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Applications of Fuel cells
Woking Park Fuel Cell CHP schematic
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Four primary types
of fuel cells
They are based on the electrolyte employed:
At the anode:
Hydrogen is split into two hydrogen ions (H+), which
pass through the electrolyte to the cathode, and
two electrons which pass through the external circuit
(electric load) to the cathode.
At the cathode:
the hydrogen, electrons and oxygen combine to form
water.
Electrochemical reactions in PAFC
PAFC Performance Characteristics
PAFC power plant designs show electrical efficiencies in
the range from 36% (HHV) to 42% (HHV).
The higher efficiency designs operate with pressurized
reactants.
The higher efficiency pressurized design requires more
components and likely higher cost.
PAFC power plants supply usable thermal energy at an
efficiency of 37% (HHV) to 41% (HHV).
A portion of the thermal energy can be supplied at
temperatures of ~ 250oF to ~ 300oF.
However, the majority of the thermal energy is supplied at
~150oF.
The PAFC has a power density of 160-175 watts/ft2 of
active cell area
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells
- MCFC
A molten carbonate salt mixture is used as its
electrolyte.
They evolved from work in the 1960's aimed at
producing a fuel cell which would operated directly on
coal.
While direct operation on coal seems less likely today,
The operation on coal-derived fuel gases or natural gas
is viable.
Molten Carbonate Salt
used as Electrolyte in MCFC
A molten carbonate salt mixture is used as its electrolyte.
The composition of the electrolyte (molten carbonate salt
mixture) varies, but usually consists of lithium carbonate
and potassium carbonate.
At the operating temperature of about 650oC (1200oF), the
salt mixture is liquid and a good ionic conductor.
The electrolyte is suspended in a porous, insulating and
chemically inert ceramic (LiAlO3) matrix.
Reactions
in MCFC
The anode process involves a
reaction between hydrogen
and carbonate ions (CO3=)
from the electrolyte.
The reaction produces water
and carbon dioxide (CO2)
while releasing electrons to
the anode.
The cathode process combines oxygen
and CO2 from the oxidant stream with
electrons from the cathode to produce
carbonate ions which enter the
electrolyte.
The need for CO2 in the oxidant stream
requires a system for collecting CO 2
from the anode exhaust and mixing it
with the cathode feed stream.
Reactions
in MCFC
Description of reactions in MCFCs
The anode process involves a reaction between hydrogen
and carbonate ions (CO3=) from the electrolyte.
The reaction produces water and carbon dioxide (CO 2)
while releasing electrons to the anode.
The cathode process combines oxygen and CO 2 from the
oxidant stream with electrons from the cathode to produce
carbonate ions which enter the electrolyte.
The need for CO2 in the oxidant stream requires a system
for collecting CO2 from the anode exhaust and mixing it
with the cathode feed stream.
As the operating temperature increases,
the theoretical operating voltage for a fuel cell decreases and
with it the maximum theoretical fuel efficiency.
On the other hand, increasing the operating temperature
increases the rate of the electrochemical reaction and
Thus increases the current which can be obtained at a given
voltage.
The net effect for the MCFC is that the real operating voltage is
higher than the operating voltage for the PAFC at the same
current density.
The higher operating voltage of the MCFC means that more
power is available at a higher fuel efficiency from a MCFC than
from a PAFC of the same electrode area.
As size and cost scale roughly with electrode area, this suggests
that a MCFC should be smaller and less expensive than a
"comparable" PAFC.
As size and cost scale roughly with electrode area, this
suggests that a MCFC should be smaller and less expensive
than a "comparable" PAFC.
The MCFC also produces excess heat at a temperature which
is high enough to yield high pressure steam which may be fed
to a turbine to generate additional electricity.
In combined cycle operation, electrical efficiencies in excess of
60% (HHV) have been suggested for mature MCFC systems.
The MCFC operates at between 1110°F (600°C) and 1200°F
(650°C) which is necessary to achieve sufficient conductivity of
the electrolyte.
To maintain this operating temperature, a higher volume of air
is passed through the cathode for cooling purposes.
As mentioned above, the high operating temperature of the
MCFC offers the possibility that it could operate directly on
gaseous hydrocarbon fuels such as natural gas.
The natural gas would be reformed to produce hydrogen
within the fuel cell itself.
The need for CO2 in the oxidant stream requires that CO 2
from the spent anode gas be collected and mixed with the
incoming air stream.
Before this can be done, any residual hydrogen in the spent
fuel stream must be burned.
Future systems may incorporate membrane separators to
remove the hydrogen for recirculation back to the fuel stream.
At cell operating temperatures of 650oC (1200oF) noble
metal catalysts are not required.
The anode is a highly porous sintered nickel powder,
alloyed with chromium to prevent agglomeration and creep
at operating temperatures.
The cathode is a porous nickel oxide material doped with
lithium.
Significant technology has been developed to provide
electrode structures which position the electrolyte with
respect to the electrodes and maintain that position while
allowing for some electrolyte boil-off during operation.
The electrolyte boil-off has an insignificant impact on cell
stack life.
A more significant factor of life expectancy has to do with
corrosion of the cathode.
The MCFC operating temperature is about 650 oC (1200oF).
At this temperature the salt mixture is liquid and is a good
conductor.
The cell performance is sensitive to operating temperature.
A change in cell temperature from 650 oC (1200oF) to 600oC
(1110oF) results in a drop in cell voltage of almost 15%.
The reduction in cell voltage is due to increased ionic and
electrical resistance and a reduction in electrode kinetics.
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
The Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) uses a ceramic,
solid-phase electrolyte which reduces corrosion
considerations and eliminates the electrolyte
management problems associated with the liquid
electrolyte fuel cells.
To achieve adequate ionic conductivity in such a
ceramic, however, the system must operate at about
1000oC (1830oF).
At that temperature, internal reforming of
carbonaceous fuels should be possible, and the waste
heat from such a device would be easily utilized by
conventional thermal electricity generating plants to
yield excellent fuel efficiency.
The fuel cell will compete with many other types of energy
conversion devices, including
the gas turbine in city's power plant,
the gasoline engine in your car and
the battery in your laptop.
Combustion engines like the turbine and the gasoline engine
burn fuels and
use the pressure created by the expansion of the gases to
do mechanical work.
Batteries converted chemical energy back into electrical
energy when needed.
Fuel cells should do both tasks more efficiently.
A fuel cell provides a DC (direct current) voltage that can be
used to power motors, lights or any number of electrical
appliances.
Classification of Fuel Cells
There are several different types of fuel cells, each using a
different chemistry.
Fuel cells are usually classified by the type of electrolyte they
use.
Some types of fuel cells work well for use in stationary power
generation plants.
Others may be useful for small portable applications or for
powering cars.
The proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is one
of the most promising technologies.
This is the type of fuel cell that will end up powering cars,
buses and maybe even your house. Let's take a look at how
they work...
Tiny Fuel Cell to Power Sensors
A fuel cell prototype that is the size of a pencil eraser and can deliver small amounts
of electricity was developed at Case Western Reserve University (CWRU).
The fuel cells are 5 mm3 in volume and generate 10 mW of power with short pulses of u
p to 100 mW.
The cell power is so limited
There is no practical consumer use yet.
A cell phone, e.g., needs ~ 500 mW.
The first use will be in sensors for the military.
Microfuel cell
The prototype microfuel cell uses an electrochemical process to directly con
vert energy from hydrogen into electricity.
The fuel cell works like a battery, using an anode and cathode, positive and
negative electrodes (solid electrical conductors), with an electrolyte.
The electrolyte can be made of various materials or solutions. The hydrogen
flows into the anode and the molecules are split into protons and electrons.
The protons flow through the electrolyte, while the electrons take a different
path, creating an electrical current.
At the other end of the fuel cell, oxygen is pulled in from the air and flows int
o the cathode.
The hydrogen protons and electrons reunite in the cathode and chemically b
ond with the oxygen atoms to form water molecules.
Theoretically, the only waste product produced by a fuel cell is water.
Fuel cells that extract hydrogen from natural gas or another hydrocarbon will
emit some carbon dioxide as a byproduct, but in much smaller amounts than
those produced by traditional energy sources.
PEMFC: Proton Exchange
Membrane Fuel Cell
Animation: fuel-cell-animation.swf
The cell uses one of the simplest reactions of any fuel cell.
Four Basic Elements in a PEMFC
Anode: the negative post of the fuel cell, has several jobs.
It conducts the electrons that are freed from the hydrogen
molecules
so that they can be used in an external circuit.
It has channels etched into it that disperse the hydrogen
gas equally over the surface of the catalyst.
Cathode: the positive post of the fuel cell,
has channels etched into it that distribute the oxygen to the
surface of the catalyst.
It also conducts the electrons back from the external circuit
to the catalyst,
where they can recombine with the hydrogen ions and
oxygen to form water.
Four Basic Elements in a PEMFC
The electrolyte is the proton exchange membrane.
This specially treated material, which looks something like
ordinary kitchen plastic wrap,
only conducts positively charged ions.
The membrane blocks electrons.
The catalyst is a special material that facilitates the
reaction of oxygen and hydrogen.
It is usually made of platinum powder very thinly coated
onto carbon paper or cloth.
The catalyst is rough and porous so that the maximum
surface area of the platinum can be exposed to the
hydrogen or oxygen.
The platinum-coated side of the catalyst faces the PEM.
Chemistry of a Fuel Cell
Anode side:
2H2 4H+ + 4e-
Cathodeside:
O2 + 4H+ + 4e- 2H2O
Net
reaction:
2H2 + O2 2H2O
Animation of a fuel cell working
fuel-cell-animation.swf
The pressurized hydrogen gas (H2) entering the
fuel cell on the anode side.
This gas is forced through the catalyst by the
pressure. When an H2 molecule comes in
contact with the platinum on the catalyst, it splits
into two H+ ions and two electrons (e-).
The electrons are conducted through the anode,
where they make their way through the external
circuit (doing useful work such as turning a
motor) and return to the cathode side of the fuel
cell.
Meanwhile, on the cathode side of the fuel cell, oxyge
n gas (O2) is being forced through the catalyst, where i
t forms two oxygen atoms.
Each of these atoms has a strong negative charge.
This negative charge attracts the two H+ ions through t
he membrane, where they combine with an oxygen at
om and two of the electrons from the external circuit to
form a water molecule (H2O).
This reaction in a single fuel cell produces only about
0.7 volts.
To get this voltage up to a reasonable level, many sep
arate fuel cells must be combined to form a fuel-cell s
tack ( 電池堆 ).
PEMFCs operate at a fairly low temperature (ab
out 176oF~80oC),
It means they warm up quickly and don't require
expensive containment structures.
Constant improvements in the engineering and
materials used in these cells have increased th
e power density to a level where a device abo
ut the size of a small piece of luggage can pow
er a car.
Problems with Fuel Cells
The fuel cell uses oxygen and hydrogen to produce electricity.
The oxygen required for a fuel cell comes from the air.
In fact, in the PEM fuel cell, ordinary air is pumped into the
cathode.
The hydrogen is not so readily available, however.
Hydrogen has some limitations that make it impractical for use
in most applications.
For instance, you don't have a hydrogen pipeline coming to
your house, and you can't pull up to a hydrogen pump at your
local gas station.
Hydrogen is difficult to store and distribute, so it would be much
more convenient if fuel cells could use fuels that are more
readily available.
This problem is addressed by a device called a reformer.
A reformer turns hydrocarbon or alcohol fuels into hydrogen,
which is then fed to the fuel cell.