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Passive transport is the cellular process of moving molecules
and other substances across membranes.

Passive transport differs from active transport in that it does

not involve any chemical energy. Rather, passive transport
relies on the permeability of the cell membrane and its
component proteins and lipids.

There are 3 main types of passive transport:

a)Diffusion
b)Facilitated diffusion
c)osmosis
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Diffusion

Diffusion is the random movement of ions or

molecules from an area of higher concentration
to an area of lower concentration i.e. down the
concentration gradient until equilibrium is
reached.
Once this happens, molecules or ions still tends to
move between the 2 areas but with no net gain or
loss from one side or the other.
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The phospholipid bilayer is permeable to very small
uncharged molecules like oxygen and carbon dioxide.
These diffuse freely in and out of the cell through the
phospholipid bilayer.
Hydrophobic substances, for example, steroids can also
diffuse through the membrane.
The phospholipid bilayer is not permeable to charged
ions such as Na+, K+, Cl-, HCO3-, and hydrophylic
molecules and macromolecules.

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Facilitated diffusion is the carrier-
mediated transport of large molecules
through the cell membrane using 
transport proteins :
2 types of transport proteins:
a)Protein channel
b)Carrier protein
embedded within the cell membrane.
The large molecules would not be able to
pass through the cell membrane through
the phospholipid bilayer , but the
transport proteins effectively
"transport“ the molecules through the
membrane from a higher concentration
(outside the cell) to a lower
concentration (inside the cell) without
utilizing any chemical energy .
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 Facilitated Diffusion
Of Ions & Molecules
Transport proteins form channels or act
as carrier to facilitate and to increase the
rate of diffusion across cell membranes.
Protein Channels
Certain transport proteins form different
specific water filled hydrophylic channels
to permit diffusion of various charged ions
such as K+, Na+, Ca2-, Cl- and HCO3-.

The protein channels that can open or close and are called gated
channel.
There are also specialised channels for water known as aquaporins
found in both plant and animal cells.
These aquaporins speed up the rate of diffusion of water
molecules down its water potential gradient.
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Carrier Protein
Some small hydrophilic organic molecules
for example, glucose and amino acids can
pass through cell surface membranes by
facilitated diffusion using carrier
protein. Carrier proteins transport 
substances out of or into the cell by 
facilitated diffusion and active transport.
Each carrier protein is designed to
recognize only one substance or one group
of very similar substances.
The molecule or ion to be transported (the
substrate) must first bind at a binding site
at the carrier molecule, with a certain
binding affinity.
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Following binding, and while the binding site is facing,
say, outwards, the carrier will capture (take in and
retain) the substrate within its molecular structure and
cause an internal translocation, so that it now faces the
inner side of the membrane i.e. facing cytoplasm.
The substrate is finally released into the cytoplasm of
the cell. All steps are reversible.
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 osmosis
 Inbiological terms,
osmosis is the diffusion
or movement of water
molecules through a
semi-permeable
membrane from a region
of higher concentration
of water molecules to a
region with a lower
concentration of water
molecules. 

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Water potential is the potential energy of water
 relative to pure free water (e.g. deionized water) in
reference conditions.
It quantifies the tendency of water to move from one
area to another due to osmosis, 
Water potential is measured in units of pressure and
is commonly represented by the Greek letter Ψ (Psi).
This concept has proved especially useful in
understanding water movement within plants, animals,
and soil.
Typically, pure water at standard temperature and
pressure (or other suitable reference condition) is
defined as having a water potential of 0.
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The addition of solutes to water lowers its potential (makes it
more negative), just as the increase in pressure increases its
potential (makes it more positive).

If possible, water will move from an area of higher water

potential to an area that has a lower water potential.

One very common example is water that contains a dissolved

salt, like sea water or the solution within living cells.
These solutions typically have negative water potentials, relative
to the pure water reference.
If there is no restriction on flow, water molecules will proceed
from the locus of pure water to the more negative water potential
of the solution.

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 Pressure potential(Ψp)
Pressure potential is based on mechanical pressure,
and is an important component of the total water
potential within plant cells

 Pressure potential is increased as water enters a

cell.
As water passes through the cell wall and cell 
membrane, it increases the total amount of water
present inside the cell, which exerts an outward
pressure that is retained by the structural rigidity of
the cell wall.

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The pressure potential in a living plant cell is usually
positive.
In plasmolysed cells, pressure potential is almost zero.

Negative pressure potentials occur when water is pulled

through an open system such as a plant xylem vessel.
Withstanding negative pressure potentials (frequently
called tension) is an important adaptation of xylem vessels.
.

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Solute potential is the potential or force of
attraction towards water molecules caused by
dissolved substance ( solute) inside the cell.

Pure water is usually defined as having a solute

potential (Ψπ) of zero, and in this case, solute
potential can never be positive.

For example, when a solute is dissolved in water,

water molecules are less likely to diffuse away
via osmosis than when there is no solute.
A solution will have a lower and hence more
negative water potential than that of pure water.

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Furthermore, the more solute molecules present, the more
negative the solute potential is.
Solute potential has important implication for many living 
organisms.

If a living cell with a smaller solute

concentration/hypotonic solution is surrounded by a
more concentrated or hypertonic solution,
the cell will tend to lose water to the more negative water
potential of the surrounding environment.
This is often the case for marine organisms living in sea
water and halophytic plants growing in saline
 environments.
In the case of a plant cell, the flow of water out of the cell
may eventually cause the plasma membrane to pull away
from the cell wall, leading to plasmolysis.

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Water potential of plant cell is the sum of its solute potential and
pressure potential

Ψ cell = Ψs + Ψp
Water solute pressure potential
Potential potential

In comparing 2 solutions the hypotonic solution is the solution with

the lower solute concentration.

And the hypertonic solution is the solution with higher solute

concentration.

An isotonic solution has the same solute concentration as the other

solution
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Plant cells are surrounded by rigid cellulose walls,
(unlike animal cells), but plant cells still take in
water by osmosis when placed in pure water.

However, plant cells do not burst because their

cellulose cell walls limit how much water can move
in.
The cell walls exert pressure, called turgor pressure,
as the cells take up water.

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These physical forces can be described by a
simple mathematical equation:
ψ = Ψs +Ψp where ψ ("Psi") is the
water potential, a measure of the overall
tendency of water to move into a cell;
Ψs is the pressure potential, a measure of
the turgor pressure exerted by the cell walls;
and Ψp is the osmotic potential (see above).
Water always moves from regions of higher
ψ to areas of lower ψ.

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When a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, the water in the cells
moves out to hypertonic solution or surrounding , and the cell shrinks and so
becomes  plasmolysed - the cell membrane has completely pulls away from
the cell wall due to lack of water pressure on it; the opposite of turgid.)
Also, osmosis is responsible for the ability of plant roots to draw water from
the soil.
Since there are many fine roots, they have a large surface area, and water
enters the roots by osmosis.

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Suppose an animal cell is
placed in a solution of
sugar or salt in water. Eg.
Red blood cell
If the medium
is hypotonic — a dilute
solution, with a higher
water concentration than
the cell — the cell will gain
water through osmosis ,
expand then finally burst.
This process is called
haemolysis
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If the medium is isotonic — a solution with
exactly the same water potential as the cell —
there will be no net movement of
water across the cell membrane of the cell .
If the medium is hypertonic — a concentrated
solution, with a lower water potential than
the cell — the cell will lose water by osmosis
and undergo crenation where the cell
shrink /shriveled up and the cell surface
membrane has a crinkled appearance.

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 Active transport is the movement of ions or
molecule across the semi permeable membrane
against concentration gradient .
The process requires energy expenditure
provided by ATP.
Other characteristic includes:
1) Carrier protein is required.
2)Each type of carrier molecules are specific for 1 type of substance
they carry.

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Movement is against concentration gradient.
The process will stop only when there is no more substance to transport.
Example of active transport:
1)Mineral ions are actively transported into the root hair cells or young epidermal cell of root.
2)Sodium potassium pump that maintain a potential difference between the inside and outside of a nerve
cell.

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Differences between passive and active transport

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Endocytosis is the case when
a molecule is taken into the
cell by the invagination of
cell membrane forming a
vesicle. 
Phagocytosis is the type of
endocytosis where a
cytoplasmic projection are
formed that extend around
solid particles. Eg
pseudopodia in amoeba.
The projection then fused
together trapping the solid
particles within the vacuoles.
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Pinocytosis is when the external fluid is engulfed.
Cell surface membrane invaginate forming flask-
shaped vesicle which then pinched off to form
pinocytic vesicle.
Vesicles formed by pinocytosis are smaller than
phagocytic vacuoles and contain fluid and
dissolved solutes
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Exocytosis

Exocytosis occurs when a vesicle membrane fuses with

the plasma membrane. Molecules (e.g. insulin, serotonin,
proteases) stored in the vesicles are then “released” from
the lumen of the vesicle to the exterior of the cell.
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