ENM2104 FORMULA SHEET

P2 V
Signals: y (t ) = A sin(ωt + φ) ω = 2πf Gain(dB) = 10 log10 = 20 log10 2
P1 V1

2 α V2
Noise: vn = 4kTR∆f in = 2qI∆f vn = ⋅
N f

 Psignal 
 Pnoise 
 input F2 − 1 F3 − 1
F= Ftotal = F1 + + + ...
 Psignal  Ap1 Ap1 Ap 2
 P 
 noise  output

Temperature Sesnors: TC = T − 273 ⋅ 15 oC

  1 1  1 ∆R
R = R0 exp B −  R = R0 [1 + α(T − T0 )] α= V = s ∆T
  T T0  R0 ∆T

∆R / RG ∆R / RG ∆ρ / ρ
Strain Gauges: GF = = = 1 + 2ν +
∆L / L ε ∆L / L

σ Fn ∆l
Young’s Modulus: E= σ= ε=
ε A l

shear stress F / A volume stress ∆P

Shear Modulus: S= = Bulk Modulus: B= −
shear strain ∆x / h volume strain ∆V / V

εL E (ε x + νε y ) E (ε y + νε x )
Biaxial stress: ν=− σx = 2
σy =
εa (1 − ν ) (1 − ν 2 )

k 1 ∆L IB
F = − kx ω= F = mg = ma α= VH =
m L0 ∆T qnt

V fs ln( x)  S
Resolution = n
C = 2 B log 2 M log 2 ( x) = C = B log 2 1 +  bps
2 −1 ln(2)  N

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Data Analysis:
S x S S
xm = x ± ∆x (c%) =   = m 
N σ  N m N

Sx x −µ
∆x = t α / 2,ν t= α =1− c ν = n −1
n Sx / n

Population Statistics: Sample Statistics:

1/ 2 1/ 2
1 n 1 n 2 1 n  1 n 2
µ = ∑ xi σ x =  ∑ xi − x  ( ) x = ∑ xi Sx =  ∑ (
xi − x  )
n i=1  n i=1  n i =1  n − 1 i =1 

Op-Amps:

OL
Z OUT RI
= (1 + AOL B )Z IN
CL OL CL
Non-Inverting: Z IN and Z OUT = where B=
1 + AOL B RI + RF

RF  A 
Inverting: Z IN
CL
= RI + || Z IN
OL
Z OUT
CL
=  OL  RF || Z OUT
OL

1+ AOL  1 + AOL 

DC and AC Circuits:

dQ ∆Q ρl l
i≡ I av = J = nqυd = qnµξ = σξ σ = qµn R= =
dt ∆t A σA

dV
(
I = I S e qV / kT − 1 ) I = JA = qnυA V = IR ξ=−
dx

V2 Q εoεr A di
P = VI Watts P = I 2R = C= C= VL = − L
R V d dt

1 T 1 T
υ(t ) = V p sin(ωt + φ) Vrms =
T ∫0
υ(t ) 2 dt Vav =
T ∫0
υ(t )dt

1  1  2
fo = φ = tan −1   Z = R 2 + XC
2πRC  ωCR 

Rotating Shafts:

Torque: τ = r × F = rF sin φ Maximum shear stress: σmax = τR0 / J

τ
Maximum strain: ε = 3
Shaft power: PS = ωτ (Watts) J = πR02/2
πSR0

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Dynamic Response:

dny d2y dy
an n
+ ... + a 2 2
+ a1 + a 0 y = F (t ) ξ = ς ςC
dt dt dt

F (t < 0) = 0
Step Input: Sine (Harmonic) Input: F (t ) = F0 sin (ωt )
F (t ≥ 0) = F0

Zero-Order System:
1
a0 y = F (t ) y= F (t ) = K ⋅ F (t ) K = 1 a0
a0

First-Order System:

dy dy a1 dy
a1 + a0 y = F (t ) or τ + y = KF (t ) where τ= e.g. ς + ky = F (t )
dt dt a0 dt

  t 
Step Input: y (t ) = KF0 1 − exp − 
  τ 

 t KF0
Sine Input: y (t ) = C exp −  + sin (ωτ + φ) where φ = − tan −1 (ωτ )
 τ 1 +(ωτ )2

Second-Order System:
d2y dy a0 a1
a 2 2 + a1 + a 0 y = F (t ) ωn = ς= ω p = ωn 1 − ξ 2
dt dt a2 2 a0 a 2

d2y dy
e.g. m 2
+ ς + ky = F (t )
dt dt

Step Input:
 ς 
y (t ) = KF0 − KF0 exp(− ξω n t ) sin (ω p t ) + cos(ω p t ) 0 ≤ ξ <1
 1 − ξ 2 

y (t ) = KF0 − KF0 (1 + ω n t ) exp(− ω n t ) ξ =1

ξ + ξ2 −1 
y (t ) = KF0 − KF0 
 2 ξ 2 − 1
[(
exp − ξ + ξ 2 − 1 ω n t +
2 ξ2 −1
) ]
ξ − ξ2 −1
exp − ξ − ξ 2 − 1 ω n t 

[( ) ] ξ >1

KF0 sin (ωt + φ)

Sine Input: y (t ) = Y0 (t ) +
{[1 − (ω ω ) ] + [2ξω / ω ] }
n
2 2
n
2

 2ξω / ω n   t
where φ = tan −1  − 

and [
Y0 (t ) = exp −  A cos(ω p t ) + B sin (ω p t ) ]
 1 − (ω ω n )
2
  τ

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 Graphs below show the response of various first and scond-order systems.

Step Response of First-Order System:

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Sine Response of a First-Order System:

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Sine Response of Second-Order System:

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Step-Response of Second-Order System:

Fundamental constants:
-23
Boltzmann's constant k = 1.381 x 10 J/K
-5
= 8.62 x 10 8 eV/K
Speed of light in a vacuum c = 2.998 x 10 m/s
-7 2
Permeability of free space µo = 4π x 10 N/A
-12 2
Permittivity of free space εo = 8.854 x 10 C2/N.m
= 8.85 x 10-14-19 F/cm
Electron charge e = 1.602 x 10 C
Thermal voltage kT/q = 0.026 V at T = 300 K
Thermal energy kT = 0.026 eV at T = 300 K
Electron volt (eV) 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 Joules

SI UNITS:
Charge q Coulomb (C) A.s
Current I Ampere (A) A 3
Electric field E V/m kg.m/A.s
3 3
Electric flux φ V.m kg.m2/A.s3
Emf V Volt (V) kg.m2/A.s2
Energy Q Joule (J) kg.m /s2
Force F Newton (N) 2
kg.m/s2
Magnetic field B Tesla (T) = Wb/m kg/A.s
2 2
Magnetic flux φ Weber (Wb) kg.m2/A.s3
Power P Watt (W) = J/s kg.m2/s2
Work W J = N.m kg.m /s
Pressure P N/m2 kg/m.s2

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T-Distribution Table

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Op-Amp Configurations

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Active Filters:

1
fL =
2πR F C 2

RF
ACL = −
R1

1
fH =
2πR1C1

RF
ACL = −
R1

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