De Dona, J. - Convex Analysis - 32s

Convex Analysis
José De Doná
September 2004
Centre of Complex Dynamic

Systems and Control
Outline
1 Convex Sets
Definition of a Convex Set
Examples of Convex Sets
Convex Cones
Supporting Hyperplane
Separation of Disjoint Convex Sets
2 Convex Functions
Definition of a Convex Function
Properties of Convex Functions
Convexity of Level Sets
Continuity of Convex Functions
3 Generalisations of Convex Functions
Quasiconvex Functions
Pseudoconvex Functions
Relationship Among Various Types of Convexity
Convexity at a Point
Systems and Control
Convex Analysis
The notion of convexity is crucial to the solution of many real

world problems. Fortunately, many problems encountered in
constrained control and estimation are convex.
Convex problems have many important properties for

optimisation problems. For example, any local minimum of a
convex function over a convex set is also a global minimum.

Systems and Control
Convex Sets
We have the following definition of a convex set.
Definition (Convex Set)

A set S ⊂ Rn is convex if the line segment joining any two points of
the set also belongs to the set. In other words, if x1 , x2 ∈ S then
λx1 + (1 − λ)x2 must also belong to S for each λ ∈ [0, 1].
◦
The Figure illustrates the xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

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notions of convex and xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
x
1
x
1
nonconvex sets. Note that, xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
x
2
x
2
in case (b), the line xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
segment joining x1 and x2 xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
does not lie entirely in the (a) Convex (b) Nonconvex
set.

Systems and Control
The following are some examples of convex sets:
(i) Hyperplane. S = {x : p t x = α}, where p is a nonzero vector

in Rn , called the normal to the hyperplane, and α is a scalar.
(ii) Half-space. S = {x : p t x ≤ α}, where p is a nonzero vector in

Rn , and α is a scalar.
(iii) Open half-space. S = {x : p t x < α}, where p is a nonzero

vector in Rn and α is a scalar.
(iv) Polyhedral set. S = {x : Ax ≤ b }, where A is an m × n matrix,

and b is an m vector. (Here, and in the remainder of these
notes, the inequality should be interpreted elementwise.)

Systems and Control
(v) Polyhedral cone. S = {x : Ax ≤ 0}, where A is an m × n

matrix.
(vi) Cone spanned by a finite number of vectors.

S = {x : x = jm=1 λj aj , λj ≥ 0, for j = 1, . . . , m}, where
a1 , . . . , am are given vectors in Rn .
(vii) Neighbourhood. Nε (x̄ ) = {x ∈ Rn : ||x − x̄ || < ε}, where x̄ is a

fixed vector in Rn and ε > 0.

Systems and Control
Convex Cones
Some of the geometric optimality conditions that we will study use
convex cones.
Definition (Convex Cone)

A nonempty set C in Rn is called a cone with vertex zero if x ∈ C
implies that λx ∈ C for all λ ≥ 0. If, in addition, C is convex, then C
is called a convex cone.
◦
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Convex cone Nonconvex cone

Systems and Control
Separation and Support of Convex Sets
A well-known geometric fact is that, given a closed convex set S
and a point y S , there exists a unique point x̄ ∈ S with minimum
distance from y .
Theorem (Closest Point Theorem)
Let S be a nonempty, closed convex set in Rn and y S. Then,
there exists a unique point x̄ ∈ S with minimum distance from y.
Furthermore, x̄ is the minimising point, or closest point to y, if and
only if (y − x̄ )t (x − x̄ ) ≤ 0 for all x ∈ S.
◦
y
S
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x̄
x̄ xx y
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Convex set Nonconvex set

Systems and Control
Separation of Convex Sets
Almost all optimality conditions and duality relationships use some
sort of separation or support of convex sets.
Definition (Separation of Sets)
Let S1 and S2 be nonempty sets in Rn . A hyperplane
H = {x : p t x = α} separates S1 and S2 if p t x ≥ α for each x ∈ S1
and p t x ≤ α for each x ∈ S2 . If, in addition, p t x ≥ α + ε for each
x ∈ S1 and p t x ≤ α for each x ∈ S2 , where ε is a positive scalar,
then the hyperplane H is said to strongly separate the sets S1 and
S2 . (Notice that strong separation implies separation of sets.)
◦
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S1 xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
S1
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S2
S2
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H xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
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Separation Strong separation

Systems and Control
Separation of Convex Sets
The following is the most fundamental separation theorem.
Theorem (Separation Theorem)

Let S be a nonempty closed convex set in Rn and y S. Then,
there exists a nonzero vector p and a scalar α such that p t y > α
and p t x ≤ α for each x ∈ S.
◦
Outline of the Proof:
By the Closest Point Theorem, there
exists a unique minimising point x̄ ∈ S such
that: ( y − x̄ )t (x − x̄ ) ≤ 0, ∀ x ∈ S . y
S
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p
p 0 xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Letting α = p t x̄ , we have: x̄
x
p t x ≤ α, ∀x ∈ S , and
p t y − α = p t y − p t x̄ = (y − x̄ )t (y − x̄ )
= y − x̄ 2 > 0 ⇒ p t y > α.
Systems and Control
Definition (Supporting Hyperplane at a Boundary Point)

Let S be a nonempty set in Rn , and let x̄ ∈ ∂S (the boundary of S).
A hyperplane H = {x : p t (x − x̄ ) = 0} is called a supporting
hyperplane of S at x̄ if either p t (x − x̄ ) ≥ 0 for each x ∈ S, or else,
p t (x − x̄ ) ≤ 0 for each x ∈ S.
◦
p S
x
x̄
H xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

Systems and Control
A convex set has a supporting hyperplane at each boundary point.
Theorem (Supporting Hyperplane)

Let S be a nonempty convex set in Rn , and let x̄ ∈ ∂S. Then there
exists a hyperplane that supports S at x̄; that is, there exists a
nonzero vector p such that p t (x − x̄ ) ≤ 0 for each x ∈ cl S.
◦
As a corollary, we have a result similar to the Separation

Theorem, where S is not required to be closed.
Corollary
Let S be a nonempty convex set in Rn and x̄ int S. Then there is
a nonzero vector p such that p t (x − x̄ ) ≤ 0 for each x ∈ cl S.
◦

Systems and Control
If two convex sets are disjoint, then they can be separated by a
hyperplane.
Theorem (Separation of Two Disjoint Convex Sets)
Let S1 and S2 be nonempty convex sets in Rn and suppose that
S1 ∩ S2 is empty. Then there exists a hyperplane that separates S1
and S2 ; that is, there exists a nonzero vector p in Rn such that
inf{p t x : x ∈ S1 } ≥ sup{p t x : x ∈ S2 }.
◦
S
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Systems and Control
The previous result (Separation of Two Disjoint Convex Sets) holds
true even if the two sets have some points in common, as long as
their interiors are disjoint.
Corollary
Let S1 and S2 be nonempty convex sets in Rn . Suppose that int S2
is not empty and that S1 ∩ int S2 is empty. Then, there exists a
hyperplane that separates S1 and S2 ; that is, there exists a
nonzero p such that
inf{p t x : x ∈ S1 } ≥ sup{p t x : x ∈ S2 }.
◦
S
1
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xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Systems and Control
Convex Functions
We will present some properties of convex functions, beginning

with their definition.
Definition (Convex Function)
Let f : S → R, where S is a nonempty convex set in Rn . The
function f is convex on S if
f (λx1 + (1 − λ)x2 ) ≤ λf (x1 ) + (1 − λ)f (x2 )
for each x1 , x2 ∈ S and for each λ ∈ (0, 1).

The function f is strictly convex on S if the above inequality is true
as a strict inequality for each distinct x1 , x2 ∈ S and for each
λ ∈ (0, 1).
The function f is (strictly) concave on S if −f is (strictly) convex on
S.
◦

Systems and Control
Convex Functions
The geometric interpretation of a convex function is that the value

of f at the point λx1 + (1 − λ)x2 is less than the height of the chord
joining the points [x1 , f (x1 )] and [x2 , f (x2 )]. For a concave function,
the chord is below the function itself.
f f
x1 λx1 +(1−λ)x2 x2 x1 λx1 +(1−λ)x2 x2 x1 x2
Convex function Concave function Neither convex

nor concave

Systems and Control
The following are useful properties of convex functions.
(i) Let f1 , f2 , . . . , fk : Rn → R be convex functions. Then

f (x ) = kj=1 αj fj (x ), where αj > 0 for j = 1, 2, . . . k , is a convex
function;
f (x ) = max{f1 (x ), f2 (x ), . . . , fk (x )} is a convex function.
(ii) Suppose that g : Rn → R is a concave function. Let

S = {x : g (x ) > 0}, and define f : S → R as f (x ) = 1/g (x ).
Then f is convex over S .

Systems and Control
(iii) Let g : R → R be a nondecreasing, univariate, convex

function, and let h : Rn → R be a convex function. Then the
composite function f : Rn → R defined as f (x ) = g (h (x )) is a
convex function.
(iv) Let g : Rm → R be a convex function, and let h : Rn → Rm be

an affine function of the form h (x ) = Ax + b , where A is an
m × n matrix, and b is an m × 1 vector. Then the composite
function f : Rn → R defined as f (x ) = g (h (x )) is a convex
function.

Systems and Control
Convexity of Level Sets
Associated with a convex function f is the level set Sα defined as:

Sα = {x ∈ S : f (x ) ≤ α}, α ∈ R. We then have:
Lemma (Convexity of Level Sets)
Let S be a nonempty convex set in Rn and let f : S → R be a
convex function. Then the level set Sα = {x ∈ S : f (x ) ≤ α}, where
α ∈ R, is a convex set.
◦
Proof.
Let x1 , x2 ∈ Sα ⊆ S . Thus, f (x1 ) ≤ α and f (x2 ) ≤ α. Let λ ∈ (0, 1)
and x = λx1 + (1 − λ)x2 ∈ S (S convex). By convexity of f ,
f (x ) ≤ λf (x1 ) + (1 − λ)f (x2 ) ≤ λα + (1 − λ)α = α.
Hence, x ∈ Sα , and we conclude that Sα is convex.

Systems and Control
Continuity of Convex Functions
An important property of convex functions is that they are
continuous on the interior of their domain.
Theorem (Continuity of Convex Functions)
Let S be a nonempty convex set in Rn and let f : S → R be a
convex function. Then f is continuous on the interior of S.
◦
Consider, for example, the following
function defined on
S = {x : −1 ≤ x ≤ 1}: 2
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎨x 2 for | x |< 1
f (x ) = ⎪
⎪
1
⎩2 for | x |= 1
Obviously, f is convex over S , but is

-1 1 x
continuous only on the interior of S .

Systems and Control
Generalisations of Convex Functions
We present various types of functions that are similar to convex or

concave functions but share only some of their desirable
properties.
Definition (Quasiconvex Function)

function f is quasiconvex if, for each x1 , x2 ∈ S, the following
inequality is true:
f (λx1 + (1 − λ)x2 ) ≤ max {f (x1 ), f (x2 )} for each λ ∈ (0, 1).
The function f is quasiconcave if −f is quasiconvex.

◦
Note, from the definition, that a convex function is quasiconvex.

Systems and Control
Quasiconvex Functions
From the above definition, a function f is quasiconvex if, whenever
f (x2 ) ≥ f (x1 ), f (x2 ) is greater than or equal to f at all convex
combinations of x1 and x2 . Hence, if f increases locally from its
value at a point along any direction, it must remain nondecreasing
in that direction. The figure shows some examples of quasiconvex
and quasiconcave functions.
(a) (b) (c)
(a) Quasiconvex function. (b) Quasiconcave function. (c) Neither

quasiconvex nor quasiconcave.

Systems and Control
Level sets of Quasiconvex Functions
The following result states that a quasiconvex function is

characterised by the convexity of its level sets.
Theorem (Level Sets of a Quasiconvex Function)

function f is quasiconvex if and only if Sα = {x ∈ S : f (x ) ≤ α} is
convex for each real number α.
◦

Systems and Control
Strictly Quasiconvex Functions
Definition (Strictly Quasiconvex Function)

function f is strictly quasiconvex if, for each x1 , x2 ∈ S with
f (x1 ) f (x2 ), the following inequality is true
f (λx1 + (1 − λ)x2 ) < max {f (x1 ), f (x2 )} for each λ ∈ (0, 1).
The function f is strictly quasiconcave if −f is strictly quasiconvex.

◦
Note from the above definition that a convex function is also strictly
quasiconvex.

Systems and Control
Strictly Quasiconvex Functions
Notice that the definition precludes any flat spots from occurring
anywhere except at extremising points. This, in turn, implies that a
local optimal solution of a strictly quasiconvex function over a
convex set is also a global optimal solution.
The figure shows some examples of quasiconvex and strictly
quasiconvex functions.
(a) (b) (c)
(a) Strictly quasiconvex function. (b) Strictly quasiconvex function.

(c) Quasiconvex function but not strictly quasiconvex.

Systems and Control
We will next introduce another type of function that generalises the

concept of a convex function, called a pseudoconvex function.
Pseudoconvex functions share the property of convex functions
that, if ∇f (x̄ ) = 0 at some point x̄ , then x̄ is a global minimum of f .
Definition (Pseudoconvex Function)

Let S be a nonempty open set in Rn , and let f : S → R be
differentiable on S. The function f is pseudoconvex if, for each
x1 , x2 ∈ S with ∇f (x1 )(x2 − x1 ) ≥ 0, then f (x2 ) ≥ f (x1 ); or,
equivalently, if f (x2 ) < f (x1 ), then ∇f (x1 )(x2 − x1 ) < 0.
The function f is pseudoconcave if −f is pseudoconvex.
The function f is strictly pseudoconvex if, for each distinct x1 , x2 ∈ S
with ∇f (x1 )(x2 − x1 ) ≥ 0, then f (x2 ) > f (x1 ); or, equivalently, if for
each distinct x1 , x2 ∈ S, f (x2 ) ≤ f (x1 ), then ∇f (x1 )(x2 − x1 ) < 0.
◦

Systems and Control
Note that the definition asserts that if the directional derivative of a
pseudoconvex function at any point x1 in the direction x2 − x1 is
nonnegative, then the function values are nondecreasing in that
direction.
The figure shows examples of pseudoconvex and pseudoconcave

functions.
Inflection point
(a) (b) (c)
(a) Pseudoconvex function. (b) Both pseudoconvex and

pseudoconcave. (c) Neither pseudoconvex nor pseudoconcave.

Systems and Control
Relationship Among Various Types of Convexity
The arrows mean implications. In general, the converses do not
hold.
Strictly
convex
Convex
Under differentiability
Under differentiability
Strictly
pseudoconvex
Pseudoconvex
Strictly
quasiconvex
Under lower
semicontinuity
Quasiconvex

Systems and Control
In some optimisation problems, the requirement of convexity may

be too strong and not essential, and convexity at a point may be all
that is needed. Hence, we present several types of convexity at a
point that are relaxations of the various forms of convexity
presented so far.

Systems and Control
Definition (Various Types of Convexity at a Point)

Let S be a nonempty convex set in Rn , and f : S → R. We then
have the following definitions:
Convexity at a point. The function f is said to be convex at x̄ ∈ S if
f (λx̄ + (1 − λ)x ) ≤ λf (x̄ ) + (1 − λ)f (x ) for each
λ ∈ (0, 1) and each x ∈ S.
Strict convexity at a point. The function f is strictly convex at x̄ ∈ S
if f (λx̄ + (1 − λ)x ) < λf (x̄ ) + (1 − λ)f (x ) for each
λ ∈ (0, 1) and each x ∈ S, x x̄.
Quasiconvexity at a point. The function f is quasiconvex at x̄ ∈ S if
f (λx̄ + (1 − λ)x ) ≤ max {f (x̄ ), f (x )} for each λ ∈ (0, 1)
and each x ∈ S.

Systems and Control
Definition (Various Types of Convexity at a Point)

Strict quasiconvexity at a point. The function f is strictly
quasiconvex at x̄ ∈ S if
f (λx̄ + (1 − λ)x ) < max {f (x̄ ), f (x )} for each λ ∈ (0, 1)
and each x ∈ S such that f (x ) f (x̄ ).
Pseudoconvexity at a point. Suppose f is differentiable at
x̄ ∈ int S. Then f is pseudoconvex at x̄ if
∇f (x̄ )(x − x̄ ) ≥ 0 for x ∈ S implies that f (x ) ≥ f (x̄ ).
Strict pseudoconvexity at a point. Suppose f is differentiable at
x̄ ∈ int S. Then f is strictly pseudoconvex at x̄ if
∇f (x̄ )(x − x̄ ) ≥ 0 for x ∈ S , x x̄, implies that
f (x ) > f (x̄ ).
◦

Systems and Control
The figure illustrates some types of convexity at a point.
f
(a) f is quasiconvex but not strictly
quasiconvex at x1 ; f is both quasiconvex
and strictly quasiconvex at x2 .
x1 x2
(a)
f
(b) f is both pseudoconvex and strictly
pseudoconvex at x1 ; f is pseudoconvex
but not strictly pseudoconvex at x2 .
x1 x2
(b)

Systems and Control

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Convex Analysis

Centre of Complex Dynamic

The notion of convexity is crucial to the solution of many real

Convex problems have many important properties for

Centre of Complex Dynamic

We have the following definition of a convex set.

Definition (Convex Set)

The Figure illustrates the xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

Centre of Complex Dynamic

The following are some examples of convex sets:

(i) Hyperplane. S = {x : p t x = α}, where p is a nonzero vector

(ii) Half-space. S = {x : p t x ≤ α}, where p is a nonzero vector in

(iii) Open half-space. S = {x : p t x < α}, where p is a nonzero

(iv) Polyhedral set. S = {x : Ax ≤ b }, where A is an m × n matrix,

Centre of Complex Dynamic

(v) Polyhedral cone. S = {x : Ax ≤ 0}, where A is an m × n

(vi) Cone spanned by a finite number of vectors.

(vii) Neighbourhood. Nε (x̄ ) = {x ∈ Rn : ||x − x̄ || < ε}, where x̄ is a

Centre of Complex Dynamic

Definition (Convex Cone)

Centre of Complex Dynamic

Convex set Nonconvex set

Separation Strong separation

Theorem (Separation Theorem)

Definition (Supporting Hyperplane at a Boundary Point)

Centre of Complex Dynamic

A convex set has a supporting hyperplane at each boundary point.

Theorem (Supporting Hyperplane)

As a corollary, we have a result similar to the Separation

Centre of Complex Dynamic

We will present some properties of convex functions, beginning

f (λx1 + (1 − λ)x2 ) ≤ λf (x1 ) + (1 − λ)f (x2 )

for each x1 , x2 ∈ S and for each λ ∈ (0, 1).

Centre of Complex Dynamic

The geometric interpretation of a convex function is that the value

x1 λx1 +(1−λ)x2 x2 x1 λx1 +(1−λ)x2 x2 x1 x2

Convex function Concave function Neither convex

Centre of Complex Dynamic

The following are useful properties of convex functions.

(i) Let f1 , f2 , . . . , fk : Rn → R be convex functions. Then

(ii) Suppose that g : Rn → R is a concave function. Let

Centre of Complex Dynamic

(iii) Let g : R → R be a nondecreasing, univariate, convex

(iv) Let g : Rm → R be a convex function, and let h : Rn → Rm be

Centre of Complex Dynamic

Associated with a convex function f is the level set Sα defined as:

f (x ) ≤ λf (x1 ) + (1 − λ)f (x2 ) ≤ λα + (1 − λ)α = α.

Hence, x ∈ Sα , and we conclude that Sα is convex.

Centre of Complex Dynamic

Obviously, f is convex over S , but is

Centre of Complex Dynamic

We present various types of functions that are similar to convex or

Definition (Quasiconvex Function)

f (λx1 + (1 − λ)x2 ) ≤ max {f (x1 ), f (x2 )} for each λ ∈ (0, 1).

The function f is quasiconcave if −f is quasiconvex.

Note, from the definition, that a convex function is quasiconvex.

Centre of Complex Dynamic

(a) (b) (c)

(a) Quasiconvex function. (b) Quasiconcave function. (c) Neither

Centre of Complex Dynamic

The following result states that a quasiconvex function is

Theorem (Level Sets of a Quasiconvex Function)

Centre of Complex Dynamic