BIOLOGY - 12

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 UNIT–1 : Biological energetics
• Introduction :
Organic compounds store potential energy.
With the help of enzymes a cell systematically
breaks-down complex organic molecules ( E ↑
) to simpler substances ( E↓ )
Some of energy released can be used to do
work.
Complex
The rest ( most org. molec.
) lost (E↑)
as heat.
Systematic Cellular activities
breaking-down energy
Heat

simple substances ( E↓ )
Mitochondria
 Respiration
• Respiration : breaking-down of food molecules
to produce energy.
• There are two types of respiration :

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

Breaking-down of food molecules
In the presence of oxygen
to produce energy
ose + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water + energyenergy
C6H12O6 + O2  6CO2 + 6 H2O + 38 ATP
Breaking-down of food molecules
in the absence of oxygen
to produce energy
Glucose  lactic acid +
C6H12O6  2 C3H5O3 +
Glucose
energy  alcohol + CO2 +
energy
C6H12O6  2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2 +
energy
 Respiration
Compare between aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

Type of respiration Aerobic Anaerobic

With Without
Oxygen

Oxidation of glucose Complete Incomplete

High Low
Energy yield

CO2 and H2O Lactic acid or alcohol

Products
+ CO2
 Respiration

• Energy produced in respiration can be used in :

• Muscle working.
• Active transport.
• Nerve impulses.
• Biosynthesis.
• Keeping body temperature constant.
• BUT
remember that : not all energy is used up
a lot is lost as heat.
 Respiration
• Compare respiration with combustion :

Respiration Combustion
Inside the cell Outside the cell

Enzyme regulated No enzymes

Energy produced Energy produced

step-by-step at once
Slow Fast
 Anaerobic respiration
• Occur in the absence of O2.
• Occur totally in cytoplasm.
• The cell is incompletely oxidize glucose.
• Produce little amount of energy ( 2 ATP )
so most of the energy remains in the organic molecule.

• It is a 2 stages process :
– Glycolysis.
– Regeneration of NAD+.

• Two types :
1. Lactic acid fermentation ( in animals ).
2. Alcoholic fermentation ( in plants ).
 Anaerobic resp.
• Note : only the first stage of anaerobic resp. produces ATP,
so what is the importance of the second stage?
[ If the supply of NAD stops anaerobic respiration stops ]
• The second step Regenerate NAD from NADH by reduction of pyruvate.
so production of ATP continue.
GLYCOLYSIS Regeneration of NAD

Glucose Lactic acid

NAD

NADH

ATP
Pyruvic acid
 Lactic acid fermentation
• Why does the athlete breathe heavily
for several minutes after the race?
During the rapid exercise the body
can`t supply
enough oxygen to the
muscle.
( developing oxygen dept )
So, the muscle begin to produce ATP
by lactic
acid fermentation.
Building of lactic acid cause a painful
 ATP structure and function
ATP ( Adenosine triphosphate )
- A nucleotide.
- Acts as an energy currency of the cell.
( intermediary molecule between energy producing
and energy consuming reactions )
- Structure :
1. Adenine base.
2. Ribose sugar.
3. Three phosphate groups.
- How does ATP synthasize in respiration?
- Substrate level phosphorylation ( in glycolysis & krebs cycle )
- Oxidative level phosphorylation ( in electron transport chain )
Aerobic respiration
 1. Glycolysis

• Occur in the cytoplasm of all living organisms.

• No need for oxygen.
• Glucose is broken down into two pyruvates.
• This process consists of three stages:
 Glycolysis
Activation stage C C C C C C Glucose
ATP

ADP
C C C C C C Glucose
P phosphate

C C C C C C Fructose
P phosphate
ATP

ADP
P C C C C C C Fructose-1,6-diphosphate
P

Splitting stage
P C C C PGAl C C C P

ADP NAD NAD ADP

ATP NADH NADH ATP

C C C Pyruvate C C C
Oxidation anf rearrangement
 Glycolysis

• Glucose molecule activated by 2 ATP to form hexose

diphosphate.
• The hexose diphosphate split into 2 triose phosphate.
• The trioses oxidised in energy yielding phase to
produce 2 pyruvate.
• 4 ATP and 2 NADH2 produced

2 Pyruvate
Glucose 2 ATP ( 4 - 2 )
2 NADH2
 The link reaction
In the presence of oxygen pyruvic acid enters the
matrix of mitochonderia and three things happen :
• Decarboxylation : CO2 molecule removed from the
pyruvic acid.
• Dehydrogenation : hydrogen removed and
transferred to NAD+ to form NADH.H+.
• The resulting acetate ( 2C ) combines with
coenzyme A ( CoA ) forming : acetyle CoA which
enters the krebs cycle.
CO2 Co
NAD NADH. A
+ +H
Pyruvate Acetyle CoA
( ( 3C ( ( 2C

Remember : - 2 pyruvate molecules are formed from each glucose

molecule.
- So, the reaction happen twice and 2 Acetyle CoA
 Krebs cycle
It takes place in the matrix of mitochondria and
includes the following reactions :
1. Acetyle CoA combine oxaloacetate ( 4C ) to form
6C compound ( citrate ).
• A series of reactions takes place where the citrate
both decarboxylated and dehydrogenated.
– CO2 is released as waste product.
– Hydrogen is picked up by 2 electron acceptors
( NAD & FAD )
• As a result the oxaloacetate is regenerated to
combine with more acetyl CoA.
Krebs cycle
 Krebs cycle

For each 1 turn of Krebs cycle : For each 2 turns of Krebs cycle :

- 3 NADH.H+ produced. - 6 NADH.H+ produced.

- 1 FADH2 produced. - 2 FADH2 produced.

- 1 ATP molecule produced. - 2 ATP molecule produced.

- 2 CO2 molecules released. - 4 CO2 molecules released.

 Electron transport chain

s the energy that was in the glucose molecule has gone?

still in the reduced coenzymes ( NADH, FADH )
ATP molecules produced directly ( by substrate level phosp
glucose molecule ( 2 from glycolysis + 2 from krebs cycle )
e final stage of aerobic respiration? What is its importance
transport chain ( e.t.c. )
nce : - couples the transport of electrons with the producti
- most of ATP is produced during this stage
by oxidative phosphorylation
 Electron transport chain
Where in the cell does e.t.c. occur?
in the cristae of the inner membrane of
mitochondria.
Components of the e.t.c. :
- group of carrier proteins
( cytochromes )
- ATP synthase protein.

Cytochrome complexes
 Electron transport chain
How does the mitochondria couple the transport of
electrons with ATP synthesis?
( CHEMIOSMOSIS )
- High energy electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed
to e.t.c.
- These electrons are passed from carrier protein to the
next .
- At the end of the chain there is an enzyme that combine
these electrons with H+
and oxygen to form water.
- As the electrons passes along the chain, they lose most
of their energy.
Chemiosmosis
 Electron transport chain
How many ATP molecules produced for each :
- 1 NADH  3 ATP
- 1 FADH2  2 ATP
What is the function of oxygen in respiration?
oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor in the
electron transport chain.
so oxygen is essential for getting rid of low-energy
electrons and hydrogen
ions, the wastes of cellular respiration.
What is the importance of e.t.c.?
1. release energy from NADH and FADH2 to be
stored ( temporary ) in ATP.
 TO TA LS

2 ATP Glycolysis 2 NADH

2 ATP Link reaction 2 NADH

2
2 ATP
ATP 6 NADH
Krebs cycle
2 FADH2

e.t.c.

4ATP 18ATP 6ATP 6AT

4 ATP directly produced 34 ATP indirectly produced

38 ATP is produced / 1 glucose
- Food gives us energy.
- Carbohydrates and fats are high energy foods.
- Energy of food is measured in kJ ( 1 kJ = 1000J ).
65
- To measure the amount of energy in food :
ml 20
1. Burn the food to give-out energy.
28.5
2. Use energy to heat-up water.
3. The hottest water the more
energy content.
g 3.5

RESULTS
Temp. rise
mass of peanut ( g ) Temp. of water ( start ) Temp. of water ( end )
Of water

3.5 28.5 65.0 ??

Calculations :
Temperature rise ( ΔT ) = end temp. – start temp.

= 65 - 28.5

= 36.5 C

Energy ( J ) = temperature rise X 20 X 4.2

= 36.5 X 20 X 4.2

= 3066 J

Energy content ( J/g ) = energy give ( J ) / weight of peanut ( g )

= 3066 / 3.5

= 876 J/g

= 0.876 kJ/g