if the
glazing product meets the following conditions,
designing it for wind and snow loads is very simple:
1 its aspect ratio is 2:1 or less (length ÷ width ≤ 2)
2 it is comprised of monolithic glass or LAG with
symmetrical* plies, and
3 if the product is an insulating glass (IG) unit,
it is symmetrical* with thin lites.
Note: A LAG lite has two glass plies and an IG unit has
two glass lites. One or two LAG lites can be used in an
IG unit. See Glossary.
Simplicity is achieved because:
■ the 12 annealed (AN) glass strength charts from
ASTM E1300-97 Standard Practice for Determining
the Load Resistance of Glass in Buildings (Reference
1.1) have been reduced to a single chart for aspect
ratios of 2:1 or less (see Window Glass Design
Chart – 4-Side Support);
■ lites in IG units share loads equally when the lites
are both symmetrical and thin (see Section 2);
■ LAG behaves like monolithic glass under wind
and snow loads (see Section 3); and
■ dead loads do not exist (vertical glazing) or can
be neglected (sloped glazing)** and glass must
not be subjected to “live” loads.
* Plies (LAG) or lites (IG) of same glass type with identical
designated thickness are symmetrical.
** For example, a 1/4-inch glass plate weighs less than 3 psf;
typical design wind and snow loads exceed 30 psf.
6
PROCEDURE (Symmetrical*, 4-Side Support)
See Design Chart and Table of Factors on Page 7
Step 1 Obtain design load from building code: wind
load or snow load (lbs/ft2 or kPa).
Step 2 Calculate opening area (L x W) in ft2 or m2
and aspect ratio (L ÷ W).
Step 3 Check for Simple Design Procedure
(L ÷ W must be ≤ 2).
Step 4 For AN, HS or FT glass, divide design load by
appropriate strength factor: 1 (AN), 2 (HS) or
4 (FT), respectively (see Table page 7).
Step 5 If product is an IG unit, also divide by IG
strength factor: 2*** (see Table page 7).
Step 6 Divide load from Step 4 or 5 by appropriate
time factor*** (see Table page 7 for time factor);
the result is the modified design load*** in
lbs/ft2 or kPa.
Step 7 Use opening area (from Step 2) and modified
design load (from Step 6) to define a point in
the Design Chart on page 7.
Step 8 Required overall lite thickness is the thickness (t)
associated with a line corresponding to the
aspect ratio (from Step 2) that is “above-right”
of the point defined. If the aspect ratio (from
Step 2) is other than 1:1 or 2:1, draw a line
(between the 1:1 and 2:1 lines) for the specific
aspect ratio calculated. Linear interpolation
between 1:1 and 2:1 lines for a given thickness
provides acceptable accuracy.
Step 9 If IG unit, verify that lites are “thin” (W÷t)>150
where W = width (short dimension) and t =
thickness of one lite.
*** If ASTM E1300-97 must be followed:
Step 4: If LAG is used as a single lite, also divide by 0.9 (short
duration load) or 0.75 (long duration load).
Step 5: Divide by 1.8 instead of 2 (for IG unit).
Step 6: If design load is a wind load, do not divide by time factor.
 1
FIGURE 1 Window Glass Design Chart
(Symmetrical Products – 4-Side Support)

60-Second Strength – PSF

9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200
1
10.0 2-1-1
2 100
9.0 1- 1-1 -1
1 90
8.0 2-1
2- 7/8 80
1-1 1 in.
7.0 (22
3/4 70
6.0 in. mm
(19 –M 60
1-1

2-1 5 /8 mm &
1-1

5.0 in. –M L)
2-1

( 16 50
Opening Area – Square Meters

mm &
1- 1

L) 2-1

1/2

Opening Area – Square Feet

1-1

4.0 –M 1-1

in.
2 -1
2-1-1

40

(12
&
2-
1

L) 2-1
1

mm
3 /8

1-1

–M
in .
5 /1

3.0 2-
(10

&
1-1 1
6i

30

L)
mm
n.
(8
1 /4

–M
mm
in .

&L
–M
(6
3/1

)
mm

2.0
6i

&L

2-1
n.

20
)
–M

1-1
(5
mm

&L
1/8

)
–M
in.

&L
(3

2 -1 1
mm

1-
–M
)

1.0
0.9 10
M Denotes Monolithic 9
0.8 Nominal Thickness Designation 8
0.7
1-1

7
2-1 1

L Denotes Laminated
2-1 -1
1-1

1-

0.3
1

Nominal Thickness Designation 6

2-1
2-1

0.5
5
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0

60-Second Strength – kPa

NOTES TO FIGURE 1 – DESIGN CHART:

1 Plies (LAG) or lites (IG) of same glass type with identical designated thickness are symmetrical.
TABLE 1 Table of Factors
2 Glass strengths in the chart are 60-second duration glass strengths obtained from ASTM E1300-97 Glazing Strength Time Factors
for aspect ratios (length ÷ width) of 2:1 or smaller. Product Factor Wind Snow
3 Linear interpolation between 2:1 and 1:1 lines for intermediate aspect ratios provides acceptable
AN 1.0 1.2 0.6
accuracy.
4 Glass strengths may be adjusted by time factors to account for changes in glass strength from HS 2.0 1.6 0.8
60-second to 3-second (wind) and to two-week (snow) load durations. (If ASTM E1300-97 is FT 4.0 1.8 0.9
followed, product strengths for wind loads must be determined by using 60-second strengths.) IG 2.0
5 The Simple Design Procedure uses 1.0 as a strength factor for LAG and 2.0 as a strength factor for
LAG 1.0
IG. If ASTM E1300-97 is followed, strength factors for LAG of 0.9 (short duration load) and 0.75
(long duration load) and a strength factor for IG of 1.8 must be used; see Footnotes, page 6.
6 If deflections must be calculated, see Comprehensive Design Procedure, Procedure 3.
7 If the glazing product is an IG unit placed over an occupied space that is or may be heated, the
interlayer temperature in the lower (LAG) lite may be >32˚F when under snow load. In this case,
the Comprehensive Design Procedure, Procedure 2, must be followed.

7
 Structural Design Methods
EXAMPLES (follow procedure on page 6) Find required lite thickness for a HS LAG lite
2 over an unheated occupied space. Opening is
Find required lite thickness for a symmetrical
1 IG unit comprised of HS LAG. Opening is
54 inches x 81 inches and design snow load is 62 psf.
5 ft. x 8 ft. and 3-second design wind load is 100 psf. Step 1 Snow load = 62 psf.
Step 1 3-second wind load = 100 psf. Step 2 Opening area: (54 x 81) ÷ 144 = 30.4 ft.2
Step 2 Opening area: 5 ft. x 8 ft. = 40 ft.2 Step 3 Aspect ratio: 81 ÷ 54 = 1.5:1
(1.5<2; OK for Simple Design Procedure)
Step 3 Aspect ratio: 8 ÷ 5 = 1.6:1
(1.6 < 2; OK for Simple Design Procedure) Step 4 62 ÷ 2 = 31 psf (HS strength factor = 2).
Use 62 ÷ 1.2 (HS LAG, long duration load) = 52 psf
Step 4 100 ÷ 2 = 50 psf (HS strength factor = 2).
if E1300-97 must be followed.
Use 100 ÷ 1.8 (IG) ÷ 1.8 (HS LAG, short duration
load) = 31 psf if E1300-97 must be followed. Step 5 (Not an IG unit.)
Step 5 50 ÷ 2 = 25 psf (IG strength factor = 2). Step 6 31 ÷ 0.8 = 39 psf (HS time factor = 0.8).
Step 6 25 ÷ 1.6 = 17 psf (HS time factor = 1.6). Step 7 30.4 ft.2 and 39 psf define a point within the
Do not use wind time factor for HS glass (1.6) 5/16-inch lines, near the 1:1 line.
if E1300-97 must be followed. For E1300-97, 30.4 ft.2 and 52 psf define a point
above the 3/8 in. lines.
Step 7 40 ft2 and 17 psf define a point within the
3/16-inch thickness lines but above a 1.6:1 line Step 8 Interpolated 1.5:1 line passes below defined
interpolated between the 1:1 and 2:1 lines. point; use 3/8-inch HS LAG (overall “desig-
For E1300-97, 40 ft.2 and 31 psf define a point nated thickness”).
within the 5/16-inch thickness lines but above a For E1300-97, required thickness of HS LAG is
1.6:1 line interpolated between the 1:1 and 2:1 lines. 1/2-inch (overall “designated thickness”).
Step 8 Required thickness of each HS LAG lite in the IG Step 9 (Not an IG unit.)
unit is 1/4-inch (overall “designated thickness”)
For E1300-97, required thickness of each HS LAG
lite in the IG unit is 3/8-inch (overall “designated
thickness”).

Step 9 60 ÷ 0.25 = 240 (240 > 150); “thin lite”.

60 ÷ 0.375 = 160 (b/t=160 > 150)

8
 1
FIGURE 2 Window Glass Design Chart FIGURE 3 Butt Glazed System
(Symmetrical Products – 2-Side Support)
100
90
80

70 Head

3 /4 "
60

5 /8 "
1 /2 "
Design Load – lbs./sq. ft.

50
3 /8 "
5 /1 6

40
"
1 /4 "
3 /1 6
"

30 U
Butt Joints

Sill U = Unsupported
20 Example: Span
60" x 30"
(60" Unsupported)
p = 30 psf
Use 5/8"

10
20 40 60 80 100
Length of Unsupported Span – Inches

PROCEDURE (2-Side Support) Step 5 Divide load from Step 3 or 4 by appropriate

time factor (from Table page 7); this is the
Step 1 Obtain design load from building code: wind
modified design load.
load or snow load.

Step 2 Determine length of unsupported span (U)

Step 6 Use length U (from Step 2) and modified
design load (from Step 5) to define a point
in inches.
on the design chart (Figure 2 above).
Step 3 For AN, HS or FT glass, divide design load by
1 (AN), 2 (HS) or 4 (FT), respectively (see Table
Step 7 Read minimum allowable overall lite thickness.
If point falls between two thicknesses, choose
page 7).
the thicker lite thickness.
Step 4 If product is a symmetrical IG unit, also divide Note: ASTM E1300-97 does not address 2-side support
by 2 (see Table page 7). conditions.

Note: It is not common practice in North America to use IG

units in 2-side support configurations.

9
 Structural Design Methods
COMPREHENSIVE DESIGN PROCEDURE
Glazing products that do not meet the conditions for
using the “simple” procedure for wind and snow loads
must use a more detailed analysis. The comprehensive
design procedure presented herein uses the ASTM E1300-
97 annealed glass strength charts, but differs from the
other data in the ASTM process in two important
respects. First, the strength of laminated architectural
glass (LAG) is defined by recent research that recognizes
LAG strengths that are equivalent to monolithic glass
strengths under wind and snow loads (see Section 3,
Laminated Glass Behavior). Second, the increased
strength of glass under wind loads (which are shorter
in duration than the 60-second duration employed in
ASTM E1300-97 strength charts) is recognized. Because
of these adjustments, strengths of glass products calcu-
lated using procedures outlined in the comprehensive
design procedure will not be the same as strengths calcu-
lated using ASTM Standard E1300-97.
The comprehensive design procedure is divided into
four parts. Procedure 1 addresses monolithic glass,
LAG, and IG units with lites that share load equally;
Procedure 2 handles IG units with unequal load shar-
ing; Procedure 3 treats the calculation of deflections.
Special cases using LAG are treated in Procedure 4.
10
Procedure 1 addresses all monolithic glass, LAG made
with plies of the same glass type, and IG units that
are symmetrical (lites identical in glass type and
thickness, including LAG lites equal in designated
thickness to their monolithic companions).
Procedure 2 handles asymmetrical IG units, IG units
with “thick” lites, and IG units with LAG that
must be treated as “layered” (e.g., a LAG lower
lite of an IG unit under snow load that is over an
occupied space that may be above 32˚F).
Procedure 3 treats deflections in monolithic glass,
LAG and IG units of all types.
Procedure 4 treats special cases of LAG design that
use different ply thicknesses and glass types.
The comprehensive design procedure addresses wind and
snow loads only, as dead loads do not exist (vertical
glazing) or can be neglected (sloped glazing), and glass
must not be subjected to “live” loads. Combinations
of wind and snow loads, when required, are treated
by converting each load to an equivalent 60-second
duration load and adding effects according to the com-
bination formulas contained in standards and codes.
If ASTM E1300-97 or building codes which do not
recognize the science employed in the comprehensive
design procedure must be followed, notes at appropriate
points in the presentation indicate adjustments that
must be made.

PROCEDURE 1:
Monolithic and Laminated Glass, and Insulating
Glass Units With Symmetrical Lites
Includes LAG containing plies with same heat treatment,
and IG with lites of same glass type and designated thickness
(including IG units with one LAG lite).
Approach: Modify the design load to account for glass
type and time duration of load, select a trial thickness,
enter the corresponding chart using opening dimen-
sions, and compare the chart defined strength with the
modified design load; proceed to a thicker or thinner
thickness chart, as necessary, to “close” on an acceptable
thickness.
Step 1 Obtain design load from building code: wind
load and/or snow load. (Note: if wind and snow
design load combinations must be considered, see
note in Step 4.)
Step 2 Determine opening dimensions (L = long
dimension and W = short dimension).
Step 3 For monolithic glass, LAG and IG units with
AN, HS, or FT glass, divide the design load by
1 (AN), 2 (HS) or 4 (FT), respectively. If product
is an IG unit, also divide by 2*.
Step 4 Divide modified design load from Step 3 by
appropriate time factor: 1.2 (AN), 1.6 (HS), or
1.8 (FT) for wind load, or 0.6 (AN), 0.8 (HS), or
0.9 (FT) for snow load.* (Note: if load combina-
tions must be considered, perform the conversions
as described for both wind and snow, and add
according to the load combination formula.)
1
Step 6 If the strength of the trial thickness is larger
(smaller) than the modified design load, move
to a thinner (thicker) glass thickness chart and
repeat Step 5. Repeat this process until a glass
thickness is found that exhibits a strength that
is the same as or slightly larger than the modi-
fied design load.
Step 7 If the glazing design is an IG unit, divide the
short dimension (W) by the designated thick-
ness of one lite. If this number is >150, the IG
unit design is acceptable; if not, the IG unit
design is too thick to behave as a symmetrical
unit and Procedure 2 must be used.
* ASTM E1300-97 combines strength factors and time factors into four
tables of “glass type (GT) factors”: single lites (monolithic and LAG) and
IG, for short and long duration loads. To adjust the comprehensive
design procedure (Procedure 1 only) to ASTM E1300-97, strength factors
and time factors must be separated. ASTM E1300-97 uses the following
strength factors: 1 (AN), 2 (HS), 4 (FT), 1.8 (IG; monolithic, symmetrical
lites), 0.9 (LAG, AR ≤ 2 and b/t > 150; short duration load), 0.75 (LAG,
AR > 2 or b/t ≤ 150; short duration load), 0.75 (LAG, AR ≤ 2.5; long dura-
tion load), 0.5 (LAG, AR > 2.5; long duration load). ASTM E1300-97 mod-
ifies strength factors by time factors for long duration loads: 0.6 (AN),
0.8 (HS), 0.9 (FT). Note: ASTM E1300-97 does not specifically address IG
with two LAG lites and does not include a time factor for a 3-second
wind load. In ASTM E1300-97: aspect ratio (AR) = long dimension ÷ short
dimension, b = short dimension, short duration load lasts 60 seconds or
less, and long duration load lasts approximately 30 days.

Step 5 Select a trial thickness and find the correspond-

ing chart in the Appendix, Charts A.1-A.12.
(The trial thickness is a designated monolithic
or LAG thickness, and is the thickness of one
lite if the glazing is an IG unit; ASTM C1036
designated thicknesses are contained in the
Appendix, Table A.2.) Draw a vertical line from
“L” and a horizontal line from “W”; the inter-
section of these lines represents the strength of
the trial thickness (in kPa) for the glazing
being designed. (Interpolation between load
lines along a radial line from the chart
origin may be necessary.)

11
 Structural Design Methods
PROCEDURE 2:
Asymmetrical Insulating Glass Units
Includes IG units with lites of different thickness and/or heat
treatment, “thick” IG units, and IG units with lite(s) of LAG
that must be considered “layered”.
Approach: Establish a trial design by defining glass types
and thicknesses; apportion design load between lites
and modify the apportioned loads by strength and time
factors, as appropriate. Enter charts to determine if
strengths of lites in trial design exceed modified appor-
tioned design loads.
Step 1 Obtain design load from building code: wind
load and/or snow load. (Note: if wind and snow
design load combinations must be considered, see
note in Step 5.)
Step 2 Determine opening dimensions (L and W);
W is the short dimension.
Step 3 Establish a trial design by defining the asym-
metrical IG unit as follows: select a trial thick-
ness tL for the loaded (outer) lite; select a trial
thickness tU for the other (inner) lite; select a
trial glass type (AN, HS, or FT) for each lite.
Step 4 Calculate tU ÷ tL and W ÷ tL. (Note: if lower lite
is LAG that will be > 32˚F under snow load
(lower lite is over an occupied space that may
be heated), substitute an equivalent mono-
Step 6 Find appropriate glass strength charts for tL and
tU in the Appendix (Charts A.1-A.12). For each
thickness, draw a vertical line from “L” and a
horizontal line from “W”; the intersection of
these lines represents the strengths of the thick-
nesses tL and tU (in kPa) for the trial design
defined in Step 3. (Interpolation between load
lines along a radial line from the chart origin
may be necessary.)
Step 7 If the strengths of the trial thicknesses tL and tU
are larger than the modified design loads LtL
and LtU, the design is acceptable. If either of the
individual glass strengths is smaller than the
corresponding modified design load, or if one
or both of the glass strengths are much larger
than the corresponding modified design loads,
an alternate design is indicated. Modify glass
thicknesses and/or glass types in the trial design
and repeat the process beginning with Step 3
(if thicknesses are changed) or with Step 5 if
glass types (only) are changed. Deflections may
be found using Procedure 3.
* Load share factors in Table A.1 were obtained from Reference 1.2.
ASTM E1300-97 contains an alternate method for calculating load
sharing. If the ASTM E1300-97 procedure must be followed when
laminated glass is employed in an asymmetrical IG unit, use the
process detailed therein.
** ASTM E1300-97 does not recognize the equivalency between
monolithic and laminated glass under wind and snow loads.

lithic glass thickness for tU from Table A.3.)

Obtain percent of design load carried by
loaded lite % tL from Table A.1.* Calculate
percent of design load carried by inner lite
% tU (% tU = 100 - percent of design load
carried by loaded lite % tL).**

Step 5 Calculate portions of design load carried by

each lite (percents from Step 4 x design load).
Divide each of these loads by 1 (AN), 2 (HS),
or 4 (FT) and by time factors 1.2 (AN), 1.6 (HS),
1.8 (FT) for wind, or 0.6 (AN), 0.8 (HS), or
0.9 (FT) for snow, as appropriate. The results are
modified design loads for each lite: LtL and LtU.
(Note: if load combinations must be considered, per-
form Step 5 on both wind load and snow load, and
add the modified design loads for each lite
according to the load combination formula.)

12
 1
PROCEDURE 3: The chart for deflections in 1/4-inch (6 mm) glass plates
Deflection Calculations is presented below. Illustrated examples are included.
The model building codes contain no requirements that
limit deflections in architectural glazing. ASTM Standard FIGURE 4 Deflection Calculations Chart (6 mm)
E1300-97 offers no recommendations regarding accept-
able deflections. Dashed lines in the glass thickness
Width (in.)
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
selection charts (Charts A.1-A.12 in Appendix) indicate 20 0.8
18 0.7
loads and plate geometries for which the maximum lat- 16
0.6

Center Deflection (mm)

14 20 psf (1 kPa)

Center Deflection (in.)

eral deflection of the glass exceeds 3/4-inch (19 mm). 12
40 psf (2 kPa) 0.5
80 psf (4 kPa)
Industry practice varies, but limits on deflection often 10 0.4
relate to the perceived deflection of glass lites under 8 Example 2
0.3
load. Deflections on the order of the thickness of the
6 20 psf (1 kPa)
lite are perceptible, especially for windows under wind Example 3 4 0 psf (2 kPa)
80 psf (4 kPa) 0.2
load. Since there are no specific building code limita-
tions for deflections and guidelines for allowable deflec- 4 Example 1 Aspect Ratio 1

tions in glass lites are stated only in general terms, there 3

Aspect Ratio 2

is little need to obtain deflections with great accuracy. 0.1

510 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000

Charts A.13a-A.13i (Appendix) contain approximations, Width (mm)

for each thickness designation, of the deflections of 4-
side, simply supported glass lites subjected to uniform
lateral loads (wind and/or snow). Enter a graph for the Example 1:
appropriate glass thickness from the top (in.) or bottom 34 x 34 in. (864 x 864 mm) lite, 40 psf (1.9 kPa)
(mm) with the width (smallest dimension) of the lite. Center Deflection = 0.15 in. (3.8 mm)
Move vertically to a load line (psf or kPa) for the appro- Example 2:
priate aspect ratio (L÷W). Load lines may be drawn for 34 x 68 in. (864 x 1,728 mm) lite, 40 psf (1.9 kPa)
aspect ratios between 1:1 and 2:1 by interpolating using Center Deflection = 0.32 in. (8.1 mm)
the loads shown. Load lines for other loads may be
drawn by interpolating between load lines for a specific Example 3:
aspect ratio. Use of 2:1 load lines for aspect ratios above 34 x 51 in. (864 x 1,295 mm) lite, 40 psf (1.9 kPa)
2:1 provides acceptable accuracy. Deflections in IG units Center Deflection = 0.22 in. (5.6 mm)
are found by using the apportioned load acting on one
lite (see Procedures 1 and 2). LAG unit defections are the
same as deflections of monolithic plates with the same
thickness designations. Deflections of “warm” LAG lites
in IG units under long-term (snow) load are found by
using the equivalent monolithic thicknesses specified in
Table A.3 (Appendix).

13
 Structural Design Methods
EXAMPLES FIGURE 5 Symmetrical Laminated Glass
Find the required lite thickness for a symmetri-
1 cal LAG unit 30 x 90 inches in size that must t
carry a wind load of 100 psf. (Aspect ratio = 3;
Comprehensive Design Procedure 1, page 13, must
be used.)

Step 1 3-second wind load = 100 psf. 100 psf

Step 2 L = 90 inches, W = 30 inches; aspect ratio
L ÷ W = 3. (Simple Design Procedure, page 6
is limited to aspect ratios ≤ 2.)

Step 3 For AN LAG: 100 ÷ 1 = 100 psf (4.8 kPa)

For HS LAG: 100 ÷ 2 = 50 psf (2.4 kPa)
For FT LAG: 100 ÷ 4 = 25 psf (1.2 kPa)
[strength factors]

Step 4 For AN LAG: 100 ÷ 1.2 = 83 psf (4.0 kPa)

For HS LAG: 50 ÷ 1.6 = 31 psf (1.5 kPa)
For FT LAG: 25 ÷ 1.8 = 14 psf (0.8 kPa)
[time factors]
FIGURE 6 Laminated Insulating Glass Unit
Step 5 From Charts A.1-A.12:
AN LAG thickness = 3/8 inch (10 mm)
HS LAG thickness = 1/4 inch (6 mm)
tL
FT LAG thickness = 3/16 inch (5 mm)
(Note: 5/32-inch FT monolithic is also OK, but is not available in LAG.)

Using ASTM E1300-97: (Table 1) 75 psf

AN LAG: 100 ÷ 0.75 = 133 psf (6.4 kPa); t = 1/2 inch (12 mm)
HS LAG: 100 ÷ 1.5 = 67 psf (3.2 kPa); t = 3/8 inch (10 mm)
FT LAG: 100 ÷ 3.0 = 33 psf (1.6 kPa); t = 1/4 inch (6 mm)

tU

14

Design an IG unit with an outer monolithic fully
2 tempered glass lite and an inner laminated glass
lite for a 60 x 80 inch opening. Snow load (acting normal
to surface of glass) is 75 psf. The IG unit is supported on
four sides and is located over a heated occupied space.
(Asymmetrical IG design and heated occupied space;
hence, Comprehensive Design Procedure 2 for asymmet-
rical IG units, page 12, must be used.)
Step 1 Design load = 75 psf (snow) acting normal to
surface of glass.
Step 2 Opening dimensions: L = 80 inches,
W = 60 inches.
Step 3 Trial design: tL (loaded lite) = 1/4 inch FT; tU
(other lite) = 5/16 inch AN LAG.
Step 4 From Table A.3:
equivalent monolithic glass thickness
for 5/16 inch
LAG lite at room temperature tU = 1/4 inch
From Table A.1:
W/tL=60/0.25=240 tU/tL=0.25/0.25=1.0
% of design load carried by loaded lite = 50
% of design load carried by unloaded lite
(100-50) = 50
Step 5 Outer lite tL carries 75 x 0.50 = 38 psf.
Inner lite tU carries 75 x 0.50 = 38 psf.
Modified design load for tL (outer lite) =
38 ÷ 4 ÷ 0.9 = 11 psf.
Modified design load for tU (inner lite) =
38 ÷ 1 ÷ 0.6 = 63 psf.
Step 6 From Chart A.6 (1/4 inch): strength tL = 26 psf
(>11 psf, OK).
From Chart A.6 (1/4 inch): strength tU = 26 psf
(<63 psf, not acceptable).
Step 7 Change glass type (only) for tU (inner lite) to
HS; return to Step 5 (Note: since thicknesses
have not changed, load share factors are
unchanged.)
Modified design load for tU (inner lite) =
38 ÷ 2 ÷ 0.8 = 24 psf.
From Chart A.6 (1/4 inch): strength tU =
26 psf (> 24 psf, OK).
Notes: A HS 1/4-inch outer lite (modified design load 38÷2÷0.8=24 psf)
is also acceptable.
A thinner FT outer lite may be acceptable; select alternate tL and
repeat from Step 3.
If occupied space may not be heated, check design with lower
LAG lite acting as monolithic.
15
1
PROCEDURE 4 – SPECIAL CASES
Special Case 1: LAG with Different Ply Thicknesses
(same glass type)
LAG fabricated with plies that are the same glass type
but with different ply thicknesses will act as a mono-
lithic plate with a total thickness equal to the sum of
the ply thicknesses, when subjected to wind or snow
loads. This conclusion may be inferred from the exten-
sive research on the behavior of symmetrical LAG
reported in Section 3. Should LAG with the same glass
type but different ply thicknesses have to be treated as
“layered” (a design condition that will not occur often),
the analysis becomes mathematically complex. For sim-
plicity, bending only behavior is assumed (membrane
behavior is ignored) and each ply will assume a share of
applied load in proportion to the cube of its thickness
(see Example 1, next page). The load assumed by the
thicker ply will always produce larger stresses in the
thicker ply than the load assumed by the thinner ply
will produce in the thinner ply. Hence, if the thicker
ply can carry its share of the proportioned load, the
design is satisfactory.
Special Case 2: LAG with Different Glass Types
This special design condition may occur when a combi-
nation of two plies of AN, HS, or FT glass is employed.
The procedures outlined below apply to LAG with a
thicker ply that is less than two times the thickness of
the thinner ply.
■ If the stronger ply is placed in tension and the unit
is not elevated in temperature, the unit will behave
as a monolithic plate with a total thickness equal to
the sum of the ply thickness. Unit strength is deter-
mined by considering the monolithic plate to be
made of the stronger type of glass (see Example 2,
next page).
■ If the stronger ply is placed in tension and the
unit is at an elevated temperature, the strength
of the unit is equal to the strength of the stronger
ply, acting alone (see Example 2, next page).
■ Independent of temperature, if the stronger ply
is placed in compression, the strength of the unit
is equal to the strength of the ply in compression,
as if it were acting alone (see Example 3, next page).
 Structural Design Methods
EXAMPLES (Special Cases)
Determine the strength of a 4 foot x 5 foot AN
1 LAG unit (4-side support) composed of 1/8-inch
and 1/4-inch plies (a) at room temperature and (b) at
elevated temperature:
(a) At room temperature (<100˚F) the LAG unit will
behave under uniform load as a 3/8-inch monolithic
glass plate. From Window Glass Design Chart (page 7),
3/8-inch, 20-ft2, AN plate with AR = 1.25 (interpolate
linearly between 1:1 and 2:1 lines): 60-second strength
is 72 psf.
FIGURE 7a Laminate Acting as Monolithic
(b) The LAG unit at elevated temperature (>100˚F) will
behave under uniform load as a “layered” system
with 1/8-inch and 1/4-inch plies. The plies will share
load as follows:
1/8-inch ply - 0.1253/(0.1253 + 0.253) = 11%
1/4-inch ply - 0.253/(0.1253 + 0.253) = 89%
FIGURE 7b Laminate Responding as Layers
The strength of a 1/4-inch AN monolithic glass plate
(20 ft 2, AR 1.25, 4-side support) is 38 psf (Window
Glass Design Chart, page 7). The 60-second strength
of the layered system is 38 ÷ 0.89 = 42 psf (thicker
ply controls).
16
Determine the strength of a 4 foot x 5 foot
2 AN LAG unit (4-side support) with an AN
1/8-inch ply and a HS 1/4-inch ply, with the HS 1/4 ply
in tension (a) at room temperature and (b) at elevated
temperature:
(a) At room temperature and below (<100˚F), the
60-second strength is equal to the strength of an
HS 3/8-inch monolithic plate:
72 psf x 2 = 144 psf (see Example 1a, above).
FIGURE 8a Strength – Room Temperature
Compression Tension
(b) At elevated temperature (>100˚F) the 60-second
strength is the same as an HS 1/4-inch plate:
38 psf x 2 = 76 psf (see Example 1b, above).
Determine the strength of a 4 foot x 5 foot LAG
3 unit (4-side support) with an AN 1/8-inch ply
and an HS 1/4-inch ply, with the HS 1/4-inch ply in
compression (a) at room temperature and (b) at elevated
temperature.
The strength of the LAG unit at all temperatures is equal
to the strength of the HS 1/4-inch ply, acting alone:
76 psf (see Example 2b, above). Note: the 1/8-inch AN ply
that is in tension may fail under a load equal to the strength
of the 1/4-inch HS ply in compression.
FIGURE 8b Strength – Elevated Temperature
Compression Tension
 1
DESIGNS FOR WINDBORNE DEBRIS The origins of these code requirements, test standards
and test methods are discussed in Section 4.
Glazed openings in buildings located at sites exposed
to windborne debris during extreme windstorms should The procedure for designing for windborne debris is
be designed for possible debris impacts. In some areas, as follows:
designs for windborne debris are mandatory, while in
1 Determine if consideration of windborne debris is
other areas designs for windborne debris are required
mandatory, an alternative to designing for internal
if the building is not designed for full internal pressure. pressure, voluntary (prudent), or not needed (see
In many other situations (e.g., urban areas where wind- Table 2 for guidance).
borne debris may be generated from adjacent buildings
and the urban environment), designing for windborne
2 Establish appropriate debris impact criteria (see
Table 3 for guidance).
debris is voluntary, but prudent.
3 Select glazing product or design concept that meets
Debris impact requirements in the South Florida
debris impact criteria (see Table 4 for guidance).
Building Code (SFBC, Reference 1.3) apply in Dade and
Broward Counties of Florida. Provisions of SBCCI Test 4 Qualify concept, design or product for use (see
Standard for Determining Impact Resistance From Table 6 for guidance).
Windborne Debris, SSTD 12-97 (Reference 1.4), apply
in Palm Beach County, and some municipalities within
the county, in Florida. Texas Department of Insurance
Standard TDI 1-98, Test for Impact and Cyclic Wind
Pressure Resistance of Impact Protective Systems and
Exterior Opening Systems, applies in coastal counties
of Texas, seaward of the Intracoastal Waterway
(Reference 1.5).

ASTM E1886-97 Standard Test Method for Performance

of Exterior Windows, Curtain Walls, Doors and Storm
Shutters Impacted by Missile(s) and Exposed to Cyclic
Pressure Differentials (Reference 1.6) and its compan-
ion specification (ASTM E1996-99) can be specified by
architects and building owners.

Consideration of windborne debris as an alternative

to designing for full internal pressures is required in
hurricane-prone regions by ASCE Standard 7-98
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures (Reference 1.7) and the 1996 BOCA
National Building Code (Reference 1.8).

17
 Structural Design Methods
TABLE 2 Requirements for Windborne Debris
Requirement Geographic Locations
Mandatory Dade and Broward Counties of Florida; Palm Beach County,
Florida (outside of municipalities); some Palm Beach County,
Florida municipalities; residential construction in coastal
counties of Texas, seaward of Intracoastal Waterway (to
obtain insurance through Texas Windstorm Insurance
Association); Areas defined in ASCE 7-98 and 1996 BOCA
National Building Code.
Alternative to Areas defined in ASCE 7-98 and 1996 BOCA National
internal pressure Building Code.
Comment/Reference
Dade and Broward Counties: South Florida
Building Code; Palm Beach County: SSTD 12-
97; other Florida cities: contact local
building official; coastal counties of Texas,
seaward of Intracoastal Waterway: TDI 1-98.
See Figure 9 for areas requiring designs for
debris impact or for full internal pressure.

Voluntary Urban and suburban areas with potentials for windborne
debris in the form of roof gravel, roof tile, shingles, fascia,
mechanical equipment and other debris from adjacent roof
tops, buildings, and the general environment.
Not needed Open suburban and rural sites with no adjacent buildings
or other debris sources.
Owner/designer can cite ASTM E1886-97,
SSTD 12-97, South Florida Building Code,
TDI 1-98, or can specify site specific criteria.
Consider future development adjacent to site.

FIGURE 9 Areas Requiring Consideration of Debris Impact (ASCE 7-98

and 1996 BOCA Basic Building Code)

Areas with windspeed

110 mph (49 kph)
or greater

18

TABLE 3 Establish Debris Impact Criteria
Requirement
South Florida Building
Code, Section 2315 (Impact
Tests for Windborne Debris);
Dade County Protocols
PA 201-94 (Impact Test
Procedures) and PA 203-94
(Cyclic Wind Pressure
Loading)
SSTD 12-97: SBCCI Test
Standard for Determining
Impact Resistance from
Windborne Debris
TDI 1-98: Test for Impact
and Cyclic Wind Pressure
Resistance of Impact
Protective Systems and
Exterior Opening Systems
ASTM E1886-97:
Performance of Exterior
Windows, Curtainwalls,
Doors and Storm Shutters
Impacted by Missiles(s) and
Exposed to Cyclic Pressure
Differentials
ASCE 7-98, Table 6-4:
Internal Pressure Coefficients
for Buildings, GCpi
1996 BOCA National
Building Code,
Table 1611.7(6): Internal
Pressure Coefficients
for Buildings, Note e
Voluntary
1
Criteria Comment
Below 30 feet: 2 x 4 timber weighing 9 lbs. impacting end-on See Reference 1.3 for specific
at 50 ft./sec. (two per specimen). test requirements contained
Above 30 feet: 2 gm rocks impacting at 80 ft./sec. (30 per in South Florida Building Code;
specimen). contact Dade County Office of
Pressure cycles: each of above impacts followed by 9000 cycles Code Compliance or a Dade County
of pressure representing hurricane wind gusts. certified lab for test protocols.
Large missile impact test: 2 x 4 timbers impacting “end on” See Reference 1.4 for specific test
(Chapter 4): protocols contained in SSTD 12-97.
windspeed* ≥ 110 – 9 lbs. at 50 fps
100 < windspeed < 110 – 8 lbs. at 40 fps
90 < windspeed ≤ 100 – 4 lbs. at 40 fps
Impact each of three specimens twice (center and corner)
or each of six specimens once (three center, three corner).
Small missile impact test: 2 gm steel balls impacting at 130 ft./sec.
(Chapter 5):
Each of three specimens receives 30 impacts in three groups
of 10 (center, corner and center of long dimension).
Pressure cycles: 9000 cycles.
Acceptance: Three specimens from each group of three shall
pass the test.
* windspeeds are fastest mile design windspeeds in mph
Large missile impact test: 2 x 4 weighing 9 lbs. impacting “end See Reference 1.5 for specific test
on” at 50 ft./sec.: protocols contained in TDI 1-98.
Impact each of three specimens twice (center and corner) or
each of six specimens once (three center, three corner).
Small missile impact test: 2 gm steel ball impacting at 130 ft./sec.:
Each of three specimens receives 30 impacts in three groups of
10 (center corner and center of long dimension).
Pressure cycles: 9000 cycles.
Acceptance: three specimens from each group of three shall
pass the test.
Large Missile Impact Test: 2 x 4 weighing 4.5 to 15 lbs. impacting See Reference 1.6 for specific
between 0.10 and 0.55 of basic wind speed (number, size and test protocols contained in
impact speed specified by user). ASTM E1886-97.
Small Missile Impact Test: solid steel ball having a mass of 2 gm
impacting between 0.40 and 0.75 of basic wind speed (number
and impact speed specified by user). (Note: Companion
specification to ASTM E-1886 is available as ASTM E1996-99.)
“In hurricane-prone regions (V ≥ 110 mph; see Fig. 9) glazed See Section 4 for discussion of
openings in lower 60 ft not specifically designed to resist the effects of internal pressure
windborne debris or are not specifically protected from windborne and advantages of debris impact
debris impact” must use internal pressure coefficient GCpi = 0.8 protection.
for partially enclosed buildings.” (from Reference 1.7)
“Openings … which are likely to be breached by windborne See Section 4 for discussion of the
projectiles where the basic wind speed is 110 mph or greater” effects of internal pressure and
(see Fig. 9) must use internal pressure coefficient for partially advantages of debris impact
enclosed buildings. (from Reference 1.8) protection.
Site specific conditions may warrant large missile and/or small See Section 4 for conditions that
missile impact tests: urban areas with gravel and debris on may warrant consideration of
adjacent roof tops, urban and suburban areas with glass above debris impact, design examples,
walkways, and spaces occupied by people. and references.
19
 Structural Design Methods
TABLE 4 Select Glazing Concept or Product
Impact Requirement
Large missile test in South
Florida Building Code,
Section 2315 and in SSTD
12-97, Chapter 4
Small missile test in South
Florida Building Code,
Section 2315 and in SSTD
12-97, Chapter 5
Large debris (general); site
specific impact criteria
developed by architect or
glazing consultant
Small debris (general); site
specific impact criteria
developed by architect or
glazing consultant
Glazing Concepts References
Laminated glass with 0.090 inch or thicker interlayer and silicone See Figure 10 and Sections 2 and 3
anchor detail (Impact Strength)
■ ”Sacrificial ply” concept using laminated glass with 0.060 in. See Figure 11 and Sections 2 and 3
interlayer (steel ball) or 0.030 in. interlayer (rock) in dry glazed (Impact Strength)
system -
■ Laminated glass and silicone anchor detail (single lite)
■ IG unit with laminated glass outer lite
■ Single lites: silicone anchored laminated glass units with See Table 5 and Sections 2 and 3
0.090 in. (minimum) interlayer (Impact Strength)
■ IG Units: one or more laminated glass units with 0.090 in.
(minimum) interlayer
■ Single lites: laminated glass using “sacrificial ply” concept or See Figure 12, Sections 2 and 3
“anchored lite” concept with 0.060 in. (minimum) interlayer (Impact Strength), and Section 4
■ IG units: both lites monolithic or outer lite laminated glass

FIGURE 10 Glazing by Construction Glass TABLE 5 LAG Constructions That Meet Missile
Industries Inc. (approved by Dade Impact Standards and Codes
County for Large Missile Impact) Standard or Code
SFBC Small Missile*
SSTD12-94,97 Small Missile
ASTM E1996-99 Small Missile
TDI 1-98 Small Missile
SFBC Large Missile
SSTD12-94,97 Large Missile
TDI 1-98 Large Missile
ASTM E1996-99 Large Missile
LAG Construction
Glass/0.030 in. Saflex/Glass
Glass/0.060 in. Saflex/Glass
Glass/0.060 in. Saflex/Glass
Glass/0.060 in. Saflex/Glass
Glass/0.090 in. Saflex/Glass
Glass/0.090 in. Saflex/Glass
Glass/0.090 in. Saflex/Glass
Glass/0.090 in. Saflex/Glass

* All missile impact standards and codes include pressure cycles

(see Table 17).

Notes:
1. Glass shall be designed to meet ASCE-7 wind load requirements.
2. Use plies with different glass types to obtain differential break
patterns.
3. Glass bite minimum 1/2 inch.
4. Use structural wet seal or high adhesion glazing tape.

20
 1
FIGURE 11 Glazing Detail Passing Small Missile FIGURE 12 Glazing Detail for Small Missile Impact
Impact Test (Sacrificial Ply Concept) (Non-hurricane Region; Reference 1.9)

3/16" 3/8"
(5 mm) (10 mm)
Saflex Interlayer
Gasket Saflex Interlayer Structural

(19 mm)
3/4"
Sacrificial Anchor Bead
Outer Ply
(AN, HS, FT, CT) Heat Strengthened
or Fully Tempered

3.0" (75 mm)

Laminated Inner Ply
Glass With
Saflex
Interlayer

TABLE 6 Qualify Concept or Product for Use

Impact Requirement Qualification Procedure
Mandatory Test at certified Dade County (Florida) laboratory, listed SBCCI laboratory, or listed TDI
laboratory in accordance with prescribed test protocols (SFBC, SSTD 12-97, TDI 1-98),
or use “approved” product listed by Dade County Office of Code Compliance
(www.buildingcodeonline.com).
Selected as alternative to internal pressure Use test procedures or products approved by a jurisdiction with mandatory impact
requirements (e.g., SFBC); test according to SSTD 12-97, TDI 1-98 or ASTM E1886-97;
or use designs accepted as “standard of practice.”
Voluntary Use products approved by a jurisdiction with mandatory impact requirements, test
using protocols appropriate for specific design condition, or use designs accepted as
“standard of practice.”

21
 Structural Design Methods
ADDITIONAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
Once a glazing product has been designed for wind,
snow or some combination of these common design
loads, it may be necessary to consider additional design
requirements. In some design situations earthquakes,
human impact, human loads, hail and special require-
ments for overhead glazing must be addressed. The
information presented below will assist the designer in
meeting these additional design requirements.
EARTHQUAKES
Design – The response of buildings to earthquakes has
been studied extensively. Earthquake engineers can
define, in very precise terms, how the structural frame
of a building moves during an earthquake. “Interstory
drift” (displacement of the top of a story relative to the
bottom of the story) can be defined for a specific build-
ing in a design earthquake. It is common practice to
simply provide enough clearance between glass edges
and the supporting frame to accommodate the inter-
story drift. Design objectives for earthquakes are (1) to
prevent breakage and (2) if glass breaks, prevent it from
falling out. LAG exhibits superior performance in meet-
ing the second design objective.
Tests – There is only very limited guidance available to
the designer who wishes to test the behavior of a glazing
system under earthquake motions. An informal test
procedure imposes, through the application of “static”
forces, a prescribed interstory drift on a full-scale “mock-
up” of an architectural glazing system. This test evaluates
the ability of the glazing system to accommodate the
interstory drift without engaging the glass in a way that
will produce breakage. While reasonably effective, this
static test does not replicate the multi-cycle, dynamic
motion induced by an earthquake. Further, this informal
static test, while commonly prescribed as a component of
mock-up test regimes, is not defined in a formal standard
or in a building code.
Research – Solutia has joined the U.S. National Science
Foundation in developing methods to evaluate architec-
tural glazing systems under earthquake motions. The
Building Envelope Research Laboratory (BERL) at the
University of Missouri-Rolla has conducted extensive
tests to evaluate glazing system performance in earth-
quakes. Full-scale architectural glazing systems have
been subjected to dynamic “racking” that simulates
22
motions that can be experienced by buildings in earth-
quakes. Results of this research have produced a pro-
posed standard method of test (Reference 1.10) and
comparisons of seismic performance of architectural
glazing systems (Reference 1.11).
Proposed Standard Test Method – A format for a stan-
dard test method is offered by Behr, et al. (Reference 1.11).
A “crescendo test” imposes a steady increase of cyclic drift
amplitudes. Interstory drift magnitudes are related
to serviceability limit states (glass contact with frame)
and ultimate limit states (glass fallout). The crescendo test
consists of a continuous series of alternating “ramp-up”
and “constant-amplitude” intervals, each comprised of
four sinusoidal cycles at a frequency of 0.8 Hz. Each drift
amplitude step is ± 0.25 inch. The number of cycles at each
step and the test frequency were selected to be reasonable
representations of drift-time histories that could occur in
building envelope wall systems under seismic loadings.
Preliminary Test Results – In a series of tests using the
proposed test method, LAG exhibited consistently larger
ultimate limit state (glass fallout) drift amplitudes than
monolithic glass and PET film coated monolithic glass
(AN, HS, and FT). In other tests, heat treatment (HS and
FT) only marginally increased drift amplitudes associ-
ated with breakage. Structurally glazed systems per-
formed well in earthquake tests.
HUMAN IMPACT
Industry standard ANSI Z97.1, Safety Performance
Specifications and Methods of Test for Safety Glazing
Material Used in Buildings (Reference 1.12) and federal
standard 16 CFR 1201, Safety Standard for Architectural
Glazing Materials (Reference 1.13), contain provisions for
architectural glazing materials that can be “broken by
human contact.” Where architectural glazing can be
subjected to human contact, these additional provisions
may apply. Generally, these glazing products are doors,
windows adjacent to sidewalks or passageways (with sills
near floor level), side lights, and openings that may be
mistaken as passageways.
Note that these safety glazing standards do not apply to
sloped glazing and skylights (overhead glazing) unless
these components can be broken by human contact. Also
note that glazing products that meet the safety glazing
standards do not necessarily qualify for use in sloped glaz-
ing and skylights. (See Overhead Glazing, next page, for
model code provisions for Sloped Glazing and Skylights.)
 1
TABLE 7 Safety Glazing Requirements – Consumer Products Safety Commission
Category I Category II
Definition 9 sq. ft. or less, except patio doors, shower Greater than 9 sq. ft. and patio doors,
and tub enclosures shower and tub enclosures of any size
Test Requirement* Break safely at 150 ft.-lb. impact Break safely at 400 ft.-lb. impact
Test Standard CPSC 16 CFR 1201 Category I or equivalent CPSC 16 CFR 1201 Category II or equivalent
model code standard model code standard
Complying Laminated Glass Two-ply with 0.015 in. plastic interlayer or greater Two-ply with 0.030 in. plastic interlayer or greater
With Saflex® Interlayer
* Category I certification requires the glazing withstand one 150 foot-pound impact, produced by impacting a 100-pound shot bag from a vertical height
of 18 inches.
Category II certification requires the glazing withstand one 400 foot-pound impact, produced by impacting a 100-pound shot bag from a vertical height
of 48 inches.

HUMAN LOADS TABLE 8 c2 Factors for Glass Floors (Single Glass)

Glass can be designed to minimize the risk of breakage AN 0.6
or fallout under human loads. HS 1.6
Overhead Glazing – Overhead glazing should not be FT 3.6
exposed to the weight of a person and should be LAG AN 0.3/0.45*
designed to discourage people from walking on glass LAG HS 0.8/1.2*
surfaces. If necessary, the ability of a lite in an over- LAG FT 1.8/2.7*
head glazing unit to withstand human loads can * Use lower value for L/W ≥ 2 or W/t ≤ 150; use higher value for all
be checked using the equation for a concentrated other cases (L = long dimension, W = short dimension, t = lite
thickness); factors apply to two ply laminates only.
load, as shown below.

Glass Floors – The equations below may be used to LAG should have a minimum of three plies and should
design glass floors (walking surface of floors, land- be capable of supporting the total design load with any
ings, stairwells, and similar locations) for human one ply broken.
and other loads. The design should be based on Surface damage caused by people or by objects placed
the load that produces the largest stresses from the on glass can significantly reduce the strength of glass,
following equations. subjecting it to breakage under subsequent loads.
■ Uniformly distributed load: 2Fu + D ≤ Ffa x c2 x 0.67
■ Concentrated load: (8Fc/A) + D ≤ Ffa x c2 x 0.67
HAIL IMPACTS
Sloped glazing, skylights and some vertical window
■ Actual load: Fa + D ≤ Ffa x c2 x 0.67
systems may be subjected to impact from hail. Fully
where: tempered (FT) glass is more resistant to hail impact
Fa = actual intended use load (psf); than annealed glass. Tests at Texas Tech University
double for dynamic applications have shown that most hailstones will not break 6 mm
Fu = uniformly distributed load (psf), (1/4 inch) FT glass. At terminal velocities (maximum
from building code speeds attained by a falling hailstone) and higher, “ice
D = glass dead load (psf) = 13 tg balls” representing hailstones up to 75 mm (3 inches)
tg = total glass thickness (inches) in diameter shattered themselves and did not break
Fc = concentrated load (lbs.), from 1/4-inch FT glass. Hail may break FT glass in thinner
building code thicknesses and all thickness of other types of glass
c2 = glass type factor (see Table 8) (AN and HS).

Ffa = maximum allowable load on glass Field experience and laboratory tests have shown that
(from Charts A.1-A.12) when laminated architectural glass (LAG) is broken by
A = area of rectangular glass (sq. ft.) hail impacts, only the outer ply breaks. Hence, AN, HS

23
 Structural Design Methods
and FT LAG are good choices for protection from hail
impact. Should breakage occur, it is important to have
an unbroken inner ply (single thickness lite) or an
unbroken inner lite (LAG inner lite in an IG unit) to
help resist subsequent loads, to preserve the building
envelope and to prevent glass fragments from falling
from the opening.
OVERHEAD GLAZING
The three model building codes (Standard, Uniform
and Basic) define “overhead glazing” as glass that is
positioned over space that may be occupied by humans.
These model codes, in effect, prescribe PVB laminated
glass for overhead glazing that is either a single lite or
the lower lite in an insulating glass unit. There are
exceptions and refinements to this general requirement,
as noted below (language in each model building code
is similar).
Allowable Glazing Materials – Sloped Glazing shall be
of any of the following materials, subject to the limita-
tions specified below.
For single-layer glazing systems, the glazing material of
the single light or layer shall be laminated glass with a
minimum 30-mil polyvinyl butyral (or equivalent) inter-
layer, wired glass, approved plastic materials (meeting
special requirements), heat strengthened glass, or fully
tempered glass.
For multiple-layer glazing systems, each light or layer
shall consist of any of the glazing materials specified
above.
Annealed glass may be used as specified within
Exceptions 2 and 3 (below).
Screening – Heat-strengthened glass and fully tempered
glass, when used in single-layer glazing systems, shall
have screens installed below glazing. The screens shall
be capable of supporting the weight of the glass and shall
be substantially supported below and installed within
4 inches of the glass. They shall be constructed of a non-
combustible material not thinner than 0.08 inch with
a mesh not larger than 1 inch by 1 inch. In a corrosive
atmosphere, structurally equivalent noncorrosive screen
24
1
materials shall be used. Heat-strengthened glass, fully tem-
pered glass and wired glass, when used in multiple-layer
glazing systems as the bottom glass layer over the walking
surface, shall be equipped with screening which complies
with the requirements for monolithic glazing systems.
Exceptions:
1 Fully tempered glass may be installed without required
protective screens when located between intervening
floors at a slope of 30 degrees or less from the vertical
plane if the highest point of the glass is 10 feet or less
above the walking surface.
2 Allowable glazing material, including annealed glass,
may be installed without required screens if the walk-
ing surface or any other accessible area below the
glazing material is permanently protected from falling
glass for a minimum horizontal distance equal to
twice the height.
3 Allowable glazing material, including annealed glass,
may be installed without screens in the sloped glazing
systems of commercial or detached greenhouses used
exclusively for growing plants and not intended for use
by the public, provided the height of the greenhouse
at the ridge does not exceed 20 feet above grade.
4 Screens need not be provided within individual
dwelling units when fully tempered glass is used as
single glazing or in both panes of an insulating glass
unit when all the following conditions are met:
(a) The area of each pane (single glass) or unit
(insulating glass) shall not exceed 16 square feet.
(b) The highest point of the glass shall not be more
than 12 feet above any walking surface or other
accessible area.
(c) The nominal thickness of each pane shall not
exceed 3/16 inch.
5 Screens shall not be required for laminated glass hav-
ing a minimum 0.015 inch polyvinyl butyral inter-
layer within dwelling units. Such laminated glass shall
not exceed 16 square feet in area nor shall the highest
point of the glass exceed 12 feet above any walking
surface.
 2

s ection
Basic Factors in Glass Strength
ANNEALED GLASS STRENGTH FIGURE 13a Tempered Glass
The fundamental strength of annealed (AN) glass is
presented in 12 charts, one for each standard glass
thickness, in ASTM E1300-97 (Reference 1.1). These
strengths are based upon a theoretical glass breakage
model which relates the strength of AN glass to its sur-
face condition. A conservative estimate of the “weath- Surfaces in
Compression
ered” surface condition of in-service AN glass was used
in producing the charts. Since the strength of AN glass
is dependent on both the time duration of loading and Center in
Tension
the probability of glass breakage, the strengths presented
in the charts are referenced to a “60-second constant
load” for an “8 per 1,000 probability of breakage.”

GLASS TYPE FACTORS

Strengths obtained from the charts are multiplied
by “glass type factors” to account for differences in
strength (strength factors) and for time duration of
loading (time factors). Glass type factors are applied
to AN, heat strengthened (HS), and fully tempered FIGURE 13b Stress Distribution in Fully
(FT) glass, as well as to laminated architectural glass Tempered Glass
(LAG) and to insulating glass (IG).

Heat treatment produces large compressive stresses on 10,000 psi (min)

the surfaces of glass plates (see Figure 13a). For breakage
0.2 t Compression Zone
to occur, stresses from loads such as wind and snow
must first overcome the “pre-stressed” surface condition 0.2 t Neutral Zone

and then induce tensile stresses that are sufficiently 0.2 t Tension Zone
large to produce fracture. As defined in ASTM C1048
0.2 t Neutral Zone
(Reference 2.1), initial surface compressive stresses of at
least 3,500 and 10,000 psi are produced in HS and FT 0.2 t Compression Zone

glass, respectively. Strength factors of 2 for HS glass

and 4 for FT glass are commonly applied to AN glass
strengths as strength factors for these types of glass.

25
 Basic Factors in Glass Strength
Laminated architectural glass (LAG) behaves like FIGURE 14 Effect of Load Duration on
monolithic glass with the same nominal thickness
Glass Strength
under short-term (wind) loads at room temperature
(< 100˚F), and under long-term (snow) loads of 32˚F and
lower. (This behavior was established through extensive 15,000

Breaking Stress (psi)

research reported in Section 3.) Hence, under wind and
snow load conditions with temperatures as noted
above,* the strength of LAG is the same as monolithic 10,000

glass with the same nominal thickness (strength factor = Annealed Glass

1). Should a LAG lite experience long duration loads

while the interlayer temperature is above 32˚F (e.g., the 5,000

lower lite in an IG unit over a heated occupied space

under snow load), it is appropriate to treat the LAG lite
as a “layered” system. 0
1 second 1 hour 1 day 1 week 1 month

Insulating glass (IG) contains a sealed airspace that Duration of Stress

results in “load sharing” between lites. If the lites in an
IG unit are the same type (AN, HS, FT), equal in thick-
ness and relatively thin, the lites will share load equally.
In these cases, therefore, a strength factor of 2 is appro-
priate (i.e., the strength of an IG unit is twice the
strength of one lite). If the IG unit is not “symmetrical”
(i.e., lites are different in thickness and/or glass type)
or is “thick” (i.e., short dimension ÷ thickness of one lite
≤ 150), load sharing will not be equal. In these cases,
determination of the strength of an IG unit becomes
very complex and involves the calculation of “load
share factors.” Fortunately, most IG units employed in
buildings are symmetrical and thin; hence, the Simple
Design Procedure (Section 1) uses a strength factor of 2.
Design situations in which these conditions are not met
are addressed in the Comprehensive Design Procedure
(Section 1).
* Design wind loads usually occur during windstorms (e.g. hurricanes
and thunderstorms) that are accompanied by clouds and rain or cold
fronts. Hence, the ambient temperature and the temperature of LAG
interlayers is usually below 100˚F when design wind loads occur.
LOAD DURATION
Glass strength varies with the length of time that the
load is applied (Figure 14).
In recognition of this phenomenon, 60-second glass
strengths may be adjusted by “time factors” to account
for short-term (wind) loads and long-term (snow) loads.
Recommended time factors that adjust 60-second
strengths for time duration of load are listed below.
TABLE 9 Strength Factors
Short-term Long-term
Glass Type (wind, 3 sec.) (snow, 2 wk.)
AN 1.2 0.6
HS 1.6 0.8
FT 1.8 0.9
ASTM E1300-97
ASTM E1300-97 does not recognize the equivalency of
monolithic glass and LAG under the temperature and
time duration of loading conditions described above.
This standard assigns strength factors for LAG that range
from 0.5 to 0.9, and assigns a strength factor of 1.8 to
symmetrical, thin IG units. Further, this standard over-
looks the increase in glass strength under wind (3-second
duration) loads. Hence, glass strength factors and adjust-
ments for load duration (time factors) that are contained
in ASTM E1300-97 as glass type (GT) factors differ from
those presented above. The Simple and Comprehensive
Design Procedures presented in this Guide (Section 1)
include provisions for utilizing alternate strength factors
and load duration factors (combined into GT factors)
for users who must use ASTM E1300-97.

26
 2
IMPACT STRENGTH the 80 feet/second small missile impact specified in the
SFBC without breaking the inner ply. Inner ply breakage
Architectural glazing may be required to reject impacts
can also be avoided by using thinner plies and/or thicker
from large objects such as 2x4 timbers and from small
interlayers. For example, LAG construction with 1/8 inch
objects such as roof gravel. The South Florida Building
AN/0.060 inch interlayer/1/8 inch AN has performed
Code (SFBC), SBCCI SSTD12-97 and TDI 1-98 (References
well in this application.
1.3, 1.4 and 1.5) define impact criteria using these mis-
siles for use in design under conditions involving extreme
windstorms (see Section 1 and Section 4). A 2 x 4 timber TABLE 11 Inner Ply Breakage Rates
represents large objects and steel balls or rocks represent in LAG Under Impacts
small objects that may occur in windstorms. Impacts from 2 gm Steel Balls at 117 ft/sec (80 mph)
(outer ply/Saflex® interlayer/inner ply)
Glazing products respond to impacts from these objects
in three ways. First, single plates of monolithic glass of
Glazing Construction Inner Ply
(interlayer thickness, in.) Breakage Rate
various thicknesses and heat treatments have the capac-
3/16HS/0.060/3/16HS 0.0010
ity to resist breakage from a small missile as shown
3/16FT/0.060/3/16FT 0.0066
below. Note that steel balls traveling at 80 feet/second
3/16HS/0.090/1/4HS 0.0027
(as prescribed in the SFBC) and at 130 feet/second (as
3/16HS/0.120/1/4HS 0.0010
prescribed in SSTD12-97) can be expected to break all
thicknesses and types of monolithic glass. It has been
Finally, LAG can stop impacts from large objects repre-
found in other tests that, while “hard” rocks (commonly
sented by the 2 x 4 timber. In this application, breakage
river run gravel) are equivalent to steel balls, certain
of both plies is allowed, but penetration by the impact-
types of rocks traveling at 80 feet/second may not break
ing timber is prevented. A relatively thick PVB interlayer
some thicknesses of fully tempered glass. Testing with
(0.090 inch) may prevent penetration of the unit by
rocks of unspecified hardness is not recommended.
the impacting object and holds broken glass particles
together. The specific LAG constructions listed in Table 12
TABLE 10 Average Minimum Impact Velocity
are some of the successful configurations used to stop two
Causing Fracture
impacts of the 9 lb 2 x 4 at 50 feet/second, one at the
(2 gm steel ball) center of the lite and one within 6 inches of a corner,
t (in.) AN FT specified as the impacting missile in the SFBC, in SBCCI
3/16 30 fps 65 fps SSTD 12-97, in ASTM E1996-99 and in TDI 1-98.
5/16 30 fps 65 fps
3/8 35 fps 60 fps TABLE 12 Impact Resistant LAG Constructions
1/2 40 fps 50 fps
LAG Constructions That Can Arrest Without Penetration the 9 lb.
3/4 55 fps 55 fps 2 x 4 at 50 ft./sec. Specified in the SFBC, SSTD12-97, ASTM
E1996-98 and TDI 1-98 (outer ply/Saflex® interlayer/inner ply)
Second, LAG has the ability to accept impacts from Opening Size Glazing Construction (glass and
small missiles through breakage of the impacted (outer) (in.) interlayer thickness in inches)
ply while preserving the integrity of the inner ply. LAG 44 5/8 x 92 1/4HS/.090/1/4HS
allows designs for wind load using the strength of the 38 x 72 3/16HS/.090/3/16HS
inner ply (only) with the assumption that the outer ply 37 3/8 x 50 1/4 3/16HS/.090/3/16FT
will break but protect the inner ply from the initial and 48 x 72 1/8AN/.090/1/8HS
subsequent impacts. Strengths of LAG acting in this 37 x 63 1/8AN/.090/1/8HS
capacity are shown in Table 11 (Reference 2.2). 26 1/2 x 50 5/8 1/8AN/.090/1/8HS
48 x 60 1/8AN/.090/1/8AN
These data suggest that LAG constructed with interlayers
60 x 100 1/8AN/.090/1/8AN
0.060 inch and thicker, and with heat treated glass lites
3/16 inch and thicker, can be expected to perform under

27

Laminated Glass Behavior
RESEARCH SUMMARY
A comprehensive series of research studies on laminated
architectural glass (LAG) has provided the technical
basis for the design recommendations contained in this
Guide (References 1.10, 3.1, 4.9). LAG behavior was stud-
ied under lateral pressures representing wind and snow
loads, under impacts from several sizes of windborne
debris, and under conditions simulating dynamic earth-
quake motions. The attributes of LAG were established
in each study. Under lateral pressure, LAG acts like
monolithic glass of the same nominal thickness under
short-term (wind) loads when the temperature is below
100˚F and under long-term (snow) loads when the tem-
perature is 32˚F and below. Under impact from wind-
borne debris (large and small missiles), broken LAG
(both plies) tends to remain in the opening following
FIGURE 15 Glass Plate Systems
Monolithic Laminated
28
3
s ection
breakage. Further, small missile impacts may break only
the outer ply, allowing the inner ply to remain integral
and carry subsequent wind pressures. Under dynamic
earthquake motions, broken LAG resists fallout at larger
drift amplitudes than monolithic glass and monolithic
glass with PET film.
LATERAL PRESSURE
Layered and monolithic glass lites (See Figure 15) were
analyzed theoretically using experimentally verified
computer programs. In addition, tests to failure (glass
fracture) of approximately 400 LAG lites were employed
to confirm predicted performances. Test samples were
constructed with annealed (AN), heat strengthened (HS)
and fully tempered (FT) glass laminated with Saflex®
interlayer by Solutia.
Layered
 Laminated Glass Behavior 3
VERIFICATION OF COMPUTER PROGRAMS layered systems. The extraordinarily good correlations
for both stress and deflection (Reference 3.2) are sum-
The first research step involved theoretical development
marized in Figures 16a-d. (Specimens were 60 x 90 x
and experimental verification of computer programs
1/4 inch; T - Theory; E - Experiment.)
that describe monolithic and layered thin plate behav-
ior. Verification was achieved for both monolithic and

FIGURE 16a Monolithic Maximum Stress FIGURE 16c Layered Maximum Stress
T
E
E Corner
8.0 T 8.0
Maximum Stress (ksi)

Maximum Stress (ksi)

6.0 Corner 6.0
E T

4.0 Center y 4.0 T

σ2 E
σ2
2.0 σ1 x 2.0 Center
σ1

0.25 0.50 0.75 0.25 0.50 0.75

Pressure (psi) Pressure (psi)

FIGURE 16b Monolithic Deflection FIGURE 16d Layered Deflection

T T
1.5 E 1.5
E
Deflection (in.)

Deflection (in.)

1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

0.25 0.50 0.75 0.25 0.50 0.75

Pressure (psi) Pressure (psi)

29
 Laminated Glass Behavior
LAMINATED GLASS BEHAVIOR
The second research step compared the behavior of
LAG to that of monolithic lites and layered lites. Non-
destructive tests under uniform lateral pressures applied
linearly with time to achieve 0.4 psi in 15 seconds were
accomplished at temperatures ranging from 32˚F to
170˚F. Results of these tests (Reference 3.2) produced
the conclusion that LAG behaves like monolithic glass
under short-term loads at room temperature and below
(<100˚F). The temperature above which LAG begins to
behave like a layered system is not clear, but is about
120˚F. (Specimens were 60 x 96 x 1/4 inch; see Figures
17a and 17b).
TIME DURATION OF LOAD EFFECTS
In a third research step, the effects of time duration
of load were studied. Sustained loads were applied in
5 seconds to a 60 x 90 x 1/4 inch LAG specimen at
several temperatures and held constant for one hour
(see Figure 18). Results of these tests provide additional
support for a conclusion that LAG behaves like mono-
lithic glass under wind gusts (less than 3 seconds dura-
tion) at temperatures below 100˚F (Figures 17a and 17b).
FIGURE 18 Effects of Sustained Load:
Maximum Deflection

Layered Unit Laminated

FIGURE 17a Maximum Stress
Maximum Deflection (in.)
1.0 170°F
120°F
Corner Center 0.8 72°F
Layered
8.0 Monolithic 0.6
Monolithic
170°F
Maximum Stress (ksi)

Layered
120°F Monolithic 0.4
100°F
6.0 72°F Lateral Load – 0.2 psi
72°F 32°F Constant After t = 5 seconds
32°F 0.2
100°F

4.0 120°F 0
170°F 1 5 10 100 1,000 3,500

Elapsed Time (sec.)

2.0

0.25 0.50 0.25 0.50

Pressure (psi)

FIGURE 17b Deflection

Layered
1.5 170°F
120°F

Monolithic
100°F
Deflection (in.)

72°F
1.0

0.5

0.25 0.50 0.75

Pressure (psi)

30
 3
INTERLAYER THICKNESS FAILURE STRENGTHS
Further research addressed the effects of interlayer Several series of tests to failure (glass fracture) have been
thickness on the behavior of LAG under lateral pressure. conducted using LAG specimens of various sizes and
Identical lites of LAG with 0.030 inch and 0.060 inch thicknesses, and containing different interlayer thick-
Saflex® interlayer thicknesses were tested at room tem- nesses and glass heat treatments (Reference 3.4). Results
perature. The results (see Figures 19a and 19b) indicate of these tests confirm behaviors observed in the theoret-
that only small (less than 5%) changes in stresses and ical analyses and non-destructive tests described above.
deflections occur as the interlayer thickness is changed Annealed (AN) LAG lites with an 0.030 inch interlayer
from 0.030 inch to 0.060 inch (Reference 3.3). exhibit failure strengths similar to monolithic AN glass
lites of the same nominal thickness at room tempera-
ture, and AN LAG lites with thicker (0.090 inch) inter-
FIGURE 19a Maximum Stress layers exhibit much larger failure strengths (Reference
3.5) (see Table 13). At elevated temperature (170˚F) AN
10
Maximum Principal Stress Near Corner (ksi)

LAG strengths drop to about 75% of comparably sized

9 Layered monolithic glass (see Table 14). Heat strengthened (HS)
Laminated (0.060")
8 Laminated (0.030") and fully tempered (FT) LAG lites were 3.2 and 5.0 times
7
Monolithic as strong, respectively, as AN LAG lites. These tests sug-
gest that HS and FT LAG lites have strength factors simi-
6
lar to strength factors for HS and FT monolithic lites at
5
room temperature (see Table 15).
4

3 TABLE 13 Failure Strengths of AN Monolithic

2
and LAG at Room Temperature*
1
AN LAG
0 Interlayer Thickness
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Lateral Pressure (psi) Unit (inches) AN Monolithic 0.030 in. 0.090 in.
60 x 96 x 1/4 63 psf 76 psf 144 psf
38 x 76 x 1/4 137 psf 135 psf 191 psf
FIGURE 19b Maximum Deflection 66 x 66 x 1/4 107 psf 111 psf 141 psf

* LAG specimens were loaded to failure at the same loading rate as

comparable monolithic glass specimens. Test temperatures 75˚F.
1.5
Maximum Deflection (in.)

Layered
(theoretical)
TABLE 14 Failure Strengths of AN Monolithic
and LAG as a Function of Temperature*
1.0 Laminated (0.060")
Laminated (0.030")
Monolithic
AN LAG
(theoretical)
Degrees F
Unit (inches)** AN Monolithic 75 120 170
0.5
38 x 76 x 1/4 137 psf 135 psf 120 psf 101 psf
Total Glass Thickness Is Equal
for All Cases 60 x 96 x 1/4 63 psf 76 psf – 46 psf

** LAG specimens were loaded to failure at the same loading rate

0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 as comparable monolithic glass specimens
Lateral Pressure (psi) ** LAG interlayer thickness 0.030 in.

31
 Laminated Glass Behavior
TABLE 15 Failure Strengths of AN, HS and FT LAG*
Unit (inches)** AN LAG HS LAG FT LAG
38 x 76 x 1/4 135 psf 426 psf + 691 psf ++
* LAG specimens were loaded to failure at room temperature and at
the same loading rate.
** LAG interlayer thickness 0.030 in.
+ Average surface compression was 7,700 lbs./sq. in.
++ Average surface compression 13,000 lbs./sq. in.
IMPACT STRENGTH
Field evaluations of windborne debris in hurricanes,
typhoons and other extreme windstorms have defined
the nature of objects that may impact architectural glaz-
ing. These definitions of windborne debris have been
codified in standards and building codes. Impacting
objects have been placed into two categories: large mis-
siles and small missiles. The class of large missiles is rep-
resented by 2x4 timbers of several weights impacting at
several velocities. The class of small missiles is repre-
sented by roof gravel and is portrayed in tests by steel
balls weighing 2 gm or hard rocks of comparable
weight. Background information on the evolution of
missile impact criteria is contained in Section 4.
Large missile impacts will break both plies of LAG. The
attributes of LAG that make it valuable under this type
of impact are its ability to resist penetration and its
tendency to remain in the opening following breakage.
LAG with 0.090 inch and thicker interlayers that is
secured in the frame with a silicone anchor seal or
high adhesion glazing tape can preserve the integrity
of the building envelope under these impact conditions.
All designs for large missile impact should be tested to
impact criteria similar to those outlined in ASTM
E1886-97, TDI 1-98 or SSTD12-97 to ensure suitable
performance.
32
3
Small missile impacts may break both plies or only the
outer ply of LAG. If both plies are broken, a silicone
anchor seal or high adhesion glazing tape will assist in
retaining the broken unit within its frame during subse-
quent wind gusts. In many small missile impact envi-
ronments, however, the small missile will break only the
outer ply, leaving the inner ply intact with an ability to
resist subsequent wind gusts. If the interlayer is rela-
tively thick and the glass plies are heat treated, the
probability of breakage of the inner ply under specified
impact conditions can be very low (Table 16, Reference
3.6). This concept provides a basis for designs in which
the outer ply is “sacrificed” to small missile impacts and
the inner ply is able to carry design wind pressures. In
these designs, the silicone anchor seal or high adhesion
tape is not required, although it may be prudent to
include one or the other for structural redundancy.
Standard glazing practices are sufficient for LAG perfor-
mance for small missile impact if the sacrificial ply
concept is employed.
TABLE 16 LAG Breakage Rates as a Function of
Interlayer Thickness and Heat Treatment
Inner Ply Breakage Rates for 2 gm
Missile Impacting at 80 MPH (117 fps)
Laminated Glass Interlayer Breakage
Construction* Thickness Rate (%)
3/8 HS 0.030 in. 54.0
7/16 AN 0.060 in. 5.4
7/16 HS 0.060 in. 4.2
7/16 FT 0.060 in. 0.7
* All units have 2 plies of 3/16 in. glass.
 4

s ection
Windborne Debris
The sustained, turbulent winds in hurricanes, typhoons
FIGURE 20 Houston, Texas – Hurricane Alicia
and other extreme windstorms carry large amounts of
debris onto building facades, breaking windows and
subjecting the building interior to internal pressures,
wind and rain. Concerns with occupant safety and with
large insured losses to buildings have prompted changes
to building codes in the U.S. The South Florida Building
Code mandates protection of windows from windborne
debris. Provisions in ASCE 7-98 and the 1996 BOCA
National Building Code require special designs for
glazed openings in order to protect the building envelope
from being breached during hurricanes or the building
must be designed for the effects of full internal pressure.

This section of the Guide summarizes experiences that

fostered the new design requirements, describes the hur-
ricane (typhoon) environment, outlines the new impact
criteria and describes new products that have been
developed to protect buildings from windborne debris
(Reference 4.1).

WINDSTORM EXPERIENCES
Architectural glazing in several tall buildings in Houston,
Texas, was broken by windborne debris generated by
Hurricane Alicia (see Figure 20). Hurricane Andrew
FIGURE 21 Miami, Florida – Hurricane Andrew
damaged facades in several major buildings in south
Florida (see Figure 21). Failures of cladding systems
during hurricanes result in damage to buildings, loss
of building contents, interruption of business, hazards
to people and marred images for buildings that have
sustained damage. Events over a 25-year period during
which architectural glazing in buildings was broken
during hurricanes are summarized in Reference 4.2.
Experiences with architectural glazing in Hurricane
Andrew are summarized in Reference 4.3.

33
 Windborne Debris
HURRICANES AND TYPHOONS sustained winds and can impact all elevations on a
building. Following impact, the building can be buffeted
The effects of winds in hurricanes and typhoons are
by sustained and cyclic wind pressures for hours before
especially harsh (Reference 4.4). Turbulent winds can
the storm moves away. Prior to 1992 this severe envi-
affect a building for hours. These winds change slowly
ronment had not been recognized by building designers,
in direction as the storm approaches and passes over
building officials and glazing product manufacturers in
a building (see Figure 22). Debris can be progressively
the United States.
dislodged from adjacent structures, accelerated by

FIGURE 22 Hurricane/Typhoon Wind Field (a building at Point A will experience winds changing in direction from
N to SE as the hurricane travels right to left)

Point A North

Eye Wall

Wind Paths

34
 4
THE NATURE OF WINDBORNE DEBRIS THE BUILDING ENVELOPE
In extensive wind damage surveys conducted through- The building envelope must remain integral during
out the 1970s, a pattern became apparent that proved to windstorms. Breaching of the building envelope
be common to all types of extreme wind events. Small produces several harmful effects: internal pressure,
debris, principally roof gravel, can be carried into all ele- exposure of occupants to wind and rain, damage to
vations of building facades at velocities sufficiently large building contents, additional debris in the wind stream,
to break glass. Large debris, including framing timbers hazardous debris falling to the street, disrupted business,
and roofing materials, can impact the building envelope and a blemished image of the building. Windborne
near ground level with sufficient force to penetrate wall debris has been established as a principal cause for the
coverings and break windows (Reference 4.5). Research breaching of the building envelope during hurricanes.
has defined the nature of both small and large debris in Failure of windward wall cladding (windows and wall
windstorms. coverings) or doors leads to an increase in pressure
inside the building and can produce failure of the prin-
Small Missiles – An analysis of the window damaging
cipal structural frame. As shown in Figure 23, internal
mechanism during windstorms in urban areas identified
pressures can effectively double forces acting to lift the
roof gravel as the principal form of small debris that
roof and push side and leeward walls outward. Insured
causes damage to windows in the upper floors of high-
losses in both residential and commercial buildings are
rise buildings (Reference 4.6). Field surveys of typical
increased significantly when the building envelope is
built-up roofs (conventional “tar and gravel”) estab-
breached (Reference 4.11).
lished the average roof gravel size as 0.6 gm, and an
average large size of roof gravel as 5 gm. The SFBC, SSTD
12-97, ASTM E1886-97 and TDI 1-98 have adopted 2 gm FIGURE 23 Breaching of the Building Envelope
as the standard size small missile. Doubles Forces
Large Missiles – In investigations of tornadoes, it was
concluded that the most prevalent type of windborne
debris in residential areas is timber from wood frame
houses (Reference 4.7). Individual timbers were observed
to have broken windows, penetrated walls and roofs,
and been impaled in the ground. Additional windborne
timbers were attached together as parts of failed roofing
systems, timber trusses and timber walls. These observa-
tions led to the selection of a 2 x 4 timber weighing
7 kg (15 pounds) as a representative object for use in
defining impact criteria for tornado shelters in schools
and residences (Reference 4.8). A 2 x 4 timber, 3.7 m
(12 feet) in length, and travelling at 1/2 of the design
wind speed was advanced as one of three “large” objects
recommended for use in the design of lower elevation
cladding on urban buildings (Reference 4.9). This recom-
mendation was based upon research being conducted by
the nuclear industry on missile impact speeds in torna-
does and other extreme windstorms. A list of large mis-
siles for use in design is contained in Department of
Energy Standard DOE-STD-1020-94 (Reference 4.10).
The SFBC, SSTD 12-97, TDI 1-98 and ASTM E1886-97
have adopted a 2 x 4 timber as the standard large missile.

35
 Windborne Debris
POST-BREAKAGE BEHAVIOR
The post-breakage behavior of architectural glazing in
urban high-rise buildings is important for two reasons.
First, hazards to people on urban streets establishes the
importance of keeping broken particles of glass within
the window opening should breakage occur. Second, the
importance of preserving the integrity of the building
envelope reinforces the benefit of keeping broken glass
in the opening should debris induced breakage occur.
Laminated architectural glass offers opportunities to
achieve both objectives (keeping particles within the
opening and preserving the integrity of the building
envelope) following breakage.
TEST PROTOCOLS
Understandings of the hurricane environment, and the
concerns with public safety and property protection dis-
cussed above, have produced test protocols for cladding
designs. These protocols use missile impact, followed by
application of a pressure spectrum, as a basis for qualify-
ing architectural glazing system designs for hurricanes
and typhoons. A test was devised for non hurricane
prone regions in which roof gravel weighing 2 gm is
propelled onto the window at a speed equal to the
design wind speed for a specific building (Reference
4.12). Following multiple impacts, the window system is
subjected to a sequence of pressure cycles to test its abil-
ity to remain in the opening following breakage. This
precedent led to similar test protocols that are employed
in SBCCI Standard SSTD 12-97, the two editions of the
South Florida Building Code, ASTM E1886-97 and TDI
1-98 (see Table 17).

TABLE 17 Typical Standard for Windborne Debris Impact Tests

Large Missile Impact Test
(for windows, doors, skylights, glazing and
shutters between grade and 30’ [=9.1m]
above grade)
Three identical test specimens
Missile is 2" x 4" timber weighing 9 lbs. (= 4.1 kg)
Two impact points at 50 ft./sec.: one at center, one within 6" (=15.2 cm) of a corner.
All three specimens must survive impacts without penetration before proceeding to
cyclic pressure loading.

Small Missile Impact Test Three identical test specimens

(for windows, doors, skylights, glazing and Missile is steel ball or roof gravel weighing 2 g (= 0.07 ounces).
shutters above grade and 30’ [=9.1m] 30 small missile impacts at 130 ft./sec.: 10 at center, 10 near long edge, 10 near corner.
above grade) All three specimens must survive impacts without penetration before proceeding to
cyclic pressure loading.

Followed by:
Cyclic Pressure Inward-Acting Pressure Outward-Acting Pressure
(applied to all three specimens following Range Cycles Range Cycles
large or small missile impact tests: duration
of each cycle is 1-3 seconds; all inward-acting 0.2Pmax-0.5Pmax 3,500 0.3Pmax-1.0Pmax 50
0.0Pmax-0.6Pmax 300 0.5Pmax-0.8Pmax 1,050
pressure cycles are applied first, followed by
0.5Pmax-0.8Pmax 600 0.0Pmax-0.6Pmax 50
outward-acting cycles)
0.3Pmax-1.0Pmax 100 0.2Pmax-0.5Pmax 3,350

Pmax is design wind pressure (inward and outward) from the building code, based
on an unbreached building envelope.

Pass/Fail Criteria All three specimens must survive the missile impacts without penetration. If no tear
or crack longer than 5" (=12.7 cm), or no opening through which a 3" (=7.6 cm) sphere
can pass, has formed in any of the three specimens upon completion of the pressure
cycles, they are deemed to have passed the test.

36
 4
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FIGURE 25 Sacrificial Ply LAG
The glazing, door and shutter industries have developed
new glazing products, cladding system designs, and
external protective devices (shutters) in response to the
new code requirements and test criteria. Two principal
design concepts that use LAG have evolved:
Gasket
Silicone Anchored LAG - LAG is anchored to the win- Saflex
dow frame with a silicone “seal.” In this concept, the Sacrificial Outer Ply
glass (both plies) can break, under missile impact, yet (AN, HS, FT, CT)
Heat Strengthened
remain integral and within the frame during pressure Laminated Glass or Fully Tempered
cycles that represent wind gusts following breakage with Saflex Inner Ply
(Figure 24). Interlayer
Sacrificial Ply - LAG can reject small missile impacts
(e.g., roof gravel) using a “sacrificial ply” principle. The
outer ply is allowed to break while the inner ply carries
the design wind load (Figure 25).

LAMINATED ARCHITECTURAL GLASS

FIGURE 24 Silicone Anchored LAG The demands of wind and impact resistant construction
have identified LAG as the product of choice for these
applications. Not only is LAG equivalent in strength
to monolithic glass of the same nominal thickness,
but also it accepts breakage through missile impact
in ways which tend to retain it in the opening. Techno-
logical advancements in the design of architectural glaz-
ing for extreme wind, earthquake, and other hazardous
design environments also continue to highlight LAG
Shim as the product of choice for passive building envelope
Structural protection.
Laminated Glass with
Saflex PVB Interlayer

Gasket
Pressure Plate
Cover

37
 Closure
SUMMARY
The Design Guide to the Structural Performance of
Laminated Architectural Glass (the Guide) is a state-of-the-
art presentation. The Guide contains three major contri-
butions to design practice:
1 a simple approach to the selection of glass thick-
ness under wind and snow loads that applies to
most design conditions involving architectural
glazing (Section 1, Simple Design Procedure),
2 procedures for the design of architectural glazing
systems for impacts from windborne debris in hur-
ricane (typhoon) and non-hurricane applications
(Section 1, Designs for Windborne Debris), and
THE FUTURE
There is a clear trend in the current construction
environment toward preservation of the building
envelope and the prevention of glass particle fallout
from architectural glazing systems should breakage
occur (Reference 4.13). Further, there is a growing
recognition of the value of “passive” components in
the building envelope that can perform in the face of
severe environments (windstorms, earthquakes, man-
made hazards) without special preparation. Additional
research, technological advancements and product
development such as structural glazing applications
continue to highlight LAG as the product of choice
for passive building envelope protection.

3 a basis for the use of LAG in wind, snow, and

impact resistant designs that recognizes the
fundamental strengths and attributes of this
glazing product.

Further, the Guide embraces the latest technology from

ASTM E1300-97, recently completed research, and
national standards and building codes to provide the
designer with guidance, tools and technology to opti-
mize designs of architectural glazing with regard to
strength, economy and performance.

38
 Appendix
CHARTS A.1-A.12 GLASS THICKNESS SELECTION CHARTS

CHART A.1 2.5 mm (3/32 in.) Glass CHART A.4 4.0 mm (5/32 in.) Glass
Length (in.) Length (in.)
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
1 55 1
= = 80
1,500 AR 2,000 AR
0.5 (10) 50 kPa (psf) 0.75 (16)
70
kPa (psf) =2 45 1.0 (21) 2
AR A R= 60
0.75 (16)

Width (mm)
40 1,500

Width (in.)
1.25 (26)
Width (mm)

Width (in.)
1,000 1.0 (21) 35 1.5 (31) 50
1.25 (28) 3 30 2.0 (42) 3
1.5 (31) AR = AR = 40
1,000 2.5 (52)
25
2.0 (42)
AR =
4 AR = 4
2.5 (52) 20 30
500 AR = 5 AR = 5
15 20
500
10
10
5
0 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 0
0 0
500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500
Length (mm) Length (mm)

CHART A.2 2.7 mm Glass CHART A.5 5.0 mm (3/16 in.) Glass
Length (in.) Length (in.)
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
1
=1

70 = 90
0.5 (10) AR
AR

0.75 (16)
kPa (psf) 80
kPa (psf) 2,000
1,500 60
2 1.0 (31)
0.75 (16) R= 70
A 2
1.25 (26) AR =
Width (mm)

Width (mm)

50
Width (in.)

Width (in.)
1.0 (21) 1,500 60
1.5 (31)
1.25 (26) 3
1,000 AR = 40 2.0 (42) 50
1.5 (31) 3
2.5 (52) AR =
2.0 (42) 1,000 3.0 (63) 40
2.5 (52) AR = 4 30 AR = 4
5
AR = 30
500 AR = 5
20
500 20
10 10

0 0 0 0
500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500
Length (mm) Length (mm)

CHART A.3 3.0 mm (1/8 in.) Glass CHART A.6 6.0 mm (1/4 in.) Glass
Length (in.) Length (in.)
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
1 1
= =
0.75 (16) AR AR
1,500 kPa (psf) 60 2,500 kPa (psf) 0.75 (16)
100
1.0 (21) 2 1.0 (21) 2
A R= 50 A R=
1.25 (26) 2,000
Width (mm)

Width (mm)

1.25 (26)
Width (in.)

Width (in.)

1.5 (31) 75
1,000 40 1.5 (31)
3
2.0 (42) 3 1,500 AR =
2.5 (52) AR = 2.0 (42)
30 2.5 (52) AR = 4 50
AR = 4 3.0 (63)
AR = 5 1,000 4.0 (84) AR = 5
500 20
25
10 500

0 0 0 0
500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 39 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500 5,000

Length (mm) Length (mm)

 Appendix
CHART A.7 8.0 mm (5/16 in.) Glass CHART A.10 16.0 mm (5/8 in.) Glass
Length (in.) Length (in.)
50 75 100 125 150 175 200 4,000 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
3,000 1 150
= =1
kPa (psf) 1.0 (21) AR 3,500 kPa (psf) 1.5 (31) AR
2,500 100
1.25 (26) 125
2 3,000
A R= 2.0 (42)
Width (mm)

Width (mm)
1.5 (31)

Width (in.)

Width (in.)
2,000
75 2.5 (52)
2.0 (42) 2,500 2 100
3 3.0 (63) AR =
1,500 2.5 (52) AR =
3.0 (63) 2,000 4.0 (84)
4.0 (84) AR = 4 50 5.0 (104) 75
3
1,000 AR = 5 1,500
7.0 (146) AR =

500
25 AR = 4 50
1,000
AR = 5

0 0 500 25
1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500 5,000 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500 5,000

Length (mm) Length (mm)

CHART A.8 10.0 mm (3/8 in.) Glass CHART A.11 19.0 mm (3/4 in.) Glass
Length (in.) Length (in.)
50 75 100 125 150 175 4,000 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
1
3,000
1.0 (21) A R= 125
=1
150
kPa (psf) 3,500 kPa (psf) AR
1.25 (26) 2.0 (42)
2,500
100 125
1.5 (31) 3,000 2.5 (52)
=2
Width (mm)

Width (mm)

AR
Width (in.)

Width (in.)
2,000 3.0 (63)
2.0 (42) 2,500 2 100
75 4.0 (84) AR =
2.5 (52)
1,500 3.0 (63) 3 5.0 (104)
4.0 (84) AR = 2,000
7.0 (146) 75
AR = 4 50 10.0 (209) 3
1,000 AR =
AR = 5 1,500

25 AR = 4 50
500 1,000 AR = 5

0 0 500 25
1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500 5,000

Length (mm) Length (mm)

CHART A.9 12.0 mm (1/2 in.) Glass CHART A.12 22.0 mm (7/8 in.) Glass
Length (in.) Length (in.)
50 75 100 125 150 175 200 4,000 75 100 125 150 175 200
4,000 1 150 1 150
1.0 (21) A R= A R=
kPa (psf) 3,500 kPa (psf) 2.5 (52)
3,500
1.25 (26) 125 3.0 (63) 125
3,000
Width (mm)

Width (mm)

3,000
Width (in.)

Width (in.)

1.5 (31) 4.0 (84)

100 2,500 5.0 (104) 2 100
2,500 2.0 (42) AR =
2 AR =
2.5 (52) 7.0 (146)
2,000
2,000 3.0 (63) 75 10.0 (209) 75
3
4.0 (84) AR = 1,500 AR =
3
1,500 5.0 (104)
7.0 (146)
AR = 4 50 AR = 4 50
1,000
AR = 5
1,000 AR = 5

500 25 500 25
1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500 5,000

Length (mm) Length (mm)

40
CHARTS A.13a-A.13i DEFLECTIONS IN GLASS PLATES

CHART A.13a 3.0 mm (1/8 in.) Glass CHART A.13d 8.0 mm (5/16 in.) Glass
Width (in.) Width (in.)
12 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 550.50 27 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
25 1.00
12
23
10 0.40 20 0.80
Center Deflection (mm)

Center Deflection (mm)

10 psf (0.5 kPa) 18 20 psf (1 kPa)

Center Deflection (in.)

Center Deflection (in.)

8 20 psf (1 kPa) 0.30 40 psf (2 kPa)
16
40 psf (2 kPa) 80 psf (4 kPa) 0.60
14
6 0.50
12
5 0.20
10 0.40
4 0.15 0.35
10 psf (0.5 kPa) 8 20 psf (1 kPa)
3 20 psf (1 kPa) 40 psf (2 kPa) 0.30
40 psf (2 kPa) 80 psf (4 kPa)
0.10 0.25
6
2 0.20
Aspect Ratio 1 Aspect Ratio 1
0.07
Aspect Ratio 2 4 Aspect Ratio 2
1.5
0.15
0.05
305 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000 1,200 1,390 690 800 900 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,200 2,665

Width (mm) Width (mm)

CHART A.13b 5.0 mm (3/16 in.) Glass CHART A.13e 10.0 mm (3/8 in.) Glass
Width (in.) Width (in.)
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 32 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 80 90 100 110
16 25 1.00
0.60 23
14 0.90
0.50 20 0.80
12
Center Deflection (mm)

Center Deflection (mm)

10 psf (0.5 kPa) 20 psf (1 kPa)

Center Deflection (in.)

Center Deflection (in.)

18 0.70
20 psf (1 kPa) 40 psf (2 kPa)
10 40 psf (2 kPa) 0.40 16 80 psf (4 kPa) 0.60
0.35 14
8 0.50
0.30 12
0.25 10 0.40
6
10 psf (0.5 kPa) 20 psf (1 kPa) 0.35
20 psf (1 kPa) 0.20 8 40 psf (2 kPa)
40 psf (2 kPa) 80 psf (4 kPa) 0.30
4 0.15 0.25
6
Aspect Ratio 1 Aspect Ratio 1
3 5 0.20
Aspect Ratio 2 Aspect Ratio 2
2.5 0.10
4 0.15
510 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,030 815 900 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,200 2,600 2,920

Width (mm) Width (mm)

CHART A.13c 6.0 mm (1/4 in.) Glass CHART A.13f 12.0 mm (1/2 in.) Glass
Width (in.) Width (in.)
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 42 45 50 55 60 65 70 80 90 100 120 135
20 0.8 25 1.0
18 0.7
22
16 0.6 0.8
20
Center Deflection (mm)

Center Deflection (mm)

20 psf (1 kPa) 20 psf (1 kPa)

Center Deflection (in.)

Center Deflection (in.)

14
40 psf (2 kPa) 0.5 18 40 psf (2 kPa) 0.7
12 80 psf (4 kPa) 80 psf (4 kPa)
16
0.4 0.6
10
14
8 0.5
0.3 12

6 20 psf (1 kPa) 10 20 psf (1 kPa) 0.4

40 psf (2 kPa) 40 psf (2 kPa)
80 psf (4 kPa) 0.2 9 80 psf (4 kPa)
8
0.3
4 Aspect Ratio 1 7 Aspect Ratio 1
Aspect Ratio 2 6 Aspect Ratio 2
3 5.5
0 0.2
510 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,030 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,420

Width (mm) Width (mm)

41
 Appendix
CHART A.13g 16.0 mm (5/8 in.) Glass CHART A.13i 22.0 mm (7/8 in.) Glass
Width (in.) Width (in.)
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 100 110 120 130 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 110 120 130 140
25 1.0 25 1.00
23 24 095
21 23 0.90
0.8 22
Center Deflection (mm)

Center Deflection (mm)

20 40 psf (2 kPa) 60 psf (3 kPa)

Center Deflection (in.)

Center Deflection (in.)

19 21 0.85
40 psf (4 kPa) 0.7 100 psf (5 kPa)
18 140 psf (7 kPa) 20 160 psf (8 kPa) 0.80
17 19 0.75
16 0.6
15 18 0.70
14 0.5 17
13 0.65
16
12 0.60
40 psf (2 kPa) 0.4 15
11 40 psf (4 kPa) 60 psf (3 kPa)
10 140 psf (7 kPa) 14 100 psf (5 kPa) 0.55
13 160 psf (8 kPa)
9 0.3 0.50
8 Aspect Ratio 1 12 Aspect Ratio 1
Aspect Ratio 2 Aspect Ratio 2 0.45
7 11
0.25 0.40
1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000 2,200 2,400 2,800 3,300 1,700 1,800 2,000 2,200 2,400 2,600 2,800 3,000 3,300 3,600

Width (mm) Width (mm)

CHART A.13h 19.0 mm (3/4 in.) Glass

Width (in.)
60 65 70 75 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
25 1.00
24
0.90
22
Center Deflection (mm)

40 psf (2 kPa)
Center Deflection (in.)

20 80 psf (4 kPa) 0.80

140 psf (7 kPa)
18 0.70

16
0.60
14 40 psf (2 kPa)
80 psf (4 kPa)
140 psf (7 kPa) 0.50
12
0.45
Aspect Ratio 1
10 Aspect Ratio 2 0.40
9 0.35
1,475 1,600 1,800 2,000 2,200 2,400 2,600 2,800 3,000 3,300 3,600

Width (mm)

42
 TABLE A.14 Load Sharing in Asymmetrical IG Units
Least dimension of lite % of Applied Load Carried by Loaded Lite
÷
thickness of loaded lite Thickness of unloaded lite ÷ thickness of loaded lite (t U /t L )
(W/t L) 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
60 93 92 88 86 84 84 68 68 68
80 92 88 81 76 71 71 54 54 54
100 90 85 73 63 58 58 35 35 35
120 88 82 68 58 48 43 28 25 22
140 86 81 67 54 44 37 25 21 18
160 85 80 66 52 42 32 23 20 15
>160 80 75 63 50 38 28 23 18 14

Note: Percentages are for spacer dimension to loaded plate thickness ratio (S/tL) of 2.0 or larger (source: Reference 1.2).

TABLE A.15 Thickness Designations for TABLE A.16 Equivalent Monolithic Glass Thickness
Laminated Glass for Laminated Glass Under Long-Term
Designation, mm Traditional Designation Nominal Decimal, in. Load at Room Temperature (75˚F, 24˚C)
1.0 Micro-Slide 0.04 Laminated Glass Equivalent Monolithic
1.5 Photo 0.06 Thickness Glass Thickness
2.0 Picture 0.08 3/16 in. (5 mm) 5/32 in. (4 mm)

2.5 Single 0.09 1/4 in. (6 mm)* 3/16 in. (5 mm)

2.7 Lami 0.11 5/16 in. (8 mm)** 1/4 in. (6 mm)

3.0 Double – 1/8" 0.12 3/8 in. (10 mm)*** 5/16 in. (8 mm)
7/16 in. (11 mm)***
5.0 3/16" 0.19
1/2 in. (12 mm) 3/8 in. (10 mm)
5.5 7/32" 0.21
9/16 in. (13 mm)
6.0 1/4" 0.23
5/8 in. (16 mm) 1/2 in. (12 mm)
8.0 5/16" 0.32
3/4 in. (19 mm) 1/2 in. (12 mm)
10.0 3/8" 0.39
12.0 1/2" 0.49 * If least dimension (W) > 80 in. (2030 mm), use 1/4 in. (6 mm)
** If least dimension (W) > 90 in. (2290 mm), use 5/16 in. (8 mm)
16.0 5/8" 0.63
*** If least dimension (W) > 100 in. (2540 mm), use 3/8 in. (10 mm)
19.0 3/4" 0.75
22.0 7/8" 0.87
25.0 1.0" 1.00

43
 Appendix
ABBREVIATIONS SYMBOLS
AAMA American Architectural Manufacturers Association b short dimension of glass lite (in ASTM E1300-97)
AN Annealed glass E experiment
ANSI American National Standards Institute ft feet
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers ft/sec, fps feet per second
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials GCpi pressure coefficient (in ASCE 7-98)
AR Aspect ratio (in ASTM E1300-97) gm gram
BOCA Building Officials and Code Administrators, H long dimension of glass lite (H=L)
International, Inc. H/W Height/width
CGI Construction Glazing Inc. Kip 1000 pounds
CPSC Consumer Product Safety Commission kPa kilopascals
CT Chemically Tempered Glass ksi Kips per square inch
DOE Department of Energy L long dimension of glass lite
FT Fully tempered glass LtL load on loaded lite (IG)
GT Glass type factor LuL load on unloaded lite (IG)
HS Heat strengthened lbs/ft 2
pounds per square foot (also psf)
IG Insulating glass mm millimeters
LAG Laminated architectural glass mph miles per hour
PVB Polyvinyl butyral N North
PET Polyethylene terephthalate P wind or snow load in psf or kPa
SBCCI Southern Building Code Congress, International psf pounds per square foot (also lbs/ft2)
SFBC South Florida Building Code psi pounds per square inch
TDI Texas Department of Insurance SE Southeast
sec second
sq ft, ft square feet
2

T theory
t glass thickness
tL thickness of loaded lite (IG)
tU thickness of lite opposite loaded lite (IG)
U unsupported span
W short dimension of glass lite
wk week
in., " inches

1,
2 principal stresses
% percent
˚F degrees Fahrenheit

44
GLOSSARY
annealed glass (AN) glass which has been cooled slowly
to eliminate residual stresses
aspect ratio the ratio between the largest opening dimension
and the smallest opening dimension
asymmetrical IG unit an insulating glass (IG) unit which has
lites of unequal thickness and/or different heat
treatment
atrium an open space within a building, usually having a
glass roof
bending behavior glass lites which act principally in bending
when under load
building codes documents which prescribe acceptable
building practices
compression ply the ply which is placed in compression by
applied load (same side of lite with larger load)
dead load the weight of the glazing product itself
deflection the displacement in a glass lite which is
under load
design pressure(s) the pressure associated with dead, wind
and/or snow loads used in the design of glass
products
destructive tests tests to failure to obtain glass lite strengths
facade the curtain wall or other building envelope
fully tempered glass (FT) heat treated glass which has a high
level of temper (ASTM C1048-85)
glazing glass or glasslike material installed on a building as
a facade, skylight, etc.
heat strengthened glass (HS) heat treated glass which contains
an intermediate level of temper (ASTM C1048-85)
heat treatment the tempering process in which heat is used
to increase the strength of annealed (AN) glass
human impact load the force used in the safety glazing
standards (CPSC16 CFR1201 and ANSI Z97.1-1984)
to represent a human hitting a glass lite
human loads the weight of a human acting on a glass product
impact loads the force of humans, windborne debris, hail
and other objects which may strike glass products
insulating glass (IG) two glass lites separated and joined by a
perimeter spacer which seals the enclosed airspace
interlayer the plastic (polyvinyl butyral) material used to
bond the lites of laminated glass (e.g., Saflex ® to resist the effects of wind
interlayer by Solutia)
interlayer thickness the thickness of the plastic interlayer
45
laminated glass two plies of glass bonded together with
a PVB interlayer (e.g., Saflex® interlayer)
“layered” glass two plies of glass in contact with each other
in which there is no interlayer or in which the
interlayer is considered not to be contributing to
the load carrying capacity of the lite
lite a single piece of glass, monolithic or laminated
load duration factor a factor which accounts for the time
dependent strength of glass
load sharing the proportioning of design pressures between
lites in an insulating glass (IG) unit
membrane behavior glass lites which act principally as
membranes when under load
missile impact windborne debris or other objects striking glass
monolithic glass a solid plate of glass
ply (plies) layer(s) of glass in a laminated glass unit
non-destructive tests tests of glass lites to obtain experimental
data (stresses, displacements) without breaking
non-linear a non-proportional relationship between pressure
and deflection or stress
pressure the uniformly distributed load (dead, wind, snow)
which is used in the design of glass products
residual surface compression compressive stresses induced on
the surface of a glass plate by heat treatment processes
skylight a transparent opening in a roof, usually laminated
glass
snow load pressures used in the design of glass products
(usually sloped glazing) to resist the effects of snow
spandrel glass lites on the face of a building between floors,
i.e. between vision lines
static fatigue the phenomenon which defines the time
dependent strength of glass
stress the intensity of forces within a glass lite which is
under load
symmetrical IG unit an insulating glass (IG) unit which has
lites of equal thickness and identical heat treatment
tension ply the ply which is placed in tension by applied load
(opposite side of lite with larger load)
windborne debris objects carried by the wind during a
windstorm, especially hurricanes
wind load pressures used in the design of glass products
 Appendix
REFERENCES
1.1 Standard Practice for Determining the Load Resistance
of Glass in Buildings, ASTM E-1300-97, American
Society for Testing and Materials, West
Conshohocken, PA, 1997.
1.2 Chou, G.D., Minor, J.E., Vallabhan, C.V.G., “The
Structural-Mechanical Behavior of Insulating Glass
Units,” Glass Research and Testing Laboratory,
Texas Tech University (NTIS Acc. No. PB86
124614/AS), Lubbock, TX, July 1986.
1.3 South Florida Building Code, Metropolitan Dade
County, Miami, Florida, adopted December 14,
1993; Broward County, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida,
adopted February 10, 1994.
1.4 SBCCI Test Standard for Determining Impact
Resistance from Windborne Debris, SSTD 12-97,
Southern Building Code Congress, International,
Birmingham, AL, 1997.
1.5 Standard TDI 1-98: Test for Impact and Cyclic Wind
Pressure Resistance of Impact Protective Systems and
Exterior Opening Systems, Appendix E to Building
Code for Windstorm Resistant Construction, 27 TAC
§5.4008, Texas Department of Insurance, Austin,
TX, effective September 1, 1998.
1.6 Standard Test Method for Performance of Exterior
Windows, Curtain Walls, Doors and Storm Shutters
Impacted by Missile(s) and Exposed to Cyclic Pressure
Differentials, ASTM E1886-97, Annual Book of
ASTM Standards, Vol. 04.11, ASTM Inc., West
Conshohocken, PA, 1997.
1.7 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures, ASCE 7-98, American Society of Civil
Engineers, New York, 1995.
1.8 The BOCA National Building Code, Building Officials
and Code Administrators, International, Inc.,
Country Club, IL, 1996.
1.9 Pantelides, C.P., Horst, A.D. and Minor, J.E., “Post
Breakage Behavior of Heat-Strengthened
Laminated Glass under Wind Effects,” Journal
of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 119, No. 2,
February 1993, pp. 454-467.
46
1.10 Behr, R.A. and Belarbi, A., “Seismic Test Methods
for Architectural Glazing Systems,” Earthquake
Spectra, Vol. 12, No. 1, February 1996, pp 129-143.
1.11 Behr, R.A., Belarbi, A., and Brown, A.T., “Seismic
Performance of Architectural Glass in a Storefront
Wall System,” Earthquake Spectra, Vol. 13, No. 3,
August 1995, pp 367-391.
1.12 Safety Performance Specifications and Methods of Test
for Safety Glazing Material Used in Buildings, ANSI
Z97.1-1984, American National Standards
Institute, New York, NY, 1984.
1.13 Safety Standard for Architectural Glazing Materials,
Federal Standard CPSC 16 CFR 1201, 1980.
2.1 Specification for Heat Treated Flat Glass-Kind HS,
Kind FT Coated and Uncoated Glass, ASTM C1048-
92, ASTM, Inc., West Conshohocken, PA, 1992.
2.2 Behr, R.A. and Kremer, P.A., “Performance of
Laminated Glass Units under Simulated Windborne
Debris Impacts,” Journal of Architectural Engineering,
ASCE, Vol.2, No. 3, September 1996, ASCE, Reston,
VA pp. 95-99.
3.1 Behr, R.A., Minor, J.E., and Norville, H.S., “The
Structural Behavior of Architectural Laminated
Glass,” Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE,
Vol. 119, No. 1, January 1993, pp 202-222.
3.2 Behr, R.A., Minor, J.E., Linden, M.P. and
Vallabhan, C.V.G., “Laminated Glass Units Under
Uniform Lateral Pressure,” Journal of Structural
Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 111, No. 5, Proc. Paper
19726, May 1985, pp. 1037-1050.
3.3 Behr, R.A., Minor, J.E. and Linden, M.P., “Load
Duration and Interlayer Thickness Effects on
Laminated Glass,” Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, Vol. 112, No. 6, Proc. Paper 20703, June
1986, pp.1441-1453.
3.4 Minor, J.E. and Reznik, P.L., “Failure Strengths of
Laminated Glass,” Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, Vol. 116, No. 4, Proceeding Paper 24564,
April 1990, pp. 1030-1039.
3.5 King, K.W. and Norville, H.S., “The Effect of 4.8
Interlayer Thickness on Laminated Glass
Strength,” Glass Research and Testing Laboratory,
Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, February 21,
1997, 165 pp.
4.9
3.6 Minor, J.E., “Cladding Designs Must Consider
Local Windstorm Environment,” Proceedings, 67th
Regional Conference (Chicago IL, April 15-18, 1996),
Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat,
4.10
Lehigh University, Lehigh, PA, 1996, pp 341-347.
4.1 Minor, J.E., “Windborne Debris and the Building
Envelope,” Journal of Wind Engineering and
Industrial Aerodynamics, Vol. 53 (1994),
4.11
pp 207-227.
4.2 Minor, J. E. and Behr, R. A., “Architectural Glazing
Systems in Hurricanes: Performance, Design
Criteria and Designs,” Proceedings, the 7th National
Conference on Wind Engineering, (University of
4.12
California, Los Angeles, June 27-30, 1993), UCLA,
Los Angeles, 1993, pp. 453-461.
4.3 Behr, R. A. and Minor, J. E., “A Survey of Glazing
System Behavior in Multi-Story Buildings During
4.13
Hurricane Andrew,” The Structural Design of Tall
Buildings, Vol. 3, 1994, pp. 143-161.
4.4 Minor, J.E., “Window Glass Performance and
Hurricane Effects,” Proceedings, ASCE Specialty
Conference on Hurricane Alicia: One Year Later
(Galveston, TX, August 16-17, 1984), ASCE, New
York, 1985, pp. 151-167.
“Interim Guidelines for Building Occupant
Protection from Tornadoes and Extreme Winds,”
Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, Washington,
DC, 1975.
Minor, J. E., Beason, W. L., and Harris, P.L.,
“Designing for Windborne Missiles in Urban Areas,”
Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 104,
No. ST11, November 1978, pp. 1749-1759.
“Natural Phenomena Hazards Design and
Evaluation Criteria for Department of Energy
Facilities,” DOE-STD-1020-94, U.S. Department of
Energy, Washington, DC, April, 1994.
Sparks, P.R., Schiff, S.D., and Reinhold, T.A., “Wind
Damage to Envelopes of Houses and Consequent
Insurance Losses,” Journal of Wind Engineering
and Industrial Aerodynamics, Vol. 53 (1994),
pp 145-155.
Pantelides, C. P., Horst, A. D., and Minor, J. E.,
“Post-breakage Behavior of Architectural Glazing
in Windstorms,” J. Wind Engin. and Indus. Aerody.,
Vol. 41-44 (1992), pp 2425-2435.
Minor, J.E., “New Philosophy Guides Design of the
Building Envelope,”Proceedings, ASCE Structures
Congress (April 14-16, 1997, Portland, OR), ASCE,
Reston, VA, pp 1-5.

4.5 Minor, J. E. and Mehta, K. C., “Wind Damage

Observations and Implications,” J. Structural Div.,
ASCE, Vol. 105 (1979), pp 2279-2291.

4.6 Minor, J.E., “Window Glass in Windstorms,” Civil

Engineering Report Series CE74-01, Texas Tech
University, Lubbock, TX, May 1974, 168 pp.

4.7 Minor, J. E., McDonald, J. R., and Mehta, K. C.,

“The Tornado: An Engineering Oriented
Perspective,” NOAA Technical Memorandum ERL
NSSL-82, National Weather Service, NOAA,
Washington, DC, 1978 (reprinted as NOAA
Technical Memorandum NWS SR-147, 1993).

47
 Appendix
SPECIFICATION
How to specify Laminated Architectural Glass with
Saflex® interlayer

Following is an example of the recommended procedure

for the specification of laminated architectural glass
with Saflex® interlayer.

Laminated architectural glass consisting of (number)

lites of (type, thickness, treatment) glass with (clear or
color designation) Saflex interlayer by Solutia.

The glass shall meet minimum requirements as specified

in ASTM C1036-85.

For solar control add:

The laminate shall have a visible light transmittance
of (value) % with a shading coefficient of (value) and
a maximum UV energy transmittance of < 1% below
380 nm.

For safety applications add:

The laminate shall comply with CPS 16 CFR 1201,
Category (I or II), Safety Glazing Test Standard and/or
ANSI Z-97.1

For security applications add as appropriate:

The laminate shall meet UL 972 (for burglary resistance)
or UL 752 (for bullet resistance).

For sound control add:

The laminate or the glazing unit shall have an STC,
OITC or Rw rating of (value).

For an insulating glass unit:

The laminate shall be installed as (interior, exterior,
both) lites. (For sloped glazing, laminate should
always be an interior lite.)

48
 Saflex Regional Sales Offices
St. Louis Belgium South America Singapore
P. O. Box 66760 Solutia Europe N.V./S.A. Solutia Brazil Ltda. Solutia Singapore Pte. Ltd.
St. Louis, MO 63166-6760 Rue Laid Burniat, 3 Rua Gomes de Carvalho 101 Thomson Road
tel 314-674-1000 Parc Scientific-Fleming 1306-60 Andar 04547-005 #19-00 United Square
fax 314-674-3439 B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve (Sud) Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil Singapore 307591
Belgium tel 55-11-5087-3000 tel 65-355-7239
tel 32.10.48.12.11 fax 55-11-5087-3030 fax 65-254-3138
fax 32.10.48.12.12

For more information on laminated glass with Saflex

interlayer, visit our Website on the Internet at www.saflex.com
or call (800) 24-TOUGH [800-248-6844].

Notice:Although the information and recommendations set forth herein (hereafter “Information”) are presented in good faith and believed to be correct
as of the date hereof, Solutia Inc. makes no representations or warranties as to the completeness or accuracy thereof. Information is supplied upon the con-
dition that the persons receiving same will make their own determination as to its suitability for their purposes prior to use. In no event will Solutia Inc. be
responsible for damages of any nature whatsoever resulting from the use of or reliance upon Information or the product to which Information refers. Nothing
contained herein is to be construed as a recommendation to use any product, process, equipment or formulation in conflict with any patent, and Solutia
Inc. makes no representation or warranty, express or implied, that the use thereof will not infringe any patent. NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES,
EITHER EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, OR MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR OF ANY OTHER NATURE ARE MADE HEREUNDER WITH
RESPECT TO INFORMATION OR THE PRODUCT TO WHICH INFORMATION REFERS.

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