ST 304

National Center for Policy Analysis
Medical Tourism:
Global Competition in Health Care
by
Devon M. Herrick
NCPA Policy Report No. 304

November 2007
ISBN #1-56808-178-2
Web site: www.ncpa.org/pub/st/st304
National Center for Policy Analysis

12770 Coit Rd., Suite 800
Dallas, Texas 75251
(972) 386-6272
Executive Summary
Global competition is emerging in the health care industry. Wealthy patients from developing
countries have long traveled to developed countries for high quality medical care. Now, a growing num-
ber of less-affluent patients from developed countries are traveling to regions once characterized as “third
world.” These patients are seeking high quality medical care at affordable prices. Reports on the number
of patients traveling abroad for health care are scattered, but all tell the same story. An estimated 500,000
Americans traveled abroad for treatment in 2005. A majority traveled to Mexico and other Latin Ameri-
can countries; but Americans were also among the estimated 250,000 foreign patients who sought care in
Singapore, the 500,000 in India and as many as 1 million in Thailand. The cost savings for patients seek-
ing medical care abroad can be significant. For example:
l Apollo Hospital in New Delhi, India, charges $4,000 for cardiac surgery, compared to about
$30,000 in the United States.
l Hospitals in Argentina, Singapore or Thailand charge $8,000 to $12,000 for a partial hip re-
placement — one-half the price charged in Europe or the United States.
l Hospitals in Singapore charge $18,000 and hospitals in India charge only $12,000 for a knee
replacement that runs $30,000 in the United States.
l A rhinoplasty (nose reconstruction) procedure that costs only $850 in India would cost $4,500
in the United States.
In 2006, the medical tourism industry grossed about $60 billion worldwide. McKinsey & Com-
pany estimates this total will rise to $100 billion by 2012.
Patients who are not familiar with specific medical facilities abroad can coordinate their treatment
through medical travel intermediaries. These services work like specialized travel agents. They investi-
gate health care providers to ensure quality and screen customers to assess those who are physically well
enough to travel. They often have doctors and nurses on staff to assess the medical efficacy of procedures
and help patients select physicians and hospitals.
Prices for treatment are lower in foreign hospitals for a number of reasons. Labor costs are lower,
third parties (insurance and government) are less involved or not at all involved, package pricing with
price transparency is normal, there are fewer attempts to shift the cost of charity care to paying patients,
there are fewer regulations limiting collaborative arrangements between health care facilities and physi-
cians, and malpractice litigation costs are lower.
How can patients ensure the medical treatment they will receive will be of high quality?
l Foreign health care providers often have physicians with internationally respected credentials,
many of them with training in the United States, Australia, Canada or Europe.
l More than 120 hospitals abroad are accredited by the Joint Commission International (JCI), an
arm of the organization that accredits American hospitals participating in Medicare; another 20
are accredited through the International Standards Organization; and some countries are adopt-
ing their own accrediting standards.
l Some foreign hospitals are owned, managed or affiliated with prestigious American universi-
ties or health care systems such as the Cleveland Clinic and Johns Hopkins International.
l Several companies are building and operating hospitals in Mexico that meet American stan-
dards, largely for American (and wealthy Mexican) patients.
l Finally, patients can also use online communities to get information on the safety and quality
of medical providers by reading the testimonies of other patients who have had surgery abroad.
Medical tourism is only one aspect of the way globalization is changing the U.S. health care
system. Apart from patient travel, many medical tasks can be outsourced to skilled professionals abroad
when the physical presence of a physician is unnecessary. This can include interpretation of diagnostic
tests and long-distance international collaboration, particularly in case management and disease manage-
ment programs, because of the availability of information technology.
If American health care consumers are to benefit to the fullest extent from global health care com-
petition, federal and state policies must allow them to take advantage of the opportunities. Legal reforms
policymakers should consider include recognizing licenses and board certifications from other states and
countries. The federal Stark laws limiting relationships between physicians and hospitals need to be modi-
fied to let health care providers offer integrated medical services, including follow-up care for patients
returning from treatment abroad. Finally, the federal and state governments should lead by example by
allowing Medicare and Medicaid programs to send willing patients abroad. Medicare in particular would
benefit from cost savings due to its large volume of orthopedic and cardiac procedures.
Medical Tourism: Global Competition in Health Care
Introduction
Global competition is emerging in the health care industry. Wealthy
patients from developing countries have long traveled to developed countries
for high quality medical care. Now, growing numbers of patients from devel-
oped countries are traveling for medical reasons to regions once characterized
as “third world.” Many of these “medical tourists” are not wealthy, but are
seeking high quality medical care at affordable prices. To meet the demand,
entrepreneurs are building technologically advanced facilities outside the
United States, using foreign and domestic capital. They are hiring physi-
cians, technicians and nurses trained to American and European standards, and
where qualified personnel are not available locally, they are recruiting expatri-
ates.
The Emerging Market for Medical Tourism

Medical tourism is growing and diversifying. Estimates vary, but
McKinsey & Company and the Confederation of Indian Industry put gross
medical tourism revenues at more than $40 billion worldwide in 2004.1 Oth-
ers estimate the worldwide revenue at about $60 billion in 2006.2 McKinsey
& Company projects the total will rise to $100 billion by 2012.3 [See Figure
I.]
FIGURE I
Worldwide Medical Tourism Industry

(billions of U.S. dollars)
$100 billion
“Medical tourists are seeking

high quality medical care at
affordable prices.”
$40 billion
2004 2012
Source: McKinsey & Company and the Confederation of Indian Industry.

The National Center for Policy Analysis
Internationally-known hospitals, such as Bumrungrad in Thailand and

Apollo in India, report revenue growth of about 20 percent to 25 percent an-
nually.4 McKinsey & Company estimates that Indian medical tourism alone
will grow to $2.3 billion by 2012.5 Singapore hopes to treat 1 million foreign
patients that year.6
Reports on the number of patients traveling abroad for health care over
the past few years are scattered, but all tell the same story. In 2005:
l Approximately 250,000 foreign patients sought care in Singapore,
and 500,000 traveled to India for medical care.7
l Thailand treated as many as 1 million foreign patients.8
The foreign patients treated in these countries included some of the
500,000 Americans who traveled abroad for medical treatment that year.9
Residents of countries with national health insurance, including Canada
and the United Kingdom, often travel to other countries, including the United
“Medical tourists include States, because they lack timely access to elective procedures due to ration-
residents of countries with
ing. In Canada, physicians cannot privately treat their fellow Canadians if
national health insurance,
where heath care is ra- those treatments are covered by the government health plan (Medicare). Also,
tioned.” national health systems sometimes deny treatment to particular patients (for
example, because of age or physical condition), and some treatments may not
be available to any patients (for example, because of cost).10
However, for most medical tourists, including those from the United
States, the reason for travel is financial. The effect of financial incentives on
Americans’ willingness to travel for medical care is shown by a recent nation-
wide survey.
l Almost no one would travel a great distance to save $200 or less.
l Fewer than 10 percent would travel to save $500 to $1,000.
l About one-quarter of uninsured people, but only 10 percent of
those with health insurance, would travel abroad for care if the sav-
ings amounted to $1,000 to $2,400.
l For savings exceeding $10,000 about 38 percent of the uninsured
and one-quarter of those with insurance would travel abroad for
care.11
Some American medical tourists are seeking lower prices for treat-
ments not covered by insurance (such as cosmetic surgery and weight loss
surgery). Uninsured patients paying the cost out of their own pocket travel
because American hospitals often charge cash-paying, uninsured individuals
inflated “list” prices, which can be much higher than government or private in-
surers have to pay.12 Also, a small but growing number of insurers are creating
health plans that encourage enrollees to shop for better prices among approved
vendors in other countries and allow them to share in the savings. There are
also potential savings for insured patients who bear some of the cost through
copayments and deductibles. For example, if a procedure cost $4,000 less
in another country, a patient required to pay 20 percent of the cost (through a
copayment) would save $800 out of pocket.
Where Do Patients Seek Treatment? Most American medical tour-
ists seek treatment in Mexico and other Latin American countries. Clinics in
Brazil and Argentina have offered low-cost cosmetic surgery for years.13 India
and Thailand are now promoting their high-tech facilities for more serious
procedures, including hip and knee replacements and cardiac surgery.14 Other
destinations include Singapore, Belgium and South Africa.15 Many Northern
and Western Europeans travel to Central and Eastern Europe for low-cost
medical and dental services.16 [See the sidebar, “Medical Tourism Destina-
tions.”]
Cross-Border Medical Tourism. It may be impractical for sick
Americans to travel to faraway places like India and Thailand for major sur-
gery. But many types of medical services are available nearby — in Mexico
and elsewhere in Latin America .
Mexico. Mexican physicians have a thriving business treating Ameri-
“Most American medi- can (and Canadian) retirees searching for of low-cost drugs, dental care and
cal tourists seek treatment
in Mexico and other Latin physician services.17 Prices in Mexico are about 40 percent lower than in the
American countries.” United States. Cash-paying, uninsured Americans can find better deals on
procedures in Mexico, including price quotes and package prices, which most
American hospitals do not offer.18
Indeed, some Arizona retirement communities have regular bus tours
to take residents across the Mexican border for prescription drugs and dental
care.19 Some health plans in Southern California offer lower premiums and
copayments to patients who use network providers across the border in Ti-
juana.20 Facilities are being built in Mexican border towns to take advantage
of these plans.21
Dallas-based International Hospital Corp. operates four Mexican
hospitals, three close to the U.S. border and one near Mexico City (it has other
facilities in Brazil and Costa Rica).22 A Mexican partnership called Christus
Muguerza is building and operating hospitals in Mexico that meet American
standards. It has identified 40 communities along the U.S.-Mexican border
where it intends to build facilities.23
Some 40,000 to 80,000 American seniors live in Mexico. In addi-
tion to health care at lower prices (Medicare does not cover care outside the
United States), a number of them receive nursing home care at bargain prices.
In most areas of the United States, the cost of nursing home care can easily
surpass $60,000 per year. But in Mexico, high quality long-term care costs
only about one-fourth as much. For about $1,300 per month, a senior can get
a studio apartment that includes laundry service, cleaning, meal preparation
and access to around-the-clock nursing care.24
Medical Tourism Destinations

Cost and quality are obviously the most important factors patients consider in
choosing specific destinations for treatment. But many patients also consider amenities
commonly found in resorts and hotels.
India. Despite the long travel time involved, India is a popular destination for
medical tourists. It arguably has the lowest cost and highest quality of all medical tourism
destinations, and English is widely spoken. Several hospitals are accredited by the Joint
Commission International (JCI) and staffed by highly trained physicians. Prices can be
obtained in advance, and many hospitals bundle services into a package deal that includes
the medical procedure and the cost of treating any complications.1 Hotel accommodations
are extra, but hospitals often have hotel rooms or can offer discounts for hotels nearby.
Thailand. This popular destination for medical tourists rivals India in price and
quality. Thailand’s large tourist industry is one reason it has a better infrastructure and less
noticeable poverty than India.2 Prices are typically not as low as in India, and Thai hospi-
tals do not offer fixed pricing. However, food and lodging during recuperation will likely
be less expensive than in India due to Thailand’s competitive tourism industry.3 Bangkok’s
Bumrungrad International Hospital is a world-class private health care facility built for
wealthy Thais, but foreigners comprise more than one-third of its patients.
Singapore. English is also widely spoken in this former British colony, located ap-
proximately 1,000 miles south of Bangkok. Singapore has modern, high-quality hospitals
and is home to three hospitals accredited by the JCI.4 Prices are higher than in Thailand or
India but are much lower than in the United States.
Central and South America. Mexico has been popular for some time with Ameri-
can patients seeking primary and dental care. But to attract cash-paying American patients
for surgical services, health care systems are building hospitals and clinics with the high
level of service and amenities that American patients have come to expect. For instance,
Americans expect professional medical staff and upscale private rooms in clean, modern
facilities. They also expect high-tech equipment that American hospitals would possess.
Other Latin American countries provide services as well:
l Costa Rica is best known for quality dental work, with prices one-third to one-
half of those in the United States.5
l Colombia is a favorite destination for cosmetic surgery.6
l Argentina and Brazil have long been known for cut-rate plastic surgery, and
more advanced treatments are becoming available.7
Plenitas is a Buenos Aires-based boutique clinic that arranges medical travel.8 Al-
though most of the services provided are cosmetic surgeries, it also offers in vitro fertiliza-
tion and bariatric (weight loss) surgery.9 Nine Brazilian organizations have established a
health care consortium to market Brazil as a medical tourism destination in various coun-
tries.10
Europe. Northern and Western Europeans have numerous opportunities to get

lower-cost medical and dental care:
l Germans favor Szczecin, Poland, less than 100 miles from Berlin, for low-cost,
high-quality dental work.
l Sopron, Hungary, less than an hour’s drive from Vienna, Austria, caters to
medical tourists. Sopron has more than 200 dentists and 200 optometrists, 10
times as many as would be expected in a town of 20,000 people.11
1
Information from PlanetHospital Web site; and Malathy Iyer, “India Out to Heal the World,” Times of
India, October 26, 2004.
2
Conversation with Tom Borta, PlanetHospital’s vice president client relations, September 2006. India
has a shortage of hotels, and its infrastructure is notoriously poor. See “Tourism without infrastructure?”
December 2006. Available at http://healthabroad.net/blog/?p=88. Access verified June 2007. Also see
“Shortage of 1.5 Lakh Hotel Rooms: Govt,” ZeeNews.com, November 30, 2006. Available at http://
www.zeenews.com/znnew/articles.asp?rep=2&aid=339065&ssid=50&sid=BUS. Access verified June 22,
2007.
3
Information from PlanetHospital Web site.
4
Ibid.
5
Jeff Schult, “A New Smile (for Half the Price),” Northeast (Hartford Courant), May 23, 2004. Available
at http://www.tftb.com/beautyfromafar/. Accessed April 30, 2007. This work was later expanded into
the book by Jeff Schult, Beauty from Afar: A Medical Tourist’s Guide to Affordable and Quality Cosmetic
Care Outside the U.S. (New York: Stewart, Tabori & Chang, 2006).
6
See http://www.PlasticSurgeryJourneys.com.
7
“Oliver Balch Charts the Irresistible Rise of the Tango-and-Boob-Job Break in Argentina,” Guardian
Unlimited, October 24, 2006.
8
Ibid.
9
Web site http://www.plenitas.com.
10
Marina Sarruf, “Brazil Wants to Make Medical Tourism a One-Million Dollar Industry,” Brazzil Maga-
zine, February 8, 2007.
11
Sharon Reier, “Medical Tourism: Border Hopping for Cheaper and Faster Care Gains Converts,” Inter-
national Herald Tribune, April 24, 2004.
Latin America. Costa Rica and Panama are popular destinations

for medical travel. Around 150,000 foreigners sought care in Costa Rica in
2006.25 This is amazing, considering that Costa Rica is a country of only about
4 million people. By contrast, in 2006 just 250,000 foreigners sought care in
the United States — a country with nearly 300 million more residents.26
Panama has high quality health care, concentrated primarily in the
metropolitan areas. Medical standards at Panama’s top hospitals are compa-
rable to those in the United States. Indeed, many Panamanian physicians were
trained in the United States. Hospital Punta Pacifica in Panama City, Panama,
is an affiliate of U.S.-based Johns Hopkins International.27 Medical care in
Panama is 40 percent to 70 percent less expensive than in the United States.28
Medical Tourism within the United States. Domestic medical
travel involving patients seeking more advanced treatment facilities in other
cities or states is relatively common. Specialty hospitals built to provide ortho-
pedic and cardiac treatment attract patients from many communities. These
facilities generally provide better quality care and higher patient satisfaction
than general hospitals.29 Many patients travel great distances to receive care at
the world-renowned Cleveland Clinic and the Mayo Clinic, two high quality
health care providers.
How Patients Obtain Treatment Abroad

Patients who aren’t familiar with specific medical facilities abroad
can coordinate their treatment through medical travel intermediaries. Many
intermediaries use the Internet to recruit patients.30 These services work like
specialized travel agents.31 Clients of MedRetreat, for example, can choose
from a menu of 183 medical procedures from seven different countries: India,
Thailand, Malaysia, Brazil, Argentina, Turkey and South Africa.32
Intermediaries investigate health care providers and screen customers
to assess those who are physically well enough to travel. Some intermediar-
“Medical intermediaries help ies are affiliated with specific medical providers and send patients exclusively
patients select physicians and to those providers. But most intermediaries seek to create a broad network of
hospitals.” providers and destinations to meet the diverse needs of patients. For instance,
some patients might prefer to pay a higher fee in exchange for less travel time,
while others might be willing to travel greater distances to save money.
In addition, intermediaries often have doctors and nurses on staff to as-
sess the medical efficacy of procedures and help patients select physicians and
hospitals. For example, Medical Tours International, which sent more than
1,300 patients abroad in 2005, employs medical personnel to assist patients in
trip planning and treatment decisions.33
One of the best-known firms in the medical tourism industry is Califor-
nia-based PlanetHospital. [See the sidebar, “PlanetHospital.”]
PlanetHospital
PlanetHospital is a medical tourism intermediary that screens pro-
viders to ensure quality of care and assists in connecting patients to interna-
tional health care providers. The company only refers patients to providers
with recognized credentials that meet American standards. Once Plane-
tHospital has identified quality health care providers, it works closely with
them to ensure they maintain quality and provide superior patient services.
If the providers fail to do so, they are dropped from the referral network.
Initial patient screening consists of these steps:
l When a client contacts PlanetHospital, the medical staff reviews
the patient’s medical history to determine whether or not he or
she is well enough to travel.

“PlanetHospital charges a
flat fee for medical intermedi- l Staff members then help the client choose an appropriate physi-
ary services.”
cian and destination.
l The client’s medical records are digitized and placed online to
allow physicians in the destination country to review his or her
medical history.
l PlanetHospital then arranges a conference call between the po-
tential patient and physician to discuss the procedure.
Once the patient chooses a physician, PlanetHospital assigns a case
manager from the destination country to make arrangements for the proce-
dure, including additional details such as cell phone service, transportation
and airport transfers. Case managers attend to all needs that arise while the
patient is in the destination country. While some intermediaries charge a
percentage of the fees patients pay for medical care, PlanetHospital charges
a $295 concierge fee for arranging medical trips.

FIGURE II
Cost of Rhinoplasty
(thousands of U.S. dollars)
$4,500
$3,500
“Pricing is highly competi-

tive for procedures that aren’t
covered by insurance.” $1,500
$850
India Croatia, United United

Egypt, Turkey Kingdom States
Source: Sarah Dawson with Keith Pollard, “Guide to Medical Tourism,” Treat-
mentAbroad.net, 2007; and “Cosmetic Plastic Surgery Costs,” available
at http://www.cosmeticplasticsurgerystatistics.com/costs.html.
Why Treatment Abroad Costs Less

Fees for treatments abroad range from one-half to as little as one-fifth
of the price in the United States. In some cases prices are 80 percent lower
abroad. Savings vary depending upon the destination country and type of
procedure performed.
For example:
l Apollo Hospital in New Delhi, India, charges $4,000 for cardiac
surgery, compared to about $30,000 in the United States.
l Hospitals in Argentina, Singapore or Thailand charge $8,000 to
$12,000 for a partial hip replacement — one-half the price charged
in Europe or the United States.
l Hospitals in Singapore charge $18,000 and hospitals in India
charge only $12,000 for a knee replacement that runs $30,000 in
the United States.
l A rhinoplasty (nose reconstruction) procedure that costs only $850
in India would cost $4,500 in the United States.34 [See Figure II.]
Patients can also find lower-priced nonsurgical procedures and tests

abroad:
l An MRI in Brazil, Costa Rica, India, Mexico, Singapore or Thai-
land costs from $200 to $300, compared to more than $1,000 in the
United States.35
l A six-hour comprehensive fitness exam — including an echocar-
diogram, stress test, lung-function test and ultrasound of internal
organs — costs only $125 at India’s Rajan Dhall Hospital; a simi-
lar battery of tests in the United States could easily top $4,000.36
Why Are Foreign Hospitals Able to Offer Lower Prices? Prices for
treatment are lower in foreign hospitals for a number of reasons.
Labor costs. In the United States, labor costs equal more than half of
hospital operating revenue, on the average.37 Wage rates and other labor costs
are lower overseas; specifics were not available, but as one example, at Fortis
hospitals in India:38
FIGURE III
Private Out-of-Pocket Spending on Health Care

78%
51%
“Prices are lower where

patients pay out of pocket for
health care.”
26%
13%
United Thailand Mexico India

States
Source: Sarah Dawson with Keith Pollard, “Guide to Medical Tourism,” Treat-
mentAbroad.net, 2007; and “Cosmetic Plastic Surgery Costs,” available
at http://www.cosmeticplasticsurgerystatistics.com/costs.html.
10 The National Center for Policy Analysis
l Doctors earn about 40 percent less than comparable physicians in

the United States.
l Median nurses’ salaries are one-fifth to one-twentieth of those in
the United States.
l The wages of unskilled and semiskilled labor, such as janitors and
orderlies, are also much less.
These lower labor costs make it much less expensive to build and oper-
ate hospitals in other countries.39
Less (or No) Third-Party Payment. Markets tend to be bureaucratic
and stifling when insurers or governments pay most medical bills.40 In the
United States, third parties (insurers, employers and government) pay for about
87 percent of health care.41 So patients spend only 13 cents out of pocket
for every dollar they spend on health care. As a result, they do not shop like
consumers do when they are spending their own money, and the providers who
serve them rarely compete for their business based on price.
A much higher percentage of private health spending is out of pocket
in countries with growing, entrepreneurial medical markets. For instance,
patients pay 26 percent of health care spending out of pocket in Thailand, 51
percent in Mexico and 78 percent in India.42 [See Figure III.] When patients
control more of their own health care spending, providers are more likely to
compete for patients based on price. Consequently, these countries have more
competitive private health care markets.
In the United States, the markets for those medical services for which
patients usually pay out of pocket, such as elective cosmetic surgery or vision
correction (Lasik), are much more entrepreneurial and competitive. Patients
control the dollars that pay for these procedures, so physicians compete with
one another on price. For example, the cost of standard Lasik has fallen about
20 percent over six years.
Price Transparency and Package Pricing. One criticism of American
hospitals and clinics is that prices are difficult to obtain and often meaningless
“Package prices for services
are common.” when they are disclosed.43 Patients who ask potential providers to quote a price
are likely to be disappointed.44 In fact, many people have little idea of the cost
of medical treatments. A recent Harris Poll found:45
l Consumers can guess the price of a new Honda Accord within
$1,000, but when asked to estimate the cost of a four-day hospital
stay, those same consumers were off by $12,000!
l Furthermore, 68 percent of those who had received recent medical
care did not know the cost until the bill arrived, and 11 percent said
they never learned the cost at all.
In the international health care marketplace, the situation is quite dif-
ferent. Package prices are common, and medical travel intermediaries help
Medical Tourism: Global Competition in Health Care 11
TABLE I
The Cost of Medical

Procedures in Selected Countries
(in U.S. dollars)
U.S. U.S.
Procedure Retail Price* Insurers’ Cost* India** Thailand** Singapore**
Angioplasty $98,618 $44,268 $11,000 $13,000 $13,000
Heart bypass $210,842 $94,277 $10,000 $12,000 $20,000
Heart-valve
“Cash-paying patients pay replacement $274,395 $122,969 $9,500 $10,500 $13,000
higher prices than insurers in (single)
most U.S. hospitals.” Hip replacement $75,399 $31,485 $9,000 $12,000 $12,000
Knee replacement $69,991 $30,358 $8,500 $10,000 $13,000
Gastric bypass $82,646 $47,735 $11,000 $15,000 $15,000
Spinal fusion $108,127 $43,576 $5,500 $7,000 $9,000
Mastectomy $40,832 $16,833 $7,500 $9,000 $12,400
*
Retail price and insurers’ costs represent the mid-point between low and high ranges.
**
U.S. rates include at least one day of hospitalization; international rates include
airfare, hospital and hotel.
Sources: Subimo (U.S. rates); PlanetHospital (international rates), cited in Unmesh
Kher, “Outsourcing Your Heart,” Time, May 21, 2006.
patients compare prices. [For examples, see Table I.] Even providers who
do not offer fixed pricing will provide reasonably accurate price quotes. As a
result, medical centers and clinics that treat large numbers of medical tourists
routinely quote prices in advance and look for ways to reduce patients’ costs.46
Few Cross-Subsidies. In American full-service nonprofit general hos-
pitals, revenues from treatments for some patients are used to cover the costs
of providing treatments to other patients. This cross-subsidization is possible
because some medical procedures produce more revenue than it costs to pro-
vide them. For example, the revenue from routine heart catheterization pro-
cedures or diagnostic imaging systems in a community hospital might be used
to subsidize indigent health care or the cost of operating the emergency room.
This means that a hospital’s charges for the heart procedure more than cover
its costs, but its charges for emergency room care do not cover those costs. If
there is no competition for the business of heart patients in the hospital’s ser-
vice area, it can cross-subsidize without losing revenue.
However, a provider who does not cross-subsidize could offer the
cardiac treatment for a lower price or could make a profit charging the same
price. In the United States, such providers have emerged in the form of highly
efficient specialty hospitals. Nonprofit community hospitals complain that
specialty hospitals skim off lucrative surgeries but do not provide the services
that community hospitals do, such as emergency departments and charity care
for the uninsured. This has led to a moratorium on new specialty hospitals in
the Medicare program.47
Streamlined Services. Some foreign medical providers operate highly
efficient “focused factories.” These are specialty clinics and hospitals where
tasks and procedures have been streamlined for the highest efficiency — simi-
lar to the way a Toyota automotive plant operates.48 For example, Fortis
Healthcare’s Rajan Dhall Hospital in New Delhi uses a business model that
combines the personalized service of the hotel industry with the industrial
processes of an automaker — both industries in which its senior executives
have experience.49 Jasbir Grewal, Rajan Dhall’s vice president for operations,
spent years working for the Hilton hotel chain. He describes their hospital as
“a hotel providing clinical medical excellence.” Fortis chairman Harpal Singh,
who came from the automotive industry, emphasizes the need to streamline
processes in such a way that procedures can be performed quickly and effi-
ciently.50
Limited Malpractice Liability. Malpractice litigation costs are also
lower in other countries than in the United States. While American physicians
in some specialties pay more than $100,000 annually for a liability insurance
policy, a physician in Thailand spends about $5,000 per year. Thailand does
not compensate victims of negligence for noneconomic damages, and malprac-
tice awards are far lower than in the United States.51
Fewer Regulations. Excessive health care regulations in the United
States prevent American hospitals from making the sort of collaborative ar-
“Foreign hospitals have
fewer cost-increasing regula-
rangements many international hospitals use. For instance, facilities abroad
tions and cross-subsidies.” can structure physicians’ compensation to create financial incentives for the
doctors to provide efficient care, whereas American hospitals usually cannot.
The reason: Physician compensation arrangements in American hospitals can-
not violate the Stark (anti-kickback) laws.
Foreign hospitals can also employ physicians directly — a practice pro-
hibited by many states.52 For instance, physicians in India contract with hospi-
tals to provide a certain number of hours per month in return for a guaranteed
fixed fee. Patients select the hospital based on reputation and then choose an
appropriate doctor who works with the hospital. In this regard, physicians
depend on hospitals for business rather than the other way around.
Ensuring Quality for Medical Tourists

Some American medical trade groups caution patients about the quality
of treatment abroad.53 Speaking of foreign medical providers, Bruce Cun-
FIGURE IV
Cardiac Surgery Mortality
13.8%
California Hospitals
6.2%
2.9% Hospitals that Treat

International Patients
2.1%
<1% <1% <1%
0%
University of Fountain California Desert Beverly Cleveland Apollo Wockhardt

California Davis Valley Hospital Regional Hospital1 Clinic2 Hospital Hospitals3
Medical Center1 Regional Average1 Medical Group3
Medical Center1
Center1
1
Zhongmin Li et al., “Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery in California: 2003 Hospital Data, California CABG
Outcomes Reporting Program, Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development, February 2006.” Available
at http://www.oshpd.cahwnet.gov/HQAD/Outcomes/Studies/cabg/2003Report/2003Report.pdf. Access verified June
22, 2007.
2
The mortality rate for primary isolated CABG is 0.6 percent. See “Welcome to the Department of Cardiovascular
Surgery,” Cleveland Clinic Foundation Web site. Available at https://www.ccf.org/heartcenter/pub/about/specialties/
cvsurgery.asp. Access verified June 22, 2007.
3
Arnold Milstein and Mark Smith, “Will the Surgical World Become Flat?” Health Affairs, Vol. 26, No. 1, January/
February 2007, pages 137-141.
ningham, president of the American Society of Plastic Surgeons, told the U.S.
Senate Select Committee on Aging, “Without a complete understanding of
the medical standards for the health institution or facility, medical providers,
surgical training, credentials, and postoperative care associated with surgery,
a patient can be ill-informed — and worse, at significant risk.”54 In fact,
Cunningham’s warning could easily apply to U.S. hospitals as well. Informa-
tion on quality is not readily available to patients, and what is available is often
difficult to interpret or irrelevant.
Measuring Quality. Despite claims of high U.S. standards, results
“The quality of American vary widely by hospital. Consider one of the most commonly performed
hospitals varies widely.” procedures in the United States today — coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
surgery:
l Hospitals in California that perform CABG surgery have an aver-
age mortality rate of nearly 3 percent (2.91).55
l The California average is nearly four times higher than the Cleve-
land Clinic, considered the best hospital in the nation by U.S. News
& World Report.56
Closer inspection of California hospitals shows wide variations in quality:57
[See Figure IV.]
l The University of California Davis Medical Center experienced no
deaths among the 136 patients receiving CABG surgery in 2003.
l Fountain Valley’s mortality rate of 2.14 percent was below the state
average of 2.91 percent.
l But Desert Regional Medical Center, which performed a similar
volume of surgeries, had a mortality rate of more than 6 percent
— twice the California average and 10 times Cleveland Clinic’s
average.
l Beverly Hospital performs few CABG procedures, which may
explain its high mortality rate of 13.79 percent.
How does the quality of facilities overseas compare to those in the
United States? Some of the more prestigious providers, such as Apollo Hospi-
“A number of foreign hos- tal Group and Wockhardt Hospitals (which is affiliated with Harvard Medical
pitals are accredited in the
United States.”
School) in India, and Bumrungrad International Hospital in Thailand, offer a
better level of care than the average community hospital in the United States.58
[See the sidebar on Bumrungrad.]
As in the United States, many hospitals abroad do not disclose recog-
nized quality indicators. But most hospitals that compete on the international
level generally do.
l Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical Center in New Hampshire and
Ohio’s Cleveland Clinic have quality indicators on their Web
sites.59
Bumrungrad
Bumrungrad International Hospital in Bangkok, Thailand, is a mod-
ern multispecialty hospital with 554 beds, accredited by the Joint Commis-
sion International.1 Its main 12-story building was constructed in 1997 to
comply with U.S. hospital building and safety standards. The medical staff
of more than 900 includes about 200 U.S. board-certified physicians. Many
others hold licenses in Australia, Europe and Japan. A team of 800 nurses
assists with patient care.
“A number of foreign hos- Bumrungrad tracks more than 500 measures of quality and patient
pitals are accredited in the
United States.” safety. It treats about 430,000 medical tourists a year from 190 different
countries. This number included nearly 60,000 American patients in 2005.2
Bumrungrad is equipped with all the latest diagnostic equipment. It
has 150 clinical exam suites, two cardiac catheterization labs and 19 operat-
ing theaters, two of which are specifically designed for cardiac surgeries.
The hospital uses Global Care Solutions’ Hospital 2000®, a sophis-
ticated health information technology system. This software is designed
to recognize and prevent dangerous drug interactions, store patient records
electronically and fully integrate all areas of patient management and hospi-
tal operations.3
The hospital staff assists patients with travel arrangements, airport
pickup, interpreters and lodging if needed. Seventy-five percent of Bum-
rungrad’s patients pay cash for services.4
1
Bumrungrad Web site http://www.bumrungrad.com/.
2
Louisa Kamps, “The Medical Vacation,” Travel + Leisure, July 3, 2006.
3
Global Care Solutions Web site http://www.hospital2000.com/.
4
Mark Roth, “$12 for a Half Day of Massage for Back Pain,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette,
September 10, 2006.
l National University Hospital Singapore also discloses information

demonstrating that its quality compares very favorably internation-
ally.60
l India’s Apollo Hospital Group has devised a clinical excellence
model to ensure its quality meets international health care standards
across all its hospitals.61
Other Indian hospitals are working to create standards for reporting
performance measures.
Electronic Medical Records. Because potential medical tourists
must first be evaluated remotely, most large health care providers and medical
intermediaries for patients use electronic medical records (EMRs) to store and
access patient files. Patients can then discuss the procedures with potential
physicians via conference call.62 Modern hospitals abroad also use information
technology to identify potential drug interactions, manage patient caseloads
and store radiology and laboratory test results.63
By contrast, only about one out of four U.S. hospitals store medical re-
cords electronically.64 Third parties pay 87 percent of medical bills in the U.S.
health care system, and most of the third parties do not reimburse physicians
or hospitals for the use of EMRs. Since others pay the bills, patients usually
do not choose hospitals or physicians based on their use of EMRs.65
Hospital Accreditation. More than 120 hospitals abroad are accredited
by the Joint Commission International (JCI), an arm of the Joint Commission
for the Accreditation of Hospitals that accredits American hospitals participat-
ing in Medicare.66 The International Standards Organization (ISO) also ac-
credits hospitals that meet internationally agreed-upon standards. Nearly 150
foreign hospitals are accredited by ISO and JCI.67
In addition, some countries are adopting their own accreditation stan-
dards. For instance, the Indian Healthcare Federation is developing accredita-
tion standards for its members in an attempt to reassure potential patients about
India’s high quality health care.68
“Some American hospitals Hospital Affiliation. Some foreign hospitals are owned, managed or
have foreign affiliates.” affiliated with prestigious American universities or health care systems:
l The Cleveland Clinic owns facilities in Canada and Vienna, Aus-
tria; and in Abu Dhabi, the clinic already manages an existing facil-
ity and is building a new hospital.69
l Wockhardt (India) is affiliated with Harvard Medical School.70
l Hospital Punta Pacifica in Panama City, Panama, is an affiliate of
U.S.-based Johns Hopkins International.71
l JCI-accredited International Medical Centre in Singapore is also
affiliated with Johns Hopkins International.72
l Dallas-based International Hospital Corp. is building and operating

hospitals in Mexico that meet American standards.73
l Bumrungrad International Hospital in Thailand has an American
management team to provide American-style care.74
Physician Credentials. Foreign health care providers and medical
travel intermediaries also compete on quality by touting the credentials of the
medical staff. These physicians are often U.S. board-certified, while others
“Some foreign hospitals have have internationally respected credentials. Many of the physicians working
U.S. trained or U.S. certified
physicians.” with medical tourists were trained in the United States, Australia, Canada or
Europe. Nearly two-thirds of the physicians who work with PlanetHospital
have either fellowships with medical societies in the United States or the Unit-
ed Kingdom, or are certified for a particular specialty by a medical board.75
Online Communities. Potential patients can get some idea of the
safety and quality of medical providers by searching online for testimonies of
patients who have had surgery abroad. These Internet communities facilitate
the exchange of information about providers, including facility cleanliness,
convenience, price, satisfaction with medical services and the availability of
lodging while recuperating.
PlasticSurgeryJourneys.com has built such a community. Members,
including both former and prospective patients, can exchange information in
online discussion forums on such topics as destinations, specific physicians
and types of surgery. Members answer questions about side effects, complica-
tions and occasionally even discuss patients who have died from surgery. A
few members who had cosmetic surgery have even posted before-and-after
photos. If a facility performed low-quality work on a member, others in the
community know to avoid the provider.76 For example, patients who were
disfigured by Mexican cosmetic surgeons created a Web site (http://www.ciru-
janosplasticos.info) to warn away other patients. HealthMedicalTourism.org
is another Web site with a forum where members can interact.77 Authors of
books on medical tourism also interact with readers online. Jeff Schult, author
of Beauty From Afar, has links to articles, reviews and a blog where readers
can comment on topics of interest.78
When Things Go Wrong. Even with the most skilled physicians, pa-
tients may have adverse outcomes. When a medical tourist experiences injury
or even death, it is natural to wonder whether a poorly trained physician or
substandard hospital played a part. Of course, sometimes adverse events are
due to the patient’s pre-existing health conditions or other factors not the fault
of the physician; but, as with any service providers, doctors aren’t perfect.
Little evidence exists to indicate that botched operations are a wide-
spread problem in the medical tourism industry. Anecdotal evidence tends
to involve cosmetic surgery patients who went to facilities that were not
screened by a respected intermediary or whose physicians’ credentials were
not checked.
Sometimes complications from cosmetic surgery are due to a patient’s

having too many procedures performed too soon. Most American physicians
advise against multiple or consecutive cosmetic surgeries in a short period of
time. But patients often have limited time off from work and consider travel
and recuperative time as part of the cost of surgery. Thus they are tempted to
economize by having more work done than is medically recommended.
Some foreign physicians entice patients with package deals that com-
bine multiple surgeries for one low price. It is not uncommon for South Amer-
ican doctors to offer package prices that include full body liposuction, a breast
lift or augmentation (with implant) and a tummy tuck.79 The package price
can be as low as $6,500 (plus travel and lodging) in Colombia, Costa Rica
or Mexico. The comparable surgery costs $12,000 to $15,000 — and some-
times as much as $30,000 — in the United States.80 Women who receive that
much cosmetic surgery at one time often find recuperation slow and extremely
painful. They may also need postoperative monitoring in a clinic for several
days with intravenous antibiotics and blood transfusions, all of which can add
several thousand dollars to their cost.81
The Web-based intermediaries mentioned elsewhere in this study could
help potential patients more carefully choose a destination and physician
“Patients should check the through a rating system similar to those found for travel and hotels on eBay,
credentials and quality of Orbitz, Travelocity or Expedia. A rating system would help steer patients to
foreign providers.”
facilities that have more satisfied customers.82 Health care providers that fail
to supply the quality and level of service American patients expect would be
blackballed, or at the very least learn valuable lessons about what patients
want.
Foreign laws governing medical liability are not as strict as those in
the United States, nor is malpractice compensation as generous. Foreign
physicians typically do not carry the same level of malpractice insurance as
do American physicians.83 The threshold for malpractice is higher outside the
United States, and there is limited recourse through the court system in some
countries. Injured patients may not even have the right to sue at all.84
Moreover, a medical tourist would have no recourse through the Amer-
ican court system. It is doubtful an American court would hold an intermediary
liable since medical tourism “matchmakers” are not health care providers, and,
thus cannot commit malpractice.85
Reputable facilities abroad will work hard to prevent and correct
problems. Although it rarely happens, patients may have to travel back for
follow-up care if they do not have a U.S. physician willing to provide it. A
patient may travel overseas again because the cost of treating unexpected com-
plications is lower abroad. Additionally, some providers include treatment for
complications in their package price.86
Medical Malpractice Insurance by Contract. Medical tourists who

have little recourse in foreign courts when malpractice occurs have another
option: They can purchase a medical malpractice policy that pays in the event
a procedure is botched from AOS Assurance Company Limited, an insurer
based in Barbados.
One of the ways AOS ensures quality (and reduces its risk) is by
covering only procedures performed in accredited hospitals by credentialed
physicians. For instance, an American patient needing angioplasty can obtain
$250,000 of coverage for a fee of $1,124.55. A patient wanting $100,000 in
“Medical tourists can pur-
chase malpractice insurance financial protection against a botched facelift would pay $225.87 In the event
to obtain compensation for of medical malpractice, AOS Assurance Company Limited will compensate
bad outcomes.” insured patients or their beneficiaries for lost wages, repair costs, out-of-pock-
et expenses, rehabilitation, severe disfigurement, loss of reproductive capacity
and death.88 Claims are administered by an independent, Canadian-based firm,
Crawford & Company.
How Globalization Is
Changing the U.S. Health Care System
For the United States, globalization of health care encompasses both
exporting patients (medical tourism) and importing medical services (out-
sourcing). This medical trade has the potential to increase competition and
efficiency in the United States.89 Princeton University health economist Uwe
Reinhardt says the effect of global competition on American health care could
rival the impact of Japanese automakers on the U.S. auto industry — forcing
domestic producers to improve quality and to offer consumers more choices.90
Apart from patient travel, many medical tasks can be outsourced to
skilled professionals abroad when the physical presence of a physician is
unnecessary. This can include long-distance collaboration — incorporating
the services of foreign medical staff into the practices of American medical
providers. Finally, global competitors can build facilities closer to the United
States and selectively contract with U.S. health insurers.
Outsourcing Medical Services. Information technology makes it
possible to provide many medical services remotely, including outsourcing
them to other countries.91 Telemedicine — the use of information technology
to treat or monitor patients remotely by telephone, Web cam or video feed
— is becoming common in areas where physicians are scarce.92 It gives rural
residents access to specialists and will probably become the preferred way to
monitor patients with chronic conditions.
Outsourcing often results in lower costs, higher quality and greater
convenience.93 Some clerical tasks, such as medical transcription — entering
physician notes and dictation into a patient’s electronic medical record — are
already outsourced. American hospitals increasingly use radiologists in India

and other countries to read X-rays.94 For instance, NightHawk Radiology Ser-
vices contracts with American board-certified physicians living in Australia for
overnight interpretations of X-rays and scans.95 Other medical tasks that don’t
require the physical presence of a physician could also be outsourced to lower-
cost doctors abroad.96 The British National Health Service (NHS) is consider-
ing using doctors in India to read some lab tests and MRI scans.97
PlanetHospital has offered to work with U.S. hospitals to set up local
imaging centers that would use physicians in India to read imaging scans. An
MRI scan could be performed profitably for as little as $400 to $500 — far less
than typical U.S. prices.98
Opportunities for American and Foreign Health Care Providers to
Collaborate. Helping patients properly manage a chronic condition is often
complex and time consuming.99 Outcomes could be improved if teams of
medical providers worked together to improve all aspects of medical treatment
through aggressive management.100
When multiple physicians are treating a patient, a case manager could
ensure that all physicians are coordinating their efforts. However, such close
“Outsourcing some medical monitoring and interaction is labor-intensive and costly. Often these tasks
tasks can reduce costs and
improve quality.”
are not reimbursed or are reimbursed at rates lower than the cost of providing
them. A potential solution is for American health care providers to collaborate
with low-cost providers in developing countries by having them perform these
labor-intensive tasks that don’t require the physical presence of a physician.
Telemedicine, which involves remote consultation, monitoring and
treatment of patients, is increasingly being used in disease management pro-
grams.101 Past research has already shown that telemedicine can improve
adherence to protocols and increase convenience for patients with chronic
ailments.102 Thus, it is a logical to outsource some of disease management or
remote health coaching to places where labor costs are lower.
Creating New Heath Insurance Plans that Cover Medical Travel.
Currently, most insurers do not include foreign providers in their networks,
but they may in the future.103 Mercer Health, an employee benefits consult-
ing firm, is working with several Fortune 500 employers to take advantage of
medical travel.104 Several health insurers are also experimenting with interna-
tional coverage. Milica Bookman, a professor at St. Joseph University, pre-
dicts that by 2009, it will become increasingly common for mainstream health
insurers to include foreign providers in their networks.105 The following are
some examples of insurance products that already use foreign providers.
Access Baja. BlueShield of California has a health network designed
for people who choose to get their medical care in Mexico. Access Baja was
implemented a year after California passed legislation in 1999 allowing the
state’s insurers to reimburse providers in Mexico.106 Although many of the

enrollees are Mexican nationals who cross the U.S. border each day to work,
employers on both sides of the border can offer this plan to their workers.
However, the plan requires enrollees to live within 50 miles of the border to
easily access the Mexican primary care physicians in the BlueShield network.
By 2005, nearly 40,000 people had signed up for coverage offered by Mexican
health care providers.107
Because Mexican medical care costs less, Access Baja premiums
are less than two-thirds the cost of the alternative BlueShield of California
plans.108 Hispanic enrollees can have a doctor who is fluent in Spanish and
understands their culture. An added convenience is that Mexican physicians
are often available for same-day appointments, as well as evenings and on
weekends.109
Networks with Foreign Hospitals. Some health plans take advantage
of the potential in allowing enrollees to travel abroad for lower-cost treat-
ments. In February 2007, BlueCross BlueShield of South Carolina added
“Some health plans cover
Bumrungrad International Hospital in Thailand to its network.110 South Caro-
treatment in foreign coun- lina BlueCross BlueShield does not plan to require patients to go abroad for
tries.” lower-cost care, nor is it actively considering using financial incentives to en-
courage patients to travel abroad. Rather it is a value-added service available
to members who request it. While no patients have thus far taken advantage
of this service, it may benefit underinsured patients facing steep out-of-pocket
payments.
Other Options. As the medical tourism trend grows, other U.S.-based
companies in the health industry are looking at ways to offer medical travel
that is at least partially covered by health insurance.
l Over the next few years, at least 40 company-sponsored health
plans will offer overseas options through United Group Programs,
a health insurer in Boca Raton, Florida.111
l In 2006, West Virginia's legislature held hearings on the possibil-
ity of including foreign hospitals in its state employees’ health plan
network.112
l And the medical tourism firms IndUSHealth and PlanetHospital are
in the process of creating health insurance products that combine
American-based primary care with foreign travel for expensive
procedures.113
PlanetHospital. PlanetHospital is working with a major insurer to
design a low-cost health plan. Initially, PlanetHospital plans to roll out a
limited benefit plan, sometimes referred to as a “mini-med” plan, based on the
casualty insurance model where the benefit is a specific sum of money. These
types of plans generally provide coverage for a limited number of physician
visits each year, a limited amount of inpatient care and sometimes coverage
for prescription drugs. Mini-med policies typically cap benefits at a maximum
of about $25,000 annually.114 Since the amounts these policies will pay are
relatively low, patients can expect significant cost-sharing for medical care.
But this provides an incentive for patients to carefully shop to avoid high out-
of-pocket costs.
The unique part of PlanetHospital’s plan is that it will reimburse
patients the same amount for each particular service, regardless of where it is
performed. Thus a patient could significantly lower out-of-pocket costs by go-
“New health plans offer a ing abroad for treatment. For instance, an enrollee who needs a heart proce-
fixed payment per procedure dure could easily spend more than $50,000 at a hospital in the United States.
to encourage patients to shop A mini-med policy may pay only $10,000 toward the cost. But abroad, the
for health care.”
same surgery could cost less than $10,000, including travel, thus making the
mini-med a sensible and affordable alternative. Because coverage is limited,
this policy will cost about $50 to $100 a month, only a fraction of a traditional
health plan.115
PlanetHosptial’s first step will be a health plan aimed at El Salvador-
ans living in the United States. Enrollees would receive a limited number of
primary care visits locally under the plan and could travel to El Salvador for
covered major medical needs. If the plan proves successful, additional ones
will follow for countries such as Mexico and India. Coverage under one of
these “mini-med” plans might cost a family as little as $200 per month.116
Effects of Increased Competition on U.S. Health Care Markets.
Global competition could lower the cost of some medical procedures. At the
same time, increased international competition for qualified medical person-
nel could raise labor costs in the United States. If foreign medical students,
physicians and nurses currently in America choose to work overseas, there
may be shortages of workers in some medical specialties in the United States,
and wages for these workers will rise. This is especially likely in areas of
medicine not easily outsourced.117 For example, radiology is relatively easy to
outsource since it does not require the radiologist to be physically present. Al-
though radiology has been one of the highest-paid specialties in medicine, that
is likely to change in the future since reading X-rays and other scans can easily
be outsourced. On the other hand, outsourcing would have little effect on the
inherently local practice of emergency room medicine.118
Global medical competition could also exacerbate the shortage of pri-
mary care physicians in the United States. Today nearly one-quarter of prac-
ticing physicians in the United States attended a foreign medical school. In-
deed, each year nearly one-quarter of slots in U.S. medical residency programs
are filled by foreigners.119 Greater opportunities in their native countries and
in other countries could reduce the number of foreign physicians (and nurses)
practicing in the United States. It could also encourage more of them to return
home after they receive training.120 Many foreign medical graduates work in
underserved rural areas, so these communities would be especially hard hit.121
Also, due to an ongoing nursing shortage, American hospitals recruit
foreign nurses to fill vacancies.122 A smaller supply of foreign physicians and
nurses willing to work in the United States could strain the U.S. health care
system by raising labor costs.
Effects of Globalization on Health Care in Other Countries. Today
many African countries are experiencing shortages of physicians and nurses.
Because of the opportunity to earn more in Europe and the United States,
many physicians trained in Africa emigrate. More opportunities to work,
higher pay and entrepreneurial opportunities in developing countries could
reduce this brain drain. This would benefit the local populations by increasing
their access to care.
Critics in developing countries claim that health care facilities and pro-
viders that serve medical tourists will treat only foreign patients to the exclu-
sion of native-born poor residents.123 This is unlikely, since most hospitals in
developing countries cannot survive on cash-paying medical tourists alone.124
But even if specific hospitals in developing countries are open only to foreign-
ers and local elites, the health care systems of these countries will be enriched
by the influx of revenue, enabling them to offer local populations increased
access to medical care.125
Obstacles to Health Care Globalization

Health care globalization, including medical tourism and medical
outsourcing, has the potential to lower costs and increase competition in the
American health care industry. However, there are numerous obstacles to
“Medical tourists provide incorporating foreign health care providers into the U.S. health care system.
resources to improve health Some of these barriers are the result of entrenched interest groups that do not
care in developing coun- want to compete with low-cost providers.126 Federal and state laws also create
tries.”
a number of obstacles to Americans seeking treatment abroad, including out-
dated laws supposedly intended to protect consumers that now merely increase
costs and reduce convenience. Finally, state and federal regulations currently
restrict public providers from outsourcing expensive medical procedures.127
In addition, federal regulations make it difficult for private plans to
offer financial rewards to enrollees willing to seek care abroad. This is signifi-
cant because insurance pays the bills for most U.S. patients and surveys find
that patients are unwilling to travel long distances for health care of the same
quality they could receive at home unless they have a financial incentive to do
so.128
State Licensing Laws. Recent advances in information technology
allow a radiologist to read X-rays from India just as easily as an American ra-
diologist could read them from a home office. However, the practice of medi-
cine is regulated by state medical boards, which generally require a physician
to be licensed in the state where the patient receives treatment. Thus, state
licensing laws prevent medical tasks from being performed by providers living
in other states or countries. Foreign physicians also lack the authority to order
certain tests, initiate therapies and prescribe drugs that American pharmacies
can legally dispense.
States license and regulate physicians with the ostensible goal of
maintaining the quality of medical care.129 However, state medical boards
are dominated by physicians and, like the boards governing other regulated
“State regulations prevent professions, they tend to benefit the practitioners.130 Besides stringent licens-
out-of-state doctors from ing requirements, these organizations suppress competition among physicians
treating patients.” by declaring certain practices to be unethical.131 Medical societies have long
opposed innovations that pose a threat to their autonomy or income.132 And
threats to hospital revenue or the ability of hospital systems to cross-subsidize
uncompensated care generate considerable opposition.133
Some restrictions on the practice of medicine have been removed in
recent years, but many still exist. For example:
l It is illegal for a physician to consult with a patient online without
an initial face-to-face meeting.134
l It is illegal in most states for a physician outside the state who has
examined a patient in person to continue treating the patient via the
Internet after the patient returns home.
l It is illegal in most states for a physician outside the state to consult
by phone with patients residing in the state if the physician is not
licensed to practice medicine there.
These laws make it difficult for American patients to seek care from
doctors abroad via telephone and the Internet.
Restrictions on Collaboration among Health Care Providers. A
physician practice in the United States could easily provide doctor visits in a
traditional office, coupled with chronic disease management services from a
foreign doctor and tests done at a convenient retail clinic when needed.135 Yet
this scenario might run afoul of the so-called Stark laws. The federal Stark
laws make it illegal for a physician to refer a patient for treatment to a clinic
in which the doctor has a financial interest. It is also illegal for a physician to
reward providers who refer patients to him, or to a hospital in which he has
a financial interest. Unfortunately, laws meant to prevent self-dealing and
kickbacks also inhibit beneficial collaboration between doctors and hospitals.
For instance, the Stark laws could prevent a physician practice from referring
a patient with a chronic condition to an affiliated disease management program
(employing a foreign doctor) or prevent the practice from referring a patient
needing minor treatment to an affiliated walk-in clinic.
By limiting compensation arrangements for referrals and collaboration,

the Stark laws tend to result in rigid physician group practices that are not
particularly convenient or economical for patients.
Lack of Follow-Up Care. Some procedures require follow-up care to
monitor the healing process or remove stitches. In some cases, patients who
“Some physicians are reluc- have traveled abroad for medical procedures have problems finding a local
tant to provide follow-up care physician willing to provide postoperative follow-up care.136 This is especially
for patients treated abroad.”
worrisome if the patient has complications. Liability for another provider’s
work is a perceived risk to doctors providing aftercare — one reason some
American physicians are loath to provide follow-up care to patients treated
abroad.
Another reason for physicians’ reluctance to provide follow-up care is
that patients treated abroad often lack insurance. Over the years, many doc-
tors have assumed that health insurance is the only way for patients to finance
medical care. Physicians may prefer not to treat uninsured patients (unless
payment is made in advance) for fear they will not get paid.137
FIGURE V
U.S. Health Care Spending
Out-of-Pocket
13%
Government
45%
“Government health pro- Private Insurers/
grams could save money from Employers
medical globalization.”
42%
Source: “Core Health Indicators, 2004,” World Health Organization. Available

at http://www.who.int/whosis/database/core/core_select.cfm.
Although lack of follow-up care is definitely a concern, many patients

who have had surgery abroad report their regular doctor continued to treat
them throughout recovery.138 Patients with a regular physician will likely fare
better than those who are only seeking physician care for a short-term (postop-
erative) need.
Legal Obstacles. Employers and insurers could lower their health
costs by sending employees abroad for treatment. However, there are im-
portant legal considerations. Plan sponsors must meet Employee Retirement
Income Security Act (ERISA) fiduciary obligations in designing and managing
“Health should be able to employee benefit plans.139 According to some legal scholars, an employer that
offer finanical incentives for sponsors a health plan offering workers a financial incentive to travel abroad
patients to shop for health for treatment could have greater liability risks. The concern is that financial
care.”
incentives might induce enrollees to accept substandard care when they oth-
erwise would select the local hospital of their choice — although many health
plans do just that by offering financial incentives for patients to choose hospi-
tals in their networks.140 If health plans cannot offer enrollees financial incen-
tives, patients are unlikely to consider medical travel.141
Federal and State Government Plan Obstacles. Nearly half of all
health care expenditures in the United States are paid for by government. [See
Figure V.] This includes Medicare, Medicaid and health coverage for state and
federal workers. It is hard to imagine significant cost savings occurring with-
out involving the public sector.
Medicaid consists of 50 different state programs. State Medicaid
programs near the border with Mexico could easily outsource some procedures
abroad. Yet despite the potential savings for state taxpayers, none have consid-
ered taking this step. Medicare benefits are limited to the United States. This
is a hardship on foreign-born workers who accrue benefits in the United States
but want to return to their homelands to retire. This also forces the estimated
40,000 to 80,000 American retirees living in Mexico to pay out of pocket or
return to the United States to receive care. Furthermore, Medicare requires
significant patient cost-sharing, generally 20 percent above the deductible.
Medicare could reduce costs and allow seniors to share in the savings by waiv-
ing the cost-sharing requirements.
What Public Policy Changes Are Needed?

The first step is for state and federal policymakers to understand that
global competition in health care will benefit American consumers by reducing
costs and improving quality through competition.142 Just as global competition
improved the quality of automobiles, it will also improve the quality of medi-
cal care. Local politicians and community activists often fight to protect com-
munity hospitals from closure in the belief that communities cannot do without
them. However, lawmakers must take advantage of cost-saving techniques
in health care. States that border Mexico could follow California’s lead and
allow insurers to offer policies that include providers in Mexico. States that
border Canada could follow suit.143
Modernize State Licensing Laws. Medical licensing laws must
conform to the information age, where distance (or country) is irrelevant.144
Reforms should include recognizing standards of other countries as an alter-
native to local licenses. For instance, many Indian and Thai physicians are
board-certified or licensed in the United Sates, Australia, Britain or Canada.
Foreign physicians who meet standard criteria should be considered licensed
if their skills have been evaluated and approved for inclusion in a network.
It does not make sense in the information age for each state to approve and
police physicians living thousands of miles away. The same holds true for
physicians practicing in the United States. Laws that prevent physicians in
one state from consulting with patients in other states by telephone or e-mail
should also be eased.
Relax Laws Restricting Collaboration. The federal Stark laws
prohibiting self-referral should be modified to allow beneficial arrangements
where care is coordinated and provided in a more efficient manner. Without
“Collaboration between revised legislation, it would be difficult to integrate the services of physicians
American and foreign health living abroad into the practices of local providers. Integrated medical services
providers would reduce costs would also allow domestic providers to compete by creating more efficient
and improve quality for U.S.
patients.” operations. For example, a traditional physician practice could offer disease
management for chronic conditions at a lower cost through an associated In-
dian physician. And an American radiologist might have an Indian radiologist
read X-rays at costs lower than competitors.
Encourage Follow-Up Care. While physicians prefer an ongoing
relationship with a patient, outsourcing patients to providers abroad is not
much different than referring them to a specialist down the street. If “safe
harbor” contracts were created for physicians providing follow-up care,
more doctors would be willing to treat cash-paying patients. Moreover, if
the number of medical tourists rises significantly, entrepreneurial physicians
and clinics will sense an opportunity to provide follow-up care. To facilitate
providing follow-up care for patients who return from treatment abroad, a
committee of the American Medical Association has recommended creating a
current procedural terminology (CPT) reimbursement code for patients who
need postoperative follow-up care.145
Facilitate Liability by Contract. Some American patients may be
concerned about the potential difficulty of holding providers accountable in
foreign legal systems (malpractice liability) and of receiving compensation
for complications that will undoubtedly arise from medical treatment abroad..
Federal law needs to recognize patient contracts that provide for binding arbi-
tration or that limit liability. For instance, patients could purchase additional
insurance from their health insurer in an amount they believe will protect them
in the event of predefined problems that might occur from foreign treatment.
A policy could clearly identify financial remedies for specific problems similar
to an accidental death and dismemberment policy.
Allow Financial Incentives. Lately, some insurers have begun creat-
ing low-cost health plans that rely on foreign-based providers to treat serious
ailments. Unfortunately, lawyers could interpret ERISA and HIPAA (Health
Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) regulations in ways that discour-
“Financial incentives would
allow patients to share the
age employers (and health plans) from providing patients with financial incen-
savings from globalization.” tives to travel abroad for lower-cost care. Insurers and self-insured employers
should have the right to experiment with a range of health benefits that inject
global competition into health care. In addition, insurers, health plans and
self-insured employers that have facilitated the overseas treatment of willing
patients should be protected from liability.
Lead by Example. The federal and state governments should lead by
example by allowing Medicare and Medicaid programs to send willing patients
abroad. Medicare would particularly benefit from cost savings since it pays
for a large volume of orthopedic and cardiac procedures.
Conclusion
The number of uninsured and self-pay patients traveling abroad for
health care has grown rapidly over the past few years. This trend is likely
to continue as medical care becomes more expensive or difficult to obtain in
countries such as the United States where third-party payment is the norm.
It is unrealistic to assume that every American will travel abroad for medi-
cal care.146 But it doesn’t require huge numbers to induce change. If only 10
percent of the top 50 low-risk treatments were performed abroad, the U.S.
health care system would save about $1.4 billion annually.147 As more insured
patients begin to travel abroad for low-cost medical procedures, medical tour-
ism will result in competition that is sorely needed in the American health care
industry.
NOTE: Nothing written here should be construed as necessarily reflecting

the views of the National Center for Policy Analysis or as an attempt to aid
or hinder the passage of any bill before Congress.
Notes
1
McKinsey & Company and the Confederation of Indian Industry, cited in Laura Moser, “The Medical Tourist,” Slate,
December 6, 2005, and Bruce Stokes, “Bedside India,” National Journal, May 5, 2007.
2
See Dudley Althaus, “More Americans Seeking Foreign Health Care Services,” Houston Chronicle, September 4, 2007.
3
McKinsey & Company and the Confederation of Indian Industry, cited in Laura Moser, “The Medical Tourist,” and Bruce
Stokes, “Bedside India.”
4
Mark Roth, “$12 for a Half Day of Massage for Back Pain,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, September 10, 2006.
5
McKinsey and the Confederation of Indian Industry, Press Trust of India, 2005.
6
Joshua Kurlantzick, “Sometimes, Sightseeing Is a Look at Your X-Rays,” New York Times, May 20, 2007.
7
“Medical Tourism Growing Worldwide,” U Daily (University of Delaware), July 25, 2005. Available at http://www.udel.edu/
PR/UDaily/2005/mar/tourism072505.html. Accessed May 22, 2007.
8
Malathy Iyer, “India Out to Heal the World,” Times of India, October 26, 2004.
9
Jessica Fraser, “Employers Increasingly Tapping Medical Tourism for Cost Savings,” News Target, November 6, 2006.
10
“Who Can Have Fertility Treatment?” BBC Health, undated. Available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/fertility/features_who-
can.shtml. Accessed April 30, 2007. Also see “Cost of Fertility Treatment,” 2006. Available at http://www.gettingpregnant.
co.uk/cost_information.html. Accessed April 30, 2007.
11
Arnold Milstein and Mark Smith, “Will the Surgical World Become Flat?” Health Affairs, Vol. 26, No. 1, January/February
2007, pages 137-41.
12
Arnold Milstein and Mark Smith, “America’s New Refugees — Seeking Affordable Surgery Offshore,” New England Journal
of Medicine, Vol. 355, No. 16, October 19, 2006.
Neal Conan (host), “Outsourcing Surgery,” National Public Radio, Talk of the Nation, March 8, 2007. Available at http://
13
www.npr.org/blogs/talk/2007/03/outsourcing_surgery.html. Accessed April 13, 2007.

14
Diana M. Ernst, “Medical Tourism: Why Americans Take Medical Vacations Abroad,” Pacific Research Institute, Health
Policy Prescriptions, Vol. 4, No. 9, September 2006.
15
Beverly Blair Harzog, “Medical Tourism Offers Healthy Savings,” Bankrate.com, March 23, 2007.
16
“Point of View: Eastern Europe,” HealthAbroad.net. Available at http://healthabroad.net/blog/?cat=8. Access verified June 22,
2007.
Although many Americans patronize Mexican physicians, it is most common for seniors to cross the border for cheaper drugs,
17
opticians and dentists. See Milan Korcok, “Cheap Prescription Drugs Creating New Brand of U.S. Tourist in Canada, Mexico,”
Canadian Association Medical Journal, Vol. 162, No. 13, June 27, 2000; Steven Gluck “Bargain Dentistry — Wooden Teeth
Anyone?” eZinearticles.com, February 22, 2006. Available at http://ezinearticles.com.
For instance, in the United States 97 percent of hospital charges are paid by third parties. Devon M. Herrick and John C.
18
Goodman, “The Market for Medical Care: Why You Don’t Know the Price; Why You Don’t Know about Quality; And What
Can Be Done about It,” National Center for Policy Analysis, Policy Report No. 296, March 12, 2007.
19
Manuel Roig-Franzia, “Discount Dentistry, South of the Border,” Washington Post, June 18, 2007.
20
Devon Herrick, “Health Plans Adding Foreign Providers to Their Networks,” Health Care News, July 1, 2007. Also see Fra-
ser, “Employers Increasingly Tapping Medical Tourism for Cost Savings.”
21
Roig-Franzia, “Discount Dentistry, South of the Border.”
22
Alfredo Corchado and Laurence Iliff, “Good Care, Low Prices Lure Patients to Mexico,” Dallas Morning News, July 28,
2007.
23
Ibid.
24
Chris Hawley, “Seniors Head South to Mexican Nursing Homes,” USA Today, August 16, 2007.
Devon Herrick (moderator), Milica Bookman and Rudy Rupak, “Global Health Care: Medical Travel and Medical
25
Outsourcing,” National Association for Business Economics, Health Economics Roundtable Teleconference, July 25, 2007.
Available at http://www.nabe.com/podcasts/070725hrt.mp3. Accessed July 27, 2007.
26
Figures for July 2005. See “World Factbook: Costa Rican People,” Yahoo.com, 2007.
27
“Health Care in Panama,” International Living, undated. Available at http://www.internationalliving.com/panama/healthcare.
html. Accessed July 27, 2007.
28
Catherine Keogan, “Panama’s Health Tourism Boom,” EzineArticles, May 31, 2007.
29
There is currently a moratorium on building new specialty hospitals because it is thought they drain away lucrative, less acute
cases from community hospitals. Yet there is little debate that this competition improves quality. For a discussion of specialty
hospitals, see Leslie Greenwald et al., “Specialty Versus Community Hospitals: Referrals, Quality, And Community Benefits,”
Health Affairs, Vol. 25, No. 1, January/February 2006.
30
Some of these include: GlobalChoiceHealthCare.com, MediTourInternational.com, Indomedics.com, QuestMedTourism.com,
MeritGlobalHealth.com, MyCareWeb.com, MedJourneys.com, HealthBase.com, MeSisOnline.com, GlobalMedicalServices.
us, MedSourceIntl.com, MedicalNomad.com, AxiomHealth.org, HealthTraveler.net, HospitalBiblicaMedicalTourism.com,
MyNovus.com, Medical-Tourism.FiveSites.com, 5Greatest.com, Surgicalcareinternational.com, Companionglobalhealthcare.
com, Thailandvacationtour.com, Virginia.IQmedica.com, UniversalSurgery.com, Medical-Tourism-Guide.com, Bairesalud.com,
TreatMeAbroad.com, Medical-travel-asia-guide.com and MediTourIndia.net.
31
Krysten Crawford, “Medical Tourism Agencies Take Operations Overseas,” Business 2.0 Magazine, August 3, 2006.
32
Julie Davidow, “Cost-Saving Surgery Lures ‘Medical Tourists’ Abroad,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, July 24, 2006.
33
Jennifer Alsever, “Basking on the Beach, or Maybe on the Operating Table,” New York Times, October 15, 2006.
34
Sarah Dawson with Keith Pollard, “Guide to Medical Tourism,” TreatmentAbroad.net, 2007; and http://www.
cosmeticplasticsurgerystatistics.com/costs.html.
35
At an average of about $1,038, an MRI for breast cancer screening costs about 10 times more than a mammogram. See
Sylvia K. Plevritis et al., “Cost-Effectiveness of Screening BRCA1/2 Mutation Carriers with Breast Magnetic Resonance
Imaging,” Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 295, No. 20, May 24/31, 2006, Table 3. Also see Devon Herrick,
“Medical Tourism Prompts Price Discussions,” Health Care News, October 1, 2006.
36
Bruce Stokes, “Bedside India,” National Journal, May 5, 2007.
37
Steven Berger, “Analyzing Your Hospital’s Labor Productivity,” Healthcare Financial Management, April 2005.
38
Bruce Stokes, “Bedside India.”
39
Ibid.
40
Herrick and Goodman, “The Market for Medical Care.”
Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, “National Health Expenditures by Type of Service and Source of Funds:
41
Calendar Years 2004-1960,” Department of Health and Human Services, 2006.

42
“Core Health Indicators, 2004,” World Health Organization. Available at http://www.who.int/whosis/database/core/core_
select.cfm.
43
44
Julie Appleby, “Ask 3 Hospitals How Much a Knee Operation Will Cost … and You’re Likely to Get a Headache,” USA
Today, May 9, 2006.
45
See “2006 Consumer Attitudes Survey,” Great-West Healthcare, 2006. Available at http://www.greatwesthealthcare.com/C5/
StudiesSurveys/Document%20Library/m5031-gwh-consumer-attud-survy-06.pdf. Access verified May 21, 2006.
46
Herrick and Goodman, “The Market for Medical Care.” For more about competition, bundling and repricing services, see
Michael E. Porter and Elizabeth Olmsted Teisberg, Redefining Health Care: Creating Value-Based Competition on Results
(Boston, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press, 2006).
47
Since Medicare patients are an important source of revenue for many physicians and hospital networks, the moratorium has
effectively prevented the opening of new specialty hospitals. See Bonnie Booth, “AMA: Don’t Extend Moratorium on Spe-
cialty Hospitals,” American Medical News, December 27, 2004.
For a discussion of new techniques in hospital efficiency, see Vanessa Fuhrmans, “A Novel Plan Helps Hospital Wean Itself
48
Off Pricey Tests,” Wall Street Journal, January 12, 2007.

49
50
Ibid.
51
Mark Roth, “Surgery Abroad an Option for Those with Minimal Health Coverage,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, September 10,
2006.
52
State laws that ban the so-called corporate practice of medicine are the result of medical societies’ attempts to maintain
control over the practice of medicine.
53
For a list of issues patients should consider, see Sidney M. Wolfe, Editor, “Patients without Borders: The Emergence of Medi-
cal Tourism, Part 2,” Public Citizen Health Research Group, Health Letter, Vol. 22, No. 9, September 2006.
54
Bruce Cunningham, President of the American Society of Plastic Surgeons, Statement Before the Special Committee on
Aging, United States Senate, June 27, 2006. Available at http://aging.senate.gov/events/hr159bc.pdf. Access verified June 22,
2007.
55
Zhongmin Li et al., “Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery in California: 2003 Hospital Data, California CABG Outcomes
Reporting Program, Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development, February 2006.” Available at http://www.oshpd.
cahwnet.gov/HQAD/Outcomes/Studies/cabg/2003Report/2003Report.pdf. Access verified June 22, 2007. Some international
hospitals, including Apollo Hospital Group, Wockhardt Hospitals and Escorts Health Institute (all in India), claim cardio bypass
graft surgery mortality rates of less than 1 percent. A recent study found high-volume California hospitals have a mortality rate
of nearly 3 percent. For more information, see Milstein and Smith, “Will the Surgical World Become Flat?”
The mortality rate for primary isolated CABG is 0.6 percent. See Cleveland Clinic Foundation Web Site. Available at https://
56
www.ccf.org/heartcenter/pub/about/specialties/cvsurgery.asp. Access Verified June 22, 2007.

Ibid and Zhongmin Li et al., “Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery in California: 2003 Hospital Data, California CABG
57
Outcomes Reporting Program, Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development, February 2006.” Available at http://
www.oshpd.cahwnet.gov/HQAD/Outcomes/Studies/cabg/2003Report/2003Report.pdf. Access verified June 22, 2007.
58
Harvard Medical International’s Web site is http://www.hmi.hms.harvard.edu/about_hmi/overview/index.php.
59
See http://www.dhmc.org/qualitymeasures/ and http://www.clevelandclinic.org/quality/outcomes/.
60
“Recognition of Our Clinical Achievements,” National Healthcare Group (Singapore), 2006, Clinical Quality Measures.
61
Apollo Hospital Group Web site. Available at http://www.apollohospitals.com/QualityAssurance.asp. Access verified June
22, 2007.
62
Herrick, “Medical Tourism Prompts Price Discussions.”
63
These hospitals used the Global Care Solutions’ software.
64
Richard Hillestad et al., “Can Electronic Medical Record Systems Transform Health Care?” Health Affairs, Vol. 24, No. 5,
September/October 2005, pages 1,103-17.
65
66
Joint Commission International Web site: http://www.jointcommissioninternational.com/
Julie Appleby and Julie Schmit, “Sending Patients Packing,” USA Today, July 27, 2006. Since this article appeared, the Joint
67
Commission has accredited nearly 50 additional foreign hospitals.

68
The Indian Healthcare Federation is made up of about 60 hospitals. See “Indian Hospitals Lure Foreigners with $6,700 Heart
Surgery,” Bloomberg News, January 27, 2005.
69
Communication between NCPA president John C. Goodman and Cleveland Clinic President Delos M. Cosgrove, April 26,
2007.
70
See the Harvard Medical International Web site at http://www.hmi.hms.harvard.edu/about_hmi/overview/index.php.
71
“Health Care in Panama,” International Living.
72
Milstein and Smith, “Will the Surgical World Become Flat?”
73
Corchado and Iliff, “Good Care, Low Prices Lure Patients to Mexico.”
74
See Bumrungrad’s Web site at http://www.bumrungrad.com/.
75
See Planethospital’s Web site at http://www.planethospital.com/doctors-and-hospitals/.
76
See PlasticSurgeryJourneys.com.
77
See http://www.healthmedicaltourism.org.
78
See http://www.beautyfromafar.com/.
This combination of surgeries is sometimes called the “mommy makeover.” See Natasha Singer, “Is the ‘Mom Job’ Really
79
Necessary?” New York Times, October 4, 2007.

80
Ibid.
81
Several anecdotes are posted on PlasticSurgeryJourneys.com.
82
See “Consumers Go Abroad in Pursuit of Cost-Effective Healthcare,” Managed Healthcare Executive, Vol. 16, No. 7, July
2006.
83
Roth, “$12 for a Half Day of Massage for Back Pain.”
84
Alsever, “Basking on the Beach, or Maybe on the Operating Table.”
85
Joseph McMenamin, “Medical Tourism and Legal Liability,” Medical Travel Today, CPR Communications, Vol. 1, No. 1,
September 2007.
86
For instance, see Tracy Correa, “Traveling Can Help Cure Medical Costs,” Fresno Bee, June 19, 2007.
87
Quotes are available online at http://www.aosassurance.com/PublicHtml/index.htm.
88
For specific remedies, see Agreement. Available at http://www.aosassurance.bb/PublicHtml/Documents/PMMI/PMMI%20po
licy%20wording%20(2).pdf. Accessed September 18, 2007.
89
Unmesh Kher, “Outsourcing Your Heart,” Time Magazine, May 21, 2006.
Joyce Howard Price, “Under the Knife Overseas,” Washington Times, December 3, 2006. Also see Kher, “Outsourcing Your
90
Heart.”
91
Grant Gross, “Analyst: Outsourcing Can Save Costs in Health Care,” InfoWorld, November 16, 2004.
For a discussion on telemedicine, see Anthony Charles Norris, Essentials of Telemedicine and Telecare (New York: John
92
Wiley and Sons, 2002).

93
For information how telemedicine might impact rural areas, see James Grigsby, Richard Morrissey and Dena S. Puskin
(presenters), “Telemedicine in Rural Areas: Research Findings and Issues for States,” Agency for Healthcare Research and
Quality, Conference on Strengthening the Rural Health Infrastructure (Asheville, N.C.), November 19-21, 1997.
94
Robert M. Wachter, “The ‘Dis-location’ of U.S. Medicine — The Implications of Medical Outsourcing,” New England
Journal of Medicine, Vol. 354, No. 7, February 16, 2006. For a layman’s view of outsourcing radiology, see Associated Press,
“Some U.S. Hospitals Outsourcing Work,” MSNBC.com, December 6, 2004.
Associated Press, “Some U.S. Hospitals Outsourcing Work,” MSNBC.com, December 6, 2004. Available at www.msnbc.
95
msn.com/id/6621014/. Accessed April 27, 2007. See Nighthawk Radiology Services Web site: http://www.nighthawkrad.net/.
96
Robert M. Wachter, “International Teleradiology,” New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 354, No. 7, February 16, 2006,
pages 662-63; Milstein and Smith, “Will the Surgical World Become Flat?”
97
“NHS Scans to be Sent Abroad” BBC News, July 9, 2004.
98
Conversation with Rudy Rupak, president of PlanetHospital, Spring 2007.
99
For instance, see Gina Kolata, “Looking Past Blood Sugar to Survive with Diabetes,” New York Times, August 20, 2007.
100
For instance, a doctor and nurse practitioner working as a team were better able to manage chronic conditions than a physi-
cian working alone. See David Litaker, “Physician-nurse practitioner teams in chronic disease management: the impact on
costs, clinical effectiveness, and patients’ perception of care,” Journal of Interprofessional Care, Vol. 17, No. 3, August 2003,
pages 223-37.
101
Jane Anderson, editor, “Use of Telemedicine Tools Grows within DM,” Disease Management News, Vol. 12, No. 8, 2007.
102
For instance, children assigned to interactive disease management for asthma fared better than those in a control group with
traditional disease management. See Ren-Long Jan et al., “An Internet-Based Interactive Telemonitoring System for Improving
Childhood Asthma Outcomes in Taiwan,” Telemedicine and e-Health, Vol. 13, No. 3, June 2007, pages 257-68.
103
Fraser, “Employers Increasingly Tapping Medical Tourism for Cost Savings.”
104
Arnold Milstein, Written Testimony to the U.S. Senate, Special Committee on Aging, June 27, 2006.
Herrick, Bookman and Rupak, “Global Health Care: Medical Travel and Medical Outsourcing.” Also see Bookman and
105
Bookman, Medical Tourism in Developing Countries (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, August 7, 2007).
Interview with Elise Anderson, spokeswoman for BlueShield of California, May 4, 2007. Also see Herrick, “Health Plans
106
Adding Foreign Providers to Their Networks.”

107
Ibid. In addition to BlueShield of California, plans are offered through SIMNSA and Health Net of California.
These types of plans tend to be about 40 percent less expensive than comparable plans with U.S.-based networks. See
108
Sarah Skidmore, “Cross-Border Health Insurance Is a Hit with Employers and Workers,” San Diego Union-Tribune, October
109
16, 2005.
“BlueCross BlueShield and BlueChoice HealthPlan Pioneer Global Healthcare Alternative,” BlueCross BlueShield of South
110
Carolina, Press Release, February 8, 2007.

111
Joe Cochrane, “Why Patients Are Flocking Overseas for Operations,” Newsweek International, October 30, 2006.
112
Ibid.
113
Daniel Yi, “U.S. Employers Look Offshore for Healthcare,” Los Angeles Times, July 30, 2006.
Limited benefit health plans are becoming common. TennCare, the Tennessee program to boost health insurance among
114
moderate-income families and small employers, uses a limited benefit plan with an annual cap of $25,000. An actuary from the
consulting firm Milliman USA estimates that only 2 percent of enrollees are likely to exceed the $25,000 cap in any given year.
115
See Chad Terhune, “Covering the Uninsured, But only up to $25,000,” Wall Street Journal, April 18, 2007.
116
Herrick, Bookman and Rupak, “Global Health Care: Medical Travel and Medical Outsourcing.”
Herrick, Bookman and Rupak, “Global Health Care: Medical Travel and Medical Outsourcing.” Also see Bookman and
117
Bookman, Medical Tourism in Developing Countries.

Aaditya Mattoo and Randeep Rathindran, “How Health Insurance Inhibits Trade in Health Care,” Health Affairs, Vol. 25,
118
No. 2, March/April 2006, pages 358-368.

119
Graham T. McMahon, “Coming to America — International Medical Graduates in the United States,” New England Journal
of Medicine, Vol. 350, No. 24, June 10, 2004, pages 2,435-37.
120
Greg Siskind, “U.S. Savior: Foreign Doctors,” USA Today, July 31, 2007.
Amy Hagopian, Matthew J. Thompson, Emily Kaltenbach and L. Gary Hart, “Health Departments’ Use of International
121
Medical Graduates In Physician Shortage Areas,” Health Affairs, Vol. 22, No. 5, September/October 2003, pages 241-249.
Heather Stringer, “Foreign Investments,” Nurse Week, June 6, 2002. Also see Morgan Lee (Associated Press), “Foreign
122
Nurses Sought to Fill Void,” CBS News, June 29, 2004.

123
Wolfe, ed., “Patients without Borders: The Emergence of Medical Tourism.”
Herrick, Bookman and Rupak, “Global Health Care: Medical Travel and Medical Outsourcing;” and Bookman and
124
Bookman, Medical Tourism in Developing Countries.

125
Bookman and Bookman, Medical Tourism in Developing Countries.
The American Society of Plastic Surgeons has come out against medical travel. The American Medical Association has
126
devised a set of recommendations for medical travel. See “Medical Travel Outside the U.S.” June 2007. Available at http://
www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/21/a07rep-b.pdf. Accessed September 18, 2007.
127
Medicare benefits are not available to seniors living or traveling abroad. State Medicaid programs do not cover services
provided outside the United States.
128
129
Paul B. Ginsburg and Ernest Moy, “Physician Licensure and the Quality of Care: The Role of New Information
Technologies,” Regulation, Cato Institute, Vol. 15, No. 4, Fall 1992. For a literature review of the history of medical licensure,
see John C. Goodman and Gerald Musgrave, Patient Power: Solving America’s Health Care Crisis (Washington, D.C.: Cato
Institute, 1992).
130
Economists argue that government regulators are often “captured” by the industries they regulate. Once captured, the
regulators tend to protect the interests of the industry to the detriment of the people they are supposed to protect. Allowing
small groups of physicians, backed by the power of law, to decide who practices medicine and what constitutes the safe practice
of medicine may reduce quackery. But it also is likely to reduce competition and innovation — and protect the incomes of
physicians. See Reuben Kessel, “Price Discrimination in Medicine,” Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. 1, October 1958,
pages 20-53.
131
Kessel, “Price Discrimination in Medicine.” The theory is that price-cutting would lead to a situation where fees would be
too low for a physician to render quality services. For a review of health insurance regulation, see John C. Goodman, The
Regulation of Medical Care: Is the Price Too High? (San Francisco, Calif.: Cato Institute, 1980). Also see Greg Scandlen, “100
Years of Market Distortions,” Consumers for Health Care Choices, May 22, 2007.
For instance, many providers oppose telemedicine. See Mary Schmeida, Ramona McNeal and Karen Mossberger, “Policy
132
Determinants Affect Telehealth Implementation,” Telemedicine and e-Health, Vol. 13, No. 2, April 2007, pages 100-107.
133
The American Medical Association (AMA) has come out against prescribing medication over the Internet prior to a physical
134
examination. Richard F. Corlin, President, American Medical Association, letter to the editor, “AMA to The Wall Street Journal:
Shut Down Illegal Internet Pill Pushers,” Wall Street Journal, November 6, 2001.
135
For example, a patient with a chronic condition might prefer a convenient location to have blood pressure taken or blood
drawn. A foreign physician might work for a primary care physician and manage a chronic condition for the patient.
136
Josef Woodman, “Medical Travel Safe for Informed Consumer,” The Tennessean, May 4, 2007.
137
Interview with Rudy Rupak of PlanetHospital.
138
Herrick, “Medical Tourism Prompts Price Discussions.”
139
Joseph Marlowe and Paul Sullivan, “Medical Tourism: The Ultimate Outsourcing,” AON Consulting, Forum, March 2007.
Ibid. Currently, patients pay less for in-network hospitals compared to selecting the best hospital that may not be in the
140
health plan network.

141
142
Ernst, “Medical Tourism: Why Americans Take Medical Vacations Abroad.”
143
144
Mark A. Cwiek et al., “Telemedicine Licensure in the United States: The Need for a Cooperative Regional Approach,”
Telemedicine and e-Health, Vol. 13, No. 2, April 2007, pages 141-47.
See “Medical Travel Outside the U.S.” Adopted recommendations of Governing Council Report B with a change in title,
145
and filed the remainder of the report, June 2007. Available at http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/21/a07rep-b.pdf.
Accessed September 18, 2007.
146
147
Mattoo and Rathindran, “How Health Insurance Inhibits Trade in Health Care.”
About the Author
Devon Herrick, Ph.D., is a senior fellow with the National Center for Policy Analysis. He con-
centrates on such health care issues as Internet-based medicine, health insurance and the uninsured, and
pharmaceutical drug issues. His research interests also include managed care, patient empowerment,
medical privacy and technology-related issues. Herrick also serves as the Chair of the Health Econom-
ics Roundtable of the National Association for Business Economics.
Herrick received a Ph.D. in Political Economy and a Master of Public Affairs degree from the
University of Texas at Dallas with a concentration in economic development. He also holds an M.B.A.
with a concentration in finance from Oklahoma City University and an M.B.A. from Amber University,
as well as a B.S. in accounting from the University of Central Oklahoma.

About the NCPA
The NCPA is a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization established in 1983. Its aim is to examine public poli-
cies in areas that have a significant impact on the lives of all Americans — retirement, health care, education, taxes,
the economy, the environment — and to propose innovative, market-driven solutions. The NCPA seeks to unleash
the power of ideas for positive change by identifying, encouraging and aggressively marketing the best scholarly
research.
Health Care Policy. The NCPA is probably best known for developing the concept of Health Savings
Accounts (HSAs), previously known as Medical Savings Accounts (MSAs). NCPA President John C. Goodman
is widely acknowledged (Wall Street Journal, WebMD and the National Journal) as the “Father of HSAs.” NCPA
research, public education and briefings for members of Congress and the White House staff helped lead Congress
to approve a pilot MSA program for small businesses and the self-employed in 1996 and to vote in 1997 to allow
Medicare beneficiaries to have MSAs. In 2003, as part of Medicare reform, Congress and the president made HSAs
available to all nonseniors, potentially revolutionizing the entire health care industry. Health Savings Accounts now
are potentially available to 250 million nonelderly Americans.
The NCPA outlined the concept of using federal tax credits to encourage private health insurance and
helped formulate bipartisan proposals in both the Senate and the House. The NCPA and Blue-Cross Blue-Shield of
Texas developed a plan to use money federal, state and local governments now spend on indigent health care to help
the poor purchase health insurance. The SPN Medicaid Exchange, an initiative of the NCPA for the State Policy
Network, is identifying and sharing the best ideas for health care reform with researchers and policymakers in every
state.
Taxes & Economic Growth. The NCPA helped shape the progrowth approach to tax policy during the
1990s. A package of tax cuts designed by the NCPA and the U.S. Chamber of Commerce in 1991 became the core
of the Contract with America in 1994. Three of the five proposals (capital gains tax cut, Roth IRA and eliminat-
ing the Social Security earnings penalty) became law. A fourth proposal — rolling back the tax on Social Security
benefits — passed the House of Representatives in summer 2002. The NCPA’s proposal for an across-the-board tax
cut became the centerpiece of President Bush’s tax cut proposals.
NCPA research demonstrates the benefits of shifting the tax burden on work and productive investment to
consumption. An NCPA study by Boston University economist Laurence Kotlikoff analyzed three versions of a
consumption tax: a flat tax, a value-added tax and a national sales tax. Based on this work, Dr. Goodman wrote a
full-page editorial for Forbes (“A Kinder, Gentler Flat Tax”) advocating a version of the flat tax that is both progres-
sive and fair.
A major NCPA study, Wealth, Inheritance and the Estate Tax, completely undermines the claim by propo-
nents of the estate tax that it prevents the concentration of wealth in the hands of financial dynasties. Actually, the
contribution of inheritances to the distribution of wealth in the United States is surprisingly small. Senate Majority
Leader Bill Frist (R-TN) and Senator Jon Kyl (R-AZ) distributed a letter to their colleagues about the study. In his
letter, Sen. Frist said, “I hope this report will offer you a fresh perspective on the merits of this issue. Now is the
time for us to do something about the death tax.”
Retirement Reform. With a grant from the NCPA, economists at Texas A&M University developed a model
to evaluate the future of Social Security and Medicare, working under the direction of Thomas R. Saving, who for
years was one of two private-sector trustees of Social Security and Medicare.
The NCPA study Ten Steps to Baby Boomer Retirement shows that as 77 million baby boomers begin to
retire, the nation’s institutions are totally unprepared. Promises made under Social Security, Medicare and Medic-
aid are completely unfunded. Private sector institutions are not doing better — millions of workers are discovering
that their defined benefit pensions are unfunded and that employers are retrenching on post-retirement health care
promises.
Pension reforms signed into law include ideas to improve 401(k)s developed and proposed by the NCPA
and the Brookings Institution. Among the NCPA/Brookings 401(k) reforms are automatic enrollment of employees
into the companies’ 401(k) plans, automatic contribution rate increases so that as workers’ wages grow so do their
contributions, and stronger default investment options for workers who do not make an investment choice.
The NCPA’s online Social Security calculator allows visitors to discover their expected taxes and benefits
and how much they would have accumulated had their taxes been invested privately.
Environment & Energy. The NCPA’s E-Team is one of the largest collections of energy and environmental
policy experts and scientists who believe that sound science, economic prosperity and protecting the environment
are compatible. The team seeks to correct misinformation and promote sensible solutions to energy and environ-
ment problems. A pathbreaking 2001 NCPA study showed that the costs of the Kyoto agreement to reduce carbon
emissions in developed countries would far exceed any benefits.
Educating the next generation. The NCPA’s Debate Central is the most comprehensive online site for free
information for 400,000 U.S. high school debaters. In 2006, the site drew more than one million hits per month.
Debate Central received the prestigious Templeton Freedom Prize for Student Outreach.
Promoting Ideas. NCPA studies, ideas and experts are quoted frequently in news stories nationwide.
Columns written by NCPA scholars appear regularly in national publications such as the Wall Street Journal, the
Washington Times, USA Today and many other major-market daily newspapers, as well as on radio talk shows, on
television public affairs programs, and in public policy newsletters. According to media figures from Burrelle’s,
more than 900,000 people daily read or hear about NCPA ideas and activities somewhere in the United States.
What Others Say About the NCPA
“The NCPA generates more analysis per dollar than any think tank in the country. It does
an amazingly good job of going out and finding the right things and talking about them in
intelligent ways.” –Newt Gingrich, former Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives
***
“We know what works. It’s what the NCPA talks about: limited government, economic
freedom; things like health savings accounts. These things work, allowing people choices.
We’ve seen how this created America.” –John Stossel, co-anchor ABC-TV’s 20/20
***
“I don’t know of any organization in America that produces better ideas with less money
than the NCPA.” –Phil Gramm, former U.S. Senator
***
“Thank you . . . for advocating such radical causes as balanced budgets, limited govern-
ment and tax reform, and to be able to try and bring power back to the people.” –Tommy
Thompson, former Secretary of Health and Human Services
The NCPA is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit public policy organization. We depend entirely on the financial support of individuals,
corporations and foundations that believe in private sector solutions to public policy problems. You can contribute to our
effort by mailing your donation to our Dallas headquarters or logging on to our Web site at www.ncpa.org and clicking “An
Invitation to Support Us.”

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National Center for Policy Analysis

NCPA Policy Report No. 304

Web site: www.ncpa.org/pub/st/st304

National Center for Policy Analysis

The Emerging Market for Medical Tourism

Worldwide Medical Tourism Industry

“Medical tourists are seeking

Source: McKinsey & Company and the Confederation of Indian Industry.

Internationally-known hospitals, such as Bumrungrad in Thailand and

Medical Tourism Destinations

Other Latin American countries provide services as well:

l Colombia is a favorite destination for cosmetic surgery.6

Europe. Northern and Western Europeans have numerous opportunities to get

Latin America. Costa Rica and Panama are popular destinations

How Patients Obtain Treatment Abroad

viders to ensure quality of care and assists in connecting patients to interna-

with recognized credentials that meet American standards. Once Plane-

Initial patient screening consists of these steps:

l When a client contacts PlanetHospital, the medical staff reviews

the patient’s medical history to determine whether or not he or

she is well enough to travel.

l The client’s medical records are digitized and placed online to

allow physicians in the destination country to review his or her

l PlanetHospital then arranges a conference call between the po-

tential patient and physician to discuss the procedure.

Once the patient chooses a physician, PlanetHospital assigns a case

dure, including additional details such as cell phone service, transportation

patient is in the destination country. While some intermediaries charge a

a $295 concierge fee for arranging medical trips.

“Pricing is highly competi-

India Croatia, United United

Why Treatment Abroad Costs Less

Patients can also find lower-priced nonsurgical procedures and tests

Private Out-of-Pocket Spending on Health Care

“Prices are lower where

United Thailand Mexico India

l Doctors earn about 40 percent less than comparable physicians in

The Cost of Medical

Ensuring Quality for Medical Tourists

Cardiac Surgery Mortality

2.9% Hospitals that Treat

<1% <1% <1%

University of Fountain California Desert Beverly Cleveland Apollo Wockhardt

sion International.1 Its main 12-story building was constructed in 1997 to

assists with patient care.

countries. This number included nearly 60,000 American patients in 2005.2

Bumrungrad is equipped with all the latest diagnostic equipment. It

The hospital uses Global Care Solutions’ Hospital 2000®, a sophis-

ticated health information technology system. This software is designed

to recognize and prevent dangerous drug interactions, store patient records

The hospital staff assists patients with travel arrangements, airport

pickup, interpreters and lodging if needed. Seventy-five percent of Bum-

rungrad’s patients pay cash for services.4

l National University Hospital Singapore also discloses information

l Dallas-based International Hospital Corp. is building and operating

Sometimes complications from cosmetic surgery are due to a patient’s

Medical Malpractice Insurance by Contract. Medical tourists who

already outsourced. American hospitals increasingly use radiologists in India

state’s insurers to reimburse providers in Mexico.106 Although many of the

Obstacles to Health Care Globalization

By limiting compensation arrangements for referrals and collaboration,

U.S. Health Care Spending

Source: “Core Health Indicators, 2004,” World Health Organization. Available