Lecture 22

The Laws of Thermodynamics

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 Work in Thermodynamic Processes
– State Variables

 State of a system
 Description of the system in terms of state
variables
» Pressure
» Volume
» Temperature (Internal Energy)
 A macroscopic state of an isolated system can be
specified only if the system is in internal thermal
equilibrium

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 Work in Thermodynamic Processes
 Work is an important energy transfer mechanism in
thermodynamic systems
 Heat is another energy transfer mechanism

QuickTime™ and a Animation decompressor are needed to see this picture.

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 Work in a Gas Cylinder
 The gas is contained in a cylinder with a
moveable piston
 The gas occupies a volume V and exerts
pressure P on the walls of the cylinder and
on the piston

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 Work in a Gas Cylinder, cont.

 A force is applied to slowly

compress the gas
 The compression is slow
enough for all the system
to remain essentially in
thermal equilibrium
 W = - P V
 This is the work done on
the gas

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 More about Work on a Gas Cylinder
 When the gas is compressed
 V is negative
 The work done on the gas is positive
 When the gas is allowed to expand
 V is positive
 The work done on the gas is negative
 When the volume remains constant
 No work is done on the gas

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 Notes about the Work Equation
 The pressure remains constant during the expansion or
compression
 This is called an isobaric process
 If the pressure changes, the average pressure may be used
to estimate the work done

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 PV Diagrams
 Used when the pressure
and volume are known at
each step of the process
 The work done on a gas
that takes it from some
initial state to some final
state is the negative of the
area under the curve on
the PV diagram
 This is true whether or
not the pressure stays
constant

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 Lecture 22, Preflight 1
Shown in the picture below are the pressure versus volume graphs for
two thermal processes, in each case moving a system from state A to
state B along the straight line shown. In which case is the work done by
the system the biggest?
1. Case 1 P(atm) P(atm)
2. Case 2
3. Same B A
4 4
correct
A B
2 2
Case 1 Case 2
28% 3 9 V(m3) 3 9 V(m3)
23%

49%

Net Work = area under P-V curve

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
Area the same in both cases!

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 Follow up Question
 A curve on a PV diagram depicts the path taken between
the initial (Pi, Vi) and final (Pf, Vf) states
 Does the work done depends on the particular path taken if
a system moves between the same two states?
 Yes
 No

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 Other Processes
 Isovolumetric
 Volume stays constant
 Vertical line on the PV diagram
 Isothermal
 Temperature stays the same (PV = constant)
 Adiabatic
 No heat is exchanged with the surroundings

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 Processes for Transferring Energy
 By doing work
 Requires a macroscopic displacement of the point of application of
a force
 By heat
 Occurs by random molecular collisions
 Results of both
 Change in internal energy of the system
 Generally accompanied by measurable macroscopic variables
» Pressure
» Temperature
» Volume

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 First Law of Thermodynamics
 Quantities of interest
 Q - Heat
» Positive if energy is transferred to the system
 W - Work
» Positive if done on the system
 U - Internal energy
» Positive if the temperature increases
 The relationship among U, W, and Q can be expressed as
 U = Uf – Ui = Q + W
 This means that the change in internal energy of a system is
equal to the sum of the energy transferred across the system
boundary by heat and the energy transferred by work

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 Lecture 22, Preflight 2
Shown in the picture below are the pressure versus volume graphs for
two thermal processes, in each case moving a system from state A to
state B along the straight line shown. In which case is the change in
internal energy of the system the biggest?
1. Case 1 P(atm) P(atm)
correct
2. Case 2
3. Same B A
4 4
A B
2 2
Case 1 Case 2
33%
3 9 V(m3) 3 9 V(m3)
21%

46%
P1AV1A=2x3=6, P1BV1B=4x9=36, 6 to 36
P2AV2A=4x3=12, P2BV2B=2x9=18, 12 to 18
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
T increase higher in case 1 than in case 2
Therefore, U increases more in case 1 than in case 2
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 Follow up Question
Shown in the picture below are the pressure versus volume graphs for
two thermal processes, in each case moving a system from state A to
state B along the straight line shown. In which case is the heat added
to the system the biggest?
1. Case 1 P(atm) P(atm)
correct
2. Case 2
3. Same B A
4 4
A B
2 2
Case 1 Case 2
3 9 V(m3) 3 9 V(m3)

Q1 = U1 - W
Q2 = U2 - W
W is the same for both, but U1 > U2

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 Applications of the First Law –
Isolated System
 An isolated system does not interact with its surroundings
 No energy transfer takes place and no work is done
 Therefore, the internal energy of the isolated system
remains constant

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 Applications of the First Law –
Cyclic Processes
 A cyclic process is one in which the process originates and
ends at the same state
 Uf = Ui and Q = -W
 The net work done per cycle by the gas is equal to the area
enclosed by the path representing the process on a PV
diagram

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 Cyclic Process in a PV Diagram
 This is an ideal monatomic
gas confined in a cylinder
by a moveable piston
 A to B is an isovolumetric
process which increases
the pressure
 B to C is an isothermal
expansion and lowers the
pressure
 C to A is an isobaric
compression
 The gas returns to its
original state at point A

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 Applications of the First Law –
Isothermal Processes
 Isothermal means constant
temperature
 The cylinder and gas are in
thermal contact with a large
source of energy
 Allow the energy to transfer
into the gas (by heat)
 The gas expands and
pressure falls to maintain a
constant temperature
 The work done is the
negative of the heat added

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 Applications of the First Law –
Adiabatic Process
 Energy transferred by heat is zero
 The work done is equal to the change in the internal energy
of the system
 One way to accomplish a process with no heat exchange is
to have it happen very quickly
 In an adiabatic expansion, the work done is negative and
the internal energy decreases

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 Applications of the First Law –
Isovolumetric Process
 No change in volume, therefore no work is done
 The energy added to the system goes into increasing the
internal energy of the system
 Temperature will increase

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 Additional Notes About the First Law
 The First Law is a general equation of Conservation of
Energy
 There is no practical, macroscopic, distinction between the
results of energy transfer by heat and by work
 Q and W are related to the properties of state for a system

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 The First Law and Human
Metabolism
 The First Law can be applied to living organisms
 The internal energy stored in humans goes into other forms
needed by the organs and into work and heat
 The metabolic rate (U / T) is directly proportional to the
rate of oxygen consumption by volume
 Basal metabolic rate (to maintain and run organs, etc.) is
about 80 W

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 Various Metabolic Rates

Fig. T12.1, p. 369

S lide 11

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 Aerobic Fitness
 One way to measure a person’s
physical fitness is their maximum
capacity to use or consume
oxygen

Fig. T12.2, p. 370

Slide12

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 Efficiency of the Human Body
 Efficiency is the
ratio of the
mechanical power
supplied to the
metabolic rate or
total power input

F ig . T 1 2.3 , p . 3 70
S lid e 13

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 Lecture 22, Preflight 3 & 4
Consider a hypothetical device that takes 1000 J of heat from a hot
reservoir at 300K, ejects 200 J of heat to a cold reservoir at 100K, and
produces 800 J of work.
Does this device violate the first law of thermodynamics ?
1. Yes
2. No
correct

This device doesn't violate the first law of

36% thermodynamics because no energy is being created
nor destroyed. All the energy is conserved.
64%

Pretty Sure
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% Not Quite Sure
Just Guessing

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 Heat Engine
 A heat engine is a device that converts internal energy to
other useful forms, such as electrical or mechanical energy
 A heat engine carries some working substance through a
cyclical process

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 Heat Engine, cont.
 Energy is transferred from a
source at a high temperature
(Qh)
 Work is done by the engine
(Weng)
 Energy is expelled to a source at
a lower temperature (Qc)

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 Heat Engine, cont.
 Since it is a cyclical
process, U = 0
 Its initial and final
internal energies are
the same
 Therefore, Qnet = Weng
 The work done by the
engine equals the net
energy absorbed by the
engine
 The work is equal to the
area enclosed by the
curve of the PV diagram
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 Thermal Efficiency of a Heat Engine
 Thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of the work done
by the engine to the energy absorbed at the higher
temperature

 e = 1 (100% efficiency) only if Qc = 0

 No energy expelled to cold reservoir
Weng Qh  Qc Qc
e   1
Qh Qh Qh

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 Second Law of Thermodynamics

 It is impossible to construct a heat engine that,

operating in a cycle, produces no other effect than
the absorption of energy from a reservoir and the
performance of an equal amount of work
 Kelvin – Planck statement
 Means that Qc cannot equal 0
» Some Qc must be expelled to the environment
 Means that e cannot equal 100%

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 Lecture 22, Preflight 5
Consider a hypothetical device that takes 1000 J of heat from a hot
reservoir at 300K, ejects 200 J of heat to a cold reservoir at 100K, and
produces 800 J of work.
What is the efficiency of this engine ?
1. 80 %
correct
2. 20%
3. 25%

52%

33%

15%
 W (800) = Qhot (1000) - Qcold (200)

0% 20% 40% 60%

 Efficiency = W/Qhot = 800/1000 = 80%

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 Lecture 22, Preflight 6
Consider a hypothetical device that takes 1000 J of heat from a hot
reservoir at 300K, ejects 200 J of heat to a cold reservoir at 100K, and
produces 800 J of work.
Does this device violate the second law of thermodynamics ?
1. Yes
2. No
correct

This device doesn't violate the second law of

36% thermodynamics.

64%

Pretty Sure
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% Not Quite Sure
Just Guessing

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