IMMUNITY

IMMUNE SYSTEM

• is the body's defense against infectious

organisms and other invaders.
• The immune system is a complex system of
organs and infection-fighting cells that work to
protect the body against disease. 
• is a network of cells, tissues, and organs that
work together to defend the body against
attacks by “foreign” invaders. 
 Immunity
• State of being free from infection

• State of being resistant to infection

• is a biological term that describes a state of having sufficient

biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted
biological invasion.
• Immunity involves us both specific and non-specific components.

• word “immunity” derives from the Latin immunis, meaning

exemption from military service, tax payments or other public
services.
 Infectious microorganisms (such as bacteria and viruses) attack
the body. These organisms or parts of them are called "antigens,"
and can be recognized by the immune system

• The primary purpose of the immune system's infection-fighting

cells is to identify antigens. Antigens are substances that are foreign to
the body, including microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses. When
the immune system identifies antigens invading the body, it goes to work
to defend the body against those antigens.
• This defense is called "the immune response”
 The antibody and other parts of the immune system
destroy and eliminate the invading microorganism.

Antibody production is part of the immune response. Antibodies are

protein molecules that help infection-fighting cells to recognize and
bind with antigens.

When antibodies on the infection-fighting cells

bind with antigens on the microorganism, the infection-fighting cells
help kill the microorganism.
 ORGANS AND CELLS OF THEIMMUNE SYSTEM

• Bone marrow
• White blood cells
• Lymphoid Tissues
• Thymus gland
• Spleen
• Lymph nodes
• Tonsils
 Bone marrow
• Production site of WBC
• Maintenance of undifferentiated stem cell
population that is the source of all blood cells,
including those active in immune functions
• The bone marrow produces B cells, natural
killer cells, granulocytes and immature
thymocytes, in addition to red blood cells and
platelets. 
 White Blood cells

• Also known as LEUKOCYTES

• Protect body against invading organism

• Remove dead cells and debris from the tissue

by phagocytosis
 The two basic types of
leukocytes are:

• phagocytes, cells that chew up invading

organisms

• lymphocytes, cells that allow the body to

remember and recognize previous invaders
and help the body destroy them.
 A number of different cells are
considered phagocytes.
• Neutrophil- phagocytes which primarily fights
bacteria
• Lymphocytes- produce antibodies, which
primarily destroy microorganism and fights viral
• Monocytes- becomes macrophages(kill
intracellular organisms)
• Eosionophils- attack certain worm parasites
• Basophils- releases Histamine(Allergic reaction)
 The two kinds of lymphocytes are:
T lymphocytes
• T cells arise from stem cells in the bone marrow - they then travel to the
thymus gland where the differentiate and mature.

• T cells are like the soldiers, destroying the invaders that the
intelligence system has identified.

• T lymphocytes are usually divided into two major subsets that are
functionally and identifiably different.:
– T helper - The main function of the T helper cell is to augment or
potentiate immune responses by the secretion of specialized factors that
activate other white blood cells to fight off infection. 
– T killer/suppressor subset- important in directly killing certain tumor cells,
viral-infected cells and sometimes parasites.
B lymphocytes 

• Stays in bone marrow and mature into B-cell

• The major function of B lymphocytes is the production of
antibodies in response to foreign proteins of bacteria, viruses,
and tumor cells.
• B lymphocytes are like the body's military intelligence system,
seeking out their targets and sending defenses to lock onto
them.
• B cells also arise from stem cells in the bone marrow. As they
develop and mature, they start synthesizing a single type of
antibody
• Antibodies are proteins which recognize antigens
• Thymus: gland above the heart, helps produce
T cells

• lymph nodes: small mass of tissue that filters

pathogens from lymph and exposes them to
lymphocytes

• spleen: stores healthy blood cells

• tonsils: provide protection against bacteria &

pathogens that enter nose & mouth
There are physical, chemical, and cellular defenses against

invasion by viruses, bacteria, and other agents of disease .

During the early stages of an infection, there is an inflammatory response
• Non-specific attack
• Phagocytes active ("eat" pathogen)

During later stages, leucocytes produce immune responses

• Antigen - a foreign substance which triggers an immune response

• Some WBC's produce antibodies in huge amounts

– Antibodies - substances which bind to specific antigens and tag them for
destruction
– Other WBC's (executioner cells) directly destroy body cells
 Surface coverage - the first line of
defense
• The body is protected from pathogens by the skin and
mucous membranes
– Skin - dead cellular layer - dry, low pH
– Mucous membranes contain lysozymes (enzymes which break down
bacteria)
– Other cells contain cilia which filter pathogens and particulates
• Breaks in the protective barrier
– Digestive openings
– Reproductive openings
– Respiratory openings
– Sensory Organs
 Non-specific responses - the second
line of defense
• Non-specific responses are generalized responses to
pathogen infection - they do not target a specific cell type
• The non-specific response consist of some WBC's and plasma
proteins
• Phagocytes - cells which "eat" foreign material to destroy
them
– Phagocytes are formed from stem cells in bone marrow (stem cells are
undifferentiated WBC's)
• Neutrophil - phagocytize bacteria
• Eosinophils - secrete enzymes to kill parasitic worms among other
pathogens
• Macrophage - "big eaters" phagocytize just about anything
• Non-phagocytic leucocytes - 
– Basophil - contain granules of toxic chemicals that can digest foreign microorganisms. 
These are cells involved in an allergic response
– Mast Cells - similar to basophils, mast cells contain a variety of inflammatory chemicals
including histamine and seratonin.  Cause blood vessels near wound to constrict.
• Complement proteins - plasma proteins which have a role in nonspecific and
specific defenses
• Form a cascade effect - if only a few are activated, they will trigger others
to become active in great numbersSome punch holes in bacterial walls
(forms holes where cellular components leak out)
• Some promote inflammation
– Concentration gradients attract phagocytes to irritated or damaged tissue
– Encourage phagocytosis in phagocytes (promotes "eating")
• Some bind to the surface of invading organisms
• Chemokines - create a chemical gradient to attract
neutrophils and other leucocytes to the wound site

Inflammation
• Causes localized redness, swelling, heat, and pain
• Changes in capillary wall structure allow interstitial fluid and
WBC's to leak out in tissue
• Promotes macrophage (phagocytic WBC's) activity
• Macrophages secrete Interleukins (communication proteins
among WBC's)
– Interleukin-1: increases body temperature (i.e. causes a fever)
• This enhances the WBC's ability to protect the body
• Causes drowsiness - reduces the body's energy usage and stress
The Immune System (Specific Responses)
- the third line of defense
Called into action when nonspecific methods are not enough
and infection becomes widespread

Types of cells involved in the immune system:

• Macrophages - engulf foreign objects
– Inform T lymphocytes at a specific antigen is present
• Helper T cells - produce and secrete chemicals which
promote large numbers of effector and memory cells
• Cytotoxic T cells - T lymphocytes that eliminate infected body
cells and tumor cells
• B cells - produce antibodies (secrete them in the blood or
position them on their cell surfaces)
Each type of virus, bacteria, or other foreign body has
molecular markers which make it unique

• Host lymphocytes (i.e. those in your body) can

recognize self proteins (i.e. those which are not
foreign)
• When a nonself (foreign) body is detected, mitotic
activity in B and T lymphocytes is stimulated
– While mitosis is occurring, the daughter populations
become subdivided
• Effector cells - when fully differentiated, they will seek and
destroy foreign
• Memory cells - become dormant, but can be triggered to rapid
mitosis if pathogen encountered again
Thus, immunological specificity and
memory involve three events:
(1) Recognition of a specific invader
(2) Repeated cell divisions that form huge lymphocyte populations
(3) Differentiation into subpopulations of effector and memory cells

• Antigen - a nonself marker that triggers the formation of lymphocyte

armies
• Antibodies - molecules which bind to antigens and are recognized by
lymphocytes
• Antigen-presenting cell - a macrophage which digests a foreign cell, but
leaves the antigens intact. It then binds these antigens to MHC molecules
on its cell membrane. The antigen-MHC complexes are noticed by certain
lymphocytes (recognition) which promotes cell division (repeated cell
divisions)
 GENERAL TYPES OF IMMUNITY

INNATE
• born with innate (or natural) immunity
• a type of general protection
• Innate immunity also includes the external barriers of the body, like the
skin and mucous membranes (like those that line the nose, throat, and
gastrointestinal tract), which are the first line of defense in preventing
diseases from entering the body.
ACQUIRED
• protection is adaptive (or active) immunity, which develops throughout
our lives
• develops after birth
Aquired immunity - is often sub-divided into two major types depending on how the

immunity was introduced . 

• Naturally acquired immunity occurs through
contact with a disease causing agent, when
the contact was not deliberate

• artificially acquired immunity develops only

through deliberate actions such as
vaccination.
***Both naturally and artificially acquired immunity can be further
subdivided depending on whether immunity is induced in the host or
passively transferred from a immune host.

• Passive immunity is acquired through transfer

of antibodies or activated T-cells from an
immune host, and is short lived -- usually
lasting only a few months

• active immunity is induced in the host itself

by antigen, and lasts much longer, sometimes
life-long.
•  
Immunity can be :

either natural or artificial, innate or acquired=adaptive, and
either active or passive.

• Active natural (contact with infection): develops slowly, is long term, and
antigen specific.

• Active artificial (immunization): develops slowly, lasts for several years, and
is specific to the antigen for which the immunization was given.

• Passive natural (transplacental = mother to child): develops immediately, is

temporary, and affects all antigens to which the mother has immunity.

• Passive artificial (injection of gamma globulin): develops immediately, is

temporary, and affects all antigens to which the donor has immunity.
Differences between Active
and Passive Immunity
Differences between Active and
Passive Immunity
Immunoglobulin:
 

 
•  A protein produced by plasma cells and
lymphocytes and characteristic of these types
of cells. Immunoglobulins play an essential
role in the body's immune system. They attach
to foreign substances, such as bacteria, and
assist in destroying them.
 The five major types of antibodies are:
IgA. IgA antibodies are found in areas of the body such the
nose, breathing passages, digestive tract, ears, eyes, and
vagina. IgA antibodies protect body surfaces that are exposed
to outside foreign substances. This type of antibody is also
found in saliva, tears, and blood. About 10% to 15% of the
antibodies present in the body are IgA antibodies. A small
number of people do not make IgA antibodies.
IgG. IgG antibodies are found in all body fluids. They are the
smallest but most common antibody (75% to 80%) of all the
antibodies in the body. IgG antibodies are very important in
fighting bacterial and viral infections. IgG antibodies are the
only type of antibody that can cross the placenta in a
pregnant woman to help protect her baby (fetus).
• IgM. IgM antibodies are the largest antibody. They are found in blood
and lymph fluid and are the first type of antibody made in response to an
infection. They also cause other immune system cells to destroy foreign
substances. IgM antibodies are about 5% to 10% of all the antibodies in
the body.

• IgE. IgE antibodies are found in the lungs, skin, and mucous membranes.
They cause the body to react against foreign substances such as pollen,
fungus spores, and animal dander. They may occur in allergic reactions to
milk, some medicines, and some poisons. IgE antibody levels are often
high in people with allergies.

• IgD. IgD antibodies are found in small amounts in the tissues that line
the belly or chest. How they work is not clear.